Wikipedia gpewiki https://gpe.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page MediaWiki 1.45.0-wmf.8 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikipedia Wikipedia talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk Eno Barony 0 1474 69086 56227 2025-07-05T20:27:52Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 2 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 69086 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox|item=Q41187710}} '''Ruth Eno Adjoa Amankwah Nyame Adom''' (dem born am 30 October 1991), alias '''Eno Barony''', be Ghanaian rapper den songwriter.<ref>[https://newsghana.com.gh/eno-taking-ghanas-rap-music-by-storm/ "Eno Taking Ghana's Rap Music By Storm - News Ghana"]. ''www.newsghana.com.gh''.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20230806110811/http://www.ghanamusic.net/news/top-stories/2017/05/28/eno-drops-juicy-banger/ "Eno drops 'Juicy Me' banger - Ghana Music"]. 28 May 2017. Archived from [http://www.ghanamusic.net/news/top-stories/2017/05/28/eno-drops-juicy-banger/ the original] on 6 August 2023. Retrieved 21 September 2017.</ref><ref>[https://www.myjoyonline.com/photos-undefeated-ghanaian-female-rapper-eno-rocks-joy-fm-skuuls-reunion/ "Photos: Undefeated Ghanaian female rapper, ENO rocks Joy FM Skuuls Reunion"]. 29 October 2016.</ref> Dem born am for Tema wey dey Accra, she release ein debut single, "Wats Ma Name" den "Tonga", de remix of de track "Tonga" by Joey B ft Sarkodie for 2014 insyd dat be wat lift am go de limelight.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20210725004906/https://www.ghanamotion.com/eno-tonga-refix-prod-by-masta-garzy/ "Eno - Tonga (Refix) (Prod By Masta Garzy)"]. ''ghanamotion.com''. Retrieved 2017-09-19.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20230319111938/https://www.peacefmonline.com/pages/showbiz/music/201210/141068.php "Here Comes Eno Ghana's Best Female Rapper &#x7C; Music"]. ''Peacefmonline.com''. Retrieved 2017-09-19.</ref> Dem claim say she be de first female rapper wey hit million views for YouTube.<ref>[https://citinewsroom.com/2021/03/3music-awards-organisers-name-top-30-women-in-music/ "3Music Awards organisers name Top 30 Women in Music"]. ''Citinewsroom - Comprehensive News in Ghana''. 2021-03-05. Retrieved 2021-03-24.</ref> == Ein early life den education == Ein puppie Reverend Abraham Nyame Adom den mummie, Mrs. Rebecca Nyame Adom wey dem born Eno Barony as Ruth Eno Adjoa Amankwah Nyame Adom for Ghana ein port den business metropolis of Tema. Eno begin ein school for Shallom Preparatory School wey she go Cambridge Academy for ein lower elementary education. She plete ein Junior High School for Methodist J.H.S wey she pursue ein senior secondary education for Methodist Day Secondary School insyd Tema wey she continue go do ein tertiary education for Kumasi Technical University.<ref>Profileability. [https://profileability.com/eno-barony/ "Eno Barony"]. ''profileability.com''. Retrieved 2018-01-07.</ref> == Ein awards den nominations == {| class="wikitable" |+ !Year !Organization !Category !Work dem nominate !Result !Ref |- ! rowspan="2" |2023 !African Muzik Magazine Awards !Best Best Female Rap Act in Africa !Ein body !Dey pend !<ref>[https://www.musicinafrica.net/magazine/african-muzik-magazine-awards-2023-all-nominees "African Muzik Magazine Awards 2023: All the nominees"]. ''Music In Africa''. 2023-08-10. Retrieved 2023-08-16.</ref> |- !Ghana Music Awards UK !Best Rapper of the Year !Ein body !Dey pend !<ref>[https://www.businessghana.com/ "2023 Ghana Music Awards UK: See who's nominated"]. ''BusinessGhana''. Retrieved 2023-08-16.</ref> |- ! rowspan="5" |2021 ! rowspan="4" |VGMA !Best Hiplife Song of the Year !Enough is Enough ft. Wendy Shay !Dem nominate !<ref name=":0">[https://www.myjoyonline.com/vgma22-see-the-list-of-nominees/ "VGMA22: See the list of nominees"]. ''MyJoyOnline''. MyJoyOnline. Retrieved April 5, 2021.</ref> |- !Best Hip-hop Song of the Year !Force Dem to play nonsense ft Sister Derby & Strongman !Dem nominate !<ref name=":0" /> |- !Best Rap Performance !God is a Woman !She win !<ref name=":0" /> |- !Best Hiplife/Hip-hop Artiste of the Year !Ein body !Dem nominate !<ref name=":0" /> |- !3Music Award !Rapper of the Year !Ein body !She win !<ref>[https://www.myjoyonline.com/eno-barony-wins-rapper-of-the-year-award/ "Eno Barony wins Rapper of the Year award - MyJoyOnline.com"]. ''www.myjoyonline.com''. Retrieved 2021-04-06.</ref> |- !2020 !African Muzik Magazine Awards !Best Best Female Rap Act in Africa !Ein body !She win |<ref>[https://www.myjoyonline.com/entertainment/music/eno-barony-wins-best-female-rap-act-at-afrimma-2020/ "Eno Barony wins Best Female Rap Act at AFRIMMA 2020"]. ''MyJoyOnline.com''. 2020-11-16. Retrieved 2020-11-16.</ref> |} == Ein discography == === Ein albums === * ''Yaa Asantewaa''<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20180731124023/https://www.ndwompa.com/eno-barony-yaa-asantewaa-album/ "DOWNLOAD FULL ALBUM: Eno - Yaa Asantewaa"]. ''Ndwompa''. Ndwompa Ghana. Retrieved 17 February 2018.</ref> * ''Ladies First''<ref>NytMare, Blogger's (2021-01-29). [https://web.archive.org/web/20210617174758/https://www.ghanamotion.com/eno-barony-ladies-first-full-album/ "Eno Barony – Ladies First (Full Album)"]. ''Ghanamotion.com''. Retrieved 2021-02-26.</ref> === Singles === * "Juicy Me"<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20180731093220/http://www.ghanafilla.net/eno-barony-and-sista-afia-ready-to-make-new-headlines/ "ENO BARONY AND SISTA AFIA READY TO MAKE NEW HEADLINES"]. ''www.ghanafilla.net''.</ref> * "Wats Ma Name"<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20180731093116/https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/entertainment/Eno-replies-Sarkodie-on-Megye-Wo-Boy-341157 "Eno replies Sarkodie on Megye Wo Boy"]. ''www.ghanaweb.com''. Archived from [https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/entertainment/Eno-replies-Sarkodie-on-Megye-Wo-Boy-341157 the original] on 2018-07-31. Retrieved 2017-09-21.</ref> * "Mene Woaa" ft Yaa Pono * "Drive Me Crazy"<ref>Adinkra, Fiifi (8 September 2014). [https://web.archive.org/web/20230319114326/https://ghanandwom.net/eno-drive-me-crazy-prod-by-shark/ "Eno - Drive Me Crazy (Prod by Shark) - GhanaNdwom.com]".</ref> * "Love and Pain" ft Kesse<ref>Pulse. [https://www.pulse.com.gh/entertainment/music/new-music-eno-love-and-pain-feat-kesse/86t7eb2 "New Music: Eno - Love & Pain Feat. Kesse"].</ref> * "Tonga"<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20170921192654/https://behchala.com/mp3/eno-tonga-female-refix "Eno Tonga Female Refix Mp3 Download Song - behchala.com"]. ''behchala.com''. Archived from [https://behchala.com/mp3/eno-tonga-female-refix the original] on 2017-09-21. Retrieved 2017-09-21.</ref> * "Megye Wo Boy" ft Abrewa Nana<ref>[https://soundcloud.com/worldghana/eno-ft-abrewa-nana-megye-wo-boyrefix-prod-by-garzymix "Eno Ft Abrewa Nana Megye Wo Boy(Refix) (Prod By @GarzyMix)"].</ref> * "Daawa" ft [[Shatta Wale]]<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20180731062213/https://www.ghanasongs.com/eno-daawa-ftshatta-waleprod-by-masta/ "ENo - Daawa (Ft.Shatta Wale)(Prod By Masta Garzy)"]. 6 December 2015.</ref> * "The Best" ft Mic Flammez<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20230319114438/https://my.notjustok.com/track/27541/eno-the-best-ft-mic-flammez "Listen to ENo-The-Best-ft-Mic-Flammez on Mynotjustok"]. Archived from [https://my.notjustok.com/track/27541/eno-the-best-ft-mic-flammez the original] on 2023-03-19. Retrieved 2017-09-21.</ref> * "Touch the Body" ft [[Stonebwoy]]<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20171014163441/http://www.hitz.com.gh/eno-touch-body-feat-stonebwoy-prod-masta-garzy "Eno - Touch The Body (Feat StoneBwoy) (Prod By Masta Garzy) - Hitz.Com.Gh"]. 23 August 2016. Archived from [http://www.hitz.com.gh/eno-touch-body-feat-stonebwoy-prod-masta-garzy/ the original] on 14 October 2017. Retrieved 21 September 2017.</ref> * "King of Queens" ft Medikal<ref>Adinkra, Fiifi (3 December 2016). [https://ghanandwom.net/eno-king-queens-feat-medikal/ "Eno - King Of Queens (Feat Medikal) - GhanaNdwom.com"].</ref> * "Obiaa Ba Ny3" ft Ebony Reigns<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20241204003517/https://www.ghanacelebrities.com/2017/06/22/new-music-bad-girls-combo-eno-features-ebony-obiaa-ba-ny3/ "DOWNLOAD - Eno x Ebony – Obiaa Ba Ny3 (Prod. by Mix Masta Garzy) - Yes Ghana Online"]. 21 June 2017.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20241204003517/https://www.ghanacelebrities.com/2017/06/22/new-music-bad-girls-combo-eno-features-ebony-obiaa-ba-ny3/ "NEW MUSIC: 'Bad Girls' Combo – Eno Features Ebony On 'Obiaa Ba Ny3'"]. ghanacelebrities.com. 20 July 2017.</ref> * "Gari" ft Kwaw Kese<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20230319114623/https://my.notjustok.com/track/85977/eno-gari-ft-kwaw-kese-prod-by-2mg "Listen to Eno-Gari-ft-Kwaw-Kese-Prod-By-2MG on Mynotjustok"]. Archived from [https://my.notjustok.com/track/85977/eno-gari-ft-kwaw-kese-prod-by-2mg the original] on 2023-03-19. Retrieved 2017-09-21.</ref> * "Fear No Man"<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20181208115937/http://www.ghanamotion.com/eno-barony-fear-no-man-warning-gh-rappers-prod-hypelyrix/ "ENo Barony – Fear No Man (Warning To Gh Rappers) (Prod by Hypelyrix)"]. ''Ghanamotion''. Ghana Motion.</ref> * "Beauty and The Beast"<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20181208124459/http://www.ghanamotion.com/eno-barony-beauty-beast-prod-mix-master-garzy/ "ENo Barony – Beauty And The Beast (Prod. by Mix Master Garzy)"]. ''Ghanamotion''. Ghanamotion. Retrieved 17 February 2018.</ref> * "Do Something"<ref>[https://ghanandwom.net/eno-barony-do-something-prod-by-b2/ "ENo Barony – Do Something (Prod. by B2)"]. ''ghanandwom''. ghanandwom. Retrieved 31 July 2018.</ref> * "Do Something" Remix ft [[Wendy Shay]]<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20230319114853/https://ghanandwom.net/eno-barony-do-something-remix-feat-wendy-shay-official-video/ "ENo Barony – Do Something-ft-Wendy-Shay (Prod. by Mix Master Garzy)"]. ''ghanandwom''. ghanandwom. Retrieved 1 November 2018.</ref> * "Ay3 Ka"<ref>Edem (2020-12-09). [https://www.halmblog.com/listen/eno-barony-ay3-ka-prod-by-hype-lyrix/ "Download MP3: Eno Barony – Ay3 Ka (Prod. By Hype Lyrix) | Halmblog.com"]. ''www.halmblog.com/''. Retrieved 2023-10-13.</ref> === 2019 Singles === * "Heavy Load"<ref>[http://www.georgebritton.com/new-music-eno-barony-heavy-load-prod-by-b2/ "ENo Barony – Heavy Load (Prod. by B2)"]. ''www.georgebritton.com''. georgebritton. Retrieved 26 February 2019.</ref> * "Mind Your Business" Kofi Mole<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20201128013110/https://www.ghanamotion.com/eno-barony-mind-your-business-ft-kofi-mole-prod-by-hypelyrix/ "ENo Barony – Mind Your Business-ft-Kofi-Mole (Prod. by Hype Lyrix)"]. ''www.ghanamotion.com''. ghanamotion. Retrieved 14 June 2019.</ref> * "Falling In Love" * "Voice Of Truth" Akwaboah<ref>[https://ghanandwom.net/eno-barony-v-o-t-voice-of-truth-feat-akwaboah-prod-by-apya/ "ENo Barony – Voice Of Truth-ft-Akwaboah (Prod by apya)"]. ''ghanandwom.net''. ghanandwom.</ref> === 2020 Singles === * "Rap Goddess"<ref>[https://www.boomplay.com/songs/36664227? "ENo Barony – Rap Goddess (Prod. by Hype Lyrix)"]. ''www.boomplay.com''. boomplay. Retrieved 3 May 2020.</ref> * "Argument Done"<ref>[https://www.boomplay.com/songs/36664539? "ENo Barony – Argument Done (Prod. by Hype Lyrix)"]. ''www.boomplay.com''. boomplay. Retrieved 9 May 2020.</ref> * "Force dem to play nonsense" ft [[Deborah Owusu-Bonsu|Sister Deborah]] den Strongman<ref>[https://www.boomplay.com/songs/37012236? "ENo Barony – Force Dem to Play Nonsense-ft-Sister Deborah-x-Strongman (Prod. by Hype Lyrix)"]. ''www.boomplay.com''. boomplay. Retrieved 22 May 2020.</ref> * "Cheat" ft Kelvyn Boy<ref>[https://www.boomplay.com/songs/38424255? "ENo Barony – Cheat-ft-Kelvyn Boy (Prod. by Samsney)"]. ''www.boomplay.com''. boomplay. Retrieved 9 June 2020.</ref> * "Game Of Thrones"<ref>[https://www.boomplay.com/songs/43809911? "ENo Barony – Game Of Thrones (Prod. by Hype Lyrix)"]. ''www.boomplay.com''. boomplay. Retrieved 31 Aug 2020.</ref> * "Enough Is Enough" ft Wendy Shay<ref>[https://www.boomplay.com/songs/44096569? "ENo Barony – Enough Is Enough-ft-Wendy Shay (Prod. by Hype apya)"]. ''www.boomplay.com''. boomplay. Retrieved 2 September 2020.</ref> === 2021 Singles === * "4Eva" ft Yaw Tog<ref>[https://www.dcleakers.com/eno-barony-4eva-ft-yaw-tog/ "Eno Barony - 4eva ft. Yaw TOG"]. ''DCLeakers.com''. 2021-12-10. Retrieved 2022-05-14.</ref> === 2022 Singles === * "The Finish Line" ft Amerado<ref>[https://www.dcleakers.com/eno-barony-the-finish-line-ft-amerado/ "Eno Barony - The Finish Line ft. Amerado"]. ''DCLeakers.com''. 2022-05-11. Retrieved 2022-05-14.</ref> == Videography == {| class="wikitable" !Year !Title !Director !Ref |- |2012 |''Pull Me Out'' |Nick Baeta |<ref>[https://www.newsghana.com.gh/new-video-from-female-rapper-eno-pull-me-out/ "New Video from Female Rapper: ENO – Pull me out"]. ''Newsghana.com.gh''. Retrieved 21 September 2017.</ref> |} == Ein performances == * Ghana Meets Naija Concert, May 2017 for de Accra International Conference Centre.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20230319120349/https://www.peacefmonline.com/pages/showbiz/news/201706/316308.php "Eno's Stagecraft At Ghana Meets Naija Was Black Magic – Presenter &#x7C; General Entertainment"]. ''Peacefmonline.com''. Retrieved 2017-09-19.</ref><ref>[https://www.nydjlive.com/photos-enos-outfit-for-ghana-meets-naija-leaves-people-talking/ "Photos: Eno's Outfit For Ghana Meets Naija Leaves People Talking"]. ''NYDJ Live''. Retrieved 2017-09-19.</ref><ref>[https://www.pulse.com.gh/entertainment/music/gmn-top-5-performers-at-2017-ghana-meets-naija-concert/c84ycgs "#GMN: Top 5 performers at 2017 Ghana Meets Naija concert - Music"]. ''Pulse''. Retrieved 2017-09-19.</ref><ref>[https://beatznation.com/enos-performance-ghana-meets-naija/ "Eno's Performance Skyrockets at Ghana Meets Naija"]. ''beatznation.com''. Retrieved 2017-09-19.</ref> * GOtv Launch Street Party 2013 for Kumasi insyd.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20220423201355/https://www.ghanamotion.com/female-rapper-eno-shakes-gotv-launch-event-in-kumasi/ "Female rapper Eno shakes GOtv launch event in Kumasi"]. ''ghanamotion.com''. Retrieved 2017-09-19.</ref> * Akwambo Music Festival 2017<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20170929184515/http://www.anythingghana.com/2017/08/19/eno-barony-performing-at-akwambo-music-festival/ "Eno Barony PERFORMING AT AKWAMBO MUSIC FESTIVAL"]. ''anythingghana.com''. Archived from [http://www.anythingghana.com/2017/08/19/eno-barony-performing-at-akwambo-music-festival/ the original] on 2017-09-29. Retrieved 2017-09-29.</ref> * Rapperholic Concert 2017<ref>[https://yfmghana.com/2017/12/29/eno-barony-wowed-fans-at-sarkodies-rapperholic-concert-2017/ "Eno Barony PERFORMING AT Sarkodies Rapperholic Concert"]. ''YFM Ghana''. Retrieved 25 December 2017.</ref> * Eno Barony - Mommy<ref>[https://www.hitz360.com/eno-barony-mommy-prod-by-samsney/ "Eno Barony - Mommy (Prod. By Samsney)"]. ''www.hitz360.com''. Retrieved 1 June 2021.</ref> == References == [[Category:Human]] [[Category:1991 births]] [[Category:Ghanaian musicians]] [[Category:Ghanaian women rappers]] [[Category:Ghanaian rappers]] [[Category:Ghanaians]] [[Category:21st-century Ghanaian women]] [[Category:21st-century Ghanaian women singers]] 5jdafsdtloaxruo5o9tge8d909ycpfc House of Israel (Ghana) 0 1590 69134 46282 2025-07-05T23:19:42Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 69134 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox|item=Q2919587}} De '''House of Israel''' be Jewish community wey dey locate for southwestern Ghana insyd, de towns of Sefwi Wiawso den Sefwi Sui. Dis group of people, de Sefwi tribe, build synagogue for 1998 insyd. Chaw men den kiddies dey read English, but no body know Hebrew.<ref name=":0">[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/ghana-virtual-jewish-history-tour "Ghana Virtual Jewish History Tour"]. Jewish Virtual Library. Retrieved 2022-04-03.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20221030135550/https://thecjn.ca/perspectives/lost-jews-ghana/ "The lost Jews of Ghana"]. Canadian Jewish News. Retrieved 2022-04-03.</ref> ==History of Jews for Ghana insyd== De Sefwi Wiawso people dey trace call give "return" to normative Judaism by Aaron Ahomtre Toakyirafa, community leader wey, for 1976 insyd, dem claim say he get vision. For 2012 insyd, Gabrielle Zilkha, Toronto-based filmmaker, visit Sefwe Wiawso so say she go do research for sum documentary about de House of Israel she dey do. According to Zilkha, about 200 people--chaw kiddies-- dey live for de community insyd. She state say de lack of historical record make am hard to verify de group dema claims, but oral tradition wey dey date back to 200 years dey.<ref name=":0" /> For de 1990s insyd, de House of Israel begin to reach out to de wider Jewish world. De community job plus Jewish organizations lyk Kulanu den Be’chol Lashon.<ref>[https://www.timesofisrael.com/ghanas-deep-spirituality-points-some-joyfully-back-to-judaism/ "Ghana's deep spirituality points some, joyfully, back to Judaism"]. The Times of Israel. Retrieved 2022-04-03.</ref> Jews dema smaller community from de House of Israel dey live for Sefwi Sui insyd, small farming community wey dey locate twenty miles from Sefwi Wiawso.<ref>[http://www.scatteredamongthenations.org/ghana "The House of Israel"]. Scattered Among the Nations. Retrieved 2022-04-03.</ref> ==Jewish dema facilities== De House of Israel dema leader since 1993, David Ahenkorah receive ein own vision for taking up de mantle.<ref name=":1" /> Dem grant am 40-acre plot so say he go build Jewish school give de community, but dem no raise funds give de construction. Kiddies now nu dey attend local school, wey Christians dey run am. Dem build synagogue for 1998 insyd for New Adiembra, Jewish neighborhood wey dey Sefwi Wiawso. Recently, dem paint am blue den white, Israel ein colors.<ref name=":1">[http://www.forward.com/articles/2143/ "In West Africa, a Synagogue Where the Pavement Ends"]. ''Forward''. The Forward. 2005-10-28. Retrieved 2012-10-09.</ref> Chaw family compounds dey nearby wey about 200 people dey belong to de synagogue.<ref name=":1" /> E be single-room synagogue wey get miniature Sefer Torah. No mechitza dey.<ref>[https://www.jta.org/jewniverse/2016/bet-you-didnt-know-about-the-jews-of-sefwi-wiawso-ghana "Bet You Didn't Know About the Jews of Sefwi Wiawso, Ghana"]. Jewish Telegraphic Agency. Retrieved 2022-04-03.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20220403110412/https://kulanu.org/communities/ghana/visit-jewish-community-sefwi-wiawso-ghana/ "A VISIT TO THE JEWISH COMMUNITY OF SEFWI WIAWSO, GHANA"]. Kulanu. Retrieved 2022-04-03.</ref> == References == [[Category:Ethnic groups for Ghana insyd]] [[Category:Ghana]] [[Category:Ghanaian Jews]] [[Category:Sefwi people]] <references /> == External links == * [https://kulanu.org/communities/ghana/ Ghana], Kulanu 2hzx6jw2ypanjknbjhp36qwn8zv5nu0 Kaduna State University 0 4991 69191 42115 2025-07-06T01:02:09Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 69191 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Kaduna State University''' dey locate insyd Kaduna, Kaduna State, [[Nigeria]]. Dem establish am insyd 2004.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20230924142502/https://kasu.edu.ng/index.php/history/ "Kaduna State University"]. kasu.edu.ng. Retrieved 9 August 2019.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20240601100714/https://education.kdsg.gov.ng/ "Kaduna State Institutions of Higher Education"]. kdsg.gov.ng. Retrieved 10 October 2021.</ref><ref name=":0">[https://www.nuc.edu.ng/nigerian-univerisities/state-univerisity/ "State Universities in Nigeria - NUC"]. nuc.edu.ng. Retrieved 9 August 2019.</ref> E get nine faculties plus ova 39 departments den library wey dey contain ova 17,000 volumes of books. E get two campuses: Kafanchan den Kaduna. == History == Na dem establish de Kaduna State University under de Kaduna State law dem promulgate insyd May 2004. De promulgation follow de need make dem boost higher education insyd de northern den southern parts of de state. Consequently, dem approve two campuses: one insyd Kaduna den de oda insyd Kafanchan. De Kaduna campus take off first, wey dey run basic degree programs by former Governor Dr. Ahmed Mohammed Makarfi, de then executive governor of Kaduna State den Visitor to de varsity, dem appoint Professor Idris Abdulkadir make he be de pro-chancellor den chairmo of de Governing Council while na dem appoint Professor Abubakar Sani Sambo de first vice-chancellor. Professor Aminu S. Mikailu, take over from Professor Sambo as second vice-chancellor wen na dem appoint de latter by de Federal Government make dem head de Nigerian Energy Commission. Na Professor Ezzeldin Muktar Abdurahman be de third VC. Dem appoint Professor W.B. Quirix as de fourth VC insyd January 2012. Howeva, he no plete de full five-year tenure. Subsequently, dem appoint Professor Ado-Baba Ahmed as de Acting Vice-Chancellor from 16 September 2016 til 24 January 2017. Professor Muhammad Tanko take office as Vice-Chancellor from 2017 to 2021.<ref>[https://dailytrust.com/muhammad-tanko-is-new-state-varsity-vc "Muhammad Tanko Is New State Varsity VC"]. dailytrust.com. 1 May 2021. Retrieved 25 June 2022.</ref> Professor Yohanna Tella act as VC from January to June 2022. Professor Abdullahi Musa Ashafa briefly assume de role of Acting Vice-Chancellor from 22 June 2022 til de appointment of Prof Abdullahi Ibrahim Musa by Malam Nasir El-Rufai, de Government of Kaduna State as de present Vice-Chancellor for 19 of October, 2022.<ref>[https://www.dateline.ng/prof-abdullahi-i-musa-appointed-kasu-vc/ "Prof. Abdullahi I. Musa appointed KASU VC"]. ''dateline.ng''. Retrieved 2023-07-20.</ref> His Royal Highness, Sanusi Lamido Sanusi be de current Pro-chancellor, while Hussaini Adamu Dikko be de Chairmo of de Governing Council. == Kaduna State University Library == De Library be academy wey dem establish insyd 2004 make e support teaching, learning den research of de varsity.<ref name=":0" /> De main Library dey locate insyd de main campus plus information recourses for all subject areas insyd dem cover by de school den online databases be available plus journal information systems from difference faculties insyd de school.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20230514195733/https://journal.kasu.edu.ng/ "Kaduna State University Library Journal System"]. ''journal.kasu.edu.ng''. Retrieved 2023-05-14.</ref> == Administration == Kaduna State University get chancellor as ein ceremonial head, while de vice-chancellor be de chief executive den academic officer, like for oda Nigerian varsities insyd. Dem dey usually appoint de vice-chancellor for five-year, non-renewable term. De current acting vice-chancellor, Professor Abdullahi Musa Ashafa, take office for 22 June 2022.<ref>[https://www.dateline.ng/prof-ashafa-takes-over-as-acting-vice-chancellor-of-kasu/ "Prof Ashafa takes over as acting Vice Chancellor of KASU"]. Dateline Nigeria. 22 June 2022. Retrieved 24 June 2022.</ref> Below be de tabulated list of all KASU vice-chancellors. De number 4, 6, 8 and 9 all be acting vice chancellors, wey dey pend substantive appointment of VC by de varsity ein governing council. {| class="wikitable" !S/N !Name !Tenure !Profession |- |1 |Professor Abubakar Sani Sambo |2004 |Mechanical Engineer |- |2 |Professor Aminu Salihu Mikailu |2005-2006 |Management Accounting |- |3 |Professor Ezzeldin Muktar Abdurahman |2007–2012 |Pharmacist |- |4 |Professor Muhammad Tanko (Ag) |2012 |Accounting |- |5 |Professor William Barnabas Qurix |2012–2017 |Architect |- |6 |Professor Ado-Baba Ahmed (Ag) |2017 |Biologist |- |7 |Professor Muhammad Tanko |2017–2022 |Accounting |- |8 |Professor Yohanna Tella (Ag) |2022 |Mathematician |- |9 |Professor Abdullahi Musa Ashafa |2022–Date |Historian |- | |Professor Abdullahi I. Musa | | |+''Table source:'' Undergraduate Handbook 11th ed.<ref>Kaduna State University (2022). ''Undergraduate Student Handbook''. Kaduna State University. p.&nbsp;25.</ref> |} == Faculties == De varsity get seven faculties den college of medicine: === Faculty of Arts === De Faculty of Arts dey among de pioneer faculties of de varsity, dem establish insyd 2005. E get seven departments. De Faculty of Arts dey comprise de following departments for de Kaduna Campus: * Arabic * Christian Religious Studies * English den Drama * French * History * Islamic Studies * Nigerian Languages & Linguistics === Faculty of Science === De Faculty of Science dey among de pioneer faculties of de varsity, dem establish insyd 2005. De Faculty of Science currently dey comprise de following departments for de Kaduna Campus: * Biochemistry * Biological Sciences * Chemistry * Geography * Mathematical Sciences * Microbiology * Physics * Computer science * Industrial chemistry * Statistics * Geology === College of Medicine === De College of Medicine, Kaduna State University na dem establish am insyd 2008 plus de vision make e produce medical doctors den oda health personnel wey dey bab de normal den abnormal human body, de family den de society, plus enough scientific knowledge make dem undertake further training so say dem go cam turn specialists, teachers, den researchers. Ein mission be make e train medical doctors den oda health personnel of high medical standard wey go man de health services insyd Kaduna State den oda parts of Nigeria, wey go fi practice insyd de community den primary healthcare setting, wey go fi practice for any part of de world insyd, dem be able make dem undertake further training so say dem go cam turn specialists, den be able make dem carry out scientific research give de benefit of humanity. De College of Medicine get one department: * Medicine * De Barau Dikko teaching hospital be meant for training pharmacy den medical students. === Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences === De Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences na dem establish am insyd 2012. De founding dean of de faculty be Dr. Ahmed Tijjani Mora. E get six departments: * Department of Pharmacology den Toxicology * Department of Clinical Pharmacy den Pharmacy Management * Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry den Medicinal chemistry * Department of Pharmacognosy den Drug Development * Department of Pharmaceutics den Industrial Pharmacy. * Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology dem Biotechnology. === Faculty of Social Sciences === De Faculty of Social Sciences dey among de pioneer faculties of de varsity, dem establish insyd 2005. De Faculty of Social Sciences dey comprise de following departments for de Kaduna Campus: * Economics * Mass Communication * Political Science * Sociology * International relation den diplomacy === Faculty of Management Sciences === De Faculty of Management Sciences sanso dey among de pioneer faculties of de varsity, dem establish insyd 2005. De Faculty of Management Sciences dey comprise de following departments for de Kaduna Campus: * Accounting * Business Administration * Banking den Finance * Entrepreneurship * Marketing * Public Administration * Procurement And Supply Chain Management === Faculty of Environmental Sciences === De Faculty of Environmental Sciences be one of de freshest faculties, dem establish insyd 2012, wey ebe one of de two faculties for de Kafachan Campus top. E get four departments: * Estate Management * Quantity Surveying * Environmental Management * Architecture === Faculty of Agriculture === De Faculty of Agriculture be one of de freshest faculties, dem establish insyd 2012, wey ebe one of de two faculties for de Kafachan Campus top. E get three departments: * Agricultural Economics den Extension * Animal Science * Crop Science * Agriculture<ref>Fapohunda, Olusegun (2021-10-09). [https://www.myschoolgist.com/ng/kasu-courses/ "List Of KASU Courses And Programmes Offered"]. ''MySchoolGist''. Retrieved 2023-01-07.</ref> == People == === Notable alumni === * Hafsat Mohammed Baba === Holders of Honorary Degrees === * Muhammadu Buhari * Aliko Dangote * Nasir El-Rufai * Mrs Zainab Shamsuna Ahmed * Alhaji Muhammad Maigari Dingyadi * Malam Mele Kyari * Seinde Fademi Oladapo * Amb. Suleiman Dauda Umar<ref>[https://www.dateline.ng/zainab-ahmed-dingyadi-kyari-receive-honorary-doctorate-degrees-from-kasu/ "Zainab Ahmed, Dingyadi, Kyari receive honorary doctorate degrees from KASU"]. dateline.ng. Retrieved 26 December 2021.</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20101008083828/http://kasu.edu.ng/ Kaduna State University official website] * [http://student.kasu.edu.ng/ Kaduna State University portal] [[Category:Universities den colleges insyd Kaduna State]] [[Category:Educational institutions dem establish insyd 2004]] [[Category:2004 establishments insyd Nigeria]] [[Category:State universities insyd Nigeria]] [[Category:Universities den colleges dem establish insyd 2004]] [[Category:Education insyd Kaduna State]] dou66ictys5txm36tc3h4upy9vg2aww Nadine Laurent 0 6981 69238 35742 2025-07-06T05:56:35Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 69238 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox|item=Q114865311}}'''Nadine Laurent''' be French Paralympic alpine skier. She win silver den bronze medal for de 1992 Winter Paralympic Games for Albertville insyd.<ref>[https://www.paralympic.org/nadine-laurent "Nadine Laurent - Alpine skiing | Paralympic Athlete Profile"]. ''International Paralympic Committee''. Retrieved 2022-11-04.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20231219015914/https://www.paris2024.org/fr/tignes-1992-nadine-laurent/ "Nadine Laurent: The first and the last"]. ''Paris 2024'' (in French). 1 February 2023.</ref> == Ein Career == For de 1992 Winter Paralympics insyd, for Tignes / Albertville wey dey France, she win two medals: silver medal for de slalom (plus tym of 1:25.90 (gold for Austrian athlete [[:en:Helga_Knapp|Helga Knapp]] for 1: 24.49 insyd den bronze for Cathy Gentile-Patti for 2: 23.51 insyd),<ref>[https://www.paralympic.org/tignes-albertville-1992/results/alpine-skiing/womens-slalom-lw2 "Albertville 1992 Paralympic Winter Games - alpine-skiing – womens-slalom-lw2"]. ''International Paralympic Committee''. Retrieved 2022-11-04.</ref> den bronze for de giant slalom for 2:31.80 insyd (wey she finish behind de American athletes Sarah Billmeier for 2: 22.85 insyd den [[Cathy Gentile-Patti]] for 2:23.51 insyd).<ref>[https://www.paralympic.org/tignes-albertville-1992/results/alpine-skiing/womens-giant-slalom-lw2 "Albertville 1992 Paralympic Winter Games - alpine-skiing – womens-giant-slalom-lw2"]. ''International Paralympic Committee''. Retrieved 2022-11-04.</ref> Laurent place sixth for de downhill insyd,<ref>[https://www.paralympic.org/tignes-albertville-1992/results/alpine-skiing/womens-downhill-lw2 "Albertville 1992 Paralympic Winter Games - alpine-skiing – womens-downhill-lw2"]. ''International Paralympic Committee''. Retrieved 2022-11-04.</ref> den fifth for de super-G,<ref>[https://www.paralympic.org/tignes-albertville-1992/results/alpine-skiing/womens-super-g-lw2 "Albertville 1992 Paralympic Winter Games - alpine-skiing – womens-super-g-lw2"]. ''International Paralympic Committee''. Retrieved 2022-11-04.</ref> for de LW2 category insyd. For de 1994 Winter Paralympics insyd, for Lillehammer, Norway, Laurent miss de podium, wey she place 4th for giant slalom LW2,<ref>[https://www.paralympic.org/lillehammer-1994/results/alpine-skiing/womens-giant-slalom-lw2 "Lillehammer 1994 - alpine-skiing – womens-giant-slalom-lw2"]. ''International Paralympic Committee''. Retrieved 2022-11-04.</ref> 6th for downhill LW2,<ref>[https://www.paralympic.org/lillehammer-1994/results/alpine-skiing/womens-downhill-lw2 "Lillehammer 1994 - alpine-skiing – womens-downhill-lw2"]. ''International Paralympic Committee''. Retrieved 2022-11-04.</ref> den 7th for super-G LW2 insyd.<ref>[https://www.paralympic.org/lillehammer-1994/results/alpine-skiing/womens-super-g-lw2 "Lillehammer 1994 - alpine-skiing – womens-super-g-lw2"]. ''International Paralympic Committee''. Retrieved 2022-11-04.</ref> == References == [[Category:1959 births]] [[Category:Living people]] [[Category:Sportspeople from Lyon]] [[Category:Skiers from Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes]] [[Category:Paralympic alpine skiers for France]] [[Category:French female alpine skiers]] [[Category:Alpine skiers at de 1992 Winter Paralympics]] [[Category:Alpine skiers at de 1994 Winter Paralympics]] [[Category:Medalists at de 1992 Winter Paralympics]] [[Category:Paralympic silver medalists for France]] [[Category:Paralympic bronze medalists for France]] <references /> == External links == * [https://www.paralympic.org/nadine-laurent Nadine Laurent] at de [[:en:International_Paralympic_Committee|International Paralympic Committee]] t2j5fmhoyo5y4hs2i0unp4fo2508gpg Dani Rodrik 0 9139 69068 40397 2025-07-05T18:58:01Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 69068 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Dani Rodrik''' (born August 14, 1957) be Turkish economist den Ford Foundation Professor of International Political Economy at de John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University. Na he be formerly de Albert O. Hirschman Professor of de Social Sciences at de Institute for Advanced Study insyd Princeton, New Jersey. He publish widely insyd de areas of international economics, economic development, den political economy. De question of wat dey constitute good economic policy den why sam governments be more successful dan odas wey dey adopt am be de center of ein research. Ein works dey include ''Economics Rules: The Rights and Wrongs of the Dismal Science'' and ''The Globalization Paradox: Democracy and the Future of the World Economy''. He sanso be joint editor-in-chief of de academic journal ''Global Policy.''<ref>Staff writer. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/page/journal/17585899/homepage/editorialboard.html "Editorial Board"]. ''Global Policy''.</ref> == Biography == Rodrik dey descend from a family of Sephardic Jews.<ref>Uchitelle, Louis (30 January 2007). [https://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/30/business/worldbusiness/30trade.html?ex=1327813200&en=b09c1256f811eb09&ei=5088 "Economist Wants Business and Social Aims to Be in Sync (Published 2007)"]. ''The New York Times''.</ref> After he graduate from Robert College insyd Istanbul,<ref>[http://www.cosgel.uconn.edu/Publications/Turkishtime(5MB).pdf Turkishtime Article (insyd Turkish)] [https://web.archive.org/web/20070719235032/http://www.cosgel.uconn.edu/Publications/Turkishtime%285MB%29.pdf Archived] 2007-07-19 at the Wayback Machine</ref> he obtain A.B. degree (summa cum laude) insyd Government den Economics from Harvard College insyd 1979. He then earn M.P.A. degree (plus distinction) from Princeton School of Public den International Affairs insyd 1981 den Ph.D. degree insyd Economics from Princeton University insyd 1985, plus de thesis dem title ''Studies on the Welfare Theory of Trade and Exchange-rate Policy''.<ref>[https://drodrik.scholar.harvard.edu/files/dani-rodrik/files/dani_rodrik_resume.pdf Curriculum Vitae Dani Rodrik] - website Hardard University</ref> == Publications dem select == * Rodrik, Dani (2017). ''Straight Talk on Trade: Ideas for a Sane Economy''. Princeton University Press. ISBN <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0691177847|978-0691177847]]</bdi>. * Rodrik, Dani (2015). ''Economics Rules: The Rights and Wrongs of the Dismal Science''. Norton & Company, Inc. ISBN <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0-393-24641-4|978-0-393-24641-4]]</bdi>. * Rodrik, Dani (2011). ''[[iarchive:globalizationpar00rodr_0|The Globalization Paradox]]''. Norton & Company, Inc. ISBN <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0-393-07161-0|978-0-393-07161-0]]</bdi>. * Rodrik, Dani (2007). ''One Economics, Many Recipes''. Princeton University Press. ISBN <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0-691-12951-8|978-0-691-12951-8]]</bdi>. * McMillan, Margaret; Horn, Karen; Rodrik, Dani (2004). "When Economic Reform Goes Wrong: Cashews in Mozambique". ''Brookings Trade Forum 2003'': 97–165. * Rodrik, Dani, ed. (2003). ''In Search of Prosperity: Analytic Narratives on Economic Growth''. Princeton University Press. ISBN <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0-691-09268-3|978-0-691-09268-3]]</bdi>. * Rodrik, Dani (2001). [https://web.archive.org/web/20191226060629/http://system2.net/ukpgh/wp-content/uploads/rodrikgovernance.PDF "The Global Governance of Trade As If Development Really Mattered"] (PDF). ''UNDP''. Archived from [http://system2.net/ukpgh/wp-content/uploads/rodrikgovernance.PDF the original] (PDF) on 2019-12-26. * Rodrik, Dani (1999). ''[[iarchive:isbn_9781565170278|The New Global Economy and Developing Countries: Making Openness Work]]''. Overseas Development Council. ISBN <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-56517-027-8|978-1-56517-027-8]]</bdi>. * Rodrik, Dani (1997). ''[[iarchive:hasglobalization00rodr|Has Globalization Gone Too Far?]]''. Institute for International Economics. ISBN <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0-88132-241-5|978-0-88132-241-5]]</bdi>. == References == [[Category:Living people]] <references /> == External links == '''Dani Rodrik''' at Wikipedia ein sisto projects * [[File:Commons-logo.svg|link=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Basshunter?uselang=gpe|16x16px]] [[commons:Category:Dani_Rodrik|Wikimedia Commons]] * [[File:Wikiquote-logo.svg|link=https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Basshunter?uselang=gpe|16x16px]] [[wikiquote:Dani_Rodrik|Wikiquote]] (en) * [[File:Wikidata-logo.svg|link=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q383541|16x16px]] [[wikidata:Q559838|Wikidata]] * [http://drodrik.scholar.harvard.edu/ Dani Rodrik's home page] * [https://drodrik.scholar.harvard.edu/research-papers Dani Rodrik's latest research] * [http://rodrik.typepad.com/ Dani Rodrik's weblog] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20111011073613/http://www.project-syndicate.org/series/roads_to_prosperity/description "Roads to Prosperity"] Dani Rodrik's op-ed column for Project Syndicate * Roberts, Russ (April 11, 2011). [http://www.econtalk.org/archives/_featuring/dani_rodrik/ "Rodrik on Globalization, Development, and Employment"]. ''EconTalk''. Library of Economics and Liberty. [[Category:Human]] [[Category:1957 births]] [[Category:Anti-globalization writers]] [[Category:École Normale Supérieure alumni]] [[Category:Harvard College alumni]] [[Category:Princeton University alumni]] [[Category:Institute for Advanced Study faculty]] [[Category:Robert College alumni]] [[Category:Harvard Kennedy School faculty]] [[Category:Trade economists]] [[Category:Academics wey komot Istanbul]] [[Category:Turkish expatriates insyd de United States]] [[Category:Turkish Jews]] [[Category:20th-century Turkish economists]] [[Category:21st-century Turkish economists]] [[Category:Social Science Research Council]] [[Category:Peterson Institute for International Economics]] [[Category:American academics of Turkish descent]] [[Category:Academics of de London School of Economics]] nh7ndwf81wrk63whpwqssk9thdsmwue Racim Benyahia 0 10625 69241 44584 2025-07-06T07:42:59Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 69241 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Benyahia Racim Bey''' (Arabic: بن يحيى رسيم باي; dem born am insyd Constantine, Algeria, insyd 1987) be Algerian digital illustrator den cartoonist.<ref name="bdalger.net">{{cite web|url=http://www.bdalger.net/index.php/revue-de-presse/item/272-racim-benyahia-la-bd-dans-la-peau|title=Racim Benyahia: La BD dans la peau|author=Nouri Nesrouche|publisher=El Watan|date=19 December 2012}}</ref> Racim Benyahia be de winner of de 1st Prize for de ''Best Poster'' at de '''5th International Festival of Comics of Algeria''' (2012).<ref name="bdalger.net" /><ref name="algerienews.info">{{cite web|url=http://www.algerienews.info/dessine-moi-mon-histoire|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130912112004/http://www.algerienews.info/dessine-moi-mon-histoire|url-status=dead|archive-date=12 September 2013|title=Dessine-moi mon Histoire !|author=Meriem Benslama|publisher=Algerie News|date=16 September 2012}}</ref><ref name="l'expression">{{cite web|url=http://www.lexpressiondz.com/culture/160371-50-jours-de-formation-bd-5-albums-nouveaux.html|title=50 jours de formation BD, 5 albums nouveaux|author=O. Hind|publisher=L'Expression|date=15 September 2012}}</ref> Na dem sanso award am de 3rd Prize at de 4th version of de same international festival insyd 2011.<ref name="tsa-algerie.com">{{cite web|url=http://archives.tsa-algerie.com/culture-et-media/alger-bulles-sans-frontieres_17539.html|title=Alger, bulles sans frontières|author=Merouane Mokdad|publisher=Tout sur l'Algérie|date=2 November 2011}}</ref> == "Constantine 1836" == Insyd 2017, at de "'''Maghreb des Livres'''"<ref name="coupdesoleil.net">{{cite web|url=http://coupdesoleil.net/blog/lalgerie-en-bulles-les-bd-au-maghreb-des-livres-2017/|title=Alger, L'Algérie à l'honneur du salon Maghreb des Livres à Paris|publisher=Coup de Soleil|date=13 March 2017}}</ref> insyd Paris, an event of wich na he design de official poster,<ref name="cnrs.fr">{{cite web|url=http://iremam.cnrs.fr/spip.php?article4032/|title=23ème Maghreb des livres|publisher=IREMAM|date=19 February 2017}}</ref> Racim Benyahia present ein first comic book, "'''''Constantine 1836'''''" (Dalimen Editions, 2016), wey dey illustrate de first Battle of Constantine insyd 1836 wey dey feature de resistance of Ahmed Bey against de colonial armies lead by de Maréchal Clausel.<ref name="dzairinfos.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.dzairinfos.com/articles/elwatan-23e-maghreb-des-livres-reagissez|title=23e Maghreb des livres|author=Nouri Nesrouche|publisher=El Watan|date=22 February 2017}}</ref><ref name="jeuneafrique.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.jeuneafrique.com/404543/culture/lalgerie-a-lhonneur-salon-maghreb-livres-a-paris|title=Alger, L'Algérie à l'honneur du salon Maghreb des Livres à Paris|author=Jules Crétois|publisher=Jeune Afrique|date=17 February 2017}}</ref> De author insist for de fact dat although he add a personal touch, he remain as "faithful" as possible to de historical records wey relate to dis major battle insyd Algerian-French history.<ref name="elwatan.com">{{cite web|url=https://www.dzairnews.com/articles/elwatan-racim-benyahia-auteur-et-dessinateur-de-constantine-1836-je-suis-reste-fidele-aux-ecrits-et-aux-recits-de-la-premiere-bataille|title=Racim Benyahia. Auteur et dessinateur de Constantine 1836: Je suis resté fidèle aux écrits et aux récits de la première bataille|author=Mélanie Matarese|publisher=El Watan|date=5 August 2016}}</ref> == Artistic background den family ties == He be de son of Algerian artist [[Ahmed Benyahia]], den nephew of Algerian French artist [[Samta Benyahia]].<ref name="bdalger.net" /> == References == [[Category:Living people]] [[Category:Human]] [[Category:1987 births]] [[Category:Algerian people]] [[Category:Algerian contemporary artists]] [[Category:People wey komot Constantine, Algeria]] [[Category:Algerian artists]] [[Category:21st-century Algerian people]] <references /> == External links den sources == * (insyd Arabic) [https://web.archive.org/web/20170730003235/http://elraaed.com/ara/news/13647-%D8%A7%D8%AE%D8%AA%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%85-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%87%D8%B1%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%84%D9%8A-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B3-%D9%84%D9%84%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%B7-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%85-%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D8%B2%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%B1.html اختتام المهرجان الدولي الخامس للشريط المرسوم بالجزائر] * (insyd French) [https://web.archive.org/web/20130925175737/http://www.bdalger.net/index.php/revue-de-presse/item/272-racim-benyahia-la-bd-dans-la-peau La BD dans la peau] * (insyd French) [https://archive.today/20130912112004/http://www.algerienews.info/dessine-moi-mon-histoire Dessine-moi mon Histoire !] * (insyd French) [http://www.lesoirdalgerie.com/pdf/2012/10/04102012.pdf Une édition dédiée aux pionniers et aux nouveaux auteurs] * (insyd French) [http://www.bdalger.net/archives/fibda-2012/item/285-r%C3%A9sultats-concours-affiche Résultats Concours Affiche] * (insyd French) [http://www.lemidi-dz.com/index.php?operation=voir_article&id_article=culture%40art3%402012-10-15 Tomber de rideau et remise de prix] * (insyd French) [https://web.archive.org/web/20160303210900/http://archives.tsa-algerie.com/culture-et-media/alger-bulles-sans-frontieres_17539.html Alger, bulles sans frontières] * (insyd French) [http://www.lexpressiondz.com/culture/160371-50-jours-de-formation-bd-5-albums-nouveaux.html 50 jours de formation BD, 5 albums nouveaux] * (insyd French) [http://www.horizons-dz.com/?Ceremonie-autour-des-laureats-2012 Cérémonie autour des lauréats 2012] 5oh3umqvttunj2096u46try0t60asya Belgian Congo 0 15810 68950 68885 2025-07-05T13:51:20Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 I don add de sub-header 'Government' 68950 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] l69yzylknoodwkcjbmh94gnnf5vbf2b 68951 68950 2025-07-05T13:58:40Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Government */ 68951 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] gukkrhrxpse0h4zn5yfp1t4gab9fv4i 68952 68951 2025-07-05T14:03:36Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Government */ 68952 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] t8gutlfv7sdlm7lcqcg4ehmrm4gpfq3 68953 68952 2025-07-05T14:06:41Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Government */ 68953 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] 0u1lydzopif1chl1hmflwkk83u0jdki 68954 68953 2025-07-05T14:09:46Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Government */ 68954 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] iut69ivdhj1eid4nbk3mri0xybywa5l 68955 68954 2025-07-05T14:13:11Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Government */ 68955 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] kefm08rs2ipujcozebg7xoxjxcnqoz9 68957 68955 2025-07-05T14:15:17Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 I don add de sub-header 'International conflicts' 68957 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] 7o2yxtm1a25dnd1n7hc38a1ktpphq0h 68960 68957 2025-07-05T14:23:19Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* International conflicts */ 68960 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] az2tpmp92u7yk2mvwapg65szr1eltsz 68964 68960 2025-07-05T14:27:51Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* International conflicts */ 68964 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] r6j3mvgd5wf7gwt606yfti6vsmwfle8 68965 68964 2025-07-05T14:29:27Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* International conflicts */ 68965 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] qh0zsczq9bdhy8h5xszci9c704l14y5 68966 68965 2025-07-05T14:30:18Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 I don add de header 'Economic policy' 68966 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] 46xc21dgy4wc1xajo7bvsk6x7fa9m57 68968 68966 2025-07-05T14:33:06Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Economic policy */ I don add de sub-header 'World War I' 68968 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] 6wbhjpzvyar6mjgs8xybjee7bg1wydn 68971 68968 2025-07-05T14:41:13Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* World War I */ 68971 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] fzpg66xmq1n12mynpop6iaowlkisyk8 68972 68971 2025-07-05T14:44:54Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 I don add de sub-header 'Interbellum' 68972 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] rqtagavb7ugu7syp86q9tx1o3z2ynzn 68985 68972 2025-07-05T15:07:49Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Interbellum */ 68985 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] oqj3hxc75irybt35fg3nl0mstm2i7qn 68990 68985 2025-07-05T15:20:00Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Interbellum */ 68990 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] 7snq5jz2k1f24la421ox8kpxw89pz98 68991 68990 2025-07-05T15:21:00Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Interbellum */ 68991 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] fxcy89gosnnktj84v9odajyuv2thd3a 68992 68991 2025-07-05T15:22:30Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Interbellum */ 68992 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] iavd4wipgg8fi9ox1y15sak4jkvt7l8 68997 68992 2025-07-05T15:27:34Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Interbellum */ 68997 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process. For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] jc5ly2ydhitkendzfko59oxnmu2yeeq 69005 68997 2025-07-05T15:47:30Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 I don add de sub-header 'Great Depression' 69005 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process. For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] s9049tove0czvc86d6skm6ut17owb1a 69007 69005 2025-07-05T15:53:59Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Great Depression */ 69007 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] b6gdmch4ergjh2v2li9z63yvjn5yu1o 69009 69007 2025-07-05T15:58:10Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 I don add de sub-header 'World War II' 69009 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] 8eet7q6a35ywwccezzvp5k8ym4vlvyq 69012 69009 2025-07-05T16:05:00Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* World War II */ 69012 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] iohlaw5vtc95ntotelgrdbksu1daxem 69014 69012 2025-07-05T16:07:53Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 I don add de sub-header 'After World War II' 69014 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] prq2liuttmat6ivi9h3rdchdh58b5g7 69016 69014 2025-07-05T16:10:59Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* After World War II */ 69016 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] qfa9s3u0g7dt9xt8p5mqj282kekektw 69017 69016 2025-07-05T16:14:45Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* After World War II */ 69017 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] jmyrbrsuuu66hwys43sdh78hz4zshbz 69018 69017 2025-07-05T16:17:12Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 I don add de header 'Civilising mission' 69018 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] d6wd6kt7kyeinukspbhnjnxksgnqhuk 69021 69018 2025-07-05T16:28:36Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Civilising mission */ 69021 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] jfp212qei3cyeh28spxpun2z03mn7tq 69022 69021 2025-07-05T16:31:11Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 I don add de sub-header 'Education' 69022 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] 6kl5ptjyprwqv2gj3byeh8jvujaeze5 69023 69022 2025-07-05T16:37:59Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Education */ 69023 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] iboidgta9edidnzgn4g5zyf9wquqnz6 69024 69023 2025-07-05T16:40:36Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Education */ 69024 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] 7ucejsus62jqq2p15bznyjz3gfr4wqg 69025 69024 2025-07-05T16:41:54Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 I don add de sub-header 'Health care' 69025 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] 9rkmga6mzde3umf7dy0yyoxcnwm9hhy 69026 69025 2025-07-05T16:49:02Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Health care */ 69026 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== [[File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Minière_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|right|thumb|Nurses of de [[:en:Union_Minière_du_Haut-Katanga|Union Minière du Haut-Katanga]] plus demma Congolese assistants, [[:en:Lubumbashi|Élisabethville]], 1918]] Health care too dey supported by missions, but colonial state wan show interest small. For 1906, dem start Institute of Tropical Medicine for Brussels. This ITM dey among di top places wey train and do research for tropical medicine and how health care dey work for developing countries. Dem fit clear endemic sickness like sleeping sickness well well with serious campaigns.<ref>A critical assessment of the colonial obsession with sleeping sickness in: Lyons, Maryinez (1992), ''The Colonial Disease, A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> For 1925, medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper be di first person wey carry tryparsamide, di drug from Rockefeller Foundation wey dey cure sleeping sickness, enter Congo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingman |first=Jack |year=1994 |title=Arthur Lewis Piper, M.D.: A Medical Missionary in the Belgian Congo |journal=Journal of Community Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/BF02260364 |pmid=8006209 |s2cid=37502216}}</ref> Di health-care system dey grow well well during colonial time, with plenty hospital beds dey available for di people, plus dem set up dispensaries for far away places. By 1960, di country get beta medical structure wey pass any other African nation for dat time. Belgian Congo get 3,000 health facilities, wey 380 be hospitals. Dem get 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 people (1 for every 187 people). Dem make huge progress for di fight against endemic diseases; dem report sleeping sickness cases drop from 34,000 in 1931 to just 1,100 in 1959, mainly because dem clear tsetse fly for where plenty people dey. All Europeans plus Congolese wey dey for Belgian Congo do dem vaccine for polio, measles and yellow fever. Big big disease prevention programs dem start, wey dem wan make polio, leprosy and tuberculosis no dey again. For primary schools, dem run disease prevention campaigns, and dem include disease prevention class for curriculum too.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319" /> == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] 0dbypnirlxx2iv3hc9022japeejkkse 69027 69026 2025-07-05T16:51:17Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 I don add de sub-header 'Social inequality den racial discrimination' 69027 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== [[File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Minière_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|right|thumb|Nurses of de [[:en:Union_Minière_du_Haut-Katanga|Union Minière du Haut-Katanga]] plus demma Congolese assistants, [[:en:Lubumbashi|Élisabethville]], 1918]] Health care too dey supported by missions, but colonial state wan show interest small. For 1906, dem start Institute of Tropical Medicine for Brussels. This ITM dey among di top places wey train and do research for tropical medicine and how health care dey work for developing countries. Dem fit clear endemic sickness like sleeping sickness well well with serious campaigns.<ref>A critical assessment of the colonial obsession with sleeping sickness in: Lyons, Maryinez (1992), ''The Colonial Disease, A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> For 1925, medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper be di first person wey carry tryparsamide, di drug from Rockefeller Foundation wey dey cure sleeping sickness, enter Congo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingman |first=Jack |year=1994 |title=Arthur Lewis Piper, M.D.: A Medical Missionary in the Belgian Congo |journal=Journal of Community Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/BF02260364 |pmid=8006209 |s2cid=37502216}}</ref> Di health-care system dey grow well well during colonial time, with plenty hospital beds dey available for di people, plus dem set up dispensaries for far away places. By 1960, di country get beta medical structure wey pass any other African nation for dat time. Belgian Congo get 3,000 health facilities, wey 380 be hospitals. Dem get 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 people (1 for every 187 people). Dem make huge progress for di fight against endemic diseases; dem report sleeping sickness cases drop from 34,000 in 1931 to just 1,100 in 1959, mainly because dem clear tsetse fly for where plenty people dey. All Europeans plus Congolese wey dey for Belgian Congo do dem vaccine for polio, measles and yellow fever. Big big disease prevention programs dem start, wey dem wan make polio, leprosy and tuberculosis no dey again. For primary schools, dem run disease prevention campaigns, and dem include disease prevention class for curriculum too.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319" /> ===== Social inequality den racial discrimination ===== == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] 82tbhkjgg72r0njdhme2a04ryu54t4o 69028 69027 2025-07-05T16:55:27Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Social inequality den racial discrimination */ 69028 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== [[File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Minière_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|right|thumb|Nurses of de [[:en:Union_Minière_du_Haut-Katanga|Union Minière du Haut-Katanga]] plus demma Congolese assistants, [[:en:Lubumbashi|Élisabethville]], 1918]] Health care too dey supported by missions, but colonial state wan show interest small. For 1906, dem start Institute of Tropical Medicine for Brussels. This ITM dey among di top places wey train and do research for tropical medicine and how health care dey work for developing countries. Dem fit clear endemic sickness like sleeping sickness well well with serious campaigns.<ref>A critical assessment of the colonial obsession with sleeping sickness in: Lyons, Maryinez (1992), ''The Colonial Disease, A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> For 1925, medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper be di first person wey carry tryparsamide, di drug from Rockefeller Foundation wey dey cure sleeping sickness, enter Congo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingman |first=Jack |year=1994 |title=Arthur Lewis Piper, M.D.: A Medical Missionary in the Belgian Congo |journal=Journal of Community Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/BF02260364 |pmid=8006209 |s2cid=37502216}}</ref> Di health-care system dey grow well well during colonial time, with plenty hospital beds dey available for di people, plus dem set up dispensaries for far away places. By 1960, di country get beta medical structure wey pass any other African nation for dat time. Belgian Congo get 3,000 health facilities, wey 380 be hospitals. Dem get 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 people (1 for every 187 people). Dem make huge progress for di fight against endemic diseases; dem report sleeping sickness cases drop from 34,000 in 1931 to just 1,100 in 1959, mainly because dem clear tsetse fly for where plenty people dey. All Europeans plus Congolese wey dey for Belgian Congo do dem vaccine for polio, measles and yellow fever. Big big disease prevention programs dem start, wey dem wan make polio, leprosy and tuberculosis no dey again. For primary schools, dem run disease prevention campaigns, and dem include disease prevention class for curriculum too.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319" /> ===== Social inequality den racial discrimination ===== [[File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|thumb|A female missionary is pulled in a rickshaw by Congolese men, {{circa}} 1920–1930]] Di Belgia Congo get system wey dey separate people based on race an dem dey discriminate too.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Krauzman|first=Marine|date=2025-03-11|title=Belgium's Colonial Past on Trial: What the 2024 Ruling Means for Reparational Justice|url=http://spheresofinfluence.ca/belgiums-colonial-past-on-trial-what-the-2024-ruling-means-for-reparational-justice/|access-date=2025-06-26|website=Spheres of Influence|language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-29|title=Belgian Congo {{!}} History & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgian-Congo|access-date=2025-06-26|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Dem get wetin dem call 'implicit apartheid'. Di colony put curfew for Congolese wey dey live for city, an plenty racial wahala dey happen. Léopoldville get di racist curfew wey e famous for, an dem use am as template for other European colonies like French Equatorial Africa wey dey close by.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Njoh |first1=Ambe J. |date=March 2008 |title=Colonial Philosophies, Urban Space, and Racial Segregation in British and French Colonial Africa |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Black Studies]] |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=579–599 |doi=10.1177/0021934706288447 |s2cid=145775865 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228161615/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref> == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] tv795xld77vbljjwrmzm11uk382s9pq 69029 69028 2025-07-05T17:00:03Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Social inequality den racial discrimination */ 69029 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== [[File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Minière_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|right|thumb|Nurses of de [[:en:Union_Minière_du_Haut-Katanga|Union Minière du Haut-Katanga]] plus demma Congolese assistants, [[:en:Lubumbashi|Élisabethville]], 1918]] Health care too dey supported by missions, but colonial state wan show interest small. For 1906, dem start Institute of Tropical Medicine for Brussels. This ITM dey among di top places wey train and do research for tropical medicine and how health care dey work for developing countries. Dem fit clear endemic sickness like sleeping sickness well well with serious campaigns.<ref>A critical assessment of the colonial obsession with sleeping sickness in: Lyons, Maryinez (1992), ''The Colonial Disease, A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> For 1925, medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper be di first person wey carry tryparsamide, di drug from Rockefeller Foundation wey dey cure sleeping sickness, enter Congo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingman |first=Jack |year=1994 |title=Arthur Lewis Piper, M.D.: A Medical Missionary in the Belgian Congo |journal=Journal of Community Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/BF02260364 |pmid=8006209 |s2cid=37502216}}</ref> Di health-care system dey grow well well during colonial time, with plenty hospital beds dey available for di people, plus dem set up dispensaries for far away places. By 1960, di country get beta medical structure wey pass any other African nation for dat time. Belgian Congo get 3,000 health facilities, wey 380 be hospitals. Dem get 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 people (1 for every 187 people). Dem make huge progress for di fight against endemic diseases; dem report sleeping sickness cases drop from 34,000 in 1931 to just 1,100 in 1959, mainly because dem clear tsetse fly for where plenty people dey. All Europeans plus Congolese wey dey for Belgian Congo do dem vaccine for polio, measles and yellow fever. Big big disease prevention programs dem start, wey dem wan make polio, leprosy and tuberculosis no dey again. For primary schools, dem run disease prevention campaigns, and dem include disease prevention class for curriculum too.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319" /> ===== Social inequality den racial discrimination ===== [[File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|thumb|Dem dey pull one woman wey be missionary inside rickshaw by some Congolese guys, around 1920 to 1930.]] Di Belgia Congo get system wey dey separate people based on race an dem dey discriminate too.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Krauzman|first=Marine|date=2025-03-11|title=Belgium's Colonial Past on Trial: What the 2024 Ruling Means for Reparational Justice|url=http://spheresofinfluence.ca/belgiums-colonial-past-on-trial-what-the-2024-ruling-means-for-reparational-justice/|access-date=2025-06-26|website=Spheres of Influence|language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-29|title=Belgian Congo {{!}} History & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgian-Congo|access-date=2025-06-26|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Dem get wetin dem call 'implicit apartheid'. Di colony put curfew for Congolese wey dey live for city, an plenty racial wahala dey happen. Léopoldville get di racist curfew wey e famous for, an dem use am as template for other European colonies like French Equatorial Africa wey dey close by.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Njoh |first1=Ambe J. |date=March 2008 |title=Colonial Philosophies, Urban Space, and Racial Segregation in British and French Colonial Africa |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Black Studies]] |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=579–599 |doi=10.1177/0021934706288447 |s2cid=145775865 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228161615/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref> Even though dem no get proper laws wey dey separate people by race, segregation dey happen plenty for many places. For example, at first, de city centers be only for white people, while black people dey stay for places dem dey call 'cités indigènes' or 'le belge'. Hospitals, shop dem and other places no dey allow both whites and blacks to mix. For Force Publique, black people no fit rise pass non-commissioned officer rank. Plus, black folks for the cities no fit come out from 9 pm to 4 am. Dis kind segregation start dey vanish small-small only for 1950s, but even then, de Congolese dem still dey feel like second-class citizens, especially for politics and law matter. == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] pcnep9tmk33izkld2rh0dmqey2q5f1i 69030 69029 2025-07-05T17:03:57Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Social inequality den racial discrimination */ 69030 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== [[File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Minière_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|right|thumb|Nurses of de [[:en:Union_Minière_du_Haut-Katanga|Union Minière du Haut-Katanga]] plus demma Congolese assistants, [[:en:Lubumbashi|Élisabethville]], 1918]] Health care too dey supported by missions, but colonial state wan show interest small. For 1906, dem start Institute of Tropical Medicine for Brussels. This ITM dey among di top places wey train and do research for tropical medicine and how health care dey work for developing countries. Dem fit clear endemic sickness like sleeping sickness well well with serious campaigns.<ref>A critical assessment of the colonial obsession with sleeping sickness in: Lyons, Maryinez (1992), ''The Colonial Disease, A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> For 1925, medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper be di first person wey carry tryparsamide, di drug from Rockefeller Foundation wey dey cure sleeping sickness, enter Congo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingman |first=Jack |year=1994 |title=Arthur Lewis Piper, M.D.: A Medical Missionary in the Belgian Congo |journal=Journal of Community Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/BF02260364 |pmid=8006209 |s2cid=37502216}}</ref> Di health-care system dey grow well well during colonial time, with plenty hospital beds dey available for di people, plus dem set up dispensaries for far away places. By 1960, di country get beta medical structure wey pass any other African nation for dat time. Belgian Congo get 3,000 health facilities, wey 380 be hospitals. Dem get 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 people (1 for every 187 people). Dem make huge progress for di fight against endemic diseases; dem report sleeping sickness cases drop from 34,000 in 1931 to just 1,100 in 1959, mainly because dem clear tsetse fly for where plenty people dey. All Europeans plus Congolese wey dey for Belgian Congo do dem vaccine for polio, measles and yellow fever. Big big disease prevention programs dem start, wey dem wan make polio, leprosy and tuberculosis no dey again. For primary schools, dem run disease prevention campaigns, and dem include disease prevention class for curriculum too.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319" /> ===== Social inequality den racial discrimination ===== [[File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|thumb|Dem dey pull one woman wey be missionary inside rickshaw by some Congolese guys, around 1920 to 1930.]] Di Belgia Congo get system wey dey separate people based on race an dem dey discriminate too.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Krauzman|first=Marine|date=2025-03-11|title=Belgium's Colonial Past on Trial: What the 2024 Ruling Means for Reparational Justice|url=http://spheresofinfluence.ca/belgiums-colonial-past-on-trial-what-the-2024-ruling-means-for-reparational-justice/|access-date=2025-06-26|website=Spheres of Influence|language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-29|title=Belgian Congo {{!}} History & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgian-Congo|access-date=2025-06-26|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Dem get wetin dem call 'implicit apartheid'. Di colony put curfew for Congolese wey dey live for city, an plenty racial wahala dey happen. Léopoldville get di racist curfew wey e famous for, an dem use am as template for other European colonies like French Equatorial Africa wey dey close by.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Njoh |first1=Ambe J. |date=March 2008 |title=Colonial Philosophies, Urban Space, and Racial Segregation in British and French Colonial Africa |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Black Studies]] |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=579–599 |doi=10.1177/0021934706288447 |s2cid=145775865 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228161615/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref> Even though dem no get proper laws wey dey separate people by race, segregation dey happen plenty for many places. For example, at first, de city centers be only for white people, while black people dey stay for places dem dey call 'cités indigènes' or 'le belge'. Hospitals, shop dem and other places no dey allow both whites and blacks to mix. For Force Publique, black people no fit rise pass non-commissioned officer rank. Plus, black folks for the cities no fit come out from 9 pm to 4 am. Dis kind segregation start dey vanish small-small only for 1950s, but even then, de Congolese dem still dey feel like second-class citizens, especially for politics and law matter. [[File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|right|thumb|King [[:en:Albert_I_of_Belgium|Albert I]] plus Queen [[:en:Elisabeth_of_Bavaria,_Queen_of_the_Belgians|Elisabeth]] inspecting de military camp of Léopoldville for de time of demma visit to de Belgian Congo, 1928]] Sekof dem dey connect ekonomi growth with di 'civilizing mission', plus as state officials, missionaries plus private companies dey always help each other, people don sabi sey Belgian Congo dey ruled by one 'colonial trinity' of King-Church-Capital. Dis one fit mean di colonial state, di Christian missions, plus Société Générale de Belgique too. == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] 4s9e6ww9wwdyx7zfmznmttlfolrj551 69032 69030 2025-07-05T17:08:04Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Social inequality den racial discrimination */ 69032 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== [[File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Minière_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|right|thumb|Nurses of de [[:en:Union_Minière_du_Haut-Katanga|Union Minière du Haut-Katanga]] plus demma Congolese assistants, [[:en:Lubumbashi|Élisabethville]], 1918]] Health care too dey supported by missions, but colonial state wan show interest small. For 1906, dem start Institute of Tropical Medicine for Brussels. This ITM dey among di top places wey train and do research for tropical medicine and how health care dey work for developing countries. Dem fit clear endemic sickness like sleeping sickness well well with serious campaigns.<ref>A critical assessment of the colonial obsession with sleeping sickness in: Lyons, Maryinez (1992), ''The Colonial Disease, A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> For 1925, medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper be di first person wey carry tryparsamide, di drug from Rockefeller Foundation wey dey cure sleeping sickness, enter Congo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingman |first=Jack |year=1994 |title=Arthur Lewis Piper, M.D.: A Medical Missionary in the Belgian Congo |journal=Journal of Community Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/BF02260364 |pmid=8006209 |s2cid=37502216}}</ref> Di health-care system dey grow well well during colonial time, with plenty hospital beds dey available for di people, plus dem set up dispensaries for far away places. By 1960, di country get beta medical structure wey pass any other African nation for dat time. Belgian Congo get 3,000 health facilities, wey 380 be hospitals. Dem get 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 people (1 for every 187 people). Dem make huge progress for di fight against endemic diseases; dem report sleeping sickness cases drop from 34,000 in 1931 to just 1,100 in 1959, mainly because dem clear tsetse fly for where plenty people dey. All Europeans plus Congolese wey dey for Belgian Congo do dem vaccine for polio, measles and yellow fever. Big big disease prevention programs dem start, wey dem wan make polio, leprosy and tuberculosis no dey again. For primary schools, dem run disease prevention campaigns, and dem include disease prevention class for curriculum too.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319" /> ===== Social inequality den racial discrimination ===== [[File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|thumb|Dem dey pull one woman wey be missionary inside rickshaw by some Congolese guys, around 1920 to 1930.]] Di Belgia Congo get system wey dey separate people based on race an dem dey discriminate too.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Krauzman|first=Marine|date=2025-03-11|title=Belgium's Colonial Past on Trial: What the 2024 Ruling Means for Reparational Justice|url=http://spheresofinfluence.ca/belgiums-colonial-past-on-trial-what-the-2024-ruling-means-for-reparational-justice/|access-date=2025-06-26|website=Spheres of Influence|language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-29|title=Belgian Congo {{!}} History & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgian-Congo|access-date=2025-06-26|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Dem get wetin dem call 'implicit apartheid'. Di colony put curfew for Congolese wey dey live for city, an plenty racial wahala dey happen. Léopoldville get di racist curfew wey e famous for, an dem use am as template for other European colonies like French Equatorial Africa wey dey close by.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Njoh |first1=Ambe J. |date=March 2008 |title=Colonial Philosophies, Urban Space, and Racial Segregation in British and French Colonial Africa |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Black Studies]] |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=579–599 |doi=10.1177/0021934706288447 |s2cid=145775865 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228161615/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref> Even though dem no get proper laws wey dey separate people by race, segregation dey happen plenty for many places. For example, at first, de city centers be only for white people, while black people dey stay for places dem dey call 'cités indigènes' or 'le belge'. Hospitals, shop dem and other places no dey allow both whites and blacks to mix. For Force Publique, black people no fit rise pass non-commissioned officer rank. Plus, black folks for the cities no fit come out from 9 pm to 4 am. Dis kind segregation start dey vanish small-small only for 1950s, but even then, de Congolese dem still dey feel like second-class citizens, especially for politics and law matter. [[File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|right|thumb|King [[:en:Albert_I_of_Belgium|Albert I]] plus Queen [[:en:Elisabeth_of_Bavaria,_Queen_of_the_Belgians|Elisabeth]] inspecting de military camp of Léopoldville for de time of demma visit to de Belgian Congo, 1928]] Sekof dem dey connect ekonomi growth with di 'civilizing mission', plus as state officials, missionaries plus private companies dey always help each other, people don sabi sey Belgian Congo dey ruled by one 'colonial trinity' of King-Church-Capital. Dis one fit mean di colonial state, di Christian missions, plus Société Générale de Belgique too. Di way wey colonial policy take dey work, e get one saying wey Governor-General Pierre Ryckmans (1934–46) use: Dominer pour servir ('Dominate to serve').<ref>Vanderlinden, Jacques (1994), ''Pierre Ryckmans 1891–1959, Coloniser dans l'honneur'', Brussels: De Boeck.</ref> Di colonial government wan make wey see am say dem dey nice plus no wahala for di administration, plus dem wan show Belgian Congo as di perfect colony. But na only for di 1950s e start change. For di 1950s, dem dey gradually draw back dem plenty harsh laws dem use punish di Congolese people (like di chicote wey be whip). From 1953, plus di big visit wey King Baudouin make to di colony for 1955, Governor-General Léon Pétillon (1952–1958) start dey try build one 'Belgian-Congolese community', where black plus white go dey equal.<ref>Pétillon, L. A. M. (1967), ''Témoignage et réflexions'', Brussels: Renaissance du Livre.</ref> But still, di anti-miscegenation laws no clear, and from 1959 to 1962, plenty mixed-race Congolese pikin dem dey carry come out from Congo by Belgian government plus Catholic Church go Belgium.<ref>{{cite web|last=Paravicini|first=Giulia|date=4 April 2019|title=Belgium apologizes for colonial-era abduction of mixed-race children|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711005737/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|archive-date=11 July 2019|access-date=10 July 2019|publisher=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] snx7bozm1u9d6iww1fxfxny4nyehg73 69033 69032 2025-07-05T17:10:23Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Social inequality den racial discrimination */ 69033 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== [[File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Minière_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|right|thumb|Nurses of de [[:en:Union_Minière_du_Haut-Katanga|Union Minière du Haut-Katanga]] plus demma Congolese assistants, [[:en:Lubumbashi|Élisabethville]], 1918]] Health care too dey supported by missions, but colonial state wan show interest small. For 1906, dem start Institute of Tropical Medicine for Brussels. This ITM dey among di top places wey train and do research for tropical medicine and how health care dey work for developing countries. Dem fit clear endemic sickness like sleeping sickness well well with serious campaigns.<ref>A critical assessment of the colonial obsession with sleeping sickness in: Lyons, Maryinez (1992), ''The Colonial Disease, A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> For 1925, medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper be di first person wey carry tryparsamide, di drug from Rockefeller Foundation wey dey cure sleeping sickness, enter Congo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingman |first=Jack |year=1994 |title=Arthur Lewis Piper, M.D.: A Medical Missionary in the Belgian Congo |journal=Journal of Community Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/BF02260364 |pmid=8006209 |s2cid=37502216}}</ref> Di health-care system dey grow well well during colonial time, with plenty hospital beds dey available for di people, plus dem set up dispensaries for far away places. By 1960, di country get beta medical structure wey pass any other African nation for dat time. Belgian Congo get 3,000 health facilities, wey 380 be hospitals. Dem get 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 people (1 for every 187 people). Dem make huge progress for di fight against endemic diseases; dem report sleeping sickness cases drop from 34,000 in 1931 to just 1,100 in 1959, mainly because dem clear tsetse fly for where plenty people dey. All Europeans plus Congolese wey dey for Belgian Congo do dem vaccine for polio, measles and yellow fever. Big big disease prevention programs dem start, wey dem wan make polio, leprosy and tuberculosis no dey again. For primary schools, dem run disease prevention campaigns, and dem include disease prevention class for curriculum too.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319" /> ===== Social inequality den racial discrimination ===== [[File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|thumb|Dem dey pull one woman wey be missionary inside rickshaw by some Congolese guys, around 1920 to 1930.]] Di Belgia Congo get system wey dey separate people based on race an dem dey discriminate too.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Krauzman|first=Marine|date=2025-03-11|title=Belgium's Colonial Past on Trial: What the 2024 Ruling Means for Reparational Justice|url=http://spheresofinfluence.ca/belgiums-colonial-past-on-trial-what-the-2024-ruling-means-for-reparational-justice/|access-date=2025-06-26|website=Spheres of Influence|language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-29|title=Belgian Congo {{!}} History & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgian-Congo|access-date=2025-06-26|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Dem get wetin dem call 'implicit apartheid'. Di colony put curfew for Congolese wey dey live for city, an plenty racial wahala dey happen. Léopoldville get di racist curfew wey e famous for, an dem use am as template for other European colonies like French Equatorial Africa wey dey close by.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Njoh |first1=Ambe J. |date=March 2008 |title=Colonial Philosophies, Urban Space, and Racial Segregation in British and French Colonial Africa |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Black Studies]] |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=579–599 |doi=10.1177/0021934706288447 |s2cid=145775865 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228161615/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref> Even though dem no get proper laws wey dey separate people by race, segregation dey happen plenty for many places. For example, at first, de city centers be only for white people, while black people dey stay for places dem dey call 'cités indigènes' or 'le belge'. Hospitals, shop dem and other places no dey allow both whites and blacks to mix. For Force Publique, black people no fit rise pass non-commissioned officer rank. Plus, black folks for the cities no fit come out from 9 pm to 4 am. Dis kind segregation start dey vanish small-small only for 1950s, but even then, de Congolese dem still dey feel like second-class citizens, especially for politics and law matter. [[File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|right|thumb|King [[:en:Albert_I_of_Belgium|Albert I]] plus Queen [[:en:Elisabeth_of_Bavaria,_Queen_of_the_Belgians|Elisabeth]] inspecting de military camp of Léopoldville for de time of demma visit to de Belgian Congo, 1928]] Sekof dem dey connect ekonomi growth with di 'civilizing mission', plus as state officials, missionaries plus private companies dey always help each other, people don sabi sey Belgian Congo dey ruled by one 'colonial trinity' of King-Church-Capital. Dis one fit mean di colonial state, di Christian missions, plus Société Générale de Belgique too. Di way wey colonial policy take dey work, e get one saying wey Governor-General Pierre Ryckmans (1934–46) use: Dominer pour servir ('Dominate to serve').<ref>Vanderlinden, Jacques (1994), ''Pierre Ryckmans 1891–1959, Coloniser dans l'honneur'', Brussels: De Boeck.</ref> Di colonial government wan make wey see am say dem dey nice plus no wahala for di administration, plus dem wan show Belgian Congo as di perfect colony. But na only for di 1950s e start change. For di 1950s, dem dey gradually draw back dem plenty harsh laws dem use punish di Congolese people (like di chicote wey be whip). From 1953, plus di big visit wey King Baudouin make to di colony for 1955, Governor-General Léon Pétillon (1952–1958) start dey try build one 'Belgian-Congolese community', where black plus white go dey equal.<ref>Pétillon, L. A. M. (1967), ''Témoignage et réflexions'', Brussels: Renaissance du Livre.</ref> But still, di anti-miscegenation laws no clear, and from 1959 to 1962, plenty mixed-race Congolese pikin dem dey carry come out from Congo by Belgian government plus Catholic Church go Belgium.<ref>{{cite web|last=Paravicini|first=Giulia|date=4 April 2019|title=Belgium apologizes for colonial-era abduction of mixed-race children|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711005737/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|archive-date=11 July 2019|access-date=10 July 2019|publisher=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> For 1957, dem do first municipal elections wey black voters fit vote for some big cities — Léopoldville, Élisabethville, plus Jadotville. == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] 29twgv99wthcgbq8m8dw3nro0qha2ie 69034 69033 2025-07-05T17:12:08Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 I don add de sub-header 'Abolition of slavery' 69034 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== [[File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Minière_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|right|thumb|Nurses of de [[:en:Union_Minière_du_Haut-Katanga|Union Minière du Haut-Katanga]] plus demma Congolese assistants, [[:en:Lubumbashi|Élisabethville]], 1918]] Health care too dey supported by missions, but colonial state wan show interest small. For 1906, dem start Institute of Tropical Medicine for Brussels. This ITM dey among di top places wey train and do research for tropical medicine and how health care dey work for developing countries. Dem fit clear endemic sickness like sleeping sickness well well with serious campaigns.<ref>A critical assessment of the colonial obsession with sleeping sickness in: Lyons, Maryinez (1992), ''The Colonial Disease, A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> For 1925, medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper be di first person wey carry tryparsamide, di drug from Rockefeller Foundation wey dey cure sleeping sickness, enter Congo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingman |first=Jack |year=1994 |title=Arthur Lewis Piper, M.D.: A Medical Missionary in the Belgian Congo |journal=Journal of Community Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/BF02260364 |pmid=8006209 |s2cid=37502216}}</ref> Di health-care system dey grow well well during colonial time, with plenty hospital beds dey available for di people, plus dem set up dispensaries for far away places. By 1960, di country get beta medical structure wey pass any other African nation for dat time. Belgian Congo get 3,000 health facilities, wey 380 be hospitals. Dem get 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 people (1 for every 187 people). Dem make huge progress for di fight against endemic diseases; dem report sleeping sickness cases drop from 34,000 in 1931 to just 1,100 in 1959, mainly because dem clear tsetse fly for where plenty people dey. All Europeans plus Congolese wey dey for Belgian Congo do dem vaccine for polio, measles and yellow fever. Big big disease prevention programs dem start, wey dem wan make polio, leprosy and tuberculosis no dey again. For primary schools, dem run disease prevention campaigns, and dem include disease prevention class for curriculum too.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319" /> ===== Social inequality den racial discrimination ===== [[File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|thumb|Dem dey pull one woman wey be missionary inside rickshaw by some Congolese guys, around 1920 to 1930.]] Di Belgia Congo get system wey dey separate people based on race an dem dey discriminate too.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Krauzman|first=Marine|date=2025-03-11|title=Belgium's Colonial Past on Trial: What the 2024 Ruling Means for Reparational Justice|url=http://spheresofinfluence.ca/belgiums-colonial-past-on-trial-what-the-2024-ruling-means-for-reparational-justice/|access-date=2025-06-26|website=Spheres of Influence|language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-29|title=Belgian Congo {{!}} History & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgian-Congo|access-date=2025-06-26|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Dem get wetin dem call 'implicit apartheid'. Di colony put curfew for Congolese wey dey live for city, an plenty racial wahala dey happen. Léopoldville get di racist curfew wey e famous for, an dem use am as template for other European colonies like French Equatorial Africa wey dey close by.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Njoh |first1=Ambe J. |date=March 2008 |title=Colonial Philosophies, Urban Space, and Racial Segregation in British and French Colonial Africa |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Black Studies]] |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=579–599 |doi=10.1177/0021934706288447 |s2cid=145775865 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228161615/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref> Even though dem no get proper laws wey dey separate people by race, segregation dey happen plenty for many places. For example, at first, de city centers be only for white people, while black people dey stay for places dem dey call 'cités indigènes' or 'le belge'. Hospitals, shop dem and other places no dey allow both whites and blacks to mix. For Force Publique, black people no fit rise pass non-commissioned officer rank. Plus, black folks for the cities no fit come out from 9 pm to 4 am. Dis kind segregation start dey vanish small-small only for 1950s, but even then, de Congolese dem still dey feel like second-class citizens, especially for politics and law matter. [[File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|right|thumb|King [[:en:Albert_I_of_Belgium|Albert I]] plus Queen [[:en:Elisabeth_of_Bavaria,_Queen_of_the_Belgians|Elisabeth]] inspecting de military camp of Léopoldville for de time of demma visit to de Belgian Congo, 1928]] Sekof dem dey connect ekonomi growth with di 'civilizing mission', plus as state officials, missionaries plus private companies dey always help each other, people don sabi sey Belgian Congo dey ruled by one 'colonial trinity' of King-Church-Capital. Dis one fit mean di colonial state, di Christian missions, plus Société Générale de Belgique too. Di way wey colonial policy take dey work, e get one saying wey Governor-General Pierre Ryckmans (1934–46) use: Dominer pour servir ('Dominate to serve').<ref>Vanderlinden, Jacques (1994), ''Pierre Ryckmans 1891–1959, Coloniser dans l'honneur'', Brussels: De Boeck.</ref> Di colonial government wan make wey see am say dem dey nice plus no wahala for di administration, plus dem wan show Belgian Congo as di perfect colony. But na only for di 1950s e start change. For di 1950s, dem dey gradually draw back dem plenty harsh laws dem use punish di Congolese people (like di chicote wey be whip). From 1953, plus di big visit wey King Baudouin make to di colony for 1955, Governor-General Léon Pétillon (1952–1958) start dey try build one 'Belgian-Congolese community', where black plus white go dey equal.<ref>Pétillon, L. A. M. (1967), ''Témoignage et réflexions'', Brussels: Renaissance du Livre.</ref> But still, di anti-miscegenation laws no clear, and from 1959 to 1962, plenty mixed-race Congolese pikin dem dey carry come out from Congo by Belgian government plus Catholic Church go Belgium.<ref>{{cite web|last=Paravicini|first=Giulia|date=4 April 2019|title=Belgium apologizes for colonial-era abduction of mixed-race children|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711005737/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|archive-date=11 July 2019|access-date=10 July 2019|publisher=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> For 1957, dem do first municipal elections wey black voters fit vote for some big cities — Léopoldville, Élisabethville, plus Jadotville. ===== Abolition of slavery ===== == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] k3ihbdztjca9ehq1phseicf3gwmzea3 69038 69034 2025-07-05T17:17:18Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Abolition of slavery */ 69038 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== [[File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Minière_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|right|thumb|Nurses of de [[:en:Union_Minière_du_Haut-Katanga|Union Minière du Haut-Katanga]] plus demma Congolese assistants, [[:en:Lubumbashi|Élisabethville]], 1918]] Health care too dey supported by missions, but colonial state wan show interest small. For 1906, dem start Institute of Tropical Medicine for Brussels. This ITM dey among di top places wey train and do research for tropical medicine and how health care dey work for developing countries. Dem fit clear endemic sickness like sleeping sickness well well with serious campaigns.<ref>A critical assessment of the colonial obsession with sleeping sickness in: Lyons, Maryinez (1992), ''The Colonial Disease, A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> For 1925, medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper be di first person wey carry tryparsamide, di drug from Rockefeller Foundation wey dey cure sleeping sickness, enter Congo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingman |first=Jack |year=1994 |title=Arthur Lewis Piper, M.D.: A Medical Missionary in the Belgian Congo |journal=Journal of Community Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/BF02260364 |pmid=8006209 |s2cid=37502216}}</ref> Di health-care system dey grow well well during colonial time, with plenty hospital beds dey available for di people, plus dem set up dispensaries for far away places. By 1960, di country get beta medical structure wey pass any other African nation for dat time. Belgian Congo get 3,000 health facilities, wey 380 be hospitals. Dem get 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 people (1 for every 187 people). Dem make huge progress for di fight against endemic diseases; dem report sleeping sickness cases drop from 34,000 in 1931 to just 1,100 in 1959, mainly because dem clear tsetse fly for where plenty people dey. All Europeans plus Congolese wey dey for Belgian Congo do dem vaccine for polio, measles and yellow fever. Big big disease prevention programs dem start, wey dem wan make polio, leprosy and tuberculosis no dey again. For primary schools, dem run disease prevention campaigns, and dem include disease prevention class for curriculum too.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319" /> ===== Social inequality den racial discrimination ===== [[File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|thumb|Dem dey pull one woman wey be missionary inside rickshaw by some Congolese guys, around 1920 to 1930.]] Di Belgia Congo get system wey dey separate people based on race an dem dey discriminate too.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Krauzman|first=Marine|date=2025-03-11|title=Belgium's Colonial Past on Trial: What the 2024 Ruling Means for Reparational Justice|url=http://spheresofinfluence.ca/belgiums-colonial-past-on-trial-what-the-2024-ruling-means-for-reparational-justice/|access-date=2025-06-26|website=Spheres of Influence|language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-29|title=Belgian Congo {{!}} History & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgian-Congo|access-date=2025-06-26|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Dem get wetin dem call 'implicit apartheid'. Di colony put curfew for Congolese wey dey live for city, an plenty racial wahala dey happen. Léopoldville get di racist curfew wey e famous for, an dem use am as template for other European colonies like French Equatorial Africa wey dey close by.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Njoh |first1=Ambe J. |date=March 2008 |title=Colonial Philosophies, Urban Space, and Racial Segregation in British and French Colonial Africa |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Black Studies]] |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=579–599 |doi=10.1177/0021934706288447 |s2cid=145775865 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228161615/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref> Even though dem no get proper laws wey dey separate people by race, segregation dey happen plenty for many places. For example, at first, de city centers be only for white people, while black people dey stay for places dem dey call 'cités indigènes' or 'le belge'. Hospitals, shop dem and other places no dey allow both whites and blacks to mix. For Force Publique, black people no fit rise pass non-commissioned officer rank. Plus, black folks for the cities no fit come out from 9 pm to 4 am. Dis kind segregation start dey vanish small-small only for 1950s, but even then, de Congolese dem still dey feel like second-class citizens, especially for politics and law matter. [[File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|right|thumb|King [[:en:Albert_I_of_Belgium|Albert I]] plus Queen [[:en:Elisabeth_of_Bavaria,_Queen_of_the_Belgians|Elisabeth]] inspecting de military camp of Léopoldville for de time of demma visit to de Belgian Congo, 1928]] Sekof dem dey connect ekonomi growth with di 'civilizing mission', plus as state officials, missionaries plus private companies dey always help each other, people don sabi sey Belgian Congo dey ruled by one 'colonial trinity' of King-Church-Capital. Dis one fit mean di colonial state, di Christian missions, plus Société Générale de Belgique too. Di way wey colonial policy take dey work, e get one saying wey Governor-General Pierre Ryckmans (1934–46) use: Dominer pour servir ('Dominate to serve').<ref>Vanderlinden, Jacques (1994), ''Pierre Ryckmans 1891–1959, Coloniser dans l'honneur'', Brussels: De Boeck.</ref> Di colonial government wan make wey see am say dem dey nice plus no wahala for di administration, plus dem wan show Belgian Congo as di perfect colony. But na only for di 1950s e start change. For di 1950s, dem dey gradually draw back dem plenty harsh laws dem use punish di Congolese people (like di chicote wey be whip). From 1953, plus di big visit wey King Baudouin make to di colony for 1955, Governor-General Léon Pétillon (1952–1958) start dey try build one 'Belgian-Congolese community', where black plus white go dey equal.<ref>Pétillon, L. A. M. (1967), ''Témoignage et réflexions'', Brussels: Renaissance du Livre.</ref> But still, di anti-miscegenation laws no clear, and from 1959 to 1962, plenty mixed-race Congolese pikin dem dey carry come out from Congo by Belgian government plus Catholic Church go Belgium.<ref>{{cite web|last=Paravicini|first=Giulia|date=4 April 2019|title=Belgium apologizes for colonial-era abduction of mixed-race children|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711005737/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|archive-date=11 July 2019|access-date=10 July 2019|publisher=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> For 1957, dem do first municipal elections wey black voters fit vote for some big cities — Léopoldville, Élisabethville, plus Jadotville. ===== Abolition of slavery ===== For Congo Free State, plenty men, women, and pikin dem free from Swahili Arab slave owners and traders for Eastern Congo between 1886 and 1892. Dem fit join militai (Force Publique) or dem go give am to local chiefs wey be friends, and dem go use dem as workers. Even though dem ban chattel slavery for 1910 when Belgian Congo start, dem still dey use prisoners as forced laborers for public den private projects.<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 40</ref> == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] mbk3jzczfuq5r757sg4vakyu6t0svbz 69039 69038 2025-07-05T17:31:08Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 I don add de header 'Resistance' 69039 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== [[File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Minière_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|right|thumb|Nurses of de [[:en:Union_Minière_du_Haut-Katanga|Union Minière du Haut-Katanga]] plus demma Congolese assistants, [[:en:Lubumbashi|Élisabethville]], 1918]] Health care too dey supported by missions, but colonial state wan show interest small. For 1906, dem start Institute of Tropical Medicine for Brussels. This ITM dey among di top places wey train and do research for tropical medicine and how health care dey work for developing countries. Dem fit clear endemic sickness like sleeping sickness well well with serious campaigns.<ref>A critical assessment of the colonial obsession with sleeping sickness in: Lyons, Maryinez (1992), ''The Colonial Disease, A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> For 1925, medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper be di first person wey carry tryparsamide, di drug from Rockefeller Foundation wey dey cure sleeping sickness, enter Congo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingman |first=Jack |year=1994 |title=Arthur Lewis Piper, M.D.: A Medical Missionary in the Belgian Congo |journal=Journal of Community Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/BF02260364 |pmid=8006209 |s2cid=37502216}}</ref> Di health-care system dey grow well well during colonial time, with plenty hospital beds dey available for di people, plus dem set up dispensaries for far away places. By 1960, di country get beta medical structure wey pass any other African nation for dat time. Belgian Congo get 3,000 health facilities, wey 380 be hospitals. Dem get 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 people (1 for every 187 people). Dem make huge progress for di fight against endemic diseases; dem report sleeping sickness cases drop from 34,000 in 1931 to just 1,100 in 1959, mainly because dem clear tsetse fly for where plenty people dey. All Europeans plus Congolese wey dey for Belgian Congo do dem vaccine for polio, measles and yellow fever. Big big disease prevention programs dem start, wey dem wan make polio, leprosy and tuberculosis no dey again. For primary schools, dem run disease prevention campaigns, and dem include disease prevention class for curriculum too.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319" /> ===== Social inequality den racial discrimination ===== [[File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|thumb|Dem dey pull one woman wey be missionary inside rickshaw by some Congolese guys, around 1920 to 1930.]] Di Belgia Congo get system wey dey separate people based on race an dem dey discriminate too.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Krauzman|first=Marine|date=2025-03-11|title=Belgium's Colonial Past on Trial: What the 2024 Ruling Means for Reparational Justice|url=http://spheresofinfluence.ca/belgiums-colonial-past-on-trial-what-the-2024-ruling-means-for-reparational-justice/|access-date=2025-06-26|website=Spheres of Influence|language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-29|title=Belgian Congo {{!}} History & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgian-Congo|access-date=2025-06-26|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Dem get wetin dem call 'implicit apartheid'. Di colony put curfew for Congolese wey dey live for city, an plenty racial wahala dey happen. Léopoldville get di racist curfew wey e famous for, an dem use am as template for other European colonies like French Equatorial Africa wey dey close by.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Njoh |first1=Ambe J. |date=March 2008 |title=Colonial Philosophies, Urban Space, and Racial Segregation in British and French Colonial Africa |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Black Studies]] |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=579–599 |doi=10.1177/0021934706288447 |s2cid=145775865 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228161615/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref> Even though dem no get proper laws wey dey separate people by race, segregation dey happen plenty for many places. For example, at first, de city centers be only for white people, while black people dey stay for places dem dey call 'cités indigènes' or 'le belge'. Hospitals, shop dem and other places no dey allow both whites and blacks to mix. For Force Publique, black people no fit rise pass non-commissioned officer rank. Plus, black folks for the cities no fit come out from 9 pm to 4 am. Dis kind segregation start dey vanish small-small only for 1950s, but even then, de Congolese dem still dey feel like second-class citizens, especially for politics and law matter. [[File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|right|thumb|King [[:en:Albert_I_of_Belgium|Albert I]] plus Queen [[:en:Elisabeth_of_Bavaria,_Queen_of_the_Belgians|Elisabeth]] inspecting de military camp of Léopoldville for de time of demma visit to de Belgian Congo, 1928]] Sekof dem dey connect ekonomi growth with di 'civilizing mission', plus as state officials, missionaries plus private companies dey always help each other, people don sabi sey Belgian Congo dey ruled by one 'colonial trinity' of King-Church-Capital. Dis one fit mean di colonial state, di Christian missions, plus Société Générale de Belgique too. Di way wey colonial policy take dey work, e get one saying wey Governor-General Pierre Ryckmans (1934–46) use: Dominer pour servir ('Dominate to serve').<ref>Vanderlinden, Jacques (1994), ''Pierre Ryckmans 1891–1959, Coloniser dans l'honneur'', Brussels: De Boeck.</ref> Di colonial government wan make wey see am say dem dey nice plus no wahala for di administration, plus dem wan show Belgian Congo as di perfect colony. But na only for di 1950s e start change. For di 1950s, dem dey gradually draw back dem plenty harsh laws dem use punish di Congolese people (like di chicote wey be whip). From 1953, plus di big visit wey King Baudouin make to di colony for 1955, Governor-General Léon Pétillon (1952–1958) start dey try build one 'Belgian-Congolese community', where black plus white go dey equal.<ref>Pétillon, L. A. M. (1967), ''Témoignage et réflexions'', Brussels: Renaissance du Livre.</ref> But still, di anti-miscegenation laws no clear, and from 1959 to 1962, plenty mixed-race Congolese pikin dem dey carry come out from Congo by Belgian government plus Catholic Church go Belgium.<ref>{{cite web|last=Paravicini|first=Giulia|date=4 April 2019|title=Belgium apologizes for colonial-era abduction of mixed-race children|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711005737/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|archive-date=11 July 2019|access-date=10 July 2019|publisher=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> For 1957, dem do first municipal elections wey black voters fit vote for some big cities — Léopoldville, Élisabethville, plus Jadotville. ===== Abolition of slavery ===== For Congo Free State, plenty men, women, and pikin dem free from Swahili Arab slave owners and traders for Eastern Congo between 1886 and 1892. Dem fit join militai (Force Publique) or dem go give am to local chiefs wey be friends, and dem go use dem as workers. Even though dem ban chattel slavery for 1910 when Belgian Congo start, dem still dey use prisoners as forced laborers for public den private projects.<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 40</ref> == Resistance == == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] 8af0bt2uitru6ygcq413e9iahp494il 69043 69039 2025-07-05T18:11:24Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Resistance */ 69043 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== [[File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Minière_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|right|thumb|Nurses of de [[:en:Union_Minière_du_Haut-Katanga|Union Minière du Haut-Katanga]] plus demma Congolese assistants, [[:en:Lubumbashi|Élisabethville]], 1918]] Health care too dey supported by missions, but colonial state wan show interest small. For 1906, dem start Institute of Tropical Medicine for Brussels. This ITM dey among di top places wey train and do research for tropical medicine and how health care dey work for developing countries. Dem fit clear endemic sickness like sleeping sickness well well with serious campaigns.<ref>A critical assessment of the colonial obsession with sleeping sickness in: Lyons, Maryinez (1992), ''The Colonial Disease, A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> For 1925, medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper be di first person wey carry tryparsamide, di drug from Rockefeller Foundation wey dey cure sleeping sickness, enter Congo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingman |first=Jack |year=1994 |title=Arthur Lewis Piper, M.D.: A Medical Missionary in the Belgian Congo |journal=Journal of Community Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/BF02260364 |pmid=8006209 |s2cid=37502216}}</ref> Di health-care system dey grow well well during colonial time, with plenty hospital beds dey available for di people, plus dem set up dispensaries for far away places. By 1960, di country get beta medical structure wey pass any other African nation for dat time. Belgian Congo get 3,000 health facilities, wey 380 be hospitals. Dem get 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 people (1 for every 187 people). Dem make huge progress for di fight against endemic diseases; dem report sleeping sickness cases drop from 34,000 in 1931 to just 1,100 in 1959, mainly because dem clear tsetse fly for where plenty people dey. All Europeans plus Congolese wey dey for Belgian Congo do dem vaccine for polio, measles and yellow fever. Big big disease prevention programs dem start, wey dem wan make polio, leprosy and tuberculosis no dey again. For primary schools, dem run disease prevention campaigns, and dem include disease prevention class for curriculum too.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319" /> ===== Social inequality den racial discrimination ===== [[File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|thumb|Dem dey pull one woman wey be missionary inside rickshaw by some Congolese guys, around 1920 to 1930.]] Di Belgia Congo get system wey dey separate people based on race an dem dey discriminate too.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Krauzman|first=Marine|date=2025-03-11|title=Belgium's Colonial Past on Trial: What the 2024 Ruling Means for Reparational Justice|url=http://spheresofinfluence.ca/belgiums-colonial-past-on-trial-what-the-2024-ruling-means-for-reparational-justice/|access-date=2025-06-26|website=Spheres of Influence|language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-29|title=Belgian Congo {{!}} History & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgian-Congo|access-date=2025-06-26|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Dem get wetin dem call 'implicit apartheid'. Di colony put curfew for Congolese wey dey live for city, an plenty racial wahala dey happen. Léopoldville get di racist curfew wey e famous for, an dem use am as template for other European colonies like French Equatorial Africa wey dey close by.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Njoh |first1=Ambe J. |date=March 2008 |title=Colonial Philosophies, Urban Space, and Racial Segregation in British and French Colonial Africa |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Black Studies]] |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=579–599 |doi=10.1177/0021934706288447 |s2cid=145775865 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228161615/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref> Even though dem no get proper laws wey dey separate people by race, segregation dey happen plenty for many places. For example, at first, de city centers be only for white people, while black people dey stay for places dem dey call 'cités indigènes' or 'le belge'. Hospitals, shop dem and other places no dey allow both whites and blacks to mix. For Force Publique, black people no fit rise pass non-commissioned officer rank. Plus, black folks for the cities no fit come out from 9 pm to 4 am. Dis kind segregation start dey vanish small-small only for 1950s, but even then, de Congolese dem still dey feel like second-class citizens, especially for politics and law matter. [[File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|right|thumb|King [[:en:Albert_I_of_Belgium|Albert I]] plus Queen [[:en:Elisabeth_of_Bavaria,_Queen_of_the_Belgians|Elisabeth]] inspecting de military camp of Léopoldville for de time of demma visit to de Belgian Congo, 1928]] Sekof dem dey connect ekonomi growth with di 'civilizing mission', plus as state officials, missionaries plus private companies dey always help each other, people don sabi sey Belgian Congo dey ruled by one 'colonial trinity' of King-Church-Capital. Dis one fit mean di colonial state, di Christian missions, plus Société Générale de Belgique too. Di way wey colonial policy take dey work, e get one saying wey Governor-General Pierre Ryckmans (1934–46) use: Dominer pour servir ('Dominate to serve').<ref>Vanderlinden, Jacques (1994), ''Pierre Ryckmans 1891–1959, Coloniser dans l'honneur'', Brussels: De Boeck.</ref> Di colonial government wan make wey see am say dem dey nice plus no wahala for di administration, plus dem wan show Belgian Congo as di perfect colony. But na only for di 1950s e start change. For di 1950s, dem dey gradually draw back dem plenty harsh laws dem use punish di Congolese people (like di chicote wey be whip). From 1953, plus di big visit wey King Baudouin make to di colony for 1955, Governor-General Léon Pétillon (1952–1958) start dey try build one 'Belgian-Congolese community', where black plus white go dey equal.<ref>Pétillon, L. A. M. (1967), ''Témoignage et réflexions'', Brussels: Renaissance du Livre.</ref> But still, di anti-miscegenation laws no clear, and from 1959 to 1962, plenty mixed-race Congolese pikin dem dey carry come out from Congo by Belgian government plus Catholic Church go Belgium.<ref>{{cite web|last=Paravicini|first=Giulia|date=4 April 2019|title=Belgium apologizes for colonial-era abduction of mixed-race children|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711005737/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|archive-date=11 July 2019|access-date=10 July 2019|publisher=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> For 1957, dem do first municipal elections wey black voters fit vote for some big cities — Léopoldville, Élisabethville, plus Jadotville. ===== Abolition of slavery ===== For Congo Free State, plenty men, women, and pikin dem free from Swahili Arab slave owners and traders for Eastern Congo between 1886 and 1892. Dem fit join militai (Force Publique) or dem go give am to local chiefs wey be friends, and dem go use dem as workers. Even though dem ban chattel slavery for 1910 when Belgian Congo start, dem still dey use prisoners as forced laborers for public den private projects.<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 40</ref> == Resistance == Di Congolese dem no gree colonization; dem dey fight am steady, e come take many shapes. As modern ideas and education dey enter ground, e dey spark plenty action.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> Armed wahala show for small-small parts till Second World War finish (like Pende wahala for 1931, and di gbagbe for Luluabourg 1944). After di war till late 1950s, wetin dem dey call 'Pax belgica' go dey. But e no mean say dem no dey resist; passive resistance dey plenty too, like Kimbanguism wey be from di ‘prophet’ Simon Kimbangu wey di Belgians lock up. == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] g99av7vrkfx7i58pskcp26z44gsp4i5 69046 69043 2025-07-05T18:15:10Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Resistance */ 69046 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== [[File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Minière_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|right|thumb|Nurses of de [[:en:Union_Minière_du_Haut-Katanga|Union Minière du Haut-Katanga]] plus demma Congolese assistants, [[:en:Lubumbashi|Élisabethville]], 1918]] Health care too dey supported by missions, but colonial state wan show interest small. For 1906, dem start Institute of Tropical Medicine for Brussels. This ITM dey among di top places wey train and do research for tropical medicine and how health care dey work for developing countries. Dem fit clear endemic sickness like sleeping sickness well well with serious campaigns.<ref>A critical assessment of the colonial obsession with sleeping sickness in: Lyons, Maryinez (1992), ''The Colonial Disease, A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> For 1925, medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper be di first person wey carry tryparsamide, di drug from Rockefeller Foundation wey dey cure sleeping sickness, enter Congo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingman |first=Jack |year=1994 |title=Arthur Lewis Piper, M.D.: A Medical Missionary in the Belgian Congo |journal=Journal of Community Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/BF02260364 |pmid=8006209 |s2cid=37502216}}</ref> Di health-care system dey grow well well during colonial time, with plenty hospital beds dey available for di people, plus dem set up dispensaries for far away places. By 1960, di country get beta medical structure wey pass any other African nation for dat time. Belgian Congo get 3,000 health facilities, wey 380 be hospitals. Dem get 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 people (1 for every 187 people). Dem make huge progress for di fight against endemic diseases; dem report sleeping sickness cases drop from 34,000 in 1931 to just 1,100 in 1959, mainly because dem clear tsetse fly for where plenty people dey. All Europeans plus Congolese wey dey for Belgian Congo do dem vaccine for polio, measles and yellow fever. Big big disease prevention programs dem start, wey dem wan make polio, leprosy and tuberculosis no dey again. For primary schools, dem run disease prevention campaigns, and dem include disease prevention class for curriculum too.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319" /> ===== Social inequality den racial discrimination ===== [[File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|thumb|Dem dey pull one woman wey be missionary inside rickshaw by some Congolese guys, around 1920 to 1930.]] Di Belgia Congo get system wey dey separate people based on race an dem dey discriminate too.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Krauzman|first=Marine|date=2025-03-11|title=Belgium's Colonial Past on Trial: What the 2024 Ruling Means for Reparational Justice|url=http://spheresofinfluence.ca/belgiums-colonial-past-on-trial-what-the-2024-ruling-means-for-reparational-justice/|access-date=2025-06-26|website=Spheres of Influence|language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-29|title=Belgian Congo {{!}} History & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgian-Congo|access-date=2025-06-26|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Dem get wetin dem call 'implicit apartheid'. Di colony put curfew for Congolese wey dey live for city, an plenty racial wahala dey happen. Léopoldville get di racist curfew wey e famous for, an dem use am as template for other European colonies like French Equatorial Africa wey dey close by.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Njoh |first1=Ambe J. |date=March 2008 |title=Colonial Philosophies, Urban Space, and Racial Segregation in British and French Colonial Africa |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Black Studies]] |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=579–599 |doi=10.1177/0021934706288447 |s2cid=145775865 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228161615/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref> Even though dem no get proper laws wey dey separate people by race, segregation dey happen plenty for many places. For example, at first, de city centers be only for white people, while black people dey stay for places dem dey call 'cités indigènes' or 'le belge'. Hospitals, shop dem and other places no dey allow both whites and blacks to mix. For Force Publique, black people no fit rise pass non-commissioned officer rank. Plus, black folks for the cities no fit come out from 9 pm to 4 am. Dis kind segregation start dey vanish small-small only for 1950s, but even then, de Congolese dem still dey feel like second-class citizens, especially for politics and law matter. [[File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|right|thumb|King [[:en:Albert_I_of_Belgium|Albert I]] plus Queen [[:en:Elisabeth_of_Bavaria,_Queen_of_the_Belgians|Elisabeth]] inspecting de military camp of Léopoldville for de time of demma visit to de Belgian Congo, 1928]] Sekof dem dey connect ekonomi growth with di 'civilizing mission', plus as state officials, missionaries plus private companies dey always help each other, people don sabi sey Belgian Congo dey ruled by one 'colonial trinity' of King-Church-Capital. Dis one fit mean di colonial state, di Christian missions, plus Société Générale de Belgique too. Di way wey colonial policy take dey work, e get one saying wey Governor-General Pierre Ryckmans (1934–46) use: Dominer pour servir ('Dominate to serve').<ref>Vanderlinden, Jacques (1994), ''Pierre Ryckmans 1891–1959, Coloniser dans l'honneur'', Brussels: De Boeck.</ref> Di colonial government wan make wey see am say dem dey nice plus no wahala for di administration, plus dem wan show Belgian Congo as di perfect colony. But na only for di 1950s e start change. For di 1950s, dem dey gradually draw back dem plenty harsh laws dem use punish di Congolese people (like di chicote wey be whip). From 1953, plus di big visit wey King Baudouin make to di colony for 1955, Governor-General Léon Pétillon (1952–1958) start dey try build one 'Belgian-Congolese community', where black plus white go dey equal.<ref>Pétillon, L. A. M. (1967), ''Témoignage et réflexions'', Brussels: Renaissance du Livre.</ref> But still, di anti-miscegenation laws no clear, and from 1959 to 1962, plenty mixed-race Congolese pikin dem dey carry come out from Congo by Belgian government plus Catholic Church go Belgium.<ref>{{cite web|last=Paravicini|first=Giulia|date=4 April 2019|title=Belgium apologizes for colonial-era abduction of mixed-race children|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711005737/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|archive-date=11 July 2019|access-date=10 July 2019|publisher=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> For 1957, dem do first municipal elections wey black voters fit vote for some big cities — Léopoldville, Élisabethville, plus Jadotville. ===== Abolition of slavery ===== For Congo Free State, plenty men, women, and pikin dem free from Swahili Arab slave owners and traders for Eastern Congo between 1886 and 1892. Dem fit join militai (Force Publique) or dem go give am to local chiefs wey be friends, and dem go use dem as workers. Even though dem ban chattel slavery for 1910 when Belgian Congo start, dem still dey use prisoners as forced laborers for public den private projects.<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 40</ref> == Resistance == Di Congolese dem no gree colonization; dem dey fight am steady, e come take many shapes. As modern ideas and education dey enter ground, e dey spark plenty action.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> Armed wahala show for small-small parts till Second World War finish (like Pende wahala for 1931, and di gbagbe for Luluabourg 1944). After di war till late 1950s, wetin dem dey call 'Pax belgica' go dey. But e no mean say dem no dey resist; passive resistance dey plenty too, like Kimbanguism wey be from di ‘prophet’ Simon Kimbangu wey di Belgians lock up. Aside active and passive wahala wey Congolese dey raise, di colonial government still dey hear plenty internal noise and gbege. Even for di 1920s, some people for Colonial Council wey dey for Brussels (like Octave Louwers) don talk plenty about di harsh way big companies dey recruit people for di mining places. Di slow growth for population for many areas—abi even wey dem dey chop plenty success for fight against sick sick like sleeping sickness—na another wahala wey dey worry dem. Low birth rate for countryside and some places dey empty usually link to di way traditional life don scatter because of forced work migration and compulsory farming. Dem dey talk say na wetin dem plan be dat, and dem dey point out how population dey increase for cities and how health plus lifespan don better thanks to modern medicine and better living condition.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hunt|first1=Nancy Rose|date=2002|title=Rewriting the Soul in Colonial Congo: Flemish Missionaries and Infertility|url=https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040613132330/https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|archive-date=2004-06-13|website=Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|publisher=Antwerp University Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|language=en}}</ref> Plenty missionaries wey dey connect with Congolese villagers dey carry dem wahala for heart plus sometimes dem dey fit intervene for dem matter with di colonial administration (like land property questions). == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] 0ohb4bvpd1565pbwsjmw939t7ljzdnw 69048 69046 2025-07-05T18:16:55Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Resistance */ 69048 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== [[File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Minière_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|right|thumb|Nurses of de [[:en:Union_Minière_du_Haut-Katanga|Union Minière du Haut-Katanga]] plus demma Congolese assistants, [[:en:Lubumbashi|Élisabethville]], 1918]] Health care too dey supported by missions, but colonial state wan show interest small. For 1906, dem start Institute of Tropical Medicine for Brussels. This ITM dey among di top places wey train and do research for tropical medicine and how health care dey work for developing countries. Dem fit clear endemic sickness like sleeping sickness well well with serious campaigns.<ref>A critical assessment of the colonial obsession with sleeping sickness in: Lyons, Maryinez (1992), ''The Colonial Disease, A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> For 1925, medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper be di first person wey carry tryparsamide, di drug from Rockefeller Foundation wey dey cure sleeping sickness, enter Congo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingman |first=Jack |year=1994 |title=Arthur Lewis Piper, M.D.: A Medical Missionary in the Belgian Congo |journal=Journal of Community Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/BF02260364 |pmid=8006209 |s2cid=37502216}}</ref> Di health-care system dey grow well well during colonial time, with plenty hospital beds dey available for di people, plus dem set up dispensaries for far away places. By 1960, di country get beta medical structure wey pass any other African nation for dat time. Belgian Congo get 3,000 health facilities, wey 380 be hospitals. Dem get 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 people (1 for every 187 people). Dem make huge progress for di fight against endemic diseases; dem report sleeping sickness cases drop from 34,000 in 1931 to just 1,100 in 1959, mainly because dem clear tsetse fly for where plenty people dey. All Europeans plus Congolese wey dey for Belgian Congo do dem vaccine for polio, measles and yellow fever. Big big disease prevention programs dem start, wey dem wan make polio, leprosy and tuberculosis no dey again. For primary schools, dem run disease prevention campaigns, and dem include disease prevention class for curriculum too.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319" /> ===== Social inequality den racial discrimination ===== [[File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|thumb|Dem dey pull one woman wey be missionary inside rickshaw by some Congolese guys, around 1920 to 1930.]] Di Belgia Congo get system wey dey separate people based on race an dem dey discriminate too.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Krauzman|first=Marine|date=2025-03-11|title=Belgium's Colonial Past on Trial: What the 2024 Ruling Means for Reparational Justice|url=http://spheresofinfluence.ca/belgiums-colonial-past-on-trial-what-the-2024-ruling-means-for-reparational-justice/|access-date=2025-06-26|website=Spheres of Influence|language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-29|title=Belgian Congo {{!}} History & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgian-Congo|access-date=2025-06-26|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Dem get wetin dem call 'implicit apartheid'. Di colony put curfew for Congolese wey dey live for city, an plenty racial wahala dey happen. Léopoldville get di racist curfew wey e famous for, an dem use am as template for other European colonies like French Equatorial Africa wey dey close by.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Njoh |first1=Ambe J. |date=March 2008 |title=Colonial Philosophies, Urban Space, and Racial Segregation in British and French Colonial Africa |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Black Studies]] |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=579–599 |doi=10.1177/0021934706288447 |s2cid=145775865 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228161615/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref> Even though dem no get proper laws wey dey separate people by race, segregation dey happen plenty for many places. For example, at first, de city centers be only for white people, while black people dey stay for places dem dey call 'cités indigènes' or 'le belge'. Hospitals, shop dem and other places no dey allow both whites and blacks to mix. For Force Publique, black people no fit rise pass non-commissioned officer rank. Plus, black folks for the cities no fit come out from 9 pm to 4 am. Dis kind segregation start dey vanish small-small only for 1950s, but even then, de Congolese dem still dey feel like second-class citizens, especially for politics and law matter. [[File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|right|thumb|King [[:en:Albert_I_of_Belgium|Albert I]] plus Queen [[:en:Elisabeth_of_Bavaria,_Queen_of_the_Belgians|Elisabeth]] inspecting de military camp of Léopoldville for de time of demma visit to de Belgian Congo, 1928]] Sekof dem dey connect ekonomi growth with di 'civilizing mission', plus as state officials, missionaries plus private companies dey always help each other, people don sabi sey Belgian Congo dey ruled by one 'colonial trinity' of King-Church-Capital. Dis one fit mean di colonial state, di Christian missions, plus Société Générale de Belgique too. Di way wey colonial policy take dey work, e get one saying wey Governor-General Pierre Ryckmans (1934–46) use: Dominer pour servir ('Dominate to serve').<ref>Vanderlinden, Jacques (1994), ''Pierre Ryckmans 1891–1959, Coloniser dans l'honneur'', Brussels: De Boeck.</ref> Di colonial government wan make wey see am say dem dey nice plus no wahala for di administration, plus dem wan show Belgian Congo as di perfect colony. But na only for di 1950s e start change. For di 1950s, dem dey gradually draw back dem plenty harsh laws dem use punish di Congolese people (like di chicote wey be whip). From 1953, plus di big visit wey King Baudouin make to di colony for 1955, Governor-General Léon Pétillon (1952–1958) start dey try build one 'Belgian-Congolese community', where black plus white go dey equal.<ref>Pétillon, L. A. M. (1967), ''Témoignage et réflexions'', Brussels: Renaissance du Livre.</ref> But still, di anti-miscegenation laws no clear, and from 1959 to 1962, plenty mixed-race Congolese pikin dem dey carry come out from Congo by Belgian government plus Catholic Church go Belgium.<ref>{{cite web|last=Paravicini|first=Giulia|date=4 April 2019|title=Belgium apologizes for colonial-era abduction of mixed-race children|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711005737/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|archive-date=11 July 2019|access-date=10 July 2019|publisher=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> For 1957, dem do first municipal elections wey black voters fit vote for some big cities — Léopoldville, Élisabethville, plus Jadotville. ===== Abolition of slavery ===== For Congo Free State, plenty men, women, and pikin dem free from Swahili Arab slave owners and traders for Eastern Congo between 1886 and 1892. Dem fit join militai (Force Publique) or dem go give am to local chiefs wey be friends, and dem go use dem as workers. Even though dem ban chattel slavery for 1910 when Belgian Congo start, dem still dey use prisoners as forced laborers for public den private projects.<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 40</ref> == Resistance == Di Congolese dem no gree colonization; dem dey fight am steady, e come take many shapes. As modern ideas and education dey enter ground, e dey spark plenty action.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> Armed wahala show for small-small parts till Second World War finish (like Pende wahala for 1931, and di gbagbe for Luluabourg 1944). After di war till late 1950s, wetin dem dey call 'Pax belgica' go dey. But e no mean say dem no dey resist; passive resistance dey plenty too, like Kimbanguism wey be from di ‘prophet’ Simon Kimbangu wey di Belgians lock up. Aside active and passive wahala wey Congolese dey raise, di colonial government still dey hear plenty internal noise and gbege. Even for di 1920s, some people for Colonial Council wey dey for Brussels (like Octave Louwers) don talk plenty about di harsh way big companies dey recruit people for di mining places. Di slow growth for population for many areas—abi even wey dem dey chop plenty success for fight against sick sick like sleeping sickness—na another wahala wey dey worry dem. Low birth rate for countryside and some places dey empty usually link to di way traditional life don scatter because of forced work migration and compulsory farming. Dem dey talk say na wetin dem plan be dat, and dem dey point out how population dey increase for cities and how health plus lifespan don better thanks to modern medicine and better living condition.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hunt|first1=Nancy Rose|date=2002|title=Rewriting the Soul in Colonial Congo: Flemish Missionaries and Infertility|url=https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040613132330/https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|archive-date=2004-06-13|website=Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|publisher=Antwerp University Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|language=en}}</ref> Plenty missionaries wey dey connect with Congolese villagers dey carry dem wahala for heart plus sometimes dem dey fit intervene for dem matter with di colonial administration (like land property questions). Di missions plus some area administrators dem fit play big role for study and protect Congolese culture and language tradition plus di artifacts wey dey there. One good example na Father Gustaaf Hulstaert (1900–1990), wey insyde 1937 start di periodical Aequatoria wey dem dey use for di linguistic, ethnographic plus historical study of di Mongo people for di central Congo basin.<ref>See: aequatoria.be</ref> Di colonial state dey interested for di cultural and scientific study of Congo, especially after di Second World War, through di setup of di Institut pour la Recherche Scientifique en Afrique Centrale (IRSAC, 1948). == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] 2ztraettlbpir9qo0npr5h8e4f4e7iz 69052 69048 2025-07-05T18:20:41Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 I don add de header 'Toward independence' 69052 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== [[File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Minière_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|right|thumb|Nurses of de [[:en:Union_Minière_du_Haut-Katanga|Union Minière du Haut-Katanga]] plus demma Congolese assistants, [[:en:Lubumbashi|Élisabethville]], 1918]] Health care too dey supported by missions, but colonial state wan show interest small. For 1906, dem start Institute of Tropical Medicine for Brussels. This ITM dey among di top places wey train and do research for tropical medicine and how health care dey work for developing countries. Dem fit clear endemic sickness like sleeping sickness well well with serious campaigns.<ref>A critical assessment of the colonial obsession with sleeping sickness in: Lyons, Maryinez (1992), ''The Colonial Disease, A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> For 1925, medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper be di first person wey carry tryparsamide, di drug from Rockefeller Foundation wey dey cure sleeping sickness, enter Congo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingman |first=Jack |year=1994 |title=Arthur Lewis Piper, M.D.: A Medical Missionary in the Belgian Congo |journal=Journal of Community Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/BF02260364 |pmid=8006209 |s2cid=37502216}}</ref> Di health-care system dey grow well well during colonial time, with plenty hospital beds dey available for di people, plus dem set up dispensaries for far away places. By 1960, di country get beta medical structure wey pass any other African nation for dat time. Belgian Congo get 3,000 health facilities, wey 380 be hospitals. Dem get 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 people (1 for every 187 people). Dem make huge progress for di fight against endemic diseases; dem report sleeping sickness cases drop from 34,000 in 1931 to just 1,100 in 1959, mainly because dem clear tsetse fly for where plenty people dey. All Europeans plus Congolese wey dey for Belgian Congo do dem vaccine for polio, measles and yellow fever. Big big disease prevention programs dem start, wey dem wan make polio, leprosy and tuberculosis no dey again. For primary schools, dem run disease prevention campaigns, and dem include disease prevention class for curriculum too.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319" /> ===== Social inequality den racial discrimination ===== [[File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|thumb|Dem dey pull one woman wey be missionary inside rickshaw by some Congolese guys, around 1920 to 1930.]] Di Belgia Congo get system wey dey separate people based on race an dem dey discriminate too.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Krauzman|first=Marine|date=2025-03-11|title=Belgium's Colonial Past on Trial: What the 2024 Ruling Means for Reparational Justice|url=http://spheresofinfluence.ca/belgiums-colonial-past-on-trial-what-the-2024-ruling-means-for-reparational-justice/|access-date=2025-06-26|website=Spheres of Influence|language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-29|title=Belgian Congo {{!}} History & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgian-Congo|access-date=2025-06-26|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Dem get wetin dem call 'implicit apartheid'. Di colony put curfew for Congolese wey dey live for city, an plenty racial wahala dey happen. Léopoldville get di racist curfew wey e famous for, an dem use am as template for other European colonies like French Equatorial Africa wey dey close by.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Njoh |first1=Ambe J. |date=March 2008 |title=Colonial Philosophies, Urban Space, and Racial Segregation in British and French Colonial Africa |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Black Studies]] |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=579–599 |doi=10.1177/0021934706288447 |s2cid=145775865 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228161615/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref> Even though dem no get proper laws wey dey separate people by race, segregation dey happen plenty for many places. For example, at first, de city centers be only for white people, while black people dey stay for places dem dey call 'cités indigènes' or 'le belge'. Hospitals, shop dem and other places no dey allow both whites and blacks to mix. For Force Publique, black people no fit rise pass non-commissioned officer rank. Plus, black folks for the cities no fit come out from 9 pm to 4 am. Dis kind segregation start dey vanish small-small only for 1950s, but even then, de Congolese dem still dey feel like second-class citizens, especially for politics and law matter. [[File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|right|thumb|King [[:en:Albert_I_of_Belgium|Albert I]] plus Queen [[:en:Elisabeth_of_Bavaria,_Queen_of_the_Belgians|Elisabeth]] inspecting de military camp of Léopoldville for de time of demma visit to de Belgian Congo, 1928]] Sekof dem dey connect ekonomi growth with di 'civilizing mission', plus as state officials, missionaries plus private companies dey always help each other, people don sabi sey Belgian Congo dey ruled by one 'colonial trinity' of King-Church-Capital. Dis one fit mean di colonial state, di Christian missions, plus Société Générale de Belgique too. Di way wey colonial policy take dey work, e get one saying wey Governor-General Pierre Ryckmans (1934–46) use: Dominer pour servir ('Dominate to serve').<ref>Vanderlinden, Jacques (1994), ''Pierre Ryckmans 1891–1959, Coloniser dans l'honneur'', Brussels: De Boeck.</ref> Di colonial government wan make wey see am say dem dey nice plus no wahala for di administration, plus dem wan show Belgian Congo as di perfect colony. But na only for di 1950s e start change. For di 1950s, dem dey gradually draw back dem plenty harsh laws dem use punish di Congolese people (like di chicote wey be whip). From 1953, plus di big visit wey King Baudouin make to di colony for 1955, Governor-General Léon Pétillon (1952–1958) start dey try build one 'Belgian-Congolese community', where black plus white go dey equal.<ref>Pétillon, L. A. M. (1967), ''Témoignage et réflexions'', Brussels: Renaissance du Livre.</ref> But still, di anti-miscegenation laws no clear, and from 1959 to 1962, plenty mixed-race Congolese pikin dem dey carry come out from Congo by Belgian government plus Catholic Church go Belgium.<ref>{{cite web|last=Paravicini|first=Giulia|date=4 April 2019|title=Belgium apologizes for colonial-era abduction of mixed-race children|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711005737/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|archive-date=11 July 2019|access-date=10 July 2019|publisher=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> For 1957, dem do first municipal elections wey black voters fit vote for some big cities — Léopoldville, Élisabethville, plus Jadotville. ===== Abolition of slavery ===== For Congo Free State, plenty men, women, and pikin dem free from Swahili Arab slave owners and traders for Eastern Congo between 1886 and 1892. Dem fit join militai (Force Publique) or dem go give am to local chiefs wey be friends, and dem go use dem as workers. Even though dem ban chattel slavery for 1910 when Belgian Congo start, dem still dey use prisoners as forced laborers for public den private projects.<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 40</ref> == Resistance == Di Congolese dem no gree colonization; dem dey fight am steady, e come take many shapes. As modern ideas and education dey enter ground, e dey spark plenty action.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> Armed wahala show for small-small parts till Second World War finish (like Pende wahala for 1931, and di gbagbe for Luluabourg 1944). After di war till late 1950s, wetin dem dey call 'Pax belgica' go dey. But e no mean say dem no dey resist; passive resistance dey plenty too, like Kimbanguism wey be from di ‘prophet’ Simon Kimbangu wey di Belgians lock up. Aside active and passive wahala wey Congolese dey raise, di colonial government still dey hear plenty internal noise and gbege. Even for di 1920s, some people for Colonial Council wey dey for Brussels (like Octave Louwers) don talk plenty about di harsh way big companies dey recruit people for di mining places. Di slow growth for population for many areas—abi even wey dem dey chop plenty success for fight against sick sick like sleeping sickness—na another wahala wey dey worry dem. Low birth rate for countryside and some places dey empty usually link to di way traditional life don scatter because of forced work migration and compulsory farming. Dem dey talk say na wetin dem plan be dat, and dem dey point out how population dey increase for cities and how health plus lifespan don better thanks to modern medicine and better living condition.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hunt|first1=Nancy Rose|date=2002|title=Rewriting the Soul in Colonial Congo: Flemish Missionaries and Infertility|url=https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040613132330/https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|archive-date=2004-06-13|website=Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|publisher=Antwerp University Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|language=en}}</ref> Plenty missionaries wey dey connect with Congolese villagers dey carry dem wahala for heart plus sometimes dem dey fit intervene for dem matter with di colonial administration (like land property questions). Di missions plus some area administrators dem fit play big role for study and protect Congolese culture and language tradition plus di artifacts wey dey there. One good example na Father Gustaaf Hulstaert (1900–1990), wey insyde 1937 start di periodical Aequatoria wey dem dey use for di linguistic, ethnographic plus historical study of di Mongo people for di central Congo basin.<ref>See: aequatoria.be</ref> Di colonial state dey interested for di cultural and scientific study of Congo, especially after di Second World War, through di setup of di Institut pour la Recherche Scientifique en Afrique Centrale (IRSAC, 1948). == Toward independence == == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] ivrrc7ncmxche5844uua65l49r04dsy 69054 69052 2025-07-05T18:22:05Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Toward independence */ 69054 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== [[File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Minière_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|right|thumb|Nurses of de [[:en:Union_Minière_du_Haut-Katanga|Union Minière du Haut-Katanga]] plus demma Congolese assistants, [[:en:Lubumbashi|Élisabethville]], 1918]] Health care too dey supported by missions, but colonial state wan show interest small. For 1906, dem start Institute of Tropical Medicine for Brussels. This ITM dey among di top places wey train and do research for tropical medicine and how health care dey work for developing countries. Dem fit clear endemic sickness like sleeping sickness well well with serious campaigns.<ref>A critical assessment of the colonial obsession with sleeping sickness in: Lyons, Maryinez (1992), ''The Colonial Disease, A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> For 1925, medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper be di first person wey carry tryparsamide, di drug from Rockefeller Foundation wey dey cure sleeping sickness, enter Congo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingman |first=Jack |year=1994 |title=Arthur Lewis Piper, M.D.: A Medical Missionary in the Belgian Congo |journal=Journal of Community Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/BF02260364 |pmid=8006209 |s2cid=37502216}}</ref> Di health-care system dey grow well well during colonial time, with plenty hospital beds dey available for di people, plus dem set up dispensaries for far away places. By 1960, di country get beta medical structure wey pass any other African nation for dat time. Belgian Congo get 3,000 health facilities, wey 380 be hospitals. Dem get 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 people (1 for every 187 people). Dem make huge progress for di fight against endemic diseases; dem report sleeping sickness cases drop from 34,000 in 1931 to just 1,100 in 1959, mainly because dem clear tsetse fly for where plenty people dey. All Europeans plus Congolese wey dey for Belgian Congo do dem vaccine for polio, measles and yellow fever. Big big disease prevention programs dem start, wey dem wan make polio, leprosy and tuberculosis no dey again. For primary schools, dem run disease prevention campaigns, and dem include disease prevention class for curriculum too.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319" /> ===== Social inequality den racial discrimination ===== [[File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|thumb|Dem dey pull one woman wey be missionary inside rickshaw by some Congolese guys, around 1920 to 1930.]] Di Belgia Congo get system wey dey separate people based on race an dem dey discriminate too.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Krauzman|first=Marine|date=2025-03-11|title=Belgium's Colonial Past on Trial: What the 2024 Ruling Means for Reparational Justice|url=http://spheresofinfluence.ca/belgiums-colonial-past-on-trial-what-the-2024-ruling-means-for-reparational-justice/|access-date=2025-06-26|website=Spheres of Influence|language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-29|title=Belgian Congo {{!}} History & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgian-Congo|access-date=2025-06-26|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Dem get wetin dem call 'implicit apartheid'. Di colony put curfew for Congolese wey dey live for city, an plenty racial wahala dey happen. Léopoldville get di racist curfew wey e famous for, an dem use am as template for other European colonies like French Equatorial Africa wey dey close by.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Njoh |first1=Ambe J. |date=March 2008 |title=Colonial Philosophies, Urban Space, and Racial Segregation in British and French Colonial Africa |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Black Studies]] |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=579–599 |doi=10.1177/0021934706288447 |s2cid=145775865 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228161615/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref> Even though dem no get proper laws wey dey separate people by race, segregation dey happen plenty for many places. For example, at first, de city centers be only for white people, while black people dey stay for places dem dey call 'cités indigènes' or 'le belge'. Hospitals, shop dem and other places no dey allow both whites and blacks to mix. For Force Publique, black people no fit rise pass non-commissioned officer rank. Plus, black folks for the cities no fit come out from 9 pm to 4 am. Dis kind segregation start dey vanish small-small only for 1950s, but even then, de Congolese dem still dey feel like second-class citizens, especially for politics and law matter. [[File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|right|thumb|King [[:en:Albert_I_of_Belgium|Albert I]] plus Queen [[:en:Elisabeth_of_Bavaria,_Queen_of_the_Belgians|Elisabeth]] inspecting de military camp of Léopoldville for de time of demma visit to de Belgian Congo, 1928]] Sekof dem dey connect ekonomi growth with di 'civilizing mission', plus as state officials, missionaries plus private companies dey always help each other, people don sabi sey Belgian Congo dey ruled by one 'colonial trinity' of King-Church-Capital. Dis one fit mean di colonial state, di Christian missions, plus Société Générale de Belgique too. Di way wey colonial policy take dey work, e get one saying wey Governor-General Pierre Ryckmans (1934–46) use: Dominer pour servir ('Dominate to serve').<ref>Vanderlinden, Jacques (1994), ''Pierre Ryckmans 1891–1959, Coloniser dans l'honneur'', Brussels: De Boeck.</ref> Di colonial government wan make wey see am say dem dey nice plus no wahala for di administration, plus dem wan show Belgian Congo as di perfect colony. But na only for di 1950s e start change. For di 1950s, dem dey gradually draw back dem plenty harsh laws dem use punish di Congolese people (like di chicote wey be whip). From 1953, plus di big visit wey King Baudouin make to di colony for 1955, Governor-General Léon Pétillon (1952–1958) start dey try build one 'Belgian-Congolese community', where black plus white go dey equal.<ref>Pétillon, L. A. M. (1967), ''Témoignage et réflexions'', Brussels: Renaissance du Livre.</ref> But still, di anti-miscegenation laws no clear, and from 1959 to 1962, plenty mixed-race Congolese pikin dem dey carry come out from Congo by Belgian government plus Catholic Church go Belgium.<ref>{{cite web|last=Paravicini|first=Giulia|date=4 April 2019|title=Belgium apologizes for colonial-era abduction of mixed-race children|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711005737/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|archive-date=11 July 2019|access-date=10 July 2019|publisher=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> For 1957, dem do first municipal elections wey black voters fit vote for some big cities — Léopoldville, Élisabethville, plus Jadotville. ===== Abolition of slavery ===== For Congo Free State, plenty men, women, and pikin dem free from Swahili Arab slave owners and traders for Eastern Congo between 1886 and 1892. Dem fit join militai (Force Publique) or dem go give am to local chiefs wey be friends, and dem go use dem as workers. Even though dem ban chattel slavery for 1910 when Belgian Congo start, dem still dey use prisoners as forced laborers for public den private projects.<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 40</ref> == Resistance == Di Congolese dem no gree colonization; dem dey fight am steady, e come take many shapes. As modern ideas and education dey enter ground, e dey spark plenty action.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> Armed wahala show for small-small parts till Second World War finish (like Pende wahala for 1931, and di gbagbe for Luluabourg 1944). After di war till late 1950s, wetin dem dey call 'Pax belgica' go dey. But e no mean say dem no dey resist; passive resistance dey plenty too, like Kimbanguism wey be from di ‘prophet’ Simon Kimbangu wey di Belgians lock up. Aside active and passive wahala wey Congolese dey raise, di colonial government still dey hear plenty internal noise and gbege. Even for di 1920s, some people for Colonial Council wey dey for Brussels (like Octave Louwers) don talk plenty about di harsh way big companies dey recruit people for di mining places. Di slow growth for population for many areas—abi even wey dem dey chop plenty success for fight against sick sick like sleeping sickness—na another wahala wey dey worry dem. Low birth rate for countryside and some places dey empty usually link to di way traditional life don scatter because of forced work migration and compulsory farming. Dem dey talk say na wetin dem plan be dat, and dem dey point out how population dey increase for cities and how health plus lifespan don better thanks to modern medicine and better living condition.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hunt|first1=Nancy Rose|date=2002|title=Rewriting the Soul in Colonial Congo: Flemish Missionaries and Infertility|url=https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040613132330/https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|archive-date=2004-06-13|website=Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|publisher=Antwerp University Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|language=en}}</ref> Plenty missionaries wey dey connect with Congolese villagers dey carry dem wahala for heart plus sometimes dem dey fit intervene for dem matter with di colonial administration (like land property questions). Di missions plus some area administrators dem fit play big role for study and protect Congolese culture and language tradition plus di artifacts wey dey there. One good example na Father Gustaaf Hulstaert (1900–1990), wey insyde 1937 start di periodical Aequatoria wey dem dey use for di linguistic, ethnographic plus historical study of di Mongo people for di central Congo basin.<ref>See: aequatoria.be</ref> Di colonial state dey interested for di cultural and scientific study of Congo, especially after di Second World War, through di setup of di Institut pour la Recherche Scientifique en Afrique Centrale (IRSAC, 1948). == Toward independence == For early 1950s, di political freedom of di Congolese elites, no talk of di masses, e be like far dream. But e clear say Congo no fit dey far from di quick changes wey happen after di Second World War, wey scatter colonialism worldwide. Di independence wey di British, French, plus Dutch colonies for Asia get after 1945 no really change anything for Congo, but di pressure for Belgium from di United Nations don increase (just like all di other colonial powers). Belgium don agree to article 73 of di United Nations Charter wey talk about self-determination, plus di two superpowers dey pressure Belgium make dem change how dem dey run Congo; di Belgian government dey try hold body against wetin dem call 'interference' with dia colonial policy. == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] 3d17q317dxn9kkcatb0r28zhfs8k4sw 69058 69054 2025-07-05T18:24:37Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Toward independence */ 69058 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== [[File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Minière_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|right|thumb|Nurses of de [[:en:Union_Minière_du_Haut-Katanga|Union Minière du Haut-Katanga]] plus demma Congolese assistants, [[:en:Lubumbashi|Élisabethville]], 1918]] Health care too dey supported by missions, but colonial state wan show interest small. For 1906, dem start Institute of Tropical Medicine for Brussels. This ITM dey among di top places wey train and do research for tropical medicine and how health care dey work for developing countries. Dem fit clear endemic sickness like sleeping sickness well well with serious campaigns.<ref>A critical assessment of the colonial obsession with sleeping sickness in: Lyons, Maryinez (1992), ''The Colonial Disease, A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> For 1925, medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper be di first person wey carry tryparsamide, di drug from Rockefeller Foundation wey dey cure sleeping sickness, enter Congo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingman |first=Jack |year=1994 |title=Arthur Lewis Piper, M.D.: A Medical Missionary in the Belgian Congo |journal=Journal of Community Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/BF02260364 |pmid=8006209 |s2cid=37502216}}</ref> Di health-care system dey grow well well during colonial time, with plenty hospital beds dey available for di people, plus dem set up dispensaries for far away places. By 1960, di country get beta medical structure wey pass any other African nation for dat time. Belgian Congo get 3,000 health facilities, wey 380 be hospitals. Dem get 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 people (1 for every 187 people). Dem make huge progress for di fight against endemic diseases; dem report sleeping sickness cases drop from 34,000 in 1931 to just 1,100 in 1959, mainly because dem clear tsetse fly for where plenty people dey. All Europeans plus Congolese wey dey for Belgian Congo do dem vaccine for polio, measles and yellow fever. Big big disease prevention programs dem start, wey dem wan make polio, leprosy and tuberculosis no dey again. For primary schools, dem run disease prevention campaigns, and dem include disease prevention class for curriculum too.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319" /> ===== Social inequality den racial discrimination ===== [[File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|thumb|Dem dey pull one woman wey be missionary inside rickshaw by some Congolese guys, around 1920 to 1930.]] Di Belgia Congo get system wey dey separate people based on race an dem dey discriminate too.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Krauzman|first=Marine|date=2025-03-11|title=Belgium's Colonial Past on Trial: What the 2024 Ruling Means for Reparational Justice|url=http://spheresofinfluence.ca/belgiums-colonial-past-on-trial-what-the-2024-ruling-means-for-reparational-justice/|access-date=2025-06-26|website=Spheres of Influence|language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-29|title=Belgian Congo {{!}} History & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgian-Congo|access-date=2025-06-26|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Dem get wetin dem call 'implicit apartheid'. Di colony put curfew for Congolese wey dey live for city, an plenty racial wahala dey happen. Léopoldville get di racist curfew wey e famous for, an dem use am as template for other European colonies like French Equatorial Africa wey dey close by.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Njoh |first1=Ambe J. |date=March 2008 |title=Colonial Philosophies, Urban Space, and Racial Segregation in British and French Colonial Africa |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Black Studies]] |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=579–599 |doi=10.1177/0021934706288447 |s2cid=145775865 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228161615/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref> Even though dem no get proper laws wey dey separate people by race, segregation dey happen plenty for many places. For example, at first, de city centers be only for white people, while black people dey stay for places dem dey call 'cités indigènes' or 'le belge'. Hospitals, shop dem and other places no dey allow both whites and blacks to mix. For Force Publique, black people no fit rise pass non-commissioned officer rank. Plus, black folks for the cities no fit come out from 9 pm to 4 am. Dis kind segregation start dey vanish small-small only for 1950s, but even then, de Congolese dem still dey feel like second-class citizens, especially for politics and law matter. [[File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|right|thumb|King [[:en:Albert_I_of_Belgium|Albert I]] plus Queen [[:en:Elisabeth_of_Bavaria,_Queen_of_the_Belgians|Elisabeth]] inspecting de military camp of Léopoldville for de time of demma visit to de Belgian Congo, 1928]] Sekof dem dey connect ekonomi growth with di 'civilizing mission', plus as state officials, missionaries plus private companies dey always help each other, people don sabi sey Belgian Congo dey ruled by one 'colonial trinity' of King-Church-Capital. Dis one fit mean di colonial state, di Christian missions, plus Société Générale de Belgique too. Di way wey colonial policy take dey work, e get one saying wey Governor-General Pierre Ryckmans (1934–46) use: Dominer pour servir ('Dominate to serve').<ref>Vanderlinden, Jacques (1994), ''Pierre Ryckmans 1891–1959, Coloniser dans l'honneur'', Brussels: De Boeck.</ref> Di colonial government wan make wey see am say dem dey nice plus no wahala for di administration, plus dem wan show Belgian Congo as di perfect colony. But na only for di 1950s e start change. For di 1950s, dem dey gradually draw back dem plenty harsh laws dem use punish di Congolese people (like di chicote wey be whip). From 1953, plus di big visit wey King Baudouin make to di colony for 1955, Governor-General Léon Pétillon (1952–1958) start dey try build one 'Belgian-Congolese community', where black plus white go dey equal.<ref>Pétillon, L. A. M. (1967), ''Témoignage et réflexions'', Brussels: Renaissance du Livre.</ref> But still, di anti-miscegenation laws no clear, and from 1959 to 1962, plenty mixed-race Congolese pikin dem dey carry come out from Congo by Belgian government plus Catholic Church go Belgium.<ref>{{cite web|last=Paravicini|first=Giulia|date=4 April 2019|title=Belgium apologizes for colonial-era abduction of mixed-race children|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711005737/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|archive-date=11 July 2019|access-date=10 July 2019|publisher=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> For 1957, dem do first municipal elections wey black voters fit vote for some big cities — Léopoldville, Élisabethville, plus Jadotville. ===== Abolition of slavery ===== For Congo Free State, plenty men, women, and pikin dem free from Swahili Arab slave owners and traders for Eastern Congo between 1886 and 1892. Dem fit join militai (Force Publique) or dem go give am to local chiefs wey be friends, and dem go use dem as workers. Even though dem ban chattel slavery for 1910 when Belgian Congo start, dem still dey use prisoners as forced laborers for public den private projects.<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 40</ref> == Resistance == Di Congolese dem no gree colonization; dem dey fight am steady, e come take many shapes. As modern ideas and education dey enter ground, e dey spark plenty action.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> Armed wahala show for small-small parts till Second World War finish (like Pende wahala for 1931, and di gbagbe for Luluabourg 1944). After di war till late 1950s, wetin dem dey call 'Pax belgica' go dey. But e no mean say dem no dey resist; passive resistance dey plenty too, like Kimbanguism wey be from di ‘prophet’ Simon Kimbangu wey di Belgians lock up. Aside active and passive wahala wey Congolese dey raise, di colonial government still dey hear plenty internal noise and gbege. Even for di 1920s, some people for Colonial Council wey dey for Brussels (like Octave Louwers) don talk plenty about di harsh way big companies dey recruit people for di mining places. Di slow growth for population for many areas—abi even wey dem dey chop plenty success for fight against sick sick like sleeping sickness—na another wahala wey dey worry dem. Low birth rate for countryside and some places dey empty usually link to di way traditional life don scatter because of forced work migration and compulsory farming. Dem dey talk say na wetin dem plan be dat, and dem dey point out how population dey increase for cities and how health plus lifespan don better thanks to modern medicine and better living condition.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hunt|first1=Nancy Rose|date=2002|title=Rewriting the Soul in Colonial Congo: Flemish Missionaries and Infertility|url=https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040613132330/https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|archive-date=2004-06-13|website=Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|publisher=Antwerp University Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|language=en}}</ref> Plenty missionaries wey dey connect with Congolese villagers dey carry dem wahala for heart plus sometimes dem dey fit intervene for dem matter with di colonial administration (like land property questions). Di missions plus some area administrators dem fit play big role for study and protect Congolese culture and language tradition plus di artifacts wey dey there. One good example na Father Gustaaf Hulstaert (1900–1990), wey insyde 1937 start di periodical Aequatoria wey dem dey use for di linguistic, ethnographic plus historical study of di Mongo people for di central Congo basin.<ref>See: aequatoria.be</ref> Di colonial state dey interested for di cultural and scientific study of Congo, especially after di Second World War, through di setup of di Institut pour la Recherche Scientifique en Afrique Centrale (IRSAC, 1948). == Toward independence == For early 1950s, di political freedom of di Congolese elites, no talk of di masses, e be like far dream. But e clear say Congo no fit dey far from di quick changes wey happen after di Second World War, wey scatter colonialism worldwide. Di independence wey di British, French, plus Dutch colonies for Asia get after 1945 no really change anything for Congo, but di pressure for Belgium from di United Nations don increase (just like all di other colonial powers). Belgium don agree to article 73 of di United Nations Charter wey talk about self-determination, plus di two superpowers dey pressure Belgium make dem change how dem dey run Congo; di Belgian government dey try hold body against wetin dem call 'interference' with dia colonial policy. Colonial government dey talk how dem go make life beta for Congolese pipo. Since 1940s, dem don dey try small-small give some elite wey dem call évolués small civil rights, dem fit get small political power later. So, 'deserving' Congolese fit apply for proof of 'civil merit', or if dem fit do better, 'immatriculation' (registration), wey go show say dem don join European way of life. To get this status, applicant gats meet strict rules (like marry one wife, show good behavior, etc.) and dem go dey watch dem well well (wey de include house visits). Dis policy no work at all. For around mid-1950s, no be plenty Congolese wey don fit get di civil merit diploma or dem don get di 'immatriculation'. Di benefits wey dem dey talk say come with am—like equal legal status with di white folks—na mostly just talk, no be real. E dey make di évolués frustrated well well. When Governor-General Pétillon start dey talk say he go fit give di native people more civil rights, even voting, to create wetin he dey call 'Belgo-Congolese community', di people for Brussels no really send am, and some Belgians for Congo dey vex as dem dey fear for demma privilege.<ref>[[Isidore Ndaywel è Nziem|Ndaywel è Nziem]], Isidore (1998), ''Histoire générale du Congo'', Paris-Brussels: De Boeck & Larcier, pp. 456–63.</ref> == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] 38ey9wea2ecchl6trz5uyrlu02u0s2r 69060 69058 2025-07-05T18:26:46Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Toward independence */ 69060 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== [[File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Minière_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|right|thumb|Nurses of de [[:en:Union_Minière_du_Haut-Katanga|Union Minière du Haut-Katanga]] plus demma Congolese assistants, [[:en:Lubumbashi|Élisabethville]], 1918]] Health care too dey supported by missions, but colonial state wan show interest small. For 1906, dem start Institute of Tropical Medicine for Brussels. This ITM dey among di top places wey train and do research for tropical medicine and how health care dey work for developing countries. Dem fit clear endemic sickness like sleeping sickness well well with serious campaigns.<ref>A critical assessment of the colonial obsession with sleeping sickness in: Lyons, Maryinez (1992), ''The Colonial Disease, A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> For 1925, medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper be di first person wey carry tryparsamide, di drug from Rockefeller Foundation wey dey cure sleeping sickness, enter Congo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingman |first=Jack |year=1994 |title=Arthur Lewis Piper, M.D.: A Medical Missionary in the Belgian Congo |journal=Journal of Community Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/BF02260364 |pmid=8006209 |s2cid=37502216}}</ref> Di health-care system dey grow well well during colonial time, with plenty hospital beds dey available for di people, plus dem set up dispensaries for far away places. By 1960, di country get beta medical structure wey pass any other African nation for dat time. Belgian Congo get 3,000 health facilities, wey 380 be hospitals. Dem get 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 people (1 for every 187 people). Dem make huge progress for di fight against endemic diseases; dem report sleeping sickness cases drop from 34,000 in 1931 to just 1,100 in 1959, mainly because dem clear tsetse fly for where plenty people dey. All Europeans plus Congolese wey dey for Belgian Congo do dem vaccine for polio, measles and yellow fever. Big big disease prevention programs dem start, wey dem wan make polio, leprosy and tuberculosis no dey again. For primary schools, dem run disease prevention campaigns, and dem include disease prevention class for curriculum too.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319" /> ===== Social inequality den racial discrimination ===== [[File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|thumb|Dem dey pull one woman wey be missionary inside rickshaw by some Congolese guys, around 1920 to 1930.]] Di Belgia Congo get system wey dey separate people based on race an dem dey discriminate too.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Krauzman|first=Marine|date=2025-03-11|title=Belgium's Colonial Past on Trial: What the 2024 Ruling Means for Reparational Justice|url=http://spheresofinfluence.ca/belgiums-colonial-past-on-trial-what-the-2024-ruling-means-for-reparational-justice/|access-date=2025-06-26|website=Spheres of Influence|language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-29|title=Belgian Congo {{!}} History & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgian-Congo|access-date=2025-06-26|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Dem get wetin dem call 'implicit apartheid'. Di colony put curfew for Congolese wey dey live for city, an plenty racial wahala dey happen. Léopoldville get di racist curfew wey e famous for, an dem use am as template for other European colonies like French Equatorial Africa wey dey close by.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Njoh |first1=Ambe J. |date=March 2008 |title=Colonial Philosophies, Urban Space, and Racial Segregation in British and French Colonial Africa |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Black Studies]] |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=579–599 |doi=10.1177/0021934706288447 |s2cid=145775865 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228161615/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref> Even though dem no get proper laws wey dey separate people by race, segregation dey happen plenty for many places. For example, at first, de city centers be only for white people, while black people dey stay for places dem dey call 'cités indigènes' or 'le belge'. Hospitals, shop dem and other places no dey allow both whites and blacks to mix. For Force Publique, black people no fit rise pass non-commissioned officer rank. Plus, black folks for the cities no fit come out from 9 pm to 4 am. Dis kind segregation start dey vanish small-small only for 1950s, but even then, de Congolese dem still dey feel like second-class citizens, especially for politics and law matter. [[File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|right|thumb|King [[:en:Albert_I_of_Belgium|Albert I]] plus Queen [[:en:Elisabeth_of_Bavaria,_Queen_of_the_Belgians|Elisabeth]] inspecting de military camp of Léopoldville for de time of demma visit to de Belgian Congo, 1928]] Sekof dem dey connect ekonomi growth with di 'civilizing mission', plus as state officials, missionaries plus private companies dey always help each other, people don sabi sey Belgian Congo dey ruled by one 'colonial trinity' of King-Church-Capital. Dis one fit mean di colonial state, di Christian missions, plus Société Générale de Belgique too. Di way wey colonial policy take dey work, e get one saying wey Governor-General Pierre Ryckmans (1934–46) use: Dominer pour servir ('Dominate to serve').<ref>Vanderlinden, Jacques (1994), ''Pierre Ryckmans 1891–1959, Coloniser dans l'honneur'', Brussels: De Boeck.</ref> Di colonial government wan make wey see am say dem dey nice plus no wahala for di administration, plus dem wan show Belgian Congo as di perfect colony. But na only for di 1950s e start change. For di 1950s, dem dey gradually draw back dem plenty harsh laws dem use punish di Congolese people (like di chicote wey be whip). From 1953, plus di big visit wey King Baudouin make to di colony for 1955, Governor-General Léon Pétillon (1952–1958) start dey try build one 'Belgian-Congolese community', where black plus white go dey equal.<ref>Pétillon, L. A. M. (1967), ''Témoignage et réflexions'', Brussels: Renaissance du Livre.</ref> But still, di anti-miscegenation laws no clear, and from 1959 to 1962, plenty mixed-race Congolese pikin dem dey carry come out from Congo by Belgian government plus Catholic Church go Belgium.<ref>{{cite web|last=Paravicini|first=Giulia|date=4 April 2019|title=Belgium apologizes for colonial-era abduction of mixed-race children|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711005737/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|archive-date=11 July 2019|access-date=10 July 2019|publisher=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> For 1957, dem do first municipal elections wey black voters fit vote for some big cities — Léopoldville, Élisabethville, plus Jadotville. ===== Abolition of slavery ===== For Congo Free State, plenty men, women, and pikin dem free from Swahili Arab slave owners and traders for Eastern Congo between 1886 and 1892. Dem fit join militai (Force Publique) or dem go give am to local chiefs wey be friends, and dem go use dem as workers. Even though dem ban chattel slavery for 1910 when Belgian Congo start, dem still dey use prisoners as forced laborers for public den private projects.<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 40</ref> == Resistance == Di Congolese dem no gree colonization; dem dey fight am steady, e come take many shapes. As modern ideas and education dey enter ground, e dey spark plenty action.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> Armed wahala show for small-small parts till Second World War finish (like Pende wahala for 1931, and di gbagbe for Luluabourg 1944). After di war till late 1950s, wetin dem dey call 'Pax belgica' go dey. But e no mean say dem no dey resist; passive resistance dey plenty too, like Kimbanguism wey be from di ‘prophet’ Simon Kimbangu wey di Belgians lock up. Aside active and passive wahala wey Congolese dey raise, di colonial government still dey hear plenty internal noise and gbege. Even for di 1920s, some people for Colonial Council wey dey for Brussels (like Octave Louwers) don talk plenty about di harsh way big companies dey recruit people for di mining places. Di slow growth for population for many areas—abi even wey dem dey chop plenty success for fight against sick sick like sleeping sickness—na another wahala wey dey worry dem. Low birth rate for countryside and some places dey empty usually link to di way traditional life don scatter because of forced work migration and compulsory farming. Dem dey talk say na wetin dem plan be dat, and dem dey point out how population dey increase for cities and how health plus lifespan don better thanks to modern medicine and better living condition.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hunt|first1=Nancy Rose|date=2002|title=Rewriting the Soul in Colonial Congo: Flemish Missionaries and Infertility|url=https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040613132330/https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|archive-date=2004-06-13|website=Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|publisher=Antwerp University Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|language=en}}</ref> Plenty missionaries wey dey connect with Congolese villagers dey carry dem wahala for heart plus sometimes dem dey fit intervene for dem matter with di colonial administration (like land property questions). Di missions plus some area administrators dem fit play big role for study and protect Congolese culture and language tradition plus di artifacts wey dey there. One good example na Father Gustaaf Hulstaert (1900–1990), wey insyde 1937 start di periodical Aequatoria wey dem dey use for di linguistic, ethnographic plus historical study of di Mongo people for di central Congo basin.<ref>See: aequatoria.be</ref> Di colonial state dey interested for di cultural and scientific study of Congo, especially after di Second World War, through di setup of di Institut pour la Recherche Scientifique en Afrique Centrale (IRSAC, 1948). == Toward independence == For early 1950s, di political freedom of di Congolese elites, no talk of di masses, e be like far dream. But e clear say Congo no fit dey far from di quick changes wey happen after di Second World War, wey scatter colonialism worldwide. Di independence wey di British, French, plus Dutch colonies for Asia get after 1945 no really change anything for Congo, but di pressure for Belgium from di United Nations don increase (just like all di other colonial powers). Belgium don agree to article 73 of di United Nations Charter wey talk about self-determination, plus di two superpowers dey pressure Belgium make dem change how dem dey run Congo; di Belgian government dey try hold body against wetin dem call 'interference' with dia colonial policy. Colonial government dey talk how dem go make life beta for Congolese pipo. Since 1940s, dem don dey try small-small give some elite wey dem call évolués small civil rights, dem fit get small political power later. So, 'deserving' Congolese fit apply for proof of 'civil merit', or if dem fit do better, 'immatriculation' (registration), wey go show say dem don join European way of life. To get this status, applicant gats meet strict rules (like marry one wife, show good behavior, etc.) and dem go dey watch dem well well (wey de include house visits). Dis policy no work at all. For around mid-1950s, no be plenty Congolese wey don fit get di civil merit diploma or dem don get di 'immatriculation'. Di benefits wey dem dey talk say come with am—like equal legal status with di white folks—na mostly just talk, no be real. E dey make di évolués frustrated well well. When Governor-General Pétillon start dey talk say he go fit give di native people more civil rights, even voting, to create wetin he dey call 'Belgo-Congolese community', di people for Brussels no really send am, and some Belgians for Congo dey vex as dem dey fear for demma privilege.<ref>[[Isidore Ndaywel è Nziem|Ndaywel è Nziem]], Isidore (1998), ''Histoire générale du Congo'', Paris-Brussels: De Boeck & Larcier, pp. 456–63.</ref> E clear say Belgian government no get proper long-term plan for Congo matter. 'Colonial wahala' no dey trend for Belgium, as long as di colony dey shine and e dey quiet. But one person wey show concern na di young King Baudouin, wey take over from him papa, King Leopold III, for 1951, when dem force Leopold III to waka. Baudouin dey follow wetin dey happen for Belgian Congo well well. == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] t05f46utnw16nbvcjqzv01tohn48ud2 69066 69060 2025-07-05T18:33:17Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Toward independence */ 69066 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== [[File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Minière_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|right|thumb|Nurses of de [[:en:Union_Minière_du_Haut-Katanga|Union Minière du Haut-Katanga]] plus demma Congolese assistants, [[:en:Lubumbashi|Élisabethville]], 1918]] Health care too dey supported by missions, but colonial state wan show interest small. For 1906, dem start Institute of Tropical Medicine for Brussels. This ITM dey among di top places wey train and do research for tropical medicine and how health care dey work for developing countries. Dem fit clear endemic sickness like sleeping sickness well well with serious campaigns.<ref>A critical assessment of the colonial obsession with sleeping sickness in: Lyons, Maryinez (1992), ''The Colonial Disease, A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> For 1925, medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper be di first person wey carry tryparsamide, di drug from Rockefeller Foundation wey dey cure sleeping sickness, enter Congo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingman |first=Jack |year=1994 |title=Arthur Lewis Piper, M.D.: A Medical Missionary in the Belgian Congo |journal=Journal of Community Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/BF02260364 |pmid=8006209 |s2cid=37502216}}</ref> Di health-care system dey grow well well during colonial time, with plenty hospital beds dey available for di people, plus dem set up dispensaries for far away places. By 1960, di country get beta medical structure wey pass any other African nation for dat time. Belgian Congo get 3,000 health facilities, wey 380 be hospitals. Dem get 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 people (1 for every 187 people). Dem make huge progress for di fight against endemic diseases; dem report sleeping sickness cases drop from 34,000 in 1931 to just 1,100 in 1959, mainly because dem clear tsetse fly for where plenty people dey. All Europeans plus Congolese wey dey for Belgian Congo do dem vaccine for polio, measles and yellow fever. Big big disease prevention programs dem start, wey dem wan make polio, leprosy and tuberculosis no dey again. For primary schools, dem run disease prevention campaigns, and dem include disease prevention class for curriculum too.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319" /> ===== Social inequality den racial discrimination ===== [[File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|thumb|Dem dey pull one woman wey be missionary inside rickshaw by some Congolese guys, around 1920 to 1930.]] Di Belgia Congo get system wey dey separate people based on race an dem dey discriminate too.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Krauzman|first=Marine|date=2025-03-11|title=Belgium's Colonial Past on Trial: What the 2024 Ruling Means for Reparational Justice|url=http://spheresofinfluence.ca/belgiums-colonial-past-on-trial-what-the-2024-ruling-means-for-reparational-justice/|access-date=2025-06-26|website=Spheres of Influence|language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-29|title=Belgian Congo {{!}} History & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgian-Congo|access-date=2025-06-26|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Dem get wetin dem call 'implicit apartheid'. Di colony put curfew for Congolese wey dey live for city, an plenty racial wahala dey happen. Léopoldville get di racist curfew wey e famous for, an dem use am as template for other European colonies like French Equatorial Africa wey dey close by.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Njoh |first1=Ambe J. |date=March 2008 |title=Colonial Philosophies, Urban Space, and Racial Segregation in British and French Colonial Africa |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Black Studies]] |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=579–599 |doi=10.1177/0021934706288447 |s2cid=145775865 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228161615/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref> Even though dem no get proper laws wey dey separate people by race, segregation dey happen plenty for many places. For example, at first, de city centers be only for white people, while black people dey stay for places dem dey call 'cités indigènes' or 'le belge'. Hospitals, shop dem and other places no dey allow both whites and blacks to mix. For Force Publique, black people no fit rise pass non-commissioned officer rank. Plus, black folks for the cities no fit come out from 9 pm to 4 am. Dis kind segregation start dey vanish small-small only for 1950s, but even then, de Congolese dem still dey feel like second-class citizens, especially for politics and law matter. [[File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|right|thumb|King [[:en:Albert_I_of_Belgium|Albert I]] plus Queen [[:en:Elisabeth_of_Bavaria,_Queen_of_the_Belgians|Elisabeth]] inspecting de military camp of Léopoldville for de time of demma visit to de Belgian Congo, 1928]] Sekof dem dey connect ekonomi growth with di 'civilizing mission', plus as state officials, missionaries plus private companies dey always help each other, people don sabi sey Belgian Congo dey ruled by one 'colonial trinity' of King-Church-Capital. Dis one fit mean di colonial state, di Christian missions, plus Société Générale de Belgique too. Di way wey colonial policy take dey work, e get one saying wey Governor-General Pierre Ryckmans (1934–46) use: Dominer pour servir ('Dominate to serve').<ref>Vanderlinden, Jacques (1994), ''Pierre Ryckmans 1891–1959, Coloniser dans l'honneur'', Brussels: De Boeck.</ref> Di colonial government wan make wey see am say dem dey nice plus no wahala for di administration, plus dem wan show Belgian Congo as di perfect colony. But na only for di 1950s e start change. For di 1950s, dem dey gradually draw back dem plenty harsh laws dem use punish di Congolese people (like di chicote wey be whip). From 1953, plus di big visit wey King Baudouin make to di colony for 1955, Governor-General Léon Pétillon (1952–1958) start dey try build one 'Belgian-Congolese community', where black plus white go dey equal.<ref>Pétillon, L. A. M. (1967), ''Témoignage et réflexions'', Brussels: Renaissance du Livre.</ref> But still, di anti-miscegenation laws no clear, and from 1959 to 1962, plenty mixed-race Congolese pikin dem dey carry come out from Congo by Belgian government plus Catholic Church go Belgium.<ref>{{cite web|last=Paravicini|first=Giulia|date=4 April 2019|title=Belgium apologizes for colonial-era abduction of mixed-race children|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711005737/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|archive-date=11 July 2019|access-date=10 July 2019|publisher=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> For 1957, dem do first municipal elections wey black voters fit vote for some big cities — Léopoldville, Élisabethville, plus Jadotville. ===== Abolition of slavery ===== For Congo Free State, plenty men, women, and pikin dem free from Swahili Arab slave owners and traders for Eastern Congo between 1886 and 1892. Dem fit join militai (Force Publique) or dem go give am to local chiefs wey be friends, and dem go use dem as workers. Even though dem ban chattel slavery for 1910 when Belgian Congo start, dem still dey use prisoners as forced laborers for public den private projects.<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 40</ref> == Resistance == Di Congolese dem no gree colonization; dem dey fight am steady, e come take many shapes. As modern ideas and education dey enter ground, e dey spark plenty action.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> Armed wahala show for small-small parts till Second World War finish (like Pende wahala for 1931, and di gbagbe for Luluabourg 1944). After di war till late 1950s, wetin dem dey call 'Pax belgica' go dey. But e no mean say dem no dey resist; passive resistance dey plenty too, like Kimbanguism wey be from di ‘prophet’ Simon Kimbangu wey di Belgians lock up. Aside active and passive wahala wey Congolese dey raise, di colonial government still dey hear plenty internal noise and gbege. Even for di 1920s, some people for Colonial Council wey dey for Brussels (like Octave Louwers) don talk plenty about di harsh way big companies dey recruit people for di mining places. Di slow growth for population for many areas—abi even wey dem dey chop plenty success for fight against sick sick like sleeping sickness—na another wahala wey dey worry dem. Low birth rate for countryside and some places dey empty usually link to di way traditional life don scatter because of forced work migration and compulsory farming. Dem dey talk say na wetin dem plan be dat, and dem dey point out how population dey increase for cities and how health plus lifespan don better thanks to modern medicine and better living condition.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hunt|first1=Nancy Rose|date=2002|title=Rewriting the Soul in Colonial Congo: Flemish Missionaries and Infertility|url=https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040613132330/https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|archive-date=2004-06-13|website=Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|publisher=Antwerp University Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|language=en}}</ref> Plenty missionaries wey dey connect with Congolese villagers dey carry dem wahala for heart plus sometimes dem dey fit intervene for dem matter with di colonial administration (like land property questions). Di missions plus some area administrators dem fit play big role for study and protect Congolese culture and language tradition plus di artifacts wey dey there. One good example na Father Gustaaf Hulstaert (1900–1990), wey insyde 1937 start di periodical Aequatoria wey dem dey use for di linguistic, ethnographic plus historical study of di Mongo people for di central Congo basin.<ref>See: aequatoria.be</ref> Di colonial state dey interested for di cultural and scientific study of Congo, especially after di Second World War, through di setup of di Institut pour la Recherche Scientifique en Afrique Centrale (IRSAC, 1948). == Toward independence == For early 1950s, di political freedom of di Congolese elites, no talk of di masses, e be like far dream. But e clear say Congo no fit dey far from di quick changes wey happen after di Second World War, wey scatter colonialism worldwide. Di independence wey di British, French, plus Dutch colonies for Asia get after 1945 no really change anything for Congo, but di pressure for Belgium from di United Nations don increase (just like all di other colonial powers). Belgium don agree to article 73 of di United Nations Charter wey talk about self-determination, plus di two superpowers dey pressure Belgium make dem change how dem dey run Congo; di Belgian government dey try hold body against wetin dem call 'interference' with dia colonial policy. Colonial government dey talk how dem go make life beta for Congolese pipo. Since 1940s, dem don dey try small-small give some elite wey dem call évolués small civil rights, dem fit get small political power later. So, 'deserving' Congolese fit apply for proof of 'civil merit', or if dem fit do better, 'immatriculation' (registration), wey go show say dem don join European way of life. To get this status, applicant gats meet strict rules (like marry one wife, show good behavior, etc.) and dem go dey watch dem well well (wey de include house visits). Dis policy no work at all. For around mid-1950s, no be plenty Congolese wey don fit get di civil merit diploma or dem don get di 'immatriculation'. Di benefits wey dem dey talk say come with am—like equal legal status with di white folks—na mostly just talk, no be real. E dey make di évolués frustrated well well. When Governor-General Pétillon start dey talk say he go fit give di native people more civil rights, even voting, to create wetin he dey call 'Belgo-Congolese community', di people for Brussels no really send am, and some Belgians for Congo dey vex as dem dey fear for demma privilege.<ref>[[Isidore Ndaywel è Nziem|Ndaywel è Nziem]], Isidore (1998), ''Histoire générale du Congo'', Paris-Brussels: De Boeck & Larcier, pp. 456–63.</ref> E clear say Belgian government no get proper long-term plan for Congo matter. 'Colonial wahala' no dey trend for Belgium, as long as di colony dey shine and e dey quiet. But one person wey show concern na di young King Baudouin, wey take over from him papa, King Leopold III, for 1951, when dem force Leopold III to waka. Baudouin dey follow wetin dey happen for Belgian Congo well well. Wen King Baudouin come visit Belgian Congo for de first time for 1955, crowd dey cheer am well-well, both whites and blacks dey dance, like as dem show for André Cauvin documentary, Bwana Kitoko.<ref>{{cite book|last=Raspoet|first=Erik|title=Bwana Kitoko en de koning van de Bakuba|publisher=Meulenhoff/Manteau|year=2005|isbn=90-8542-020-2}}</ref> Foreign people wey dey observe, suc as de international correspondent of ''The Manchester Guardian'' or a ''Time'' journalist,<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|title=Congo: Boom in the Jungle|date=16 May 1955|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=28 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028201856/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=May 16, 1955|title=CONGO: Boom in the Jungle|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=28 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828025115/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> talk say Belgian paddy paddy style dey work well, and dey compare how Belgian people dem loyal pass those French and British colonies wey dey restless. During di visit, King Baudouin carry Governor-General idea of 'Belgo-Congolese community' come front; but for real, dis plan dey move slow. At di same time, dem wahala wey dey divide for Belgium, wey dem fit hide from di colony before, start to enter Congo too. == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] gvh8yk59gkaf7t26c03nl5dmw2p2kke 69067 69066 2025-07-05T18:34:32Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Toward independence */ 69067 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== [[File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Minière_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|right|thumb|Nurses of de [[:en:Union_Minière_du_Haut-Katanga|Union Minière du Haut-Katanga]] plus demma Congolese assistants, [[:en:Lubumbashi|Élisabethville]], 1918]] Health care too dey supported by missions, but colonial state wan show interest small. For 1906, dem start Institute of Tropical Medicine for Brussels. This ITM dey among di top places wey train and do research for tropical medicine and how health care dey work for developing countries. Dem fit clear endemic sickness like sleeping sickness well well with serious campaigns.<ref>A critical assessment of the colonial obsession with sleeping sickness in: Lyons, Maryinez (1992), ''The Colonial Disease, A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> For 1925, medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper be di first person wey carry tryparsamide, di drug from Rockefeller Foundation wey dey cure sleeping sickness, enter Congo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingman |first=Jack |year=1994 |title=Arthur Lewis Piper, M.D.: A Medical Missionary in the Belgian Congo |journal=Journal of Community Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/BF02260364 |pmid=8006209 |s2cid=37502216}}</ref> Di health-care system dey grow well well during colonial time, with plenty hospital beds dey available for di people, plus dem set up dispensaries for far away places. By 1960, di country get beta medical structure wey pass any other African nation for dat time. Belgian Congo get 3,000 health facilities, wey 380 be hospitals. Dem get 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 people (1 for every 187 people). Dem make huge progress for di fight against endemic diseases; dem report sleeping sickness cases drop from 34,000 in 1931 to just 1,100 in 1959, mainly because dem clear tsetse fly for where plenty people dey. All Europeans plus Congolese wey dey for Belgian Congo do dem vaccine for polio, measles and yellow fever. Big big disease prevention programs dem start, wey dem wan make polio, leprosy and tuberculosis no dey again. For primary schools, dem run disease prevention campaigns, and dem include disease prevention class for curriculum too.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319" /> ===== Social inequality den racial discrimination ===== [[File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|thumb|Dem dey pull one woman wey be missionary inside rickshaw by some Congolese guys, around 1920 to 1930.]] Di Belgia Congo get system wey dey separate people based on race an dem dey discriminate too.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Krauzman|first=Marine|date=2025-03-11|title=Belgium's Colonial Past on Trial: What the 2024 Ruling Means for Reparational Justice|url=http://spheresofinfluence.ca/belgiums-colonial-past-on-trial-what-the-2024-ruling-means-for-reparational-justice/|access-date=2025-06-26|website=Spheres of Influence|language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-29|title=Belgian Congo {{!}} History & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgian-Congo|access-date=2025-06-26|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Dem get wetin dem call 'implicit apartheid'. Di colony put curfew for Congolese wey dey live for city, an plenty racial wahala dey happen. Léopoldville get di racist curfew wey e famous for, an dem use am as template for other European colonies like French Equatorial Africa wey dey close by.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Njoh |first1=Ambe J. |date=March 2008 |title=Colonial Philosophies, Urban Space, and Racial Segregation in British and French Colonial Africa |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Black Studies]] |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=579–599 |doi=10.1177/0021934706288447 |s2cid=145775865 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228161615/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref> Even though dem no get proper laws wey dey separate people by race, segregation dey happen plenty for many places. For example, at first, de city centers be only for white people, while black people dey stay for places dem dey call 'cités indigènes' or 'le belge'. Hospitals, shop dem and other places no dey allow both whites and blacks to mix. For Force Publique, black people no fit rise pass non-commissioned officer rank. Plus, black folks for the cities no fit come out from 9 pm to 4 am. Dis kind segregation start dey vanish small-small only for 1950s, but even then, de Congolese dem still dey feel like second-class citizens, especially for politics and law matter. [[File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|right|thumb|King [[:en:Albert_I_of_Belgium|Albert I]] plus Queen [[:en:Elisabeth_of_Bavaria,_Queen_of_the_Belgians|Elisabeth]] inspecting de military camp of Léopoldville for de time of demma visit to de Belgian Congo, 1928]] Sekof dem dey connect ekonomi growth with di 'civilizing mission', plus as state officials, missionaries plus private companies dey always help each other, people don sabi sey Belgian Congo dey ruled by one 'colonial trinity' of King-Church-Capital. Dis one fit mean di colonial state, di Christian missions, plus Société Générale de Belgique too. Di way wey colonial policy take dey work, e get one saying wey Governor-General Pierre Ryckmans (1934–46) use: Dominer pour servir ('Dominate to serve').<ref>Vanderlinden, Jacques (1994), ''Pierre Ryckmans 1891–1959, Coloniser dans l'honneur'', Brussels: De Boeck.</ref> Di colonial government wan make wey see am say dem dey nice plus no wahala for di administration, plus dem wan show Belgian Congo as di perfect colony. But na only for di 1950s e start change. For di 1950s, dem dey gradually draw back dem plenty harsh laws dem use punish di Congolese people (like di chicote wey be whip). From 1953, plus di big visit wey King Baudouin make to di colony for 1955, Governor-General Léon Pétillon (1952–1958) start dey try build one 'Belgian-Congolese community', where black plus white go dey equal.<ref>Pétillon, L. A. M. (1967), ''Témoignage et réflexions'', Brussels: Renaissance du Livre.</ref> But still, di anti-miscegenation laws no clear, and from 1959 to 1962, plenty mixed-race Congolese pikin dem dey carry come out from Congo by Belgian government plus Catholic Church go Belgium.<ref>{{cite web|last=Paravicini|first=Giulia|date=4 April 2019|title=Belgium apologizes for colonial-era abduction of mixed-race children|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711005737/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|archive-date=11 July 2019|access-date=10 July 2019|publisher=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> For 1957, dem do first municipal elections wey black voters fit vote for some big cities — Léopoldville, Élisabethville, plus Jadotville. ===== Abolition of slavery ===== For Congo Free State, plenty men, women, and pikin dem free from Swahili Arab slave owners and traders for Eastern Congo between 1886 and 1892. Dem fit join militai (Force Publique) or dem go give am to local chiefs wey be friends, and dem go use dem as workers. Even though dem ban chattel slavery for 1910 when Belgian Congo start, dem still dey use prisoners as forced laborers for public den private projects.<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 40</ref> == Resistance == Di Congolese dem no gree colonization; dem dey fight am steady, e come take many shapes. As modern ideas and education dey enter ground, e dey spark plenty action.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> Armed wahala show for small-small parts till Second World War finish (like Pende wahala for 1931, and di gbagbe for Luluabourg 1944). After di war till late 1950s, wetin dem dey call 'Pax belgica' go dey. But e no mean say dem no dey resist; passive resistance dey plenty too, like Kimbanguism wey be from di ‘prophet’ Simon Kimbangu wey di Belgians lock up. Aside active and passive wahala wey Congolese dey raise, di colonial government still dey hear plenty internal noise and gbege. Even for di 1920s, some people for Colonial Council wey dey for Brussels (like Octave Louwers) don talk plenty about di harsh way big companies dey recruit people for di mining places. Di slow growth for population for many areas—abi even wey dem dey chop plenty success for fight against sick sick like sleeping sickness—na another wahala wey dey worry dem. Low birth rate for countryside and some places dey empty usually link to di way traditional life don scatter because of forced work migration and compulsory farming. Dem dey talk say na wetin dem plan be dat, and dem dey point out how population dey increase for cities and how health plus lifespan don better thanks to modern medicine and better living condition.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hunt|first1=Nancy Rose|date=2002|title=Rewriting the Soul in Colonial Congo: Flemish Missionaries and Infertility|url=https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040613132330/https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|archive-date=2004-06-13|website=Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|publisher=Antwerp University Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|language=en}}</ref> Plenty missionaries wey dey connect with Congolese villagers dey carry dem wahala for heart plus sometimes dem dey fit intervene for dem matter with di colonial administration (like land property questions). Di missions plus some area administrators dem fit play big role for study and protect Congolese culture and language tradition plus di artifacts wey dey there. One good example na Father Gustaaf Hulstaert (1900–1990), wey insyde 1937 start di periodical Aequatoria wey dem dey use for di linguistic, ethnographic plus historical study of di Mongo people for di central Congo basin.<ref>See: aequatoria.be</ref> Di colonial state dey interested for di cultural and scientific study of Congo, especially after di Second World War, through di setup of di Institut pour la Recherche Scientifique en Afrique Centrale (IRSAC, 1948). == Toward independence == For early 1950s, di political freedom of di Congolese elites, no talk of di masses, e be like far dream. But e clear say Congo no fit dey far from di quick changes wey happen after di Second World War, wey scatter colonialism worldwide. Di independence wey di British, French, plus Dutch colonies for Asia get after 1945 no really change anything for Congo, but di pressure for Belgium from di United Nations don increase (just like all di other colonial powers). Belgium don agree to article 73 of di United Nations Charter wey talk about self-determination, plus di two superpowers dey pressure Belgium make dem change how dem dey run Congo; di Belgian government dey try hold body against wetin dem call 'interference' with dia colonial policy. Colonial government dey talk how dem go make life beta for Congolese pipo. Since 1940s, dem don dey try small-small give some elite wey dem call évolués small civil rights, dem fit get small political power later. So, 'deserving' Congolese fit apply for proof of 'civil merit', or if dem fit do better, 'immatriculation' (registration), wey go show say dem don join European way of life. To get this status, applicant gats meet strict rules (like marry one wife, show good behavior, etc.) and dem go dey watch dem well well (wey de include house visits). Dis policy no work at all. For around mid-1950s, no be plenty Congolese wey don fit get di civil merit diploma or dem don get di 'immatriculation'. Di benefits wey dem dey talk say come with am—like equal legal status with di white folks—na mostly just talk, no be real. E dey make di évolués frustrated well well. When Governor-General Pétillon start dey talk say he go fit give di native people more civil rights, even voting, to create wetin he dey call 'Belgo-Congolese community', di people for Brussels no really send am, and some Belgians for Congo dey vex as dem dey fear for demma privilege.<ref>[[Isidore Ndaywel è Nziem|Ndaywel è Nziem]], Isidore (1998), ''Histoire générale du Congo'', Paris-Brussels: De Boeck & Larcier, pp. 456–63.</ref> E clear say Belgian government no get proper long-term plan for Congo matter. 'Colonial wahala' no dey trend for Belgium, as long as di colony dey shine and e dey quiet. But one person wey show concern na di young King Baudouin, wey take over from him papa, King Leopold III, for 1951, when dem force Leopold III to waka. Baudouin dey follow wetin dey happen for Belgian Congo well well. Wen King Baudouin come visit Belgian Congo for de first time for 1955, crowd dey cheer am well-well, both whites and blacks dey dance, like as dem show for André Cauvin documentary, Bwana Kitoko.<ref>{{cite book|last=Raspoet|first=Erik|title=Bwana Kitoko en de koning van de Bakuba|publisher=Meulenhoff/Manteau|year=2005|isbn=90-8542-020-2}}</ref> Foreign people wey dey observe, suc as de international correspondent of ''The Manchester Guardian'' or a ''Time'' journalist,<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|title=Congo: Boom in the Jungle|date=16 May 1955|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=28 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028201856/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=May 16, 1955|title=CONGO: Boom in the Jungle|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=28 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828025115/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> talk say Belgian paddy paddy style dey work well, and dey compare how Belgian people dem loyal pass those French and British colonies wey dey restless. During di visit, King Baudouin carry Governor-General idea of 'Belgo-Congolese community' come front; but for real, dis plan dey move slow. At di same time, dem wahala wey dey divide for Belgium, wey dem fit hide from di colony before, start to enter Congo too. Dem talk say workers dey unite more now, dem dey call make public schools fit break mission schools for education, plus dem wan make both Belgian languages, French and Dutch, sabi equal treatment for colony. Before this, na only French dem dey push as colonial language. Governor-General dey fear say dis kind wahala fit spoil di colonial government image for Congolese, plus e go shift focus from di real need for true emancipation. == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] rfhxi51dbtzw654cux4andiwx1wshws 69143 69067 2025-07-05T23:38:31Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 I don add de sub-header 'Political organisation' 69143 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== [[File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Minière_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|right|thumb|Nurses of de [[:en:Union_Minière_du_Haut-Katanga|Union Minière du Haut-Katanga]] plus demma Congolese assistants, [[:en:Lubumbashi|Élisabethville]], 1918]] Health care too dey supported by missions, but colonial state wan show interest small. For 1906, dem start Institute of Tropical Medicine for Brussels. This ITM dey among di top places wey train and do research for tropical medicine and how health care dey work for developing countries. Dem fit clear endemic sickness like sleeping sickness well well with serious campaigns.<ref>A critical assessment of the colonial obsession with sleeping sickness in: Lyons, Maryinez (1992), ''The Colonial Disease, A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> For 1925, medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper be di first person wey carry tryparsamide, di drug from Rockefeller Foundation wey dey cure sleeping sickness, enter Congo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingman |first=Jack |year=1994 |title=Arthur Lewis Piper, M.D.: A Medical Missionary in the Belgian Congo |journal=Journal of Community Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/BF02260364 |pmid=8006209 |s2cid=37502216}}</ref> Di health-care system dey grow well well during colonial time, with plenty hospital beds dey available for di people, plus dem set up dispensaries for far away places. By 1960, di country get beta medical structure wey pass any other African nation for dat time. Belgian Congo get 3,000 health facilities, wey 380 be hospitals. Dem get 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 people (1 for every 187 people). Dem make huge progress for di fight against endemic diseases; dem report sleeping sickness cases drop from 34,000 in 1931 to just 1,100 in 1959, mainly because dem clear tsetse fly for where plenty people dey. All Europeans plus Congolese wey dey for Belgian Congo do dem vaccine for polio, measles and yellow fever. Big big disease prevention programs dem start, wey dem wan make polio, leprosy and tuberculosis no dey again. For primary schools, dem run disease prevention campaigns, and dem include disease prevention class for curriculum too.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319" /> ===== Social inequality den racial discrimination ===== [[File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|thumb|Dem dey pull one woman wey be missionary inside rickshaw by some Congolese guys, around 1920 to 1930.]] Di Belgia Congo get system wey dey separate people based on race an dem dey discriminate too.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Krauzman|first=Marine|date=2025-03-11|title=Belgium's Colonial Past on Trial: What the 2024 Ruling Means for Reparational Justice|url=http://spheresofinfluence.ca/belgiums-colonial-past-on-trial-what-the-2024-ruling-means-for-reparational-justice/|access-date=2025-06-26|website=Spheres of Influence|language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-29|title=Belgian Congo {{!}} History & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgian-Congo|access-date=2025-06-26|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Dem get wetin dem call 'implicit apartheid'. Di colony put curfew for Congolese wey dey live for city, an plenty racial wahala dey happen. Léopoldville get di racist curfew wey e famous for, an dem use am as template for other European colonies like French Equatorial Africa wey dey close by.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Njoh |first1=Ambe J. |date=March 2008 |title=Colonial Philosophies, Urban Space, and Racial Segregation in British and French Colonial Africa |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Black Studies]] |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=579–599 |doi=10.1177/0021934706288447 |s2cid=145775865 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228161615/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref> Even though dem no get proper laws wey dey separate people by race, segregation dey happen plenty for many places. For example, at first, de city centers be only for white people, while black people dey stay for places dem dey call 'cités indigènes' or 'le belge'. Hospitals, shop dem and other places no dey allow both whites and blacks to mix. For Force Publique, black people no fit rise pass non-commissioned officer rank. Plus, black folks for the cities no fit come out from 9 pm to 4 am. Dis kind segregation start dey vanish small-small only for 1950s, but even then, de Congolese dem still dey feel like second-class citizens, especially for politics and law matter. [[File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|right|thumb|King [[:en:Albert_I_of_Belgium|Albert I]] plus Queen [[:en:Elisabeth_of_Bavaria,_Queen_of_the_Belgians|Elisabeth]] inspecting de military camp of Léopoldville for de time of demma visit to de Belgian Congo, 1928]] Sekof dem dey connect ekonomi growth with di 'civilizing mission', plus as state officials, missionaries plus private companies dey always help each other, people don sabi sey Belgian Congo dey ruled by one 'colonial trinity' of King-Church-Capital. Dis one fit mean di colonial state, di Christian missions, plus Société Générale de Belgique too. Di way wey colonial policy take dey work, e get one saying wey Governor-General Pierre Ryckmans (1934–46) use: Dominer pour servir ('Dominate to serve').<ref>Vanderlinden, Jacques (1994), ''Pierre Ryckmans 1891–1959, Coloniser dans l'honneur'', Brussels: De Boeck.</ref> Di colonial government wan make wey see am say dem dey nice plus no wahala for di administration, plus dem wan show Belgian Congo as di perfect colony. But na only for di 1950s e start change. For di 1950s, dem dey gradually draw back dem plenty harsh laws dem use punish di Congolese people (like di chicote wey be whip). From 1953, plus di big visit wey King Baudouin make to di colony for 1955, Governor-General Léon Pétillon (1952–1958) start dey try build one 'Belgian-Congolese community', where black plus white go dey equal.<ref>Pétillon, L. A. M. (1967), ''Témoignage et réflexions'', Brussels: Renaissance du Livre.</ref> But still, di anti-miscegenation laws no clear, and from 1959 to 1962, plenty mixed-race Congolese pikin dem dey carry come out from Congo by Belgian government plus Catholic Church go Belgium.<ref>{{cite web|last=Paravicini|first=Giulia|date=4 April 2019|title=Belgium apologizes for colonial-era abduction of mixed-race children|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711005737/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|archive-date=11 July 2019|access-date=10 July 2019|publisher=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> For 1957, dem do first municipal elections wey black voters fit vote for some big cities — Léopoldville, Élisabethville, plus Jadotville. ===== Abolition of slavery ===== For Congo Free State, plenty men, women, and pikin dem free from Swahili Arab slave owners and traders for Eastern Congo between 1886 and 1892. Dem fit join militai (Force Publique) or dem go give am to local chiefs wey be friends, and dem go use dem as workers. Even though dem ban chattel slavery for 1910 when Belgian Congo start, dem still dey use prisoners as forced laborers for public den private projects.<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 40</ref> == Resistance == Di Congolese dem no gree colonization; dem dey fight am steady, e come take many shapes. As modern ideas and education dey enter ground, e dey spark plenty action.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> Armed wahala show for small-small parts till Second World War finish (like Pende wahala for 1931, and di gbagbe for Luluabourg 1944). After di war till late 1950s, wetin dem dey call 'Pax belgica' go dey. But e no mean say dem no dey resist; passive resistance dey plenty too, like Kimbanguism wey be from di ‘prophet’ Simon Kimbangu wey di Belgians lock up. Aside active and passive wahala wey Congolese dey raise, di colonial government still dey hear plenty internal noise and gbege. Even for di 1920s, some people for Colonial Council wey dey for Brussels (like Octave Louwers) don talk plenty about di harsh way big companies dey recruit people for di mining places. Di slow growth for population for many areas—abi even wey dem dey chop plenty success for fight against sick sick like sleeping sickness—na another wahala wey dey worry dem. Low birth rate for countryside and some places dey empty usually link to di way traditional life don scatter because of forced work migration and compulsory farming. Dem dey talk say na wetin dem plan be dat, and dem dey point out how population dey increase for cities and how health plus lifespan don better thanks to modern medicine and better living condition.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hunt|first1=Nancy Rose|date=2002|title=Rewriting the Soul in Colonial Congo: Flemish Missionaries and Infertility|url=https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040613132330/https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|archive-date=2004-06-13|website=Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|publisher=Antwerp University Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|language=en}}</ref> Plenty missionaries wey dey connect with Congolese villagers dey carry dem wahala for heart plus sometimes dem dey fit intervene for dem matter with di colonial administration (like land property questions). Di missions plus some area administrators dem fit play big role for study and protect Congolese culture and language tradition plus di artifacts wey dey there. One good example na Father Gustaaf Hulstaert (1900–1990), wey insyde 1937 start di periodical Aequatoria wey dem dey use for di linguistic, ethnographic plus historical study of di Mongo people for di central Congo basin.<ref>See: aequatoria.be</ref> Di colonial state dey interested for di cultural and scientific study of Congo, especially after di Second World War, through di setup of di Institut pour la Recherche Scientifique en Afrique Centrale (IRSAC, 1948). == Toward independence == For early 1950s, di political freedom of di Congolese elites, no talk of di masses, e be like far dream. But e clear say Congo no fit dey far from di quick changes wey happen after di Second World War, wey scatter colonialism worldwide. Di independence wey di British, French, plus Dutch colonies for Asia get after 1945 no really change anything for Congo, but di pressure for Belgium from di United Nations don increase (just like all di other colonial powers). Belgium don agree to article 73 of di United Nations Charter wey talk about self-determination, plus di two superpowers dey pressure Belgium make dem change how dem dey run Congo; di Belgian government dey try hold body against wetin dem call 'interference' with dia colonial policy. Colonial government dey talk how dem go make life beta for Congolese pipo. Since 1940s, dem don dey try small-small give some elite wey dem call évolués small civil rights, dem fit get small political power later. So, 'deserving' Congolese fit apply for proof of 'civil merit', or if dem fit do better, 'immatriculation' (registration), wey go show say dem don join European way of life. To get this status, applicant gats meet strict rules (like marry one wife, show good behavior, etc.) and dem go dey watch dem well well (wey de include house visits). Dis policy no work at all. For around mid-1950s, no be plenty Congolese wey don fit get di civil merit diploma or dem don get di 'immatriculation'. Di benefits wey dem dey talk say come with am—like equal legal status with di white folks—na mostly just talk, no be real. E dey make di évolués frustrated well well. When Governor-General Pétillon start dey talk say he go fit give di native people more civil rights, even voting, to create wetin he dey call 'Belgo-Congolese community', di people for Brussels no really send am, and some Belgians for Congo dey vex as dem dey fear for demma privilege.<ref>[[Isidore Ndaywel è Nziem|Ndaywel è Nziem]], Isidore (1998), ''Histoire générale du Congo'', Paris-Brussels: De Boeck & Larcier, pp. 456–63.</ref> E clear say Belgian government no get proper long-term plan for Congo matter. 'Colonial wahala' no dey trend for Belgium, as long as di colony dey shine and e dey quiet. But one person wey show concern na di young King Baudouin, wey take over from him papa, King Leopold III, for 1951, when dem force Leopold III to waka. Baudouin dey follow wetin dey happen for Belgian Congo well well. Wen King Baudouin come visit Belgian Congo for de first time for 1955, crowd dey cheer am well-well, both whites and blacks dey dance, like as dem show for André Cauvin documentary, Bwana Kitoko.<ref>{{cite book|last=Raspoet|first=Erik|title=Bwana Kitoko en de koning van de Bakuba|publisher=Meulenhoff/Manteau|year=2005|isbn=90-8542-020-2}}</ref> Foreign people wey dey observe, suc as de international correspondent of ''The Manchester Guardian'' or a ''Time'' journalist,<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|title=Congo: Boom in the Jungle|date=16 May 1955|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=28 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028201856/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=May 16, 1955|title=CONGO: Boom in the Jungle|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=28 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828025115/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> talk say Belgian paddy paddy style dey work well, and dey compare how Belgian people dem loyal pass those French and British colonies wey dey restless. During di visit, King Baudouin carry Governor-General idea of 'Belgo-Congolese community' come front; but for real, dis plan dey move slow. At di same time, dem wahala wey dey divide for Belgium, wey dem fit hide from di colony before, start to enter Congo too. Dem talk say workers dey unite more now, dem dey call make public schools fit break mission schools for education, plus dem wan make both Belgian languages, French and Dutch, sabi equal treatment for colony. Before this, na only French dem dey push as colonial language. Governor-General dey fear say dis kind wahala fit spoil di colonial government image for Congolese, plus e go shift focus from di real need for true emancipation. ===== Political organisation ===== == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] ea8eor5ild5nyle4qulbqegtku9fv2x 69144 69143 2025-07-05T23:40:50Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Political organisation */ 69144 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== [[File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Minière_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|right|thumb|Nurses of de [[:en:Union_Minière_du_Haut-Katanga|Union Minière du Haut-Katanga]] plus demma Congolese assistants, [[:en:Lubumbashi|Élisabethville]], 1918]] Health care too dey supported by missions, but colonial state wan show interest small. For 1906, dem start Institute of Tropical Medicine for Brussels. This ITM dey among di top places wey train and do research for tropical medicine and how health care dey work for developing countries. Dem fit clear endemic sickness like sleeping sickness well well with serious campaigns.<ref>A critical assessment of the colonial obsession with sleeping sickness in: Lyons, Maryinez (1992), ''The Colonial Disease, A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> For 1925, medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper be di first person wey carry tryparsamide, di drug from Rockefeller Foundation wey dey cure sleeping sickness, enter Congo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingman |first=Jack |year=1994 |title=Arthur Lewis Piper, M.D.: A Medical Missionary in the Belgian Congo |journal=Journal of Community Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/BF02260364 |pmid=8006209 |s2cid=37502216}}</ref> Di health-care system dey grow well well during colonial time, with plenty hospital beds dey available for di people, plus dem set up dispensaries for far away places. By 1960, di country get beta medical structure wey pass any other African nation for dat time. Belgian Congo get 3,000 health facilities, wey 380 be hospitals. Dem get 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 people (1 for every 187 people). Dem make huge progress for di fight against endemic diseases; dem report sleeping sickness cases drop from 34,000 in 1931 to just 1,100 in 1959, mainly because dem clear tsetse fly for where plenty people dey. All Europeans plus Congolese wey dey for Belgian Congo do dem vaccine for polio, measles and yellow fever. Big big disease prevention programs dem start, wey dem wan make polio, leprosy and tuberculosis no dey again. For primary schools, dem run disease prevention campaigns, and dem include disease prevention class for curriculum too.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319" /> ===== Social inequality den racial discrimination ===== [[File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|thumb|Dem dey pull one woman wey be missionary inside rickshaw by some Congolese guys, around 1920 to 1930.]] Di Belgia Congo get system wey dey separate people based on race an dem dey discriminate too.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Krauzman|first=Marine|date=2025-03-11|title=Belgium's Colonial Past on Trial: What the 2024 Ruling Means for Reparational Justice|url=http://spheresofinfluence.ca/belgiums-colonial-past-on-trial-what-the-2024-ruling-means-for-reparational-justice/|access-date=2025-06-26|website=Spheres of Influence|language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-29|title=Belgian Congo {{!}} History & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgian-Congo|access-date=2025-06-26|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Dem get wetin dem call 'implicit apartheid'. Di colony put curfew for Congolese wey dey live for city, an plenty racial wahala dey happen. Léopoldville get di racist curfew wey e famous for, an dem use am as template for other European colonies like French Equatorial Africa wey dey close by.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Njoh |first1=Ambe J. |date=March 2008 |title=Colonial Philosophies, Urban Space, and Racial Segregation in British and French Colonial Africa |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Black Studies]] |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=579–599 |doi=10.1177/0021934706288447 |s2cid=145775865 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228161615/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref> Even though dem no get proper laws wey dey separate people by race, segregation dey happen plenty for many places. For example, at first, de city centers be only for white people, while black people dey stay for places dem dey call 'cités indigènes' or 'le belge'. Hospitals, shop dem and other places no dey allow both whites and blacks to mix. For Force Publique, black people no fit rise pass non-commissioned officer rank. Plus, black folks for the cities no fit come out from 9 pm to 4 am. Dis kind segregation start dey vanish small-small only for 1950s, but even then, de Congolese dem still dey feel like second-class citizens, especially for politics and law matter. [[File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|right|thumb|King [[:en:Albert_I_of_Belgium|Albert I]] plus Queen [[:en:Elisabeth_of_Bavaria,_Queen_of_the_Belgians|Elisabeth]] inspecting de military camp of Léopoldville for de time of demma visit to de Belgian Congo, 1928]] Sekof dem dey connect ekonomi growth with di 'civilizing mission', plus as state officials, missionaries plus private companies dey always help each other, people don sabi sey Belgian Congo dey ruled by one 'colonial trinity' of King-Church-Capital. Dis one fit mean di colonial state, di Christian missions, plus Société Générale de Belgique too. Di way wey colonial policy take dey work, e get one saying wey Governor-General Pierre Ryckmans (1934–46) use: Dominer pour servir ('Dominate to serve').<ref>Vanderlinden, Jacques (1994), ''Pierre Ryckmans 1891–1959, Coloniser dans l'honneur'', Brussels: De Boeck.</ref> Di colonial government wan make wey see am say dem dey nice plus no wahala for di administration, plus dem wan show Belgian Congo as di perfect colony. But na only for di 1950s e start change. For di 1950s, dem dey gradually draw back dem plenty harsh laws dem use punish di Congolese people (like di chicote wey be whip). From 1953, plus di big visit wey King Baudouin make to di colony for 1955, Governor-General Léon Pétillon (1952–1958) start dey try build one 'Belgian-Congolese community', where black plus white go dey equal.<ref>Pétillon, L. A. M. (1967), ''Témoignage et réflexions'', Brussels: Renaissance du Livre.</ref> But still, di anti-miscegenation laws no clear, and from 1959 to 1962, plenty mixed-race Congolese pikin dem dey carry come out from Congo by Belgian government plus Catholic Church go Belgium.<ref>{{cite web|last=Paravicini|first=Giulia|date=4 April 2019|title=Belgium apologizes for colonial-era abduction of mixed-race children|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711005737/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|archive-date=11 July 2019|access-date=10 July 2019|publisher=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> For 1957, dem do first municipal elections wey black voters fit vote for some big cities — Léopoldville, Élisabethville, plus Jadotville. ===== Abolition of slavery ===== For Congo Free State, plenty men, women, and pikin dem free from Swahili Arab slave owners and traders for Eastern Congo between 1886 and 1892. Dem fit join militai (Force Publique) or dem go give am to local chiefs wey be friends, and dem go use dem as workers. Even though dem ban chattel slavery for 1910 when Belgian Congo start, dem still dey use prisoners as forced laborers for public den private projects.<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 40</ref> == Resistance == Di Congolese dem no gree colonization; dem dey fight am steady, e come take many shapes. As modern ideas and education dey enter ground, e dey spark plenty action.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> Armed wahala show for small-small parts till Second World War finish (like Pende wahala for 1931, and di gbagbe for Luluabourg 1944). After di war till late 1950s, wetin dem dey call 'Pax belgica' go dey. But e no mean say dem no dey resist; passive resistance dey plenty too, like Kimbanguism wey be from di ‘prophet’ Simon Kimbangu wey di Belgians lock up. Aside active and passive wahala wey Congolese dey raise, di colonial government still dey hear plenty internal noise and gbege. Even for di 1920s, some people for Colonial Council wey dey for Brussels (like Octave Louwers) don talk plenty about di harsh way big companies dey recruit people for di mining places. Di slow growth for population for many areas—abi even wey dem dey chop plenty success for fight against sick sick like sleeping sickness—na another wahala wey dey worry dem. Low birth rate for countryside and some places dey empty usually link to di way traditional life don scatter because of forced work migration and compulsory farming. Dem dey talk say na wetin dem plan be dat, and dem dey point out how population dey increase for cities and how health plus lifespan don better thanks to modern medicine and better living condition.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hunt|first1=Nancy Rose|date=2002|title=Rewriting the Soul in Colonial Congo: Flemish Missionaries and Infertility|url=https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040613132330/https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|archive-date=2004-06-13|website=Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|publisher=Antwerp University Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|language=en}}</ref> Plenty missionaries wey dey connect with Congolese villagers dey carry dem wahala for heart plus sometimes dem dey fit intervene for dem matter with di colonial administration (like land property questions). Di missions plus some area administrators dem fit play big role for study and protect Congolese culture and language tradition plus di artifacts wey dey there. One good example na Father Gustaaf Hulstaert (1900–1990), wey insyde 1937 start di periodical Aequatoria wey dem dey use for di linguistic, ethnographic plus historical study of di Mongo people for di central Congo basin.<ref>See: aequatoria.be</ref> Di colonial state dey interested for di cultural and scientific study of Congo, especially after di Second World War, through di setup of di Institut pour la Recherche Scientifique en Afrique Centrale (IRSAC, 1948). == Toward independence == For early 1950s, di political freedom of di Congolese elites, no talk of di masses, e be like far dream. But e clear say Congo no fit dey far from di quick changes wey happen after di Second World War, wey scatter colonialism worldwide. Di independence wey di British, French, plus Dutch colonies for Asia get after 1945 no really change anything for Congo, but di pressure for Belgium from di United Nations don increase (just like all di other colonial powers). Belgium don agree to article 73 of di United Nations Charter wey talk about self-determination, plus di two superpowers dey pressure Belgium make dem change how dem dey run Congo; di Belgian government dey try hold body against wetin dem call 'interference' with dia colonial policy. Colonial government dey talk how dem go make life beta for Congolese pipo. Since 1940s, dem don dey try small-small give some elite wey dem call évolués small civil rights, dem fit get small political power later. So, 'deserving' Congolese fit apply for proof of 'civil merit', or if dem fit do better, 'immatriculation' (registration), wey go show say dem don join European way of life. To get this status, applicant gats meet strict rules (like marry one wife, show good behavior, etc.) and dem go dey watch dem well well (wey de include house visits). Dis policy no work at all. For around mid-1950s, no be plenty Congolese wey don fit get di civil merit diploma or dem don get di 'immatriculation'. Di benefits wey dem dey talk say come with am—like equal legal status with di white folks—na mostly just talk, no be real. E dey make di évolués frustrated well well. When Governor-General Pétillon start dey talk say he go fit give di native people more civil rights, even voting, to create wetin he dey call 'Belgo-Congolese community', di people for Brussels no really send am, and some Belgians for Congo dey vex as dem dey fear for demma privilege.<ref>[[Isidore Ndaywel è Nziem|Ndaywel è Nziem]], Isidore (1998), ''Histoire générale du Congo'', Paris-Brussels: De Boeck & Larcier, pp. 456–63.</ref> E clear say Belgian government no get proper long-term plan for Congo matter. 'Colonial wahala' no dey trend for Belgium, as long as di colony dey shine and e dey quiet. But one person wey show concern na di young King Baudouin, wey take over from him papa, King Leopold III, for 1951, when dem force Leopold III to waka. Baudouin dey follow wetin dey happen for Belgian Congo well well. Wen King Baudouin come visit Belgian Congo for de first time for 1955, crowd dey cheer am well-well, both whites and blacks dey dance, like as dem show for André Cauvin documentary, Bwana Kitoko.<ref>{{cite book|last=Raspoet|first=Erik|title=Bwana Kitoko en de koning van de Bakuba|publisher=Meulenhoff/Manteau|year=2005|isbn=90-8542-020-2}}</ref> Foreign people wey dey observe, suc as de international correspondent of ''The Manchester Guardian'' or a ''Time'' journalist,<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|title=Congo: Boom in the Jungle|date=16 May 1955|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=28 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028201856/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=May 16, 1955|title=CONGO: Boom in the Jungle|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=28 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828025115/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> talk say Belgian paddy paddy style dey work well, and dey compare how Belgian people dem loyal pass those French and British colonies wey dey restless. During di visit, King Baudouin carry Governor-General idea of 'Belgo-Congolese community' come front; but for real, dis plan dey move slow. At di same time, dem wahala wey dey divide for Belgium, wey dem fit hide from di colony before, start to enter Congo too. Dem talk say workers dey unite more now, dem dey call make public schools fit break mission schools for education, plus dem wan make both Belgian languages, French and Dutch, sabi equal treatment for colony. Before this, na only French dem dey push as colonial language. Governor-General dey fear say dis kind wahala fit spoil di colonial government image for Congolese, plus e go shift focus from di real need for true emancipation. ===== Political organisation ===== [[File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|right|thumb|[[:en:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu|Joseph Kasa-Vubu]], leader of ABAKO plus de first President dem elect democratically of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] Di Congolese people join Second World War and dem hear say tings dey change for other colonies, e make dem start to organize make dem fit get power. Di colonial government no fit bring beta changes wey fit work, so di Congolese elites start to gather demself socially and later politically. For di 1950s, two separate types of nationalism show up among di Congolese elites. Di nationalist movement—wey di Belgian authorities no really watch—promote say di Belgian Congo go become one united state after dem get independence. == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] 8z2sjo6meb39d67t9zykjyifnn2awx5 69145 69144 2025-07-05T23:42:01Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Political organisation */ 69145 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== [[File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Minière_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|right|thumb|Nurses of de [[:en:Union_Minière_du_Haut-Katanga|Union Minière du Haut-Katanga]] plus demma Congolese assistants, [[:en:Lubumbashi|Élisabethville]], 1918]] Health care too dey supported by missions, but colonial state wan show interest small. For 1906, dem start Institute of Tropical Medicine for Brussels. This ITM dey among di top places wey train and do research for tropical medicine and how health care dey work for developing countries. Dem fit clear endemic sickness like sleeping sickness well well with serious campaigns.<ref>A critical assessment of the colonial obsession with sleeping sickness in: Lyons, Maryinez (1992), ''The Colonial Disease, A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> For 1925, medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper be di first person wey carry tryparsamide, di drug from Rockefeller Foundation wey dey cure sleeping sickness, enter Congo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingman |first=Jack |year=1994 |title=Arthur Lewis Piper, M.D.: A Medical Missionary in the Belgian Congo |journal=Journal of Community Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/BF02260364 |pmid=8006209 |s2cid=37502216}}</ref> Di health-care system dey grow well well during colonial time, with plenty hospital beds dey available for di people, plus dem set up dispensaries for far away places. By 1960, di country get beta medical structure wey pass any other African nation for dat time. Belgian Congo get 3,000 health facilities, wey 380 be hospitals. Dem get 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 people (1 for every 187 people). Dem make huge progress for di fight against endemic diseases; dem report sleeping sickness cases drop from 34,000 in 1931 to just 1,100 in 1959, mainly because dem clear tsetse fly for where plenty people dey. All Europeans plus Congolese wey dey for Belgian Congo do dem vaccine for polio, measles and yellow fever. Big big disease prevention programs dem start, wey dem wan make polio, leprosy and tuberculosis no dey again. For primary schools, dem run disease prevention campaigns, and dem include disease prevention class for curriculum too.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319" /> ===== Social inequality den racial discrimination ===== [[File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|thumb|Dem dey pull one woman wey be missionary inside rickshaw by some Congolese guys, around 1920 to 1930.]] Di Belgia Congo get system wey dey separate people based on race an dem dey discriminate too.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Krauzman|first=Marine|date=2025-03-11|title=Belgium's Colonial Past on Trial: What the 2024 Ruling Means for Reparational Justice|url=http://spheresofinfluence.ca/belgiums-colonial-past-on-trial-what-the-2024-ruling-means-for-reparational-justice/|access-date=2025-06-26|website=Spheres of Influence|language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-29|title=Belgian Congo {{!}} History & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgian-Congo|access-date=2025-06-26|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Dem get wetin dem call 'implicit apartheid'. Di colony put curfew for Congolese wey dey live for city, an plenty racial wahala dey happen. Léopoldville get di racist curfew wey e famous for, an dem use am as template for other European colonies like French Equatorial Africa wey dey close by.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Njoh |first1=Ambe J. |date=March 2008 |title=Colonial Philosophies, Urban Space, and Racial Segregation in British and French Colonial Africa |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Black Studies]] |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=579–599 |doi=10.1177/0021934706288447 |s2cid=145775865 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228161615/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref> Even though dem no get proper laws wey dey separate people by race, segregation dey happen plenty for many places. For example, at first, de city centers be only for white people, while black people dey stay for places dem dey call 'cités indigènes' or 'le belge'. Hospitals, shop dem and other places no dey allow both whites and blacks to mix. For Force Publique, black people no fit rise pass non-commissioned officer rank. Plus, black folks for the cities no fit come out from 9 pm to 4 am. Dis kind segregation start dey vanish small-small only for 1950s, but even then, de Congolese dem still dey feel like second-class citizens, especially for politics and law matter. [[File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|right|thumb|King [[:en:Albert_I_of_Belgium|Albert I]] plus Queen [[:en:Elisabeth_of_Bavaria,_Queen_of_the_Belgians|Elisabeth]] inspecting de military camp of Léopoldville for de time of demma visit to de Belgian Congo, 1928]] Sekof dem dey connect ekonomi growth with di 'civilizing mission', plus as state officials, missionaries plus private companies dey always help each other, people don sabi sey Belgian Congo dey ruled by one 'colonial trinity' of King-Church-Capital. Dis one fit mean di colonial state, di Christian missions, plus Société Générale de Belgique too. Di way wey colonial policy take dey work, e get one saying wey Governor-General Pierre Ryckmans (1934–46) use: Dominer pour servir ('Dominate to serve').<ref>Vanderlinden, Jacques (1994), ''Pierre Ryckmans 1891–1959, Coloniser dans l'honneur'', Brussels: De Boeck.</ref> Di colonial government wan make wey see am say dem dey nice plus no wahala for di administration, plus dem wan show Belgian Congo as di perfect colony. But na only for di 1950s e start change. For di 1950s, dem dey gradually draw back dem plenty harsh laws dem use punish di Congolese people (like di chicote wey be whip). From 1953, plus di big visit wey King Baudouin make to di colony for 1955, Governor-General Léon Pétillon (1952–1958) start dey try build one 'Belgian-Congolese community', where black plus white go dey equal.<ref>Pétillon, L. A. M. (1967), ''Témoignage et réflexions'', Brussels: Renaissance du Livre.</ref> But still, di anti-miscegenation laws no clear, and from 1959 to 1962, plenty mixed-race Congolese pikin dem dey carry come out from Congo by Belgian government plus Catholic Church go Belgium.<ref>{{cite web|last=Paravicini|first=Giulia|date=4 April 2019|title=Belgium apologizes for colonial-era abduction of mixed-race children|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711005737/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|archive-date=11 July 2019|access-date=10 July 2019|publisher=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> For 1957, dem do first municipal elections wey black voters fit vote for some big cities — Léopoldville, Élisabethville, plus Jadotville. ===== Abolition of slavery ===== For Congo Free State, plenty men, women, and pikin dem free from Swahili Arab slave owners and traders for Eastern Congo between 1886 and 1892. Dem fit join militai (Force Publique) or dem go give am to local chiefs wey be friends, and dem go use dem as workers. Even though dem ban chattel slavery for 1910 when Belgian Congo start, dem still dey use prisoners as forced laborers for public den private projects.<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 40</ref> == Resistance == Di Congolese dem no gree colonization; dem dey fight am steady, e come take many shapes. As modern ideas and education dey enter ground, e dey spark plenty action.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> Armed wahala show for small-small parts till Second World War finish (like Pende wahala for 1931, and di gbagbe for Luluabourg 1944). After di war till late 1950s, wetin dem dey call 'Pax belgica' go dey. But e no mean say dem no dey resist; passive resistance dey plenty too, like Kimbanguism wey be from di ‘prophet’ Simon Kimbangu wey di Belgians lock up. Aside active and passive wahala wey Congolese dey raise, di colonial government still dey hear plenty internal noise and gbege. Even for di 1920s, some people for Colonial Council wey dey for Brussels (like Octave Louwers) don talk plenty about di harsh way big companies dey recruit people for di mining places. Di slow growth for population for many areas—abi even wey dem dey chop plenty success for fight against sick sick like sleeping sickness—na another wahala wey dey worry dem. Low birth rate for countryside and some places dey empty usually link to di way traditional life don scatter because of forced work migration and compulsory farming. Dem dey talk say na wetin dem plan be dat, and dem dey point out how population dey increase for cities and how health plus lifespan don better thanks to modern medicine and better living condition.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hunt|first1=Nancy Rose|date=2002|title=Rewriting the Soul in Colonial Congo: Flemish Missionaries and Infertility|url=https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040613132330/https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|archive-date=2004-06-13|website=Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|publisher=Antwerp University Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|language=en}}</ref> Plenty missionaries wey dey connect with Congolese villagers dey carry dem wahala for heart plus sometimes dem dey fit intervene for dem matter with di colonial administration (like land property questions). Di missions plus some area administrators dem fit play big role for study and protect Congolese culture and language tradition plus di artifacts wey dey there. One good example na Father Gustaaf Hulstaert (1900–1990), wey insyde 1937 start di periodical Aequatoria wey dem dey use for di linguistic, ethnographic plus historical study of di Mongo people for di central Congo basin.<ref>See: aequatoria.be</ref> Di colonial state dey interested for di cultural and scientific study of Congo, especially after di Second World War, through di setup of di Institut pour la Recherche Scientifique en Afrique Centrale (IRSAC, 1948). == Toward independence == For early 1950s, di political freedom of di Congolese elites, no talk of di masses, e be like far dream. But e clear say Congo no fit dey far from di quick changes wey happen after di Second World War, wey scatter colonialism worldwide. Di independence wey di British, French, plus Dutch colonies for Asia get after 1945 no really change anything for Congo, but di pressure for Belgium from di United Nations don increase (just like all di other colonial powers). Belgium don agree to article 73 of di United Nations Charter wey talk about self-determination, plus di two superpowers dey pressure Belgium make dem change how dem dey run Congo; di Belgian government dey try hold body against wetin dem call 'interference' with dia colonial policy. Colonial government dey talk how dem go make life beta for Congolese pipo. Since 1940s, dem don dey try small-small give some elite wey dem call évolués small civil rights, dem fit get small political power later. So, 'deserving' Congolese fit apply for proof of 'civil merit', or if dem fit do better, 'immatriculation' (registration), wey go show say dem don join European way of life. To get this status, applicant gats meet strict rules (like marry one wife, show good behavior, etc.) and dem go dey watch dem well well (wey de include house visits). Dis policy no work at all. For around mid-1950s, no be plenty Congolese wey don fit get di civil merit diploma or dem don get di 'immatriculation'. Di benefits wey dem dey talk say come with am—like equal legal status with di white folks—na mostly just talk, no be real. E dey make di évolués frustrated well well. When Governor-General Pétillon start dey talk say he go fit give di native people more civil rights, even voting, to create wetin he dey call 'Belgo-Congolese community', di people for Brussels no really send am, and some Belgians for Congo dey vex as dem dey fear for demma privilege.<ref>[[Isidore Ndaywel è Nziem|Ndaywel è Nziem]], Isidore (1998), ''Histoire générale du Congo'', Paris-Brussels: De Boeck & Larcier, pp. 456–63.</ref> E clear say Belgian government no get proper long-term plan for Congo matter. 'Colonial wahala' no dey trend for Belgium, as long as di colony dey shine and e dey quiet. But one person wey show concern na di young King Baudouin, wey take over from him papa, King Leopold III, for 1951, when dem force Leopold III to waka. Baudouin dey follow wetin dey happen for Belgian Congo well well. Wen King Baudouin come visit Belgian Congo for de first time for 1955, crowd dey cheer am well-well, both whites and blacks dey dance, like as dem show for André Cauvin documentary, Bwana Kitoko.<ref>{{cite book|last=Raspoet|first=Erik|title=Bwana Kitoko en de koning van de Bakuba|publisher=Meulenhoff/Manteau|year=2005|isbn=90-8542-020-2}}</ref> Foreign people wey dey observe, suc as de international correspondent of ''The Manchester Guardian'' or a ''Time'' journalist,<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|title=Congo: Boom in the Jungle|date=16 May 1955|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=28 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028201856/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=May 16, 1955|title=CONGO: Boom in the Jungle|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=28 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828025115/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> talk say Belgian paddy paddy style dey work well, and dey compare how Belgian people dem loyal pass those French and British colonies wey dey restless. During di visit, King Baudouin carry Governor-General idea of 'Belgo-Congolese community' come front; but for real, dis plan dey move slow. At di same time, dem wahala wey dey divide for Belgium, wey dem fit hide from di colony before, start to enter Congo too. Dem talk say workers dey unite more now, dem dey call make public schools fit break mission schools for education, plus dem wan make both Belgian languages, French and Dutch, sabi equal treatment for colony. Before this, na only French dem dey push as colonial language. Governor-General dey fear say dis kind wahala fit spoil di colonial government image for Congolese, plus e go shift focus from di real need for true emancipation. ===== Political organisation ===== [[File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|right|thumb|[[:en:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu|Joseph Kasa-Vubu]], leader of ABAKO plus de first President dem elect democratically of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] [[File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Patrice_Lumumba|Patrice Lumumba]], first democratically elected Prime Minister of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] Di Congolese people join Second World War and dem hear say tings dey change for other colonies, e make dem start to organize make dem fit get power. Di colonial government no fit bring beta changes wey fit work, so di Congolese elites start to gather demself socially and later politically. For di 1950s, two separate types of nationalism show up among di Congolese elites. Di nationalist movement—wey di Belgian authorities no really watch—promote say di Belgian Congo go become one united state after dem get independence. == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] 8o2v3okn5bj30w5v49fsngwsyi5self 69146 69145 2025-07-05T23:43:35Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Political organisation */ 69146 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== [[File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Minière_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|right|thumb|Nurses of de [[:en:Union_Minière_du_Haut-Katanga|Union Minière du Haut-Katanga]] plus demma Congolese assistants, [[:en:Lubumbashi|Élisabethville]], 1918]] Health care too dey supported by missions, but colonial state wan show interest small. For 1906, dem start Institute of Tropical Medicine for Brussels. This ITM dey among di top places wey train and do research for tropical medicine and how health care dey work for developing countries. Dem fit clear endemic sickness like sleeping sickness well well with serious campaigns.<ref>A critical assessment of the colonial obsession with sleeping sickness in: Lyons, Maryinez (1992), ''The Colonial Disease, A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> For 1925, medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper be di first person wey carry tryparsamide, di drug from Rockefeller Foundation wey dey cure sleeping sickness, enter Congo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingman |first=Jack |year=1994 |title=Arthur Lewis Piper, M.D.: A Medical Missionary in the Belgian Congo |journal=Journal of Community Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/BF02260364 |pmid=8006209 |s2cid=37502216}}</ref> Di health-care system dey grow well well during colonial time, with plenty hospital beds dey available for di people, plus dem set up dispensaries for far away places. By 1960, di country get beta medical structure wey pass any other African nation for dat time. Belgian Congo get 3,000 health facilities, wey 380 be hospitals. Dem get 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 people (1 for every 187 people). Dem make huge progress for di fight against endemic diseases; dem report sleeping sickness cases drop from 34,000 in 1931 to just 1,100 in 1959, mainly because dem clear tsetse fly for where plenty people dey. All Europeans plus Congolese wey dey for Belgian Congo do dem vaccine for polio, measles and yellow fever. Big big disease prevention programs dem start, wey dem wan make polio, leprosy and tuberculosis no dey again. For primary schools, dem run disease prevention campaigns, and dem include disease prevention class for curriculum too.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319" /> ===== Social inequality den racial discrimination ===== [[File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|thumb|Dem dey pull one woman wey be missionary inside rickshaw by some Congolese guys, around 1920 to 1930.]] Di Belgia Congo get system wey dey separate people based on race an dem dey discriminate too.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Krauzman|first=Marine|date=2025-03-11|title=Belgium's Colonial Past on Trial: What the 2024 Ruling Means for Reparational Justice|url=http://spheresofinfluence.ca/belgiums-colonial-past-on-trial-what-the-2024-ruling-means-for-reparational-justice/|access-date=2025-06-26|website=Spheres of Influence|language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-29|title=Belgian Congo {{!}} History & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgian-Congo|access-date=2025-06-26|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Dem get wetin dem call 'implicit apartheid'. Di colony put curfew for Congolese wey dey live for city, an plenty racial wahala dey happen. Léopoldville get di racist curfew wey e famous for, an dem use am as template for other European colonies like French Equatorial Africa wey dey close by.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Njoh |first1=Ambe J. |date=March 2008 |title=Colonial Philosophies, Urban Space, and Racial Segregation in British and French Colonial Africa |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Black Studies]] |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=579–599 |doi=10.1177/0021934706288447 |s2cid=145775865 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228161615/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref> Even though dem no get proper laws wey dey separate people by race, segregation dey happen plenty for many places. For example, at first, de city centers be only for white people, while black people dey stay for places dem dey call 'cités indigènes' or 'le belge'. Hospitals, shop dem and other places no dey allow both whites and blacks to mix. For Force Publique, black people no fit rise pass non-commissioned officer rank. Plus, black folks for the cities no fit come out from 9 pm to 4 am. Dis kind segregation start dey vanish small-small only for 1950s, but even then, de Congolese dem still dey feel like second-class citizens, especially for politics and law matter. [[File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|right|thumb|King [[:en:Albert_I_of_Belgium|Albert I]] plus Queen [[:en:Elisabeth_of_Bavaria,_Queen_of_the_Belgians|Elisabeth]] inspecting de military camp of Léopoldville for de time of demma visit to de Belgian Congo, 1928]] Sekof dem dey connect ekonomi growth with di 'civilizing mission', plus as state officials, missionaries plus private companies dey always help each other, people don sabi sey Belgian Congo dey ruled by one 'colonial trinity' of King-Church-Capital. Dis one fit mean di colonial state, di Christian missions, plus Société Générale de Belgique too. Di way wey colonial policy take dey work, e get one saying wey Governor-General Pierre Ryckmans (1934–46) use: Dominer pour servir ('Dominate to serve').<ref>Vanderlinden, Jacques (1994), ''Pierre Ryckmans 1891–1959, Coloniser dans l'honneur'', Brussels: De Boeck.</ref> Di colonial government wan make wey see am say dem dey nice plus no wahala for di administration, plus dem wan show Belgian Congo as di perfect colony. But na only for di 1950s e start change. For di 1950s, dem dey gradually draw back dem plenty harsh laws dem use punish di Congolese people (like di chicote wey be whip). From 1953, plus di big visit wey King Baudouin make to di colony for 1955, Governor-General Léon Pétillon (1952–1958) start dey try build one 'Belgian-Congolese community', where black plus white go dey equal.<ref>Pétillon, L. A. M. (1967), ''Témoignage et réflexions'', Brussels: Renaissance du Livre.</ref> But still, di anti-miscegenation laws no clear, and from 1959 to 1962, plenty mixed-race Congolese pikin dem dey carry come out from Congo by Belgian government plus Catholic Church go Belgium.<ref>{{cite web|last=Paravicini|first=Giulia|date=4 April 2019|title=Belgium apologizes for colonial-era abduction of mixed-race children|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711005737/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|archive-date=11 July 2019|access-date=10 July 2019|publisher=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> For 1957, dem do first municipal elections wey black voters fit vote for some big cities — Léopoldville, Élisabethville, plus Jadotville. ===== Abolition of slavery ===== For Congo Free State, plenty men, women, and pikin dem free from Swahili Arab slave owners and traders for Eastern Congo between 1886 and 1892. Dem fit join militai (Force Publique) or dem go give am to local chiefs wey be friends, and dem go use dem as workers. Even though dem ban chattel slavery for 1910 when Belgian Congo start, dem still dey use prisoners as forced laborers for public den private projects.<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 40</ref> == Resistance == Di Congolese dem no gree colonization; dem dey fight am steady, e come take many shapes. As modern ideas and education dey enter ground, e dey spark plenty action.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> Armed wahala show for small-small parts till Second World War finish (like Pende wahala for 1931, and di gbagbe for Luluabourg 1944). After di war till late 1950s, wetin dem dey call 'Pax belgica' go dey. But e no mean say dem no dey resist; passive resistance dey plenty too, like Kimbanguism wey be from di ‘prophet’ Simon Kimbangu wey di Belgians lock up. Aside active and passive wahala wey Congolese dey raise, di colonial government still dey hear plenty internal noise and gbege. Even for di 1920s, some people for Colonial Council wey dey for Brussels (like Octave Louwers) don talk plenty about di harsh way big companies dey recruit people for di mining places. Di slow growth for population for many areas—abi even wey dem dey chop plenty success for fight against sick sick like sleeping sickness—na another wahala wey dey worry dem. Low birth rate for countryside and some places dey empty usually link to di way traditional life don scatter because of forced work migration and compulsory farming. Dem dey talk say na wetin dem plan be dat, and dem dey point out how population dey increase for cities and how health plus lifespan don better thanks to modern medicine and better living condition.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hunt|first1=Nancy Rose|date=2002|title=Rewriting the Soul in Colonial Congo: Flemish Missionaries and Infertility|url=https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040613132330/https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|archive-date=2004-06-13|website=Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|publisher=Antwerp University Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|language=en}}</ref> Plenty missionaries wey dey connect with Congolese villagers dey carry dem wahala for heart plus sometimes dem dey fit intervene for dem matter with di colonial administration (like land property questions). Di missions plus some area administrators dem fit play big role for study and protect Congolese culture and language tradition plus di artifacts wey dey there. One good example na Father Gustaaf Hulstaert (1900–1990), wey insyde 1937 start di periodical Aequatoria wey dem dey use for di linguistic, ethnographic plus historical study of di Mongo people for di central Congo basin.<ref>See: aequatoria.be</ref> Di colonial state dey interested for di cultural and scientific study of Congo, especially after di Second World War, through di setup of di Institut pour la Recherche Scientifique en Afrique Centrale (IRSAC, 1948). == Toward independence == For early 1950s, di political freedom of di Congolese elites, no talk of di masses, e be like far dream. But e clear say Congo no fit dey far from di quick changes wey happen after di Second World War, wey scatter colonialism worldwide. Di independence wey di British, French, plus Dutch colonies for Asia get after 1945 no really change anything for Congo, but di pressure for Belgium from di United Nations don increase (just like all di other colonial powers). Belgium don agree to article 73 of di United Nations Charter wey talk about self-determination, plus di two superpowers dey pressure Belgium make dem change how dem dey run Congo; di Belgian government dey try hold body against wetin dem call 'interference' with dia colonial policy. Colonial government dey talk how dem go make life beta for Congolese pipo. Since 1940s, dem don dey try small-small give some elite wey dem call évolués small civil rights, dem fit get small political power later. So, 'deserving' Congolese fit apply for proof of 'civil merit', or if dem fit do better, 'immatriculation' (registration), wey go show say dem don join European way of life. To get this status, applicant gats meet strict rules (like marry one wife, show good behavior, etc.) and dem go dey watch dem well well (wey de include house visits). Dis policy no work at all. For around mid-1950s, no be plenty Congolese wey don fit get di civil merit diploma or dem don get di 'immatriculation'. Di benefits wey dem dey talk say come with am—like equal legal status with di white folks—na mostly just talk, no be real. E dey make di évolués frustrated well well. When Governor-General Pétillon start dey talk say he go fit give di native people more civil rights, even voting, to create wetin he dey call 'Belgo-Congolese community', di people for Brussels no really send am, and some Belgians for Congo dey vex as dem dey fear for demma privilege.<ref>[[Isidore Ndaywel è Nziem|Ndaywel è Nziem]], Isidore (1998), ''Histoire générale du Congo'', Paris-Brussels: De Boeck & Larcier, pp. 456–63.</ref> E clear say Belgian government no get proper long-term plan for Congo matter. 'Colonial wahala' no dey trend for Belgium, as long as di colony dey shine and e dey quiet. But one person wey show concern na di young King Baudouin, wey take over from him papa, King Leopold III, for 1951, when dem force Leopold III to waka. Baudouin dey follow wetin dey happen for Belgian Congo well well. Wen King Baudouin come visit Belgian Congo for de first time for 1955, crowd dey cheer am well-well, both whites and blacks dey dance, like as dem show for André Cauvin documentary, Bwana Kitoko.<ref>{{cite book|last=Raspoet|first=Erik|title=Bwana Kitoko en de koning van de Bakuba|publisher=Meulenhoff/Manteau|year=2005|isbn=90-8542-020-2}}</ref> Foreign people wey dey observe, suc as de international correspondent of ''The Manchester Guardian'' or a ''Time'' journalist,<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|title=Congo: Boom in the Jungle|date=16 May 1955|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=28 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028201856/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=May 16, 1955|title=CONGO: Boom in the Jungle|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=28 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828025115/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> talk say Belgian paddy paddy style dey work well, and dey compare how Belgian people dem loyal pass those French and British colonies wey dey restless. During di visit, King Baudouin carry Governor-General idea of 'Belgo-Congolese community' come front; but for real, dis plan dey move slow. At di same time, dem wahala wey dey divide for Belgium, wey dem fit hide from di colony before, start to enter Congo too. Dem talk say workers dey unite more now, dem dey call make public schools fit break mission schools for education, plus dem wan make both Belgian languages, French and Dutch, sabi equal treatment for colony. Before this, na only French dem dey push as colonial language. Governor-General dey fear say dis kind wahala fit spoil di colonial government image for Congolese, plus e go shift focus from di real need for true emancipation. ===== Political organisation ===== [[File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|right|thumb|[[:en:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu|Joseph Kasa-Vubu]], leader of ABAKO plus de first President dem elect democratically of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] [[File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Patrice_Lumumba|Patrice Lumumba]], first democratically elected Prime Minister of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] Di Congolese people join Second World War and dem hear say tings dey change for other colonies, e make dem start to organize make dem fit get power. Di colonial government no fit bring beta changes wey fit work, so di Congolese elites start to gather demself socially and later politically. For di 1950s, two separate types of nationalism show up among di Congolese elites. Di nationalist movement—wey di Belgian authorities no really watch—promote say di Belgian Congo go become one united state after dem get independence. E get wetin wey de oppose this matter, na di ethno-religious and regional nationalism wey catch for di Bakongo area for di west coast, Kasai plus Katanga.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} Di first political groups na dem one. ABAKO wey dem establish for 1950 as di Association culturelle des Bakongo, and wetin Joseph Kasa-Vubu dey run, start as cultural group wey turn political sharp sharp. From di middle of 1950s, dem don dey shout against Belgian colonial rule well well. Plus, di group still dey serve as di main ethno-religious group for di Bakongo and dem blend well with di Kimbanguist Church wey be popular for lower Congo.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] rme6pssnvf0b9fjps4w3cz0gat54a0v 69147 69146 2025-07-05T23:45:11Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Political organisation */ 69147 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== [[File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Minière_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|right|thumb|Nurses of de [[:en:Union_Minière_du_Haut-Katanga|Union Minière du Haut-Katanga]] plus demma Congolese assistants, [[:en:Lubumbashi|Élisabethville]], 1918]] Health care too dey supported by missions, but colonial state wan show interest small. For 1906, dem start Institute of Tropical Medicine for Brussels. This ITM dey among di top places wey train and do research for tropical medicine and how health care dey work for developing countries. Dem fit clear endemic sickness like sleeping sickness well well with serious campaigns.<ref>A critical assessment of the colonial obsession with sleeping sickness in: Lyons, Maryinez (1992), ''The Colonial Disease, A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> For 1925, medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper be di first person wey carry tryparsamide, di drug from Rockefeller Foundation wey dey cure sleeping sickness, enter Congo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingman |first=Jack |year=1994 |title=Arthur Lewis Piper, M.D.: A Medical Missionary in the Belgian Congo |journal=Journal of Community Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/BF02260364 |pmid=8006209 |s2cid=37502216}}</ref> Di health-care system dey grow well well during colonial time, with plenty hospital beds dey available for di people, plus dem set up dispensaries for far away places. By 1960, di country get beta medical structure wey pass any other African nation for dat time. Belgian Congo get 3,000 health facilities, wey 380 be hospitals. Dem get 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 people (1 for every 187 people). Dem make huge progress for di fight against endemic diseases; dem report sleeping sickness cases drop from 34,000 in 1931 to just 1,100 in 1959, mainly because dem clear tsetse fly for where plenty people dey. All Europeans plus Congolese wey dey for Belgian Congo do dem vaccine for polio, measles and yellow fever. Big big disease prevention programs dem start, wey dem wan make polio, leprosy and tuberculosis no dey again. For primary schools, dem run disease prevention campaigns, and dem include disease prevention class for curriculum too.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319" /> ===== Social inequality den racial discrimination ===== [[File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|thumb|Dem dey pull one woman wey be missionary inside rickshaw by some Congolese guys, around 1920 to 1930.]] Di Belgia Congo get system wey dey separate people based on race an dem dey discriminate too.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Krauzman|first=Marine|date=2025-03-11|title=Belgium's Colonial Past on Trial: What the 2024 Ruling Means for Reparational Justice|url=http://spheresofinfluence.ca/belgiums-colonial-past-on-trial-what-the-2024-ruling-means-for-reparational-justice/|access-date=2025-06-26|website=Spheres of Influence|language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-29|title=Belgian Congo {{!}} History & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgian-Congo|access-date=2025-06-26|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Dem get wetin dem call 'implicit apartheid'. Di colony put curfew for Congolese wey dey live for city, an plenty racial wahala dey happen. Léopoldville get di racist curfew wey e famous for, an dem use am as template for other European colonies like French Equatorial Africa wey dey close by.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Njoh |first1=Ambe J. |date=March 2008 |title=Colonial Philosophies, Urban Space, and Racial Segregation in British and French Colonial Africa |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Black Studies]] |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=579–599 |doi=10.1177/0021934706288447 |s2cid=145775865 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228161615/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref> Even though dem no get proper laws wey dey separate people by race, segregation dey happen plenty for many places. For example, at first, de city centers be only for white people, while black people dey stay for places dem dey call 'cités indigènes' or 'le belge'. Hospitals, shop dem and other places no dey allow both whites and blacks to mix. For Force Publique, black people no fit rise pass non-commissioned officer rank. Plus, black folks for the cities no fit come out from 9 pm to 4 am. Dis kind segregation start dey vanish small-small only for 1950s, but even then, de Congolese dem still dey feel like second-class citizens, especially for politics and law matter. [[File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|right|thumb|King [[:en:Albert_I_of_Belgium|Albert I]] plus Queen [[:en:Elisabeth_of_Bavaria,_Queen_of_the_Belgians|Elisabeth]] inspecting de military camp of Léopoldville for de time of demma visit to de Belgian Congo, 1928]] Sekof dem dey connect ekonomi growth with di 'civilizing mission', plus as state officials, missionaries plus private companies dey always help each other, people don sabi sey Belgian Congo dey ruled by one 'colonial trinity' of King-Church-Capital. Dis one fit mean di colonial state, di Christian missions, plus Société Générale de Belgique too. Di way wey colonial policy take dey work, e get one saying wey Governor-General Pierre Ryckmans (1934–46) use: Dominer pour servir ('Dominate to serve').<ref>Vanderlinden, Jacques (1994), ''Pierre Ryckmans 1891–1959, Coloniser dans l'honneur'', Brussels: De Boeck.</ref> Di colonial government wan make wey see am say dem dey nice plus no wahala for di administration, plus dem wan show Belgian Congo as di perfect colony. But na only for di 1950s e start change. For di 1950s, dem dey gradually draw back dem plenty harsh laws dem use punish di Congolese people (like di chicote wey be whip). From 1953, plus di big visit wey King Baudouin make to di colony for 1955, Governor-General Léon Pétillon (1952–1958) start dey try build one 'Belgian-Congolese community', where black plus white go dey equal.<ref>Pétillon, L. A. M. (1967), ''Témoignage et réflexions'', Brussels: Renaissance du Livre.</ref> But still, di anti-miscegenation laws no clear, and from 1959 to 1962, plenty mixed-race Congolese pikin dem dey carry come out from Congo by Belgian government plus Catholic Church go Belgium.<ref>{{cite web|last=Paravicini|first=Giulia|date=4 April 2019|title=Belgium apologizes for colonial-era abduction of mixed-race children|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711005737/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|archive-date=11 July 2019|access-date=10 July 2019|publisher=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> For 1957, dem do first municipal elections wey black voters fit vote for some big cities — Léopoldville, Élisabethville, plus Jadotville. ===== Abolition of slavery ===== For Congo Free State, plenty men, women, and pikin dem free from Swahili Arab slave owners and traders for Eastern Congo between 1886 and 1892. Dem fit join militai (Force Publique) or dem go give am to local chiefs wey be friends, and dem go use dem as workers. Even though dem ban chattel slavery for 1910 when Belgian Congo start, dem still dey use prisoners as forced laborers for public den private projects.<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 40</ref> == Resistance == Di Congolese dem no gree colonization; dem dey fight am steady, e come take many shapes. As modern ideas and education dey enter ground, e dey spark plenty action.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> Armed wahala show for small-small parts till Second World War finish (like Pende wahala for 1931, and di gbagbe for Luluabourg 1944). After di war till late 1950s, wetin dem dey call 'Pax belgica' go dey. But e no mean say dem no dey resist; passive resistance dey plenty too, like Kimbanguism wey be from di ‘prophet’ Simon Kimbangu wey di Belgians lock up. Aside active and passive wahala wey Congolese dey raise, di colonial government still dey hear plenty internal noise and gbege. Even for di 1920s, some people for Colonial Council wey dey for Brussels (like Octave Louwers) don talk plenty about di harsh way big companies dey recruit people for di mining places. Di slow growth for population for many areas—abi even wey dem dey chop plenty success for fight against sick sick like sleeping sickness—na another wahala wey dey worry dem. Low birth rate for countryside and some places dey empty usually link to di way traditional life don scatter because of forced work migration and compulsory farming. Dem dey talk say na wetin dem plan be dat, and dem dey point out how population dey increase for cities and how health plus lifespan don better thanks to modern medicine and better living condition.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hunt|first1=Nancy Rose|date=2002|title=Rewriting the Soul in Colonial Congo: Flemish Missionaries and Infertility|url=https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040613132330/https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|archive-date=2004-06-13|website=Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|publisher=Antwerp University Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|language=en}}</ref> Plenty missionaries wey dey connect with Congolese villagers dey carry dem wahala for heart plus sometimes dem dey fit intervene for dem matter with di colonial administration (like land property questions). Di missions plus some area administrators dem fit play big role for study and protect Congolese culture and language tradition plus di artifacts wey dey there. One good example na Father Gustaaf Hulstaert (1900–1990), wey insyde 1937 start di periodical Aequatoria wey dem dey use for di linguistic, ethnographic plus historical study of di Mongo people for di central Congo basin.<ref>See: aequatoria.be</ref> Di colonial state dey interested for di cultural and scientific study of Congo, especially after di Second World War, through di setup of di Institut pour la Recherche Scientifique en Afrique Centrale (IRSAC, 1948). == Toward independence == For early 1950s, di political freedom of di Congolese elites, no talk of di masses, e be like far dream. But e clear say Congo no fit dey far from di quick changes wey happen after di Second World War, wey scatter colonialism worldwide. Di independence wey di British, French, plus Dutch colonies for Asia get after 1945 no really change anything for Congo, but di pressure for Belgium from di United Nations don increase (just like all di other colonial powers). Belgium don agree to article 73 of di United Nations Charter wey talk about self-determination, plus di two superpowers dey pressure Belgium make dem change how dem dey run Congo; di Belgian government dey try hold body against wetin dem call 'interference' with dia colonial policy. Colonial government dey talk how dem go make life beta for Congolese pipo. Since 1940s, dem don dey try small-small give some elite wey dem call évolués small civil rights, dem fit get small political power later. So, 'deserving' Congolese fit apply for proof of 'civil merit', or if dem fit do better, 'immatriculation' (registration), wey go show say dem don join European way of life. To get this status, applicant gats meet strict rules (like marry one wife, show good behavior, etc.) and dem go dey watch dem well well (wey de include house visits). Dis policy no work at all. For around mid-1950s, no be plenty Congolese wey don fit get di civil merit diploma or dem don get di 'immatriculation'. Di benefits wey dem dey talk say come with am—like equal legal status with di white folks—na mostly just talk, no be real. E dey make di évolués frustrated well well. When Governor-General Pétillon start dey talk say he go fit give di native people more civil rights, even voting, to create wetin he dey call 'Belgo-Congolese community', di people for Brussels no really send am, and some Belgians for Congo dey vex as dem dey fear for demma privilege.<ref>[[Isidore Ndaywel è Nziem|Ndaywel è Nziem]], Isidore (1998), ''Histoire générale du Congo'', Paris-Brussels: De Boeck & Larcier, pp. 456–63.</ref> E clear say Belgian government no get proper long-term plan for Congo matter. 'Colonial wahala' no dey trend for Belgium, as long as di colony dey shine and e dey quiet. But one person wey show concern na di young King Baudouin, wey take over from him papa, King Leopold III, for 1951, when dem force Leopold III to waka. Baudouin dey follow wetin dey happen for Belgian Congo well well. Wen King Baudouin come visit Belgian Congo for de first time for 1955, crowd dey cheer am well-well, both whites and blacks dey dance, like as dem show for André Cauvin documentary, Bwana Kitoko.<ref>{{cite book|last=Raspoet|first=Erik|title=Bwana Kitoko en de koning van de Bakuba|publisher=Meulenhoff/Manteau|year=2005|isbn=90-8542-020-2}}</ref> Foreign people wey dey observe, suc as de international correspondent of ''The Manchester Guardian'' or a ''Time'' journalist,<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|title=Congo: Boom in the Jungle|date=16 May 1955|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=28 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028201856/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=May 16, 1955|title=CONGO: Boom in the Jungle|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=28 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828025115/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> talk say Belgian paddy paddy style dey work well, and dey compare how Belgian people dem loyal pass those French and British colonies wey dey restless. During di visit, King Baudouin carry Governor-General idea of 'Belgo-Congolese community' come front; but for real, dis plan dey move slow. At di same time, dem wahala wey dey divide for Belgium, wey dem fit hide from di colony before, start to enter Congo too. Dem talk say workers dey unite more now, dem dey call make public schools fit break mission schools for education, plus dem wan make both Belgian languages, French and Dutch, sabi equal treatment for colony. Before this, na only French dem dey push as colonial language. Governor-General dey fear say dis kind wahala fit spoil di colonial government image for Congolese, plus e go shift focus from di real need for true emancipation. ===== Political organisation ===== [[File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|right|thumb|[[:en:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu|Joseph Kasa-Vubu]], leader of ABAKO plus de first President dem elect democratically of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] [[File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Patrice_Lumumba|Patrice Lumumba]], first democratically elected Prime Minister of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] Di Congolese people join Second World War and dem hear say tings dey change for other colonies, e make dem start to organize make dem fit get power. Di colonial government no fit bring beta changes wey fit work, so di Congolese elites start to gather demself socially and later politically. For di 1950s, two separate types of nationalism show up among di Congolese elites. Di nationalist movement—wey di Belgian authorities no really watch—promote say di Belgian Congo go become one united state after dem get independence. E get wetin wey de oppose this matter, na di ethno-religious and regional nationalism wey catch for di Bakongo area for di west coast, Kasai plus Katanga.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} Di first political groups na dem one. ABAKO wey dem establish for 1950 as di Association culturelle des Bakongo, and wetin Joseph Kasa-Vubu dey run, start as cultural group wey turn political sharp sharp. From di middle of 1950s, dem don dey shout against Belgian colonial rule well well. Plus, di group still dey serve as di main ethno-religious group for di Bakongo and dem blend well with di Kimbanguist Church wey be popular for lower Congo.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} For 1955, Belgian prof Antoine van Bilsen drop one paper wey dem call Thirty Year Plan for the Political Emancipation of Belgian Africa.<ref>Gerard-Libois, Jules (1989), "Vers l'Indépendance: une accélération imprévue", In ''Congo-Zaïre'', Brussels: GRIP, pp. 43–56.</ref> De plan get timetable wey say make dem gradually free Congo for 30 years—na the time wey Van Bilsen believe say e go take to build educated people wey fit take over from the Belgians for power. But the Belgian government and plenty of the évolués no happy with the plan—government no wan lose Congo, and the évolués sabi say Belgium go still dey rule for another three decades. One group of Catholic évolués yan am positive for the plan with one moderate manifesto for one Congolese journal wey dem dey call Conscience Africaine; dem talk some matter about how Congolese fit take part well well.<ref>Kalulambi Pongo, Martin (2009), "Le manifeste 'Conscience africaine: genèse, influences et réactions", In Tousignant, Nathalie (ed.), ''Le manifeste Conscience africaine, 1956'', Brussels: Facultés Universitaires Saint-Louis, pp. 59–81.</ref> == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] tt7zx84q2vtqseylpqa4tsd2kew0wbc 69149 69147 2025-07-05T23:47:03Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Political organisation */ 69149 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== [[File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Minière_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|right|thumb|Nurses of de [[:en:Union_Minière_du_Haut-Katanga|Union Minière du Haut-Katanga]] plus demma Congolese assistants, [[:en:Lubumbashi|Élisabethville]], 1918]] Health care too dey supported by missions, but colonial state wan show interest small. For 1906, dem start Institute of Tropical Medicine for Brussels. This ITM dey among di top places wey train and do research for tropical medicine and how health care dey work for developing countries. Dem fit clear endemic sickness like sleeping sickness well well with serious campaigns.<ref>A critical assessment of the colonial obsession with sleeping sickness in: Lyons, Maryinez (1992), ''The Colonial Disease, A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> For 1925, medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper be di first person wey carry tryparsamide, di drug from Rockefeller Foundation wey dey cure sleeping sickness, enter Congo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingman |first=Jack |year=1994 |title=Arthur Lewis Piper, M.D.: A Medical Missionary in the Belgian Congo |journal=Journal of Community Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/BF02260364 |pmid=8006209 |s2cid=37502216}}</ref> Di health-care system dey grow well well during colonial time, with plenty hospital beds dey available for di people, plus dem set up dispensaries for far away places. By 1960, di country get beta medical structure wey pass any other African nation for dat time. Belgian Congo get 3,000 health facilities, wey 380 be hospitals. Dem get 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 people (1 for every 187 people). Dem make huge progress for di fight against endemic diseases; dem report sleeping sickness cases drop from 34,000 in 1931 to just 1,100 in 1959, mainly because dem clear tsetse fly for where plenty people dey. All Europeans plus Congolese wey dey for Belgian Congo do dem vaccine for polio, measles and yellow fever. Big big disease prevention programs dem start, wey dem wan make polio, leprosy and tuberculosis no dey again. For primary schools, dem run disease prevention campaigns, and dem include disease prevention class for curriculum too.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319" /> ===== Social inequality den racial discrimination ===== [[File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|thumb|Dem dey pull one woman wey be missionary inside rickshaw by some Congolese guys, around 1920 to 1930.]] Di Belgia Congo get system wey dey separate people based on race an dem dey discriminate too.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Krauzman|first=Marine|date=2025-03-11|title=Belgium's Colonial Past on Trial: What the 2024 Ruling Means for Reparational Justice|url=http://spheresofinfluence.ca/belgiums-colonial-past-on-trial-what-the-2024-ruling-means-for-reparational-justice/|access-date=2025-06-26|website=Spheres of Influence|language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-29|title=Belgian Congo {{!}} History & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgian-Congo|access-date=2025-06-26|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Dem get wetin dem call 'implicit apartheid'. Di colony put curfew for Congolese wey dey live for city, an plenty racial wahala dey happen. Léopoldville get di racist curfew wey e famous for, an dem use am as template for other European colonies like French Equatorial Africa wey dey close by.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Njoh |first1=Ambe J. |date=March 2008 |title=Colonial Philosophies, Urban Space, and Racial Segregation in British and French Colonial Africa |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Black Studies]] |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=579–599 |doi=10.1177/0021934706288447 |s2cid=145775865 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228161615/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref> Even though dem no get proper laws wey dey separate people by race, segregation dey happen plenty for many places. For example, at first, de city centers be only for white people, while black people dey stay for places dem dey call 'cités indigènes' or 'le belge'. Hospitals, shop dem and other places no dey allow both whites and blacks to mix. For Force Publique, black people no fit rise pass non-commissioned officer rank. Plus, black folks for the cities no fit come out from 9 pm to 4 am. Dis kind segregation start dey vanish small-small only for 1950s, but even then, de Congolese dem still dey feel like second-class citizens, especially for politics and law matter. [[File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|right|thumb|King [[:en:Albert_I_of_Belgium|Albert I]] plus Queen [[:en:Elisabeth_of_Bavaria,_Queen_of_the_Belgians|Elisabeth]] inspecting de military camp of Léopoldville for de time of demma visit to de Belgian Congo, 1928]] Sekof dem dey connect ekonomi growth with di 'civilizing mission', plus as state officials, missionaries plus private companies dey always help each other, people don sabi sey Belgian Congo dey ruled by one 'colonial trinity' of King-Church-Capital. Dis one fit mean di colonial state, di Christian missions, plus Société Générale de Belgique too. Di way wey colonial policy take dey work, e get one saying wey Governor-General Pierre Ryckmans (1934–46) use: Dominer pour servir ('Dominate to serve').<ref>Vanderlinden, Jacques (1994), ''Pierre Ryckmans 1891–1959, Coloniser dans l'honneur'', Brussels: De Boeck.</ref> Di colonial government wan make wey see am say dem dey nice plus no wahala for di administration, plus dem wan show Belgian Congo as di perfect colony. But na only for di 1950s e start change. For di 1950s, dem dey gradually draw back dem plenty harsh laws dem use punish di Congolese people (like di chicote wey be whip). From 1953, plus di big visit wey King Baudouin make to di colony for 1955, Governor-General Léon Pétillon (1952–1958) start dey try build one 'Belgian-Congolese community', where black plus white go dey equal.<ref>Pétillon, L. A. M. (1967), ''Témoignage et réflexions'', Brussels: Renaissance du Livre.</ref> But still, di anti-miscegenation laws no clear, and from 1959 to 1962, plenty mixed-race Congolese pikin dem dey carry come out from Congo by Belgian government plus Catholic Church go Belgium.<ref>{{cite web|last=Paravicini|first=Giulia|date=4 April 2019|title=Belgium apologizes for colonial-era abduction of mixed-race children|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711005737/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|archive-date=11 July 2019|access-date=10 July 2019|publisher=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> For 1957, dem do first municipal elections wey black voters fit vote for some big cities — Léopoldville, Élisabethville, plus Jadotville. ===== Abolition of slavery ===== For Congo Free State, plenty men, women, and pikin dem free from Swahili Arab slave owners and traders for Eastern Congo between 1886 and 1892. Dem fit join militai (Force Publique) or dem go give am to local chiefs wey be friends, and dem go use dem as workers. Even though dem ban chattel slavery for 1910 when Belgian Congo start, dem still dey use prisoners as forced laborers for public den private projects.<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 40</ref> == Resistance == Di Congolese dem no gree colonization; dem dey fight am steady, e come take many shapes. As modern ideas and education dey enter ground, e dey spark plenty action.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> Armed wahala show for small-small parts till Second World War finish (like Pende wahala for 1931, and di gbagbe for Luluabourg 1944). After di war till late 1950s, wetin dem dey call 'Pax belgica' go dey. But e no mean say dem no dey resist; passive resistance dey plenty too, like Kimbanguism wey be from di ‘prophet’ Simon Kimbangu wey di Belgians lock up. Aside active and passive wahala wey Congolese dey raise, di colonial government still dey hear plenty internal noise and gbege. Even for di 1920s, some people for Colonial Council wey dey for Brussels (like Octave Louwers) don talk plenty about di harsh way big companies dey recruit people for di mining places. Di slow growth for population for many areas—abi even wey dem dey chop plenty success for fight against sick sick like sleeping sickness—na another wahala wey dey worry dem. Low birth rate for countryside and some places dey empty usually link to di way traditional life don scatter because of forced work migration and compulsory farming. Dem dey talk say na wetin dem plan be dat, and dem dey point out how population dey increase for cities and how health plus lifespan don better thanks to modern medicine and better living condition.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hunt|first1=Nancy Rose|date=2002|title=Rewriting the Soul in Colonial Congo: Flemish Missionaries and Infertility|url=https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040613132330/https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|archive-date=2004-06-13|website=Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|publisher=Antwerp University Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|language=en}}</ref> Plenty missionaries wey dey connect with Congolese villagers dey carry dem wahala for heart plus sometimes dem dey fit intervene for dem matter with di colonial administration (like land property questions). Di missions plus some area administrators dem fit play big role for study and protect Congolese culture and language tradition plus di artifacts wey dey there. One good example na Father Gustaaf Hulstaert (1900–1990), wey insyde 1937 start di periodical Aequatoria wey dem dey use for di linguistic, ethnographic plus historical study of di Mongo people for di central Congo basin.<ref>See: aequatoria.be</ref> Di colonial state dey interested for di cultural and scientific study of Congo, especially after di Second World War, through di setup of di Institut pour la Recherche Scientifique en Afrique Centrale (IRSAC, 1948). == Toward independence == For early 1950s, di political freedom of di Congolese elites, no talk of di masses, e be like far dream. But e clear say Congo no fit dey far from di quick changes wey happen after di Second World War, wey scatter colonialism worldwide. Di independence wey di British, French, plus Dutch colonies for Asia get after 1945 no really change anything for Congo, but di pressure for Belgium from di United Nations don increase (just like all di other colonial powers). Belgium don agree to article 73 of di United Nations Charter wey talk about self-determination, plus di two superpowers dey pressure Belgium make dem change how dem dey run Congo; di Belgian government dey try hold body against wetin dem call 'interference' with dia colonial policy. Colonial government dey talk how dem go make life beta for Congolese pipo. Since 1940s, dem don dey try small-small give some elite wey dem call évolués small civil rights, dem fit get small political power later. So, 'deserving' Congolese fit apply for proof of 'civil merit', or if dem fit do better, 'immatriculation' (registration), wey go show say dem don join European way of life. To get this status, applicant gats meet strict rules (like marry one wife, show good behavior, etc.) and dem go dey watch dem well well (wey de include house visits). Dis policy no work at all. For around mid-1950s, no be plenty Congolese wey don fit get di civil merit diploma or dem don get di 'immatriculation'. Di benefits wey dem dey talk say come with am—like equal legal status with di white folks—na mostly just talk, no be real. E dey make di évolués frustrated well well. When Governor-General Pétillon start dey talk say he go fit give di native people more civil rights, even voting, to create wetin he dey call 'Belgo-Congolese community', di people for Brussels no really send am, and some Belgians for Congo dey vex as dem dey fear for demma privilege.<ref>[[Isidore Ndaywel è Nziem|Ndaywel è Nziem]], Isidore (1998), ''Histoire générale du Congo'', Paris-Brussels: De Boeck & Larcier, pp. 456–63.</ref> E clear say Belgian government no get proper long-term plan for Congo matter. 'Colonial wahala' no dey trend for Belgium, as long as di colony dey shine and e dey quiet. But one person wey show concern na di young King Baudouin, wey take over from him papa, King Leopold III, for 1951, when dem force Leopold III to waka. Baudouin dey follow wetin dey happen for Belgian Congo well well. Wen King Baudouin come visit Belgian Congo for de first time for 1955, crowd dey cheer am well-well, both whites and blacks dey dance, like as dem show for André Cauvin documentary, Bwana Kitoko.<ref>{{cite book|last=Raspoet|first=Erik|title=Bwana Kitoko en de koning van de Bakuba|publisher=Meulenhoff/Manteau|year=2005|isbn=90-8542-020-2}}</ref> Foreign people wey dey observe, suc as de international correspondent of ''The Manchester Guardian'' or a ''Time'' journalist,<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|title=Congo: Boom in the Jungle|date=16 May 1955|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=28 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028201856/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=May 16, 1955|title=CONGO: Boom in the Jungle|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=28 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828025115/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> talk say Belgian paddy paddy style dey work well, and dey compare how Belgian people dem loyal pass those French and British colonies wey dey restless. During di visit, King Baudouin carry Governor-General idea of 'Belgo-Congolese community' come front; but for real, dis plan dey move slow. At di same time, dem wahala wey dey divide for Belgium, wey dem fit hide from di colony before, start to enter Congo too. Dem talk say workers dey unite more now, dem dey call make public schools fit break mission schools for education, plus dem wan make both Belgian languages, French and Dutch, sabi equal treatment for colony. Before this, na only French dem dey push as colonial language. Governor-General dey fear say dis kind wahala fit spoil di colonial government image for Congolese, plus e go shift focus from di real need for true emancipation. ===== Political organisation ===== [[File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|right|thumb|[[:en:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu|Joseph Kasa-Vubu]], leader of ABAKO plus de first President dem elect democratically of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] [[File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Patrice_Lumumba|Patrice Lumumba]], first democratically elected Prime Minister of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] Di Congolese people join Second World War and dem hear say tings dey change for other colonies, e make dem start to organize make dem fit get power. Di colonial government no fit bring beta changes wey fit work, so di Congolese elites start to gather demself socially and later politically. For di 1950s, two separate types of nationalism show up among di Congolese elites. Di nationalist movement—wey di Belgian authorities no really watch—promote say di Belgian Congo go become one united state after dem get independence. E get wetin wey de oppose this matter, na di ethno-religious and regional nationalism wey catch for di Bakongo area for di west coast, Kasai plus Katanga.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} Di first political groups na dem one. ABAKO wey dem establish for 1950 as di Association culturelle des Bakongo, and wetin Joseph Kasa-Vubu dey run, start as cultural group wey turn political sharp sharp. From di middle of 1950s, dem don dey shout against Belgian colonial rule well well. Plus, di group still dey serve as di main ethno-religious group for di Bakongo and dem blend well with di Kimbanguist Church wey be popular for lower Congo.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} For 1955, Belgian prof Antoine van Bilsen drop one paper wey dem call Thirty Year Plan for the Political Emancipation of Belgian Africa.<ref>Gerard-Libois, Jules (1989), "Vers l'Indépendance: une accélération imprévue", In ''Congo-Zaïre'', Brussels: GRIP, pp. 43–56.</ref> De plan get timetable wey say make dem gradually free Congo for 30 years—na the time wey Van Bilsen believe say e go take to build educated people wey fit take over from the Belgians for power. But the Belgian government and plenty of the évolués no happy with the plan—government no wan lose Congo, and the évolués sabi say Belgium go still dey rule for another three decades. One group of Catholic évolués yan am positive for the plan with one moderate manifesto for one Congolese journal wey dem dey call Conscience Africaine; dem talk some matter about how Congolese fit take part well well.<ref>Kalulambi Pongo, Martin (2009), "Le manifeste 'Conscience africaine: genèse, influences et réactions", In Tousignant, Nathalie (ed.), ''Le manifeste Conscience africaine, 1956'', Brussels: Facultés Universitaires Saint-Louis, pp. 59–81.</ref> For 1957, as experiment matter, colonial government do organize di first local elections for three cities (Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Jadotville), wey Congolese people fit stand for office and vote. Watin happen for 1957–58 make demand for political freedom burst, no be small. Ghana independence for 1957 and President De Gaulle visit wey happen for August 1958 for Brazzaville, capital of di French Congo, across di Congo river from Léopoldville, wey e promise say France African colonies go fit choose between staying with France or full independence, make people for Congo get big dreams. Di World Exhibition wey dem do for Brussels for 1958 (Expo 58) be another eye-opener for plenty Congolese leaders, wey dem allow make dem travel go Belgium for di first time.<ref>Aziza Etambala, Zana (2008), ''De teloorgang van een modelkolonie, Belgisch Congo 1958–1960'', Leuven: Acco, pp. 105–110.</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|date=23 December 1957|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125731/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=December 23, 1957|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=1 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501001542/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] j3i6wzkgq1ylqlpjtmbtgtf191cgwab 69151 69149 2025-07-05T23:51:03Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Political organisation */ 69151 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== [[File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Minière_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|right|thumb|Nurses of de [[:en:Union_Minière_du_Haut-Katanga|Union Minière du Haut-Katanga]] plus demma Congolese assistants, [[:en:Lubumbashi|Élisabethville]], 1918]] Health care too dey supported by missions, but colonial state wan show interest small. For 1906, dem start Institute of Tropical Medicine for Brussels. This ITM dey among di top places wey train and do research for tropical medicine and how health care dey work for developing countries. Dem fit clear endemic sickness like sleeping sickness well well with serious campaigns.<ref>A critical assessment of the colonial obsession with sleeping sickness in: Lyons, Maryinez (1992), ''The Colonial Disease, A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> For 1925, medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper be di first person wey carry tryparsamide, di drug from Rockefeller Foundation wey dey cure sleeping sickness, enter Congo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingman |first=Jack |year=1994 |title=Arthur Lewis Piper, M.D.: A Medical Missionary in the Belgian Congo |journal=Journal of Community Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/BF02260364 |pmid=8006209 |s2cid=37502216}}</ref> Di health-care system dey grow well well during colonial time, with plenty hospital beds dey available for di people, plus dem set up dispensaries for far away places. By 1960, di country get beta medical structure wey pass any other African nation for dat time. Belgian Congo get 3,000 health facilities, wey 380 be hospitals. Dem get 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 people (1 for every 187 people). Dem make huge progress for di fight against endemic diseases; dem report sleeping sickness cases drop from 34,000 in 1931 to just 1,100 in 1959, mainly because dem clear tsetse fly for where plenty people dey. All Europeans plus Congolese wey dey for Belgian Congo do dem vaccine for polio, measles and yellow fever. Big big disease prevention programs dem start, wey dem wan make polio, leprosy and tuberculosis no dey again. For primary schools, dem run disease prevention campaigns, and dem include disease prevention class for curriculum too.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319" /> ===== Social inequality den racial discrimination ===== [[File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|thumb|Dem dey pull one woman wey be missionary inside rickshaw by some Congolese guys, around 1920 to 1930.]] Di Belgia Congo get system wey dey separate people based on race an dem dey discriminate too.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Krauzman|first=Marine|date=2025-03-11|title=Belgium's Colonial Past on Trial: What the 2024 Ruling Means for Reparational Justice|url=http://spheresofinfluence.ca/belgiums-colonial-past-on-trial-what-the-2024-ruling-means-for-reparational-justice/|access-date=2025-06-26|website=Spheres of Influence|language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-29|title=Belgian Congo {{!}} History & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgian-Congo|access-date=2025-06-26|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Dem get wetin dem call 'implicit apartheid'. Di colony put curfew for Congolese wey dey live for city, an plenty racial wahala dey happen. Léopoldville get di racist curfew wey e famous for, an dem use am as template for other European colonies like French Equatorial Africa wey dey close by.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Njoh |first1=Ambe J. |date=March 2008 |title=Colonial Philosophies, Urban Space, and Racial Segregation in British and French Colonial Africa |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Black Studies]] |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=579–599 |doi=10.1177/0021934706288447 |s2cid=145775865 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228161615/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref> Even though dem no get proper laws wey dey separate people by race, segregation dey happen plenty for many places. For example, at first, de city centers be only for white people, while black people dey stay for places dem dey call 'cités indigènes' or 'le belge'. Hospitals, shop dem and other places no dey allow both whites and blacks to mix. For Force Publique, black people no fit rise pass non-commissioned officer rank. Plus, black folks for the cities no fit come out from 9 pm to 4 am. Dis kind segregation start dey vanish small-small only for 1950s, but even then, de Congolese dem still dey feel like second-class citizens, especially for politics and law matter. [[File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|right|thumb|King [[:en:Albert_I_of_Belgium|Albert I]] plus Queen [[:en:Elisabeth_of_Bavaria,_Queen_of_the_Belgians|Elisabeth]] inspecting de military camp of Léopoldville for de time of demma visit to de Belgian Congo, 1928]] Sekof dem dey connect ekonomi growth with di 'civilizing mission', plus as state officials, missionaries plus private companies dey always help each other, people don sabi sey Belgian Congo dey ruled by one 'colonial trinity' of King-Church-Capital. Dis one fit mean di colonial state, di Christian missions, plus Société Générale de Belgique too. Di way wey colonial policy take dey work, e get one saying wey Governor-General Pierre Ryckmans (1934–46) use: Dominer pour servir ('Dominate to serve').<ref>Vanderlinden, Jacques (1994), ''Pierre Ryckmans 1891–1959, Coloniser dans l'honneur'', Brussels: De Boeck.</ref> Di colonial government wan make wey see am say dem dey nice plus no wahala for di administration, plus dem wan show Belgian Congo as di perfect colony. But na only for di 1950s e start change. For di 1950s, dem dey gradually draw back dem plenty harsh laws dem use punish di Congolese people (like di chicote wey be whip). From 1953, plus di big visit wey King Baudouin make to di colony for 1955, Governor-General Léon Pétillon (1952–1958) start dey try build one 'Belgian-Congolese community', where black plus white go dey equal.<ref>Pétillon, L. A. M. (1967), ''Témoignage et réflexions'', Brussels: Renaissance du Livre.</ref> But still, di anti-miscegenation laws no clear, and from 1959 to 1962, plenty mixed-race Congolese pikin dem dey carry come out from Congo by Belgian government plus Catholic Church go Belgium.<ref>{{cite web|last=Paravicini|first=Giulia|date=4 April 2019|title=Belgium apologizes for colonial-era abduction of mixed-race children|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711005737/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|archive-date=11 July 2019|access-date=10 July 2019|publisher=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> For 1957, dem do first municipal elections wey black voters fit vote for some big cities — Léopoldville, Élisabethville, plus Jadotville. ===== Abolition of slavery ===== For Congo Free State, plenty men, women, and pikin dem free from Swahili Arab slave owners and traders for Eastern Congo between 1886 and 1892. Dem fit join militai (Force Publique) or dem go give am to local chiefs wey be friends, and dem go use dem as workers. Even though dem ban chattel slavery for 1910 when Belgian Congo start, dem still dey use prisoners as forced laborers for public den private projects.<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 40</ref> == Resistance == Di Congolese dem no gree colonization; dem dey fight am steady, e come take many shapes. As modern ideas and education dey enter ground, e dey spark plenty action.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> Armed wahala show for small-small parts till Second World War finish (like Pende wahala for 1931, and di gbagbe for Luluabourg 1944). After di war till late 1950s, wetin dem dey call 'Pax belgica' go dey. But e no mean say dem no dey resist; passive resistance dey plenty too, like Kimbanguism wey be from di ‘prophet’ Simon Kimbangu wey di Belgians lock up. Aside active and passive wahala wey Congolese dey raise, di colonial government still dey hear plenty internal noise and gbege. Even for di 1920s, some people for Colonial Council wey dey for Brussels (like Octave Louwers) don talk plenty about di harsh way big companies dey recruit people for di mining places. Di slow growth for population for many areas—abi even wey dem dey chop plenty success for fight against sick sick like sleeping sickness—na another wahala wey dey worry dem. Low birth rate for countryside and some places dey empty usually link to di way traditional life don scatter because of forced work migration and compulsory farming. Dem dey talk say na wetin dem plan be dat, and dem dey point out how population dey increase for cities and how health plus lifespan don better thanks to modern medicine and better living condition.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hunt|first1=Nancy Rose|date=2002|title=Rewriting the Soul in Colonial Congo: Flemish Missionaries and Infertility|url=https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040613132330/https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|archive-date=2004-06-13|website=Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|publisher=Antwerp University Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|language=en}}</ref> Plenty missionaries wey dey connect with Congolese villagers dey carry dem wahala for heart plus sometimes dem dey fit intervene for dem matter with di colonial administration (like land property questions). Di missions plus some area administrators dem fit play big role for study and protect Congolese culture and language tradition plus di artifacts wey dey there. One good example na Father Gustaaf Hulstaert (1900–1990), wey insyde 1937 start di periodical Aequatoria wey dem dey use for di linguistic, ethnographic plus historical study of di Mongo people for di central Congo basin.<ref>See: aequatoria.be</ref> Di colonial state dey interested for di cultural and scientific study of Congo, especially after di Second World War, through di setup of di Institut pour la Recherche Scientifique en Afrique Centrale (IRSAC, 1948). == Toward independence == For early 1950s, di political freedom of di Congolese elites, no talk of di masses, e be like far dream. But e clear say Congo no fit dey far from di quick changes wey happen after di Second World War, wey scatter colonialism worldwide. Di independence wey di British, French, plus Dutch colonies for Asia get after 1945 no really change anything for Congo, but di pressure for Belgium from di United Nations don increase (just like all di other colonial powers). Belgium don agree to article 73 of di United Nations Charter wey talk about self-determination, plus di two superpowers dey pressure Belgium make dem change how dem dey run Congo; di Belgian government dey try hold body against wetin dem call 'interference' with dia colonial policy. Colonial government dey talk how dem go make life beta for Congolese pipo. Since 1940s, dem don dey try small-small give some elite wey dem call évolués small civil rights, dem fit get small political power later. So, 'deserving' Congolese fit apply for proof of 'civil merit', or if dem fit do better, 'immatriculation' (registration), wey go show say dem don join European way of life. To get this status, applicant gats meet strict rules (like marry one wife, show good behavior, etc.) and dem go dey watch dem well well (wey de include house visits). Dis policy no work at all. For around mid-1950s, no be plenty Congolese wey don fit get di civil merit diploma or dem don get di 'immatriculation'. Di benefits wey dem dey talk say come with am—like equal legal status with di white folks—na mostly just talk, no be real. E dey make di évolués frustrated well well. When Governor-General Pétillon start dey talk say he go fit give di native people more civil rights, even voting, to create wetin he dey call 'Belgo-Congolese community', di people for Brussels no really send am, and some Belgians for Congo dey vex as dem dey fear for demma privilege.<ref>[[Isidore Ndaywel è Nziem|Ndaywel è Nziem]], Isidore (1998), ''Histoire générale du Congo'', Paris-Brussels: De Boeck & Larcier, pp. 456–63.</ref> E clear say Belgian government no get proper long-term plan for Congo matter. 'Colonial wahala' no dey trend for Belgium, as long as di colony dey shine and e dey quiet. But one person wey show concern na di young King Baudouin, wey take over from him papa, King Leopold III, for 1951, when dem force Leopold III to waka. Baudouin dey follow wetin dey happen for Belgian Congo well well. Wen King Baudouin come visit Belgian Congo for de first time for 1955, crowd dey cheer am well-well, both whites and blacks dey dance, like as dem show for André Cauvin documentary, Bwana Kitoko.<ref>{{cite book|last=Raspoet|first=Erik|title=Bwana Kitoko en de koning van de Bakuba|publisher=Meulenhoff/Manteau|year=2005|isbn=90-8542-020-2}}</ref> Foreign people wey dey observe, suc as de international correspondent of ''The Manchester Guardian'' or a ''Time'' journalist,<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|title=Congo: Boom in the Jungle|date=16 May 1955|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=28 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028201856/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=May 16, 1955|title=CONGO: Boom in the Jungle|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=28 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828025115/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> talk say Belgian paddy paddy style dey work well, and dey compare how Belgian people dem loyal pass those French and British colonies wey dey restless. During di visit, King Baudouin carry Governor-General idea of 'Belgo-Congolese community' come front; but for real, dis plan dey move slow. At di same time, dem wahala wey dey divide for Belgium, wey dem fit hide from di colony before, start to enter Congo too. Dem talk say workers dey unite more now, dem dey call make public schools fit break mission schools for education, plus dem wan make both Belgian languages, French and Dutch, sabi equal treatment for colony. Before this, na only French dem dey push as colonial language. Governor-General dey fear say dis kind wahala fit spoil di colonial government image for Congolese, plus e go shift focus from di real need for true emancipation. ===== Political organisation ===== [[File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|right|thumb|[[:en:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu|Joseph Kasa-Vubu]], leader of ABAKO plus de first President dem elect democratically of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] [[File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Patrice_Lumumba|Patrice Lumumba]], first democratically elected Prime Minister of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] Di Congolese people join Second World War and dem hear say tings dey change for other colonies, e make dem start to organize make dem fit get power. Di colonial government no fit bring beta changes wey fit work, so di Congolese elites start to gather demself socially and later politically. For di 1950s, two separate types of nationalism show up among di Congolese elites. Di nationalist movement—wey di Belgian authorities no really watch—promote say di Belgian Congo go become one united state after dem get independence. E get wetin wey de oppose this matter, na di ethno-religious and regional nationalism wey catch for di Bakongo area for di west coast, Kasai plus Katanga.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} Di first political groups na dem one. ABAKO wey dem establish for 1950 as di Association culturelle des Bakongo, and wetin Joseph Kasa-Vubu dey run, start as cultural group wey turn political sharp sharp. From di middle of 1950s, dem don dey shout against Belgian colonial rule well well. Plus, di group still dey serve as di main ethno-religious group for di Bakongo and dem blend well with di Kimbanguist Church wey be popular for lower Congo.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} For 1955, Belgian prof Antoine van Bilsen drop one paper wey dem call Thirty Year Plan for the Political Emancipation of Belgian Africa.<ref>Gerard-Libois, Jules (1989), "Vers l'Indépendance: une accélération imprévue", In ''Congo-Zaïre'', Brussels: GRIP, pp. 43–56.</ref> De plan get timetable wey say make dem gradually free Congo for 30 years—na the time wey Van Bilsen believe say e go take to build educated people wey fit take over from the Belgians for power. But the Belgian government and plenty of the évolués no happy with the plan—government no wan lose Congo, and the évolués sabi say Belgium go still dey rule for another three decades. One group of Catholic évolués yan am positive for the plan with one moderate manifesto for one Congolese journal wey dem dey call Conscience Africaine; dem talk some matter about how Congolese fit take part well well.<ref>Kalulambi Pongo, Martin (2009), "Le manifeste 'Conscience africaine: genèse, influences et réactions", In Tousignant, Nathalie (ed.), ''Le manifeste Conscience africaine, 1956'', Brussels: Facultés Universitaires Saint-Louis, pp. 59–81.</ref> For 1957, as experiment matter, colonial government do organize di first local elections for three cities (Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Jadotville), wey Congolese people fit stand for office and vote. Watin happen for 1957–58 make demand for political freedom burst, no be small. Ghana independence for 1957 and President De Gaulle visit wey happen for August 1958 for Brazzaville, capital of di French Congo, across di Congo river from Léopoldville, wey e promise say France African colonies go fit choose between staying with France or full independence, make people for Congo get big dreams. Di World Exhibition wey dem do for Brussels for 1958 (Expo 58) be another eye-opener for plenty Congolese leaders, wey dem allow make dem travel go Belgium for di first time.<ref>Aziza Etambala, Zana (2008), ''De teloorgang van een modelkolonie, Belgisch Congo 1958–1960'', Leuven: Acco, pp. 105–110.</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|date=23 December 1957|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125731/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=December 23, 1957|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=1 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501001542/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> For 1958, people dey crave for independence sharp sharp and the koko don take off. Na Mouvement National Congolais (MNC) wey dey play big role for di matter. Dem start am for 1956, but dem officially set am up as national political party for October 1958, wey dey support make Congo be one strong nation. Di person wey dey lead dem well well na di charming Patrice Lumumba. For 1959, wahala start after Albert Kalonji and some MNC leaders wey wan dey moderate split from di main group (dem call dem Mouvement National Congolais-Kalonji). Even though di party get different waka, Lumumba faction (now Mouvement National Congolais-Lumumba) and di MNC still be di most important and influential party for Belgian Congo. Belgium vehemently de oppose Lumumba ein leftist views plus get grave concerns about de status of demma financial interests if Lumumba ein MNC come power.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] cw2k2zo212tmsgsdhhp3h6fg88h6mi3 69152 69151 2025-07-05T23:54:01Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 I don add de sub-header 'Independence' 69152 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== [[File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Minière_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|right|thumb|Nurses of de [[:en:Union_Minière_du_Haut-Katanga|Union Minière du Haut-Katanga]] plus demma Congolese assistants, [[:en:Lubumbashi|Élisabethville]], 1918]] Health care too dey supported by missions, but colonial state wan show interest small. For 1906, dem start Institute of Tropical Medicine for Brussels. This ITM dey among di top places wey train and do research for tropical medicine and how health care dey work for developing countries. Dem fit clear endemic sickness like sleeping sickness well well with serious campaigns.<ref>A critical assessment of the colonial obsession with sleeping sickness in: Lyons, Maryinez (1992), ''The Colonial Disease, A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> For 1925, medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper be di first person wey carry tryparsamide, di drug from Rockefeller Foundation wey dey cure sleeping sickness, enter Congo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingman |first=Jack |year=1994 |title=Arthur Lewis Piper, M.D.: A Medical Missionary in the Belgian Congo |journal=Journal of Community Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/BF02260364 |pmid=8006209 |s2cid=37502216}}</ref> Di health-care system dey grow well well during colonial time, with plenty hospital beds dey available for di people, plus dem set up dispensaries for far away places. By 1960, di country get beta medical structure wey pass any other African nation for dat time. Belgian Congo get 3,000 health facilities, wey 380 be hospitals. Dem get 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 people (1 for every 187 people). Dem make huge progress for di fight against endemic diseases; dem report sleeping sickness cases drop from 34,000 in 1931 to just 1,100 in 1959, mainly because dem clear tsetse fly for where plenty people dey. All Europeans plus Congolese wey dey for Belgian Congo do dem vaccine for polio, measles and yellow fever. Big big disease prevention programs dem start, wey dem wan make polio, leprosy and tuberculosis no dey again. For primary schools, dem run disease prevention campaigns, and dem include disease prevention class for curriculum too.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319" /> ===== Social inequality den racial discrimination ===== [[File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|thumb|Dem dey pull one woman wey be missionary inside rickshaw by some Congolese guys, around 1920 to 1930.]] Di Belgia Congo get system wey dey separate people based on race an dem dey discriminate too.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Krauzman|first=Marine|date=2025-03-11|title=Belgium's Colonial Past on Trial: What the 2024 Ruling Means for Reparational Justice|url=http://spheresofinfluence.ca/belgiums-colonial-past-on-trial-what-the-2024-ruling-means-for-reparational-justice/|access-date=2025-06-26|website=Spheres of Influence|language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-29|title=Belgian Congo {{!}} History & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgian-Congo|access-date=2025-06-26|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Dem get wetin dem call 'implicit apartheid'. Di colony put curfew for Congolese wey dey live for city, an plenty racial wahala dey happen. Léopoldville get di racist curfew wey e famous for, an dem use am as template for other European colonies like French Equatorial Africa wey dey close by.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Njoh |first1=Ambe J. |date=March 2008 |title=Colonial Philosophies, Urban Space, and Racial Segregation in British and French Colonial Africa |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Black Studies]] |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=579–599 |doi=10.1177/0021934706288447 |s2cid=145775865 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228161615/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref> Even though dem no get proper laws wey dey separate people by race, segregation dey happen plenty for many places. For example, at first, de city centers be only for white people, while black people dey stay for places dem dey call 'cités indigènes' or 'le belge'. Hospitals, shop dem and other places no dey allow both whites and blacks to mix. For Force Publique, black people no fit rise pass non-commissioned officer rank. Plus, black folks for the cities no fit come out from 9 pm to 4 am. Dis kind segregation start dey vanish small-small only for 1950s, but even then, de Congolese dem still dey feel like second-class citizens, especially for politics and law matter. [[File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|right|thumb|King [[:en:Albert_I_of_Belgium|Albert I]] plus Queen [[:en:Elisabeth_of_Bavaria,_Queen_of_the_Belgians|Elisabeth]] inspecting de military camp of Léopoldville for de time of demma visit to de Belgian Congo, 1928]] Sekof dem dey connect ekonomi growth with di 'civilizing mission', plus as state officials, missionaries plus private companies dey always help each other, people don sabi sey Belgian Congo dey ruled by one 'colonial trinity' of King-Church-Capital. Dis one fit mean di colonial state, di Christian missions, plus Société Générale de Belgique too. Di way wey colonial policy take dey work, e get one saying wey Governor-General Pierre Ryckmans (1934–46) use: Dominer pour servir ('Dominate to serve').<ref>Vanderlinden, Jacques (1994), ''Pierre Ryckmans 1891–1959, Coloniser dans l'honneur'', Brussels: De Boeck.</ref> Di colonial government wan make wey see am say dem dey nice plus no wahala for di administration, plus dem wan show Belgian Congo as di perfect colony. But na only for di 1950s e start change. For di 1950s, dem dey gradually draw back dem plenty harsh laws dem use punish di Congolese people (like di chicote wey be whip). From 1953, plus di big visit wey King Baudouin make to di colony for 1955, Governor-General Léon Pétillon (1952–1958) start dey try build one 'Belgian-Congolese community', where black plus white go dey equal.<ref>Pétillon, L. A. M. (1967), ''Témoignage et réflexions'', Brussels: Renaissance du Livre.</ref> But still, di anti-miscegenation laws no clear, and from 1959 to 1962, plenty mixed-race Congolese pikin dem dey carry come out from Congo by Belgian government plus Catholic Church go Belgium.<ref>{{cite web|last=Paravicini|first=Giulia|date=4 April 2019|title=Belgium apologizes for colonial-era abduction of mixed-race children|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711005737/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|archive-date=11 July 2019|access-date=10 July 2019|publisher=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> For 1957, dem do first municipal elections wey black voters fit vote for some big cities — Léopoldville, Élisabethville, plus Jadotville. ===== Abolition of slavery ===== For Congo Free State, plenty men, women, and pikin dem free from Swahili Arab slave owners and traders for Eastern Congo between 1886 and 1892. Dem fit join militai (Force Publique) or dem go give am to local chiefs wey be friends, and dem go use dem as workers. Even though dem ban chattel slavery for 1910 when Belgian Congo start, dem still dey use prisoners as forced laborers for public den private projects.<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 40</ref> == Resistance == Di Congolese dem no gree colonization; dem dey fight am steady, e come take many shapes. As modern ideas and education dey enter ground, e dey spark plenty action.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> Armed wahala show for small-small parts till Second World War finish (like Pende wahala for 1931, and di gbagbe for Luluabourg 1944). After di war till late 1950s, wetin dem dey call 'Pax belgica' go dey. But e no mean say dem no dey resist; passive resistance dey plenty too, like Kimbanguism wey be from di ‘prophet’ Simon Kimbangu wey di Belgians lock up. Aside active and passive wahala wey Congolese dey raise, di colonial government still dey hear plenty internal noise and gbege. Even for di 1920s, some people for Colonial Council wey dey for Brussels (like Octave Louwers) don talk plenty about di harsh way big companies dey recruit people for di mining places. Di slow growth for population for many areas—abi even wey dem dey chop plenty success for fight against sick sick like sleeping sickness—na another wahala wey dey worry dem. Low birth rate for countryside and some places dey empty usually link to di way traditional life don scatter because of forced work migration and compulsory farming. Dem dey talk say na wetin dem plan be dat, and dem dey point out how population dey increase for cities and how health plus lifespan don better thanks to modern medicine and better living condition.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hunt|first1=Nancy Rose|date=2002|title=Rewriting the Soul in Colonial Congo: Flemish Missionaries and Infertility|url=https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040613132330/https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|archive-date=2004-06-13|website=Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|publisher=Antwerp University Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|language=en}}</ref> Plenty missionaries wey dey connect with Congolese villagers dey carry dem wahala for heart plus sometimes dem dey fit intervene for dem matter with di colonial administration (like land property questions). Di missions plus some area administrators dem fit play big role for study and protect Congolese culture and language tradition plus di artifacts wey dey there. One good example na Father Gustaaf Hulstaert (1900–1990), wey insyde 1937 start di periodical Aequatoria wey dem dey use for di linguistic, ethnographic plus historical study of di Mongo people for di central Congo basin.<ref>See: aequatoria.be</ref> Di colonial state dey interested for di cultural and scientific study of Congo, especially after di Second World War, through di setup of di Institut pour la Recherche Scientifique en Afrique Centrale (IRSAC, 1948). == Toward independence == For early 1950s, di political freedom of di Congolese elites, no talk of di masses, e be like far dream. But e clear say Congo no fit dey far from di quick changes wey happen after di Second World War, wey scatter colonialism worldwide. Di independence wey di British, French, plus Dutch colonies for Asia get after 1945 no really change anything for Congo, but di pressure for Belgium from di United Nations don increase (just like all di other colonial powers). Belgium don agree to article 73 of di United Nations Charter wey talk about self-determination, plus di two superpowers dey pressure Belgium make dem change how dem dey run Congo; di Belgian government dey try hold body against wetin dem call 'interference' with dia colonial policy. Colonial government dey talk how dem go make life beta for Congolese pipo. Since 1940s, dem don dey try small-small give some elite wey dem call évolués small civil rights, dem fit get small political power later. So, 'deserving' Congolese fit apply for proof of 'civil merit', or if dem fit do better, 'immatriculation' (registration), wey go show say dem don join European way of life. To get this status, applicant gats meet strict rules (like marry one wife, show good behavior, etc.) and dem go dey watch dem well well (wey de include house visits). Dis policy no work at all. For around mid-1950s, no be plenty Congolese wey don fit get di civil merit diploma or dem don get di 'immatriculation'. Di benefits wey dem dey talk say come with am—like equal legal status with di white folks—na mostly just talk, no be real. E dey make di évolués frustrated well well. When Governor-General Pétillon start dey talk say he go fit give di native people more civil rights, even voting, to create wetin he dey call 'Belgo-Congolese community', di people for Brussels no really send am, and some Belgians for Congo dey vex as dem dey fear for demma privilege.<ref>[[Isidore Ndaywel è Nziem|Ndaywel è Nziem]], Isidore (1998), ''Histoire générale du Congo'', Paris-Brussels: De Boeck & Larcier, pp. 456–63.</ref> E clear say Belgian government no get proper long-term plan for Congo matter. 'Colonial wahala' no dey trend for Belgium, as long as di colony dey shine and e dey quiet. But one person wey show concern na di young King Baudouin, wey take over from him papa, King Leopold III, for 1951, when dem force Leopold III to waka. Baudouin dey follow wetin dey happen for Belgian Congo well well. Wen King Baudouin come visit Belgian Congo for de first time for 1955, crowd dey cheer am well-well, both whites and blacks dey dance, like as dem show for André Cauvin documentary, Bwana Kitoko.<ref>{{cite book|last=Raspoet|first=Erik|title=Bwana Kitoko en de koning van de Bakuba|publisher=Meulenhoff/Manteau|year=2005|isbn=90-8542-020-2}}</ref> Foreign people wey dey observe, suc as de international correspondent of ''The Manchester Guardian'' or a ''Time'' journalist,<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|title=Congo: Boom in the Jungle|date=16 May 1955|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=28 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028201856/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=May 16, 1955|title=CONGO: Boom in the Jungle|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=28 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828025115/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> talk say Belgian paddy paddy style dey work well, and dey compare how Belgian people dem loyal pass those French and British colonies wey dey restless. During di visit, King Baudouin carry Governor-General idea of 'Belgo-Congolese community' come front; but for real, dis plan dey move slow. At di same time, dem wahala wey dey divide for Belgium, wey dem fit hide from di colony before, start to enter Congo too. Dem talk say workers dey unite more now, dem dey call make public schools fit break mission schools for education, plus dem wan make both Belgian languages, French and Dutch, sabi equal treatment for colony. Before this, na only French dem dey push as colonial language. Governor-General dey fear say dis kind wahala fit spoil di colonial government image for Congolese, plus e go shift focus from di real need for true emancipation. ===== Political organisation ===== [[File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|right|thumb|[[:en:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu|Joseph Kasa-Vubu]], leader of ABAKO plus de first President dem elect democratically of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] [[File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Patrice_Lumumba|Patrice Lumumba]], first democratically elected Prime Minister of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] Di Congolese people join Second World War and dem hear say tings dey change for other colonies, e make dem start to organize make dem fit get power. Di colonial government no fit bring beta changes wey fit work, so di Congolese elites start to gather demself socially and later politically. For di 1950s, two separate types of nationalism show up among di Congolese elites. Di nationalist movement—wey di Belgian authorities no really watch—promote say di Belgian Congo go become one united state after dem get independence. E get wetin wey de oppose this matter, na di ethno-religious and regional nationalism wey catch for di Bakongo area for di west coast, Kasai plus Katanga.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} Di first political groups na dem one. ABAKO wey dem establish for 1950 as di Association culturelle des Bakongo, and wetin Joseph Kasa-Vubu dey run, start as cultural group wey turn political sharp sharp. From di middle of 1950s, dem don dey shout against Belgian colonial rule well well. Plus, di group still dey serve as di main ethno-religious group for di Bakongo and dem blend well with di Kimbanguist Church wey be popular for lower Congo.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} For 1955, Belgian prof Antoine van Bilsen drop one paper wey dem call Thirty Year Plan for the Political Emancipation of Belgian Africa.<ref>Gerard-Libois, Jules (1989), "Vers l'Indépendance: une accélération imprévue", In ''Congo-Zaïre'', Brussels: GRIP, pp. 43–56.</ref> De plan get timetable wey say make dem gradually free Congo for 30 years—na the time wey Van Bilsen believe say e go take to build educated people wey fit take over from the Belgians for power. But the Belgian government and plenty of the évolués no happy with the plan—government no wan lose Congo, and the évolués sabi say Belgium go still dey rule for another three decades. One group of Catholic évolués yan am positive for the plan with one moderate manifesto for one Congolese journal wey dem dey call Conscience Africaine; dem talk some matter about how Congolese fit take part well well.<ref>Kalulambi Pongo, Martin (2009), "Le manifeste 'Conscience africaine: genèse, influences et réactions", In Tousignant, Nathalie (ed.), ''Le manifeste Conscience africaine, 1956'', Brussels: Facultés Universitaires Saint-Louis, pp. 59–81.</ref> For 1957, as experiment matter, colonial government do organize di first local elections for three cities (Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Jadotville), wey Congolese people fit stand for office and vote. Watin happen for 1957–58 make demand for political freedom burst, no be small. Ghana independence for 1957 and President De Gaulle visit wey happen for August 1958 for Brazzaville, capital of di French Congo, across di Congo river from Léopoldville, wey e promise say France African colonies go fit choose between staying with France or full independence, make people for Congo get big dreams. Di World Exhibition wey dem do for Brussels for 1958 (Expo 58) be another eye-opener for plenty Congolese leaders, wey dem allow make dem travel go Belgium for di first time.<ref>Aziza Etambala, Zana (2008), ''De teloorgang van een modelkolonie, Belgisch Congo 1958–1960'', Leuven: Acco, pp. 105–110.</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|date=23 December 1957|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125731/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=December 23, 1957|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=1 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501001542/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> For 1958, people dey crave for independence sharp sharp and the koko don take off. Na Mouvement National Congolais (MNC) wey dey play big role for di matter. Dem start am for 1956, but dem officially set am up as national political party for October 1958, wey dey support make Congo be one strong nation. Di person wey dey lead dem well well na di charming Patrice Lumumba. For 1959, wahala start after Albert Kalonji and some MNC leaders wey wan dey moderate split from di main group (dem call dem Mouvement National Congolais-Kalonji). Even though di party get different waka, Lumumba faction (now Mouvement National Congolais-Lumumba) and di MNC still be di most important and influential party for Belgian Congo. Belgium vehemently de oppose Lumumba ein leftist views plus get grave concerns about de status of demma financial interests if Lumumba ein MNC come power.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} ===== Independence ===== == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] 0c9ts2jqdwionpdrh8m4jrg5d3ilj89 69153 69152 2025-07-05T23:57:03Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Independence */ 69153 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== [[File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Minière_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|right|thumb|Nurses of de [[:en:Union_Minière_du_Haut-Katanga|Union Minière du Haut-Katanga]] plus demma Congolese assistants, [[:en:Lubumbashi|Élisabethville]], 1918]] Health care too dey supported by missions, but colonial state wan show interest small. For 1906, dem start Institute of Tropical Medicine for Brussels. This ITM dey among di top places wey train and do research for tropical medicine and how health care dey work for developing countries. Dem fit clear endemic sickness like sleeping sickness well well with serious campaigns.<ref>A critical assessment of the colonial obsession with sleeping sickness in: Lyons, Maryinez (1992), ''The Colonial Disease, A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> For 1925, medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper be di first person wey carry tryparsamide, di drug from Rockefeller Foundation wey dey cure sleeping sickness, enter Congo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingman |first=Jack |year=1994 |title=Arthur Lewis Piper, M.D.: A Medical Missionary in the Belgian Congo |journal=Journal of Community Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/BF02260364 |pmid=8006209 |s2cid=37502216}}</ref> Di health-care system dey grow well well during colonial time, with plenty hospital beds dey available for di people, plus dem set up dispensaries for far away places. By 1960, di country get beta medical structure wey pass any other African nation for dat time. Belgian Congo get 3,000 health facilities, wey 380 be hospitals. Dem get 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 people (1 for every 187 people). Dem make huge progress for di fight against endemic diseases; dem report sleeping sickness cases drop from 34,000 in 1931 to just 1,100 in 1959, mainly because dem clear tsetse fly for where plenty people dey. All Europeans plus Congolese wey dey for Belgian Congo do dem vaccine for polio, measles and yellow fever. Big big disease prevention programs dem start, wey dem wan make polio, leprosy and tuberculosis no dey again. For primary schools, dem run disease prevention campaigns, and dem include disease prevention class for curriculum too.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319" /> ===== Social inequality den racial discrimination ===== [[File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|thumb|Dem dey pull one woman wey be missionary inside rickshaw by some Congolese guys, around 1920 to 1930.]] Di Belgia Congo get system wey dey separate people based on race an dem dey discriminate too.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Krauzman|first=Marine|date=2025-03-11|title=Belgium's Colonial Past on Trial: What the 2024 Ruling Means for Reparational Justice|url=http://spheresofinfluence.ca/belgiums-colonial-past-on-trial-what-the-2024-ruling-means-for-reparational-justice/|access-date=2025-06-26|website=Spheres of Influence|language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-29|title=Belgian Congo {{!}} History & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgian-Congo|access-date=2025-06-26|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Dem get wetin dem call 'implicit apartheid'. Di colony put curfew for Congolese wey dey live for city, an plenty racial wahala dey happen. Léopoldville get di racist curfew wey e famous for, an dem use am as template for other European colonies like French Equatorial Africa wey dey close by.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Njoh |first1=Ambe J. |date=March 2008 |title=Colonial Philosophies, Urban Space, and Racial Segregation in British and French Colonial Africa |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Black Studies]] |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=579–599 |doi=10.1177/0021934706288447 |s2cid=145775865 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228161615/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref> Even though dem no get proper laws wey dey separate people by race, segregation dey happen plenty for many places. For example, at first, de city centers be only for white people, while black people dey stay for places dem dey call 'cités indigènes' or 'le belge'. Hospitals, shop dem and other places no dey allow both whites and blacks to mix. For Force Publique, black people no fit rise pass non-commissioned officer rank. Plus, black folks for the cities no fit come out from 9 pm to 4 am. Dis kind segregation start dey vanish small-small only for 1950s, but even then, de Congolese dem still dey feel like second-class citizens, especially for politics and law matter. [[File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|right|thumb|King [[:en:Albert_I_of_Belgium|Albert I]] plus Queen [[:en:Elisabeth_of_Bavaria,_Queen_of_the_Belgians|Elisabeth]] inspecting de military camp of Léopoldville for de time of demma visit to de Belgian Congo, 1928]] Sekof dem dey connect ekonomi growth with di 'civilizing mission', plus as state officials, missionaries plus private companies dey always help each other, people don sabi sey Belgian Congo dey ruled by one 'colonial trinity' of King-Church-Capital. Dis one fit mean di colonial state, di Christian missions, plus Société Générale de Belgique too. Di way wey colonial policy take dey work, e get one saying wey Governor-General Pierre Ryckmans (1934–46) use: Dominer pour servir ('Dominate to serve').<ref>Vanderlinden, Jacques (1994), ''Pierre Ryckmans 1891–1959, Coloniser dans l'honneur'', Brussels: De Boeck.</ref> Di colonial government wan make wey see am say dem dey nice plus no wahala for di administration, plus dem wan show Belgian Congo as di perfect colony. But na only for di 1950s e start change. For di 1950s, dem dey gradually draw back dem plenty harsh laws dem use punish di Congolese people (like di chicote wey be whip). From 1953, plus di big visit wey King Baudouin make to di colony for 1955, Governor-General Léon Pétillon (1952–1958) start dey try build one 'Belgian-Congolese community', where black plus white go dey equal.<ref>Pétillon, L. A. M. (1967), ''Témoignage et réflexions'', Brussels: Renaissance du Livre.</ref> But still, di anti-miscegenation laws no clear, and from 1959 to 1962, plenty mixed-race Congolese pikin dem dey carry come out from Congo by Belgian government plus Catholic Church go Belgium.<ref>{{cite web|last=Paravicini|first=Giulia|date=4 April 2019|title=Belgium apologizes for colonial-era abduction of mixed-race children|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711005737/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|archive-date=11 July 2019|access-date=10 July 2019|publisher=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> For 1957, dem do first municipal elections wey black voters fit vote for some big cities — Léopoldville, Élisabethville, plus Jadotville. ===== Abolition of slavery ===== For Congo Free State, plenty men, women, and pikin dem free from Swahili Arab slave owners and traders for Eastern Congo between 1886 and 1892. Dem fit join militai (Force Publique) or dem go give am to local chiefs wey be friends, and dem go use dem as workers. Even though dem ban chattel slavery for 1910 when Belgian Congo start, dem still dey use prisoners as forced laborers for public den private projects.<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 40</ref> == Resistance == Di Congolese dem no gree colonization; dem dey fight am steady, e come take many shapes. As modern ideas and education dey enter ground, e dey spark plenty action.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> Armed wahala show for small-small parts till Second World War finish (like Pende wahala for 1931, and di gbagbe for Luluabourg 1944). After di war till late 1950s, wetin dem dey call 'Pax belgica' go dey. But e no mean say dem no dey resist; passive resistance dey plenty too, like Kimbanguism wey be from di ‘prophet’ Simon Kimbangu wey di Belgians lock up. Aside active and passive wahala wey Congolese dey raise, di colonial government still dey hear plenty internal noise and gbege. Even for di 1920s, some people for Colonial Council wey dey for Brussels (like Octave Louwers) don talk plenty about di harsh way big companies dey recruit people for di mining places. Di slow growth for population for many areas—abi even wey dem dey chop plenty success for fight against sick sick like sleeping sickness—na another wahala wey dey worry dem. Low birth rate for countryside and some places dey empty usually link to di way traditional life don scatter because of forced work migration and compulsory farming. Dem dey talk say na wetin dem plan be dat, and dem dey point out how population dey increase for cities and how health plus lifespan don better thanks to modern medicine and better living condition.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hunt|first1=Nancy Rose|date=2002|title=Rewriting the Soul in Colonial Congo: Flemish Missionaries and Infertility|url=https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040613132330/https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|archive-date=2004-06-13|website=Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|publisher=Antwerp University Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|language=en}}</ref> Plenty missionaries wey dey connect with Congolese villagers dey carry dem wahala for heart plus sometimes dem dey fit intervene for dem matter with di colonial administration (like land property questions). Di missions plus some area administrators dem fit play big role for study and protect Congolese culture and language tradition plus di artifacts wey dey there. One good example na Father Gustaaf Hulstaert (1900–1990), wey insyde 1937 start di periodical Aequatoria wey dem dey use for di linguistic, ethnographic plus historical study of di Mongo people for di central Congo basin.<ref>See: aequatoria.be</ref> Di colonial state dey interested for di cultural and scientific study of Congo, especially after di Second World War, through di setup of di Institut pour la Recherche Scientifique en Afrique Centrale (IRSAC, 1948). == Toward independence == For early 1950s, di political freedom of di Congolese elites, no talk of di masses, e be like far dream. But e clear say Congo no fit dey far from di quick changes wey happen after di Second World War, wey scatter colonialism worldwide. Di independence wey di British, French, plus Dutch colonies for Asia get after 1945 no really change anything for Congo, but di pressure for Belgium from di United Nations don increase (just like all di other colonial powers). Belgium don agree to article 73 of di United Nations Charter wey talk about self-determination, plus di two superpowers dey pressure Belgium make dem change how dem dey run Congo; di Belgian government dey try hold body against wetin dem call 'interference' with dia colonial policy. Colonial government dey talk how dem go make life beta for Congolese pipo. Since 1940s, dem don dey try small-small give some elite wey dem call évolués small civil rights, dem fit get small political power later. So, 'deserving' Congolese fit apply for proof of 'civil merit', or if dem fit do better, 'immatriculation' (registration), wey go show say dem don join European way of life. To get this status, applicant gats meet strict rules (like marry one wife, show good behavior, etc.) and dem go dey watch dem well well (wey de include house visits). Dis policy no work at all. For around mid-1950s, no be plenty Congolese wey don fit get di civil merit diploma or dem don get di 'immatriculation'. Di benefits wey dem dey talk say come with am—like equal legal status with di white folks—na mostly just talk, no be real. E dey make di évolués frustrated well well. When Governor-General Pétillon start dey talk say he go fit give di native people more civil rights, even voting, to create wetin he dey call 'Belgo-Congolese community', di people for Brussels no really send am, and some Belgians for Congo dey vex as dem dey fear for demma privilege.<ref>[[Isidore Ndaywel è Nziem|Ndaywel è Nziem]], Isidore (1998), ''Histoire générale du Congo'', Paris-Brussels: De Boeck & Larcier, pp. 456–63.</ref> E clear say Belgian government no get proper long-term plan for Congo matter. 'Colonial wahala' no dey trend for Belgium, as long as di colony dey shine and e dey quiet. But one person wey show concern na di young King Baudouin, wey take over from him papa, King Leopold III, for 1951, when dem force Leopold III to waka. Baudouin dey follow wetin dey happen for Belgian Congo well well. Wen King Baudouin come visit Belgian Congo for de first time for 1955, crowd dey cheer am well-well, both whites and blacks dey dance, like as dem show for André Cauvin documentary, Bwana Kitoko.<ref>{{cite book|last=Raspoet|first=Erik|title=Bwana Kitoko en de koning van de Bakuba|publisher=Meulenhoff/Manteau|year=2005|isbn=90-8542-020-2}}</ref> Foreign people wey dey observe, suc as de international correspondent of ''The Manchester Guardian'' or a ''Time'' journalist,<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|title=Congo: Boom in the Jungle|date=16 May 1955|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=28 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028201856/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=May 16, 1955|title=CONGO: Boom in the Jungle|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=28 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828025115/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> talk say Belgian paddy paddy style dey work well, and dey compare how Belgian people dem loyal pass those French and British colonies wey dey restless. During di visit, King Baudouin carry Governor-General idea of 'Belgo-Congolese community' come front; but for real, dis plan dey move slow. At di same time, dem wahala wey dey divide for Belgium, wey dem fit hide from di colony before, start to enter Congo too. Dem talk say workers dey unite more now, dem dey call make public schools fit break mission schools for education, plus dem wan make both Belgian languages, French and Dutch, sabi equal treatment for colony. Before this, na only French dem dey push as colonial language. Governor-General dey fear say dis kind wahala fit spoil di colonial government image for Congolese, plus e go shift focus from di real need for true emancipation. ===== Political organisation ===== [[File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|right|thumb|[[:en:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu|Joseph Kasa-Vubu]], leader of ABAKO plus de first President dem elect democratically of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] [[File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Patrice_Lumumba|Patrice Lumumba]], first democratically elected Prime Minister of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] Di Congolese people join Second World War and dem hear say tings dey change for other colonies, e make dem start to organize make dem fit get power. Di colonial government no fit bring beta changes wey fit work, so di Congolese elites start to gather demself socially and later politically. For di 1950s, two separate types of nationalism show up among di Congolese elites. Di nationalist movement—wey di Belgian authorities no really watch—promote say di Belgian Congo go become one united state after dem get independence. E get wetin wey de oppose this matter, na di ethno-religious and regional nationalism wey catch for di Bakongo area for di west coast, Kasai plus Katanga.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} Di first political groups na dem one. ABAKO wey dem establish for 1950 as di Association culturelle des Bakongo, and wetin Joseph Kasa-Vubu dey run, start as cultural group wey turn political sharp sharp. From di middle of 1950s, dem don dey shout against Belgian colonial rule well well. Plus, di group still dey serve as di main ethno-religious group for di Bakongo and dem blend well with di Kimbanguist Church wey be popular for lower Congo.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} For 1955, Belgian prof Antoine van Bilsen drop one paper wey dem call Thirty Year Plan for the Political Emancipation of Belgian Africa.<ref>Gerard-Libois, Jules (1989), "Vers l'Indépendance: une accélération imprévue", In ''Congo-Zaïre'', Brussels: GRIP, pp. 43–56.</ref> De plan get timetable wey say make dem gradually free Congo for 30 years—na the time wey Van Bilsen believe say e go take to build educated people wey fit take over from the Belgians for power. But the Belgian government and plenty of the évolués no happy with the plan—government no wan lose Congo, and the évolués sabi say Belgium go still dey rule for another three decades. One group of Catholic évolués yan am positive for the plan with one moderate manifesto for one Congolese journal wey dem dey call Conscience Africaine; dem talk some matter about how Congolese fit take part well well.<ref>Kalulambi Pongo, Martin (2009), "Le manifeste 'Conscience africaine: genèse, influences et réactions", In Tousignant, Nathalie (ed.), ''Le manifeste Conscience africaine, 1956'', Brussels: Facultés Universitaires Saint-Louis, pp. 59–81.</ref> For 1957, as experiment matter, colonial government do organize di first local elections for three cities (Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Jadotville), wey Congolese people fit stand for office and vote. Watin happen for 1957–58 make demand for political freedom burst, no be small. Ghana independence for 1957 and President De Gaulle visit wey happen for August 1958 for Brazzaville, capital of di French Congo, across di Congo river from Léopoldville, wey e promise say France African colonies go fit choose between staying with France or full independence, make people for Congo get big dreams. Di World Exhibition wey dem do for Brussels for 1958 (Expo 58) be another eye-opener for plenty Congolese leaders, wey dem allow make dem travel go Belgium for di first time.<ref>Aziza Etambala, Zana (2008), ''De teloorgang van een modelkolonie, Belgisch Congo 1958–1960'', Leuven: Acco, pp. 105–110.</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|date=23 December 1957|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125731/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=December 23, 1957|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=1 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501001542/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> For 1958, people dey crave for independence sharp sharp and the koko don take off. Na Mouvement National Congolais (MNC) wey dey play big role for di matter. Dem start am for 1956, but dem officially set am up as national political party for October 1958, wey dey support make Congo be one strong nation. Di person wey dey lead dem well well na di charming Patrice Lumumba. For 1959, wahala start after Albert Kalonji and some MNC leaders wey wan dey moderate split from di main group (dem call dem Mouvement National Congolais-Kalonji). Even though di party get different waka, Lumumba faction (now Mouvement National Congolais-Lumumba) and di MNC still be di most important and influential party for Belgian Congo. Belgium vehemently de oppose Lumumba ein leftist views plus get grave concerns about de status of demma financial interests if Lumumba ein MNC come power.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} ===== Independence ===== As Belgium dey debate how to give Congolese people their freedom small-small, wahala just burst everywhere. On 4 January 1959, dem do one political demo for Léopoldville wey ABAKO organise, but e no gree control. Na so, the colonial capital begin catch fire with plenty chaos. E take dem days to bring back order, and if we count am well, hundreds don die. De eruption of violence sent a shockwave through de Congo den Belgium alike.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-01-if-blood-must-run.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: If Blood Must Run|date=19 January 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125735/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-01-if-blood-must-run.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=January 19, 1959|title=BELGIAN CONGO: If Blood Must Run|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,868969,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201082719/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,868969,00.html|archive-date=2011-02-01|magazine=Time}}</ref> On 13 January, King Baudouin use radio talk to the people say Belgium go work for Congo to get full independence fast, but no be to go rush am like mumu.<ref>Koning Boudewijn. 35 jaar dialoog met de natie. Een keuze uit de koninklijke toespraken van 1951 tot 1986. Lannoo Tielt, Inbel, 1986, blz. 124.</ref> == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] nzamm2bdsks0tlz11osyshhqpvv6zoe 69155 69153 2025-07-06T00:00:30Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Independence */ 69155 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== [[File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Minière_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|right|thumb|Nurses of de [[:en:Union_Minière_du_Haut-Katanga|Union Minière du Haut-Katanga]] plus demma Congolese assistants, [[:en:Lubumbashi|Élisabethville]], 1918]] Health care too dey supported by missions, but colonial state wan show interest small. For 1906, dem start Institute of Tropical Medicine for Brussels. This ITM dey among di top places wey train and do research for tropical medicine and how health care dey work for developing countries. Dem fit clear endemic sickness like sleeping sickness well well with serious campaigns.<ref>A critical assessment of the colonial obsession with sleeping sickness in: Lyons, Maryinez (1992), ''The Colonial Disease, A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> For 1925, medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper be di first person wey carry tryparsamide, di drug from Rockefeller Foundation wey dey cure sleeping sickness, enter Congo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingman |first=Jack |year=1994 |title=Arthur Lewis Piper, M.D.: A Medical Missionary in the Belgian Congo |journal=Journal of Community Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/BF02260364 |pmid=8006209 |s2cid=37502216}}</ref> Di health-care system dey grow well well during colonial time, with plenty hospital beds dey available for di people, plus dem set up dispensaries for far away places. By 1960, di country get beta medical structure wey pass any other African nation for dat time. Belgian Congo get 3,000 health facilities, wey 380 be hospitals. Dem get 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 people (1 for every 187 people). Dem make huge progress for di fight against endemic diseases; dem report sleeping sickness cases drop from 34,000 in 1931 to just 1,100 in 1959, mainly because dem clear tsetse fly for where plenty people dey. All Europeans plus Congolese wey dey for Belgian Congo do dem vaccine for polio, measles and yellow fever. Big big disease prevention programs dem start, wey dem wan make polio, leprosy and tuberculosis no dey again. For primary schools, dem run disease prevention campaigns, and dem include disease prevention class for curriculum too.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319" /> ===== Social inequality den racial discrimination ===== [[File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|thumb|Dem dey pull one woman wey be missionary inside rickshaw by some Congolese guys, around 1920 to 1930.]] Di Belgia Congo get system wey dey separate people based on race an dem dey discriminate too.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Krauzman|first=Marine|date=2025-03-11|title=Belgium's Colonial Past on Trial: What the 2024 Ruling Means for Reparational Justice|url=http://spheresofinfluence.ca/belgiums-colonial-past-on-trial-what-the-2024-ruling-means-for-reparational-justice/|access-date=2025-06-26|website=Spheres of Influence|language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-29|title=Belgian Congo {{!}} History & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgian-Congo|access-date=2025-06-26|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Dem get wetin dem call 'implicit apartheid'. Di colony put curfew for Congolese wey dey live for city, an plenty racial wahala dey happen. Léopoldville get di racist curfew wey e famous for, an dem use am as template for other European colonies like French Equatorial Africa wey dey close by.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Njoh |first1=Ambe J. |date=March 2008 |title=Colonial Philosophies, Urban Space, and Racial Segregation in British and French Colonial Africa |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Black Studies]] |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=579–599 |doi=10.1177/0021934706288447 |s2cid=145775865 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228161615/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref> Even though dem no get proper laws wey dey separate people by race, segregation dey happen plenty for many places. For example, at first, de city centers be only for white people, while black people dey stay for places dem dey call 'cités indigènes' or 'le belge'. Hospitals, shop dem and other places no dey allow both whites and blacks to mix. For Force Publique, black people no fit rise pass non-commissioned officer rank. Plus, black folks for the cities no fit come out from 9 pm to 4 am. Dis kind segregation start dey vanish small-small only for 1950s, but even then, de Congolese dem still dey feel like second-class citizens, especially for politics and law matter. [[File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|right|thumb|King [[:en:Albert_I_of_Belgium|Albert I]] plus Queen [[:en:Elisabeth_of_Bavaria,_Queen_of_the_Belgians|Elisabeth]] inspecting de military camp of Léopoldville for de time of demma visit to de Belgian Congo, 1928]] Sekof dem dey connect ekonomi growth with di 'civilizing mission', plus as state officials, missionaries plus private companies dey always help each other, people don sabi sey Belgian Congo dey ruled by one 'colonial trinity' of King-Church-Capital. Dis one fit mean di colonial state, di Christian missions, plus Société Générale de Belgique too. Di way wey colonial policy take dey work, e get one saying wey Governor-General Pierre Ryckmans (1934–46) use: Dominer pour servir ('Dominate to serve').<ref>Vanderlinden, Jacques (1994), ''Pierre Ryckmans 1891–1959, Coloniser dans l'honneur'', Brussels: De Boeck.</ref> Di colonial government wan make wey see am say dem dey nice plus no wahala for di administration, plus dem wan show Belgian Congo as di perfect colony. But na only for di 1950s e start change. For di 1950s, dem dey gradually draw back dem plenty harsh laws dem use punish di Congolese people (like di chicote wey be whip). From 1953, plus di big visit wey King Baudouin make to di colony for 1955, Governor-General Léon Pétillon (1952–1958) start dey try build one 'Belgian-Congolese community', where black plus white go dey equal.<ref>Pétillon, L. A. M. (1967), ''Témoignage et réflexions'', Brussels: Renaissance du Livre.</ref> But still, di anti-miscegenation laws no clear, and from 1959 to 1962, plenty mixed-race Congolese pikin dem dey carry come out from Congo by Belgian government plus Catholic Church go Belgium.<ref>{{cite web|last=Paravicini|first=Giulia|date=4 April 2019|title=Belgium apologizes for colonial-era abduction of mixed-race children|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711005737/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|archive-date=11 July 2019|access-date=10 July 2019|publisher=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> For 1957, dem do first municipal elections wey black voters fit vote for some big cities — Léopoldville, Élisabethville, plus Jadotville. ===== Abolition of slavery ===== For Congo Free State, plenty men, women, and pikin dem free from Swahili Arab slave owners and traders for Eastern Congo between 1886 and 1892. Dem fit join militai (Force Publique) or dem go give am to local chiefs wey be friends, and dem go use dem as workers. Even though dem ban chattel slavery for 1910 when Belgian Congo start, dem still dey use prisoners as forced laborers for public den private projects.<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 40</ref> == Resistance == Di Congolese dem no gree colonization; dem dey fight am steady, e come take many shapes. As modern ideas and education dey enter ground, e dey spark plenty action.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> Armed wahala show for small-small parts till Second World War finish (like Pende wahala for 1931, and di gbagbe for Luluabourg 1944). After di war till late 1950s, wetin dem dey call 'Pax belgica' go dey. But e no mean say dem no dey resist; passive resistance dey plenty too, like Kimbanguism wey be from di ‘prophet’ Simon Kimbangu wey di Belgians lock up. Aside active and passive wahala wey Congolese dey raise, di colonial government still dey hear plenty internal noise and gbege. Even for di 1920s, some people for Colonial Council wey dey for Brussels (like Octave Louwers) don talk plenty about di harsh way big companies dey recruit people for di mining places. Di slow growth for population for many areas—abi even wey dem dey chop plenty success for fight against sick sick like sleeping sickness—na another wahala wey dey worry dem. Low birth rate for countryside and some places dey empty usually link to di way traditional life don scatter because of forced work migration and compulsory farming. Dem dey talk say na wetin dem plan be dat, and dem dey point out how population dey increase for cities and how health plus lifespan don better thanks to modern medicine and better living condition.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hunt|first1=Nancy Rose|date=2002|title=Rewriting the Soul in Colonial Congo: Flemish Missionaries and Infertility|url=https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040613132330/https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|archive-date=2004-06-13|website=Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|publisher=Antwerp University Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|language=en}}</ref> Plenty missionaries wey dey connect with Congolese villagers dey carry dem wahala for heart plus sometimes dem dey fit intervene for dem matter with di colonial administration (like land property questions). Di missions plus some area administrators dem fit play big role for study and protect Congolese culture and language tradition plus di artifacts wey dey there. One good example na Father Gustaaf Hulstaert (1900–1990), wey insyde 1937 start di periodical Aequatoria wey dem dey use for di linguistic, ethnographic plus historical study of di Mongo people for di central Congo basin.<ref>See: aequatoria.be</ref> Di colonial state dey interested for di cultural and scientific study of Congo, especially after di Second World War, through di setup of di Institut pour la Recherche Scientifique en Afrique Centrale (IRSAC, 1948). == Toward independence == For early 1950s, di political freedom of di Congolese elites, no talk of di masses, e be like far dream. But e clear say Congo no fit dey far from di quick changes wey happen after di Second World War, wey scatter colonialism worldwide. Di independence wey di British, French, plus Dutch colonies for Asia get after 1945 no really change anything for Congo, but di pressure for Belgium from di United Nations don increase (just like all di other colonial powers). Belgium don agree to article 73 of di United Nations Charter wey talk about self-determination, plus di two superpowers dey pressure Belgium make dem change how dem dey run Congo; di Belgian government dey try hold body against wetin dem call 'interference' with dia colonial policy. Colonial government dey talk how dem go make life beta for Congolese pipo. Since 1940s, dem don dey try small-small give some elite wey dem call évolués small civil rights, dem fit get small political power later. So, 'deserving' Congolese fit apply for proof of 'civil merit', or if dem fit do better, 'immatriculation' (registration), wey go show say dem don join European way of life. To get this status, applicant gats meet strict rules (like marry one wife, show good behavior, etc.) and dem go dey watch dem well well (wey de include house visits). Dis policy no work at all. For around mid-1950s, no be plenty Congolese wey don fit get di civil merit diploma or dem don get di 'immatriculation'. Di benefits wey dem dey talk say come with am—like equal legal status with di white folks—na mostly just talk, no be real. E dey make di évolués frustrated well well. When Governor-General Pétillon start dey talk say he go fit give di native people more civil rights, even voting, to create wetin he dey call 'Belgo-Congolese community', di people for Brussels no really send am, and some Belgians for Congo dey vex as dem dey fear for demma privilege.<ref>[[Isidore Ndaywel è Nziem|Ndaywel è Nziem]], Isidore (1998), ''Histoire générale du Congo'', Paris-Brussels: De Boeck & Larcier, pp. 456–63.</ref> E clear say Belgian government no get proper long-term plan for Congo matter. 'Colonial wahala' no dey trend for Belgium, as long as di colony dey shine and e dey quiet. But one person wey show concern na di young King Baudouin, wey take over from him papa, King Leopold III, for 1951, when dem force Leopold III to waka. Baudouin dey follow wetin dey happen for Belgian Congo well well. Wen King Baudouin come visit Belgian Congo for de first time for 1955, crowd dey cheer am well-well, both whites and blacks dey dance, like as dem show for André Cauvin documentary, Bwana Kitoko.<ref>{{cite book|last=Raspoet|first=Erik|title=Bwana Kitoko en de koning van de Bakuba|publisher=Meulenhoff/Manteau|year=2005|isbn=90-8542-020-2}}</ref> Foreign people wey dey observe, suc as de international correspondent of ''The Manchester Guardian'' or a ''Time'' journalist,<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|title=Congo: Boom in the Jungle|date=16 May 1955|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=28 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028201856/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=May 16, 1955|title=CONGO: Boom in the Jungle|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=28 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828025115/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> talk say Belgian paddy paddy style dey work well, and dey compare how Belgian people dem loyal pass those French and British colonies wey dey restless. During di visit, King Baudouin carry Governor-General idea of 'Belgo-Congolese community' come front; but for real, dis plan dey move slow. At di same time, dem wahala wey dey divide for Belgium, wey dem fit hide from di colony before, start to enter Congo too. Dem talk say workers dey unite more now, dem dey call make public schools fit break mission schools for education, plus dem wan make both Belgian languages, French and Dutch, sabi equal treatment for colony. Before this, na only French dem dey push as colonial language. Governor-General dey fear say dis kind wahala fit spoil di colonial government image for Congolese, plus e go shift focus from di real need for true emancipation. ===== Political organisation ===== [[File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|right|thumb|[[:en:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu|Joseph Kasa-Vubu]], leader of ABAKO plus de first President dem elect democratically of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] [[File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Patrice_Lumumba|Patrice Lumumba]], first democratically elected Prime Minister of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] Di Congolese people join Second World War and dem hear say tings dey change for other colonies, e make dem start to organize make dem fit get power. Di colonial government no fit bring beta changes wey fit work, so di Congolese elites start to gather demself socially and later politically. For di 1950s, two separate types of nationalism show up among di Congolese elites. Di nationalist movement—wey di Belgian authorities no really watch—promote say di Belgian Congo go become one united state after dem get independence. E get wetin wey de oppose this matter, na di ethno-religious and regional nationalism wey catch for di Bakongo area for di west coast, Kasai plus Katanga.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} Di first political groups na dem one. ABAKO wey dem establish for 1950 as di Association culturelle des Bakongo, and wetin Joseph Kasa-Vubu dey run, start as cultural group wey turn political sharp sharp. From di middle of 1950s, dem don dey shout against Belgian colonial rule well well. Plus, di group still dey serve as di main ethno-religious group for di Bakongo and dem blend well with di Kimbanguist Church wey be popular for lower Congo.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} For 1955, Belgian prof Antoine van Bilsen drop one paper wey dem call Thirty Year Plan for the Political Emancipation of Belgian Africa.<ref>Gerard-Libois, Jules (1989), "Vers l'Indépendance: une accélération imprévue", In ''Congo-Zaïre'', Brussels: GRIP, pp. 43–56.</ref> De plan get timetable wey say make dem gradually free Congo for 30 years—na the time wey Van Bilsen believe say e go take to build educated people wey fit take over from the Belgians for power. But the Belgian government and plenty of the évolués no happy with the plan—government no wan lose Congo, and the évolués sabi say Belgium go still dey rule for another three decades. One group of Catholic évolués yan am positive for the plan with one moderate manifesto for one Congolese journal wey dem dey call Conscience Africaine; dem talk some matter about how Congolese fit take part well well.<ref>Kalulambi Pongo, Martin (2009), "Le manifeste 'Conscience africaine: genèse, influences et réactions", In Tousignant, Nathalie (ed.), ''Le manifeste Conscience africaine, 1956'', Brussels: Facultés Universitaires Saint-Louis, pp. 59–81.</ref> For 1957, as experiment matter, colonial government do organize di first local elections for three cities (Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Jadotville), wey Congolese people fit stand for office and vote. Watin happen for 1957–58 make demand for political freedom burst, no be small. Ghana independence for 1957 and President De Gaulle visit wey happen for August 1958 for Brazzaville, capital of di French Congo, across di Congo river from Léopoldville, wey e promise say France African colonies go fit choose between staying with France or full independence, make people for Congo get big dreams. Di World Exhibition wey dem do for Brussels for 1958 (Expo 58) be another eye-opener for plenty Congolese leaders, wey dem allow make dem travel go Belgium for di first time.<ref>Aziza Etambala, Zana (2008), ''De teloorgang van een modelkolonie, Belgisch Congo 1958–1960'', Leuven: Acco, pp. 105–110.</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|date=23 December 1957|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125731/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=December 23, 1957|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=1 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501001542/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> For 1958, people dey crave for independence sharp sharp and the koko don take off. Na Mouvement National Congolais (MNC) wey dey play big role for di matter. Dem start am for 1956, but dem officially set am up as national political party for October 1958, wey dey support make Congo be one strong nation. Di person wey dey lead dem well well na di charming Patrice Lumumba. For 1959, wahala start after Albert Kalonji and some MNC leaders wey wan dey moderate split from di main group (dem call dem Mouvement National Congolais-Kalonji). Even though di party get different waka, Lumumba faction (now Mouvement National Congolais-Lumumba) and di MNC still be di most important and influential party for Belgian Congo. Belgium vehemently de oppose Lumumba ein leftist views plus get grave concerns about de status of demma financial interests if Lumumba ein MNC come power.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} ===== Independence ===== As Belgium dey debate how to give Congolese people their freedom small-small, wahala just burst everywhere. On 4 January 1959, dem do one political demo for Léopoldville wey ABAKO organise, but e no gree control. Na so, the colonial capital begin catch fire with plenty chaos. E take dem days to bring back order, and if we count am well, hundreds don die. De eruption of violence sent a shockwave through de Congo den Belgium alike.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-01-if-blood-must-run.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: If Blood Must Run|date=19 January 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125735/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-01-if-blood-must-run.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=January 19, 1959|title=BELGIAN CONGO: If Blood Must Run|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,868969,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201082719/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,868969,00.html|archive-date=2011-02-01|magazine=Time}}</ref> On 13 January, King Baudouin use radio talk to the people say Belgium go work for Congo to get full independence fast, but no be to go rush am like mumu.<ref>Koning Boudewijn. 35 jaar dialoog met de natie. Een keuze uit de koninklijke toespraken van 1951 tot 1986. Lannoo Tielt, Inbel, 1986, blz. 124.</ref> Dem no fit talk say independence go happen one particular day, but di government wey Prime Minister Gaston Eyskens dey lead, get plan for multi-year transition period. Dem think say provincial elections go happen for December 1959, national elections for 1960 or 1961, den after, dem go start hand over di admin and political duties small small to di Congolese, as dem dey expect say by mid-1960s e go don finish. But for ground, things dey change fast fast.<ref>Young, Crawford (1965), ''Politics in the Congo" Decolonization and Independence'', Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 140–161.</ref> Di colonial admin dey see different type of resistance, like people wey no wan pay tax. For some places, anarchy threatened.<ref>Ryckmans, Geneviève (1995), ''André Ryckmans, un territorial du Congo belge''. Paris. L'Harmattan, pp. 215–224.</ref> At di same time, plenty Belgians wey dey di Congo no wan independence, dem dey feel say Brussels don betray dem. As di Congolese dem dey demand better change, di government don see say di chance to make am smooth smooth no dey happen again fast fast.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-10-return-of-the-mundele.pdf|title=The Belgian Congo : Return of the Mundele|date=12 October 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125737/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-10-return-of-the-mundele.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=October 12, 1959|title=THE BELGIAN CONGO: Return of the Mundele|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,864032,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101203183837/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,864032,00.html|archive-date=2010-12-03|magazine=Time}}</ref> == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] mic687n4sqwtkem425lc2wqipl16t2o 69156 69155 2025-07-06T00:03:21Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Independence */ 69156 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== [[File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Minière_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|right|thumb|Nurses of de [[:en:Union_Minière_du_Haut-Katanga|Union Minière du Haut-Katanga]] plus demma Congolese assistants, [[:en:Lubumbashi|Élisabethville]], 1918]] Health care too dey supported by missions, but colonial state wan show interest small. For 1906, dem start Institute of Tropical Medicine for Brussels. This ITM dey among di top places wey train and do research for tropical medicine and how health care dey work for developing countries. Dem fit clear endemic sickness like sleeping sickness well well with serious campaigns.<ref>A critical assessment of the colonial obsession with sleeping sickness in: Lyons, Maryinez (1992), ''The Colonial Disease, A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> For 1925, medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper be di first person wey carry tryparsamide, di drug from Rockefeller Foundation wey dey cure sleeping sickness, enter Congo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingman |first=Jack |year=1994 |title=Arthur Lewis Piper, M.D.: A Medical Missionary in the Belgian Congo |journal=Journal of Community Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/BF02260364 |pmid=8006209 |s2cid=37502216}}</ref> Di health-care system dey grow well well during colonial time, with plenty hospital beds dey available for di people, plus dem set up dispensaries for far away places. By 1960, di country get beta medical structure wey pass any other African nation for dat time. Belgian Congo get 3,000 health facilities, wey 380 be hospitals. Dem get 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 people (1 for every 187 people). Dem make huge progress for di fight against endemic diseases; dem report sleeping sickness cases drop from 34,000 in 1931 to just 1,100 in 1959, mainly because dem clear tsetse fly for where plenty people dey. All Europeans plus Congolese wey dey for Belgian Congo do dem vaccine for polio, measles and yellow fever. Big big disease prevention programs dem start, wey dem wan make polio, leprosy and tuberculosis no dey again. For primary schools, dem run disease prevention campaigns, and dem include disease prevention class for curriculum too.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319" /> ===== Social inequality den racial discrimination ===== [[File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|thumb|Dem dey pull one woman wey be missionary inside rickshaw by some Congolese guys, around 1920 to 1930.]] Di Belgia Congo get system wey dey separate people based on race an dem dey discriminate too.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Krauzman|first=Marine|date=2025-03-11|title=Belgium's Colonial Past on Trial: What the 2024 Ruling Means for Reparational Justice|url=http://spheresofinfluence.ca/belgiums-colonial-past-on-trial-what-the-2024-ruling-means-for-reparational-justice/|access-date=2025-06-26|website=Spheres of Influence|language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-29|title=Belgian Congo {{!}} History & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgian-Congo|access-date=2025-06-26|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Dem get wetin dem call 'implicit apartheid'. Di colony put curfew for Congolese wey dey live for city, an plenty racial wahala dey happen. Léopoldville get di racist curfew wey e famous for, an dem use am as template for other European colonies like French Equatorial Africa wey dey close by.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Njoh |first1=Ambe J. |date=March 2008 |title=Colonial Philosophies, Urban Space, and Racial Segregation in British and French Colonial Africa |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Black Studies]] |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=579–599 |doi=10.1177/0021934706288447 |s2cid=145775865 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228161615/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref> Even though dem no get proper laws wey dey separate people by race, segregation dey happen plenty for many places. For example, at first, de city centers be only for white people, while black people dey stay for places dem dey call 'cités indigènes' or 'le belge'. Hospitals, shop dem and other places no dey allow both whites and blacks to mix. For Force Publique, black people no fit rise pass non-commissioned officer rank. Plus, black folks for the cities no fit come out from 9 pm to 4 am. Dis kind segregation start dey vanish small-small only for 1950s, but even then, de Congolese dem still dey feel like second-class citizens, especially for politics and law matter. [[File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|right|thumb|King [[:en:Albert_I_of_Belgium|Albert I]] plus Queen [[:en:Elisabeth_of_Bavaria,_Queen_of_the_Belgians|Elisabeth]] inspecting de military camp of Léopoldville for de time of demma visit to de Belgian Congo, 1928]] Sekof dem dey connect ekonomi growth with di 'civilizing mission', plus as state officials, missionaries plus private companies dey always help each other, people don sabi sey Belgian Congo dey ruled by one 'colonial trinity' of King-Church-Capital. Dis one fit mean di colonial state, di Christian missions, plus Société Générale de Belgique too. Di way wey colonial policy take dey work, e get one saying wey Governor-General Pierre Ryckmans (1934–46) use: Dominer pour servir ('Dominate to serve').<ref>Vanderlinden, Jacques (1994), ''Pierre Ryckmans 1891–1959, Coloniser dans l'honneur'', Brussels: De Boeck.</ref> Di colonial government wan make wey see am say dem dey nice plus no wahala for di administration, plus dem wan show Belgian Congo as di perfect colony. But na only for di 1950s e start change. For di 1950s, dem dey gradually draw back dem plenty harsh laws dem use punish di Congolese people (like di chicote wey be whip). From 1953, plus di big visit wey King Baudouin make to di colony for 1955, Governor-General Léon Pétillon (1952–1958) start dey try build one 'Belgian-Congolese community', where black plus white go dey equal.<ref>Pétillon, L. A. M. (1967), ''Témoignage et réflexions'', Brussels: Renaissance du Livre.</ref> But still, di anti-miscegenation laws no clear, and from 1959 to 1962, plenty mixed-race Congolese pikin dem dey carry come out from Congo by Belgian government plus Catholic Church go Belgium.<ref>{{cite web|last=Paravicini|first=Giulia|date=4 April 2019|title=Belgium apologizes for colonial-era abduction of mixed-race children|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711005737/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|archive-date=11 July 2019|access-date=10 July 2019|publisher=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> For 1957, dem do first municipal elections wey black voters fit vote for some big cities — Léopoldville, Élisabethville, plus Jadotville. ===== Abolition of slavery ===== For Congo Free State, plenty men, women, and pikin dem free from Swahili Arab slave owners and traders for Eastern Congo between 1886 and 1892. Dem fit join militai (Force Publique) or dem go give am to local chiefs wey be friends, and dem go use dem as workers. Even though dem ban chattel slavery for 1910 when Belgian Congo start, dem still dey use prisoners as forced laborers for public den private projects.<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 40</ref> == Resistance == Di Congolese dem no gree colonization; dem dey fight am steady, e come take many shapes. As modern ideas and education dey enter ground, e dey spark plenty action.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> Armed wahala show for small-small parts till Second World War finish (like Pende wahala for 1931, and di gbagbe for Luluabourg 1944). After di war till late 1950s, wetin dem dey call 'Pax belgica' go dey. But e no mean say dem no dey resist; passive resistance dey plenty too, like Kimbanguism wey be from di ‘prophet’ Simon Kimbangu wey di Belgians lock up. Aside active and passive wahala wey Congolese dey raise, di colonial government still dey hear plenty internal noise and gbege. Even for di 1920s, some people for Colonial Council wey dey for Brussels (like Octave Louwers) don talk plenty about di harsh way big companies dey recruit people for di mining places. Di slow growth for population for many areas—abi even wey dem dey chop plenty success for fight against sick sick like sleeping sickness—na another wahala wey dey worry dem. Low birth rate for countryside and some places dey empty usually link to di way traditional life don scatter because of forced work migration and compulsory farming. Dem dey talk say na wetin dem plan be dat, and dem dey point out how population dey increase for cities and how health plus lifespan don better thanks to modern medicine and better living condition.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hunt|first1=Nancy Rose|date=2002|title=Rewriting the Soul in Colonial Congo: Flemish Missionaries and Infertility|url=https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040613132330/https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|archive-date=2004-06-13|website=Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|publisher=Antwerp University Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|language=en}}</ref> Plenty missionaries wey dey connect with Congolese villagers dey carry dem wahala for heart plus sometimes dem dey fit intervene for dem matter with di colonial administration (like land property questions). Di missions plus some area administrators dem fit play big role for study and protect Congolese culture and language tradition plus di artifacts wey dey there. One good example na Father Gustaaf Hulstaert (1900–1990), wey insyde 1937 start di periodical Aequatoria wey dem dey use for di linguistic, ethnographic plus historical study of di Mongo people for di central Congo basin.<ref>See: aequatoria.be</ref> Di colonial state dey interested for di cultural and scientific study of Congo, especially after di Second World War, through di setup of di Institut pour la Recherche Scientifique en Afrique Centrale (IRSAC, 1948). == Toward independence == For early 1950s, di political freedom of di Congolese elites, no talk of di masses, e be like far dream. But e clear say Congo no fit dey far from di quick changes wey happen after di Second World War, wey scatter colonialism worldwide. Di independence wey di British, French, plus Dutch colonies for Asia get after 1945 no really change anything for Congo, but di pressure for Belgium from di United Nations don increase (just like all di other colonial powers). Belgium don agree to article 73 of di United Nations Charter wey talk about self-determination, plus di two superpowers dey pressure Belgium make dem change how dem dey run Congo; di Belgian government dey try hold body against wetin dem call 'interference' with dia colonial policy. Colonial government dey talk how dem go make life beta for Congolese pipo. Since 1940s, dem don dey try small-small give some elite wey dem call évolués small civil rights, dem fit get small political power later. So, 'deserving' Congolese fit apply for proof of 'civil merit', or if dem fit do better, 'immatriculation' (registration), wey go show say dem don join European way of life. To get this status, applicant gats meet strict rules (like marry one wife, show good behavior, etc.) and dem go dey watch dem well well (wey de include house visits). Dis policy no work at all. For around mid-1950s, no be plenty Congolese wey don fit get di civil merit diploma or dem don get di 'immatriculation'. Di benefits wey dem dey talk say come with am—like equal legal status with di white folks—na mostly just talk, no be real. E dey make di évolués frustrated well well. When Governor-General Pétillon start dey talk say he go fit give di native people more civil rights, even voting, to create wetin he dey call 'Belgo-Congolese community', di people for Brussels no really send am, and some Belgians for Congo dey vex as dem dey fear for demma privilege.<ref>[[Isidore Ndaywel è Nziem|Ndaywel è Nziem]], Isidore (1998), ''Histoire générale du Congo'', Paris-Brussels: De Boeck & Larcier, pp. 456–63.</ref> E clear say Belgian government no get proper long-term plan for Congo matter. 'Colonial wahala' no dey trend for Belgium, as long as di colony dey shine and e dey quiet. But one person wey show concern na di young King Baudouin, wey take over from him papa, King Leopold III, for 1951, when dem force Leopold III to waka. Baudouin dey follow wetin dey happen for Belgian Congo well well. Wen King Baudouin come visit Belgian Congo for de first time for 1955, crowd dey cheer am well-well, both whites and blacks dey dance, like as dem show for André Cauvin documentary, Bwana Kitoko.<ref>{{cite book|last=Raspoet|first=Erik|title=Bwana Kitoko en de koning van de Bakuba|publisher=Meulenhoff/Manteau|year=2005|isbn=90-8542-020-2}}</ref> Foreign people wey dey observe, suc as de international correspondent of ''The Manchester Guardian'' or a ''Time'' journalist,<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|title=Congo: Boom in the Jungle|date=16 May 1955|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=28 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028201856/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=May 16, 1955|title=CONGO: Boom in the Jungle|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=28 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828025115/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> talk say Belgian paddy paddy style dey work well, and dey compare how Belgian people dem loyal pass those French and British colonies wey dey restless. During di visit, King Baudouin carry Governor-General idea of 'Belgo-Congolese community' come front; but for real, dis plan dey move slow. At di same time, dem wahala wey dey divide for Belgium, wey dem fit hide from di colony before, start to enter Congo too. Dem talk say workers dey unite more now, dem dey call make public schools fit break mission schools for education, plus dem wan make both Belgian languages, French and Dutch, sabi equal treatment for colony. Before this, na only French dem dey push as colonial language. Governor-General dey fear say dis kind wahala fit spoil di colonial government image for Congolese, plus e go shift focus from di real need for true emancipation. ===== Political organisation ===== [[File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|right|thumb|[[:en:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu|Joseph Kasa-Vubu]], leader of ABAKO plus de first President dem elect democratically of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] [[File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Patrice_Lumumba|Patrice Lumumba]], first democratically elected Prime Minister of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] Di Congolese people join Second World War and dem hear say tings dey change for other colonies, e make dem start to organize make dem fit get power. Di colonial government no fit bring beta changes wey fit work, so di Congolese elites start to gather demself socially and later politically. For di 1950s, two separate types of nationalism show up among di Congolese elites. Di nationalist movement—wey di Belgian authorities no really watch—promote say di Belgian Congo go become one united state after dem get independence. E get wetin wey de oppose this matter, na di ethno-religious and regional nationalism wey catch for di Bakongo area for di west coast, Kasai plus Katanga.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} Di first political groups na dem one. ABAKO wey dem establish for 1950 as di Association culturelle des Bakongo, and wetin Joseph Kasa-Vubu dey run, start as cultural group wey turn political sharp sharp. From di middle of 1950s, dem don dey shout against Belgian colonial rule well well. Plus, di group still dey serve as di main ethno-religious group for di Bakongo and dem blend well with di Kimbanguist Church wey be popular for lower Congo.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} For 1955, Belgian prof Antoine van Bilsen drop one paper wey dem call Thirty Year Plan for the Political Emancipation of Belgian Africa.<ref>Gerard-Libois, Jules (1989), "Vers l'Indépendance: une accélération imprévue", In ''Congo-Zaïre'', Brussels: GRIP, pp. 43–56.</ref> De plan get timetable wey say make dem gradually free Congo for 30 years—na the time wey Van Bilsen believe say e go take to build educated people wey fit take over from the Belgians for power. But the Belgian government and plenty of the évolués no happy with the plan—government no wan lose Congo, and the évolués sabi say Belgium go still dey rule for another three decades. One group of Catholic évolués yan am positive for the plan with one moderate manifesto for one Congolese journal wey dem dey call Conscience Africaine; dem talk some matter about how Congolese fit take part well well.<ref>Kalulambi Pongo, Martin (2009), "Le manifeste 'Conscience africaine: genèse, influences et réactions", In Tousignant, Nathalie (ed.), ''Le manifeste Conscience africaine, 1956'', Brussels: Facultés Universitaires Saint-Louis, pp. 59–81.</ref> For 1957, as experiment matter, colonial government do organize di first local elections for three cities (Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Jadotville), wey Congolese people fit stand for office and vote. Watin happen for 1957–58 make demand for political freedom burst, no be small. Ghana independence for 1957 and President De Gaulle visit wey happen for August 1958 for Brazzaville, capital of di French Congo, across di Congo river from Léopoldville, wey e promise say France African colonies go fit choose between staying with France or full independence, make people for Congo get big dreams. Di World Exhibition wey dem do for Brussels for 1958 (Expo 58) be another eye-opener for plenty Congolese leaders, wey dem allow make dem travel go Belgium for di first time.<ref>Aziza Etambala, Zana (2008), ''De teloorgang van een modelkolonie, Belgisch Congo 1958–1960'', Leuven: Acco, pp. 105–110.</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|date=23 December 1957|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125731/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=December 23, 1957|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=1 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501001542/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> For 1958, people dey crave for independence sharp sharp and the koko don take off. Na Mouvement National Congolais (MNC) wey dey play big role for di matter. Dem start am for 1956, but dem officially set am up as national political party for October 1958, wey dey support make Congo be one strong nation. Di person wey dey lead dem well well na di charming Patrice Lumumba. For 1959, wahala start after Albert Kalonji and some MNC leaders wey wan dey moderate split from di main group (dem call dem Mouvement National Congolais-Kalonji). Even though di party get different waka, Lumumba faction (now Mouvement National Congolais-Lumumba) and di MNC still be di most important and influential party for Belgian Congo. Belgium vehemently de oppose Lumumba ein leftist views plus get grave concerns about de status of demma financial interests if Lumumba ein MNC come power.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} ===== Independence ===== As Belgium dey debate how to give Congolese people their freedom small-small, wahala just burst everywhere. On 4 January 1959, dem do one political demo for Léopoldville wey ABAKO organise, but e no gree control. Na so, the colonial capital begin catch fire with plenty chaos. E take dem days to bring back order, and if we count am well, hundreds don die. De eruption of violence sent a shockwave through de Congo den Belgium alike.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-01-if-blood-must-run.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: If Blood Must Run|date=19 January 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125735/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-01-if-blood-must-run.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=January 19, 1959|title=BELGIAN CONGO: If Blood Must Run|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,868969,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201082719/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,868969,00.html|archive-date=2011-02-01|magazine=Time}}</ref> On 13 January, King Baudouin use radio talk to the people say Belgium go work for Congo to get full independence fast, but no be to go rush am like mumu.<ref>Koning Boudewijn. 35 jaar dialoog met de natie. Een keuze uit de koninklijke toespraken van 1951 tot 1986. Lannoo Tielt, Inbel, 1986, blz. 124.</ref> Dem no fit talk say independence go happen one particular day, but di government wey Prime Minister Gaston Eyskens dey lead, get plan for multi-year transition period. Dem think say provincial elections go happen for December 1959, national elections for 1960 or 1961, den after, dem go start hand over di admin and political duties small small to di Congolese, as dem dey expect say by mid-1960s e go don finish. But for ground, things dey change fast fast.<ref>Young, Crawford (1965), ''Politics in the Congo" Decolonization and Independence'', Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 140–161.</ref> Di colonial admin dey see different type of resistance, like people wey no wan pay tax. For some places, anarchy threatened.<ref>Ryckmans, Geneviève (1995), ''André Ryckmans, un territorial du Congo belge''. Paris. L'Harmattan, pp. 215–224.</ref> At di same time, plenty Belgians wey dey di Congo no wan independence, dem dey feel say Brussels don betray dem. As di Congolese dem dey demand better change, di government don see say di chance to make am smooth smooth no dey happen again fast fast.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-10-return-of-the-mundele.pdf|title=The Belgian Congo : Return of the Mundele|date=12 October 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125737/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-10-return-of-the-mundele.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=October 12, 1959|title=THE BELGIAN CONGO: Return of the Mundele|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,864032,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101203183837/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,864032,00.html|archive-date=2010-12-03|magazine=Time}}</ref> [[File:Ronde_Tafel_Conferentie_te_Brussel_Congo,_Bestanddeelnr_910-9593.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ronde_Tafel_Conferentie_te_Brussel_Congo,_Bestanddeelnr_910-9593.jpg|thumb|220x220px|Opening meeting of de Belgo-Congolese Round Table Conference insyde Brussels on 20 January 1960]] For 1959, King Baudouin come back to Belgian Congo, and e see say everywhere don change from the last time wey e visit four years ago. When e land for Léopoldville, wahala start as black Belgo-Congolese people dey throw stone for am because dem vex say dem don lock Lumumba up, wey dem convict say im dey incite against colonial government. Even though for other cities dem receive am better, dem dey shout “Vive le roi!” but e follow with “Indépendance immédiate!” The Belgian government no wan enter any gbege wey fit turn bloody like wetin happen to France for Indochina and Algeria, or Netherlands for Indonesia. So, dem dey reason say make dem fit agree for Congolese leaders wey dey shout for immediate independence. == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] cskxga4jkedayvrxd5rfh0f6y4ndg0k 69157 69156 2025-07-06T00:05:19Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Independence */ 69157 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== [[File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Minière_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|right|thumb|Nurses of de [[:en:Union_Minière_du_Haut-Katanga|Union Minière du Haut-Katanga]] plus demma Congolese assistants, [[:en:Lubumbashi|Élisabethville]], 1918]] Health care too dey supported by missions, but colonial state wan show interest small. For 1906, dem start Institute of Tropical Medicine for Brussels. This ITM dey among di top places wey train and do research for tropical medicine and how health care dey work for developing countries. Dem fit clear endemic sickness like sleeping sickness well well with serious campaigns.<ref>A critical assessment of the colonial obsession with sleeping sickness in: Lyons, Maryinez (1992), ''The Colonial Disease, A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> For 1925, medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper be di first person wey carry tryparsamide, di drug from Rockefeller Foundation wey dey cure sleeping sickness, enter Congo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingman |first=Jack |year=1994 |title=Arthur Lewis Piper, M.D.: A Medical Missionary in the Belgian Congo |journal=Journal of Community Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/BF02260364 |pmid=8006209 |s2cid=37502216}}</ref> Di health-care system dey grow well well during colonial time, with plenty hospital beds dey available for di people, plus dem set up dispensaries for far away places. By 1960, di country get beta medical structure wey pass any other African nation for dat time. Belgian Congo get 3,000 health facilities, wey 380 be hospitals. Dem get 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 people (1 for every 187 people). Dem make huge progress for di fight against endemic diseases; dem report sleeping sickness cases drop from 34,000 in 1931 to just 1,100 in 1959, mainly because dem clear tsetse fly for where plenty people dey. All Europeans plus Congolese wey dey for Belgian Congo do dem vaccine for polio, measles and yellow fever. Big big disease prevention programs dem start, wey dem wan make polio, leprosy and tuberculosis no dey again. For primary schools, dem run disease prevention campaigns, and dem include disease prevention class for curriculum too.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319" /> ===== Social inequality den racial discrimination ===== [[File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|thumb|Dem dey pull one woman wey be missionary inside rickshaw by some Congolese guys, around 1920 to 1930.]] Di Belgia Congo get system wey dey separate people based on race an dem dey discriminate too.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Krauzman|first=Marine|date=2025-03-11|title=Belgium's Colonial Past on Trial: What the 2024 Ruling Means for Reparational Justice|url=http://spheresofinfluence.ca/belgiums-colonial-past-on-trial-what-the-2024-ruling-means-for-reparational-justice/|access-date=2025-06-26|website=Spheres of Influence|language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-29|title=Belgian Congo {{!}} History & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgian-Congo|access-date=2025-06-26|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Dem get wetin dem call 'implicit apartheid'. Di colony put curfew for Congolese wey dey live for city, an plenty racial wahala dey happen. Léopoldville get di racist curfew wey e famous for, an dem use am as template for other European colonies like French Equatorial Africa wey dey close by.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Njoh |first1=Ambe J. |date=March 2008 |title=Colonial Philosophies, Urban Space, and Racial Segregation in British and French Colonial Africa |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Black Studies]] |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=579–599 |doi=10.1177/0021934706288447 |s2cid=145775865 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228161615/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref> Even though dem no get proper laws wey dey separate people by race, segregation dey happen plenty for many places. For example, at first, de city centers be only for white people, while black people dey stay for places dem dey call 'cités indigènes' or 'le belge'. Hospitals, shop dem and other places no dey allow both whites and blacks to mix. For Force Publique, black people no fit rise pass non-commissioned officer rank. Plus, black folks for the cities no fit come out from 9 pm to 4 am. Dis kind segregation start dey vanish small-small only for 1950s, but even then, de Congolese dem still dey feel like second-class citizens, especially for politics and law matter. [[File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|right|thumb|King [[:en:Albert_I_of_Belgium|Albert I]] plus Queen [[:en:Elisabeth_of_Bavaria,_Queen_of_the_Belgians|Elisabeth]] inspecting de military camp of Léopoldville for de time of demma visit to de Belgian Congo, 1928]] Sekof dem dey connect ekonomi growth with di 'civilizing mission', plus as state officials, missionaries plus private companies dey always help each other, people don sabi sey Belgian Congo dey ruled by one 'colonial trinity' of King-Church-Capital. Dis one fit mean di colonial state, di Christian missions, plus Société Générale de Belgique too. Di way wey colonial policy take dey work, e get one saying wey Governor-General Pierre Ryckmans (1934–46) use: Dominer pour servir ('Dominate to serve').<ref>Vanderlinden, Jacques (1994), ''Pierre Ryckmans 1891–1959, Coloniser dans l'honneur'', Brussels: De Boeck.</ref> Di colonial government wan make wey see am say dem dey nice plus no wahala for di administration, plus dem wan show Belgian Congo as di perfect colony. But na only for di 1950s e start change. For di 1950s, dem dey gradually draw back dem plenty harsh laws dem use punish di Congolese people (like di chicote wey be whip). From 1953, plus di big visit wey King Baudouin make to di colony for 1955, Governor-General Léon Pétillon (1952–1958) start dey try build one 'Belgian-Congolese community', where black plus white go dey equal.<ref>Pétillon, L. A. M. (1967), ''Témoignage et réflexions'', Brussels: Renaissance du Livre.</ref> But still, di anti-miscegenation laws no clear, and from 1959 to 1962, plenty mixed-race Congolese pikin dem dey carry come out from Congo by Belgian government plus Catholic Church go Belgium.<ref>{{cite web|last=Paravicini|first=Giulia|date=4 April 2019|title=Belgium apologizes for colonial-era abduction of mixed-race children|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711005737/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|archive-date=11 July 2019|access-date=10 July 2019|publisher=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> For 1957, dem do first municipal elections wey black voters fit vote for some big cities — Léopoldville, Élisabethville, plus Jadotville. ===== Abolition of slavery ===== For Congo Free State, plenty men, women, and pikin dem free from Swahili Arab slave owners and traders for Eastern Congo between 1886 and 1892. Dem fit join militai (Force Publique) or dem go give am to local chiefs wey be friends, and dem go use dem as workers. Even though dem ban chattel slavery for 1910 when Belgian Congo start, dem still dey use prisoners as forced laborers for public den private projects.<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 40</ref> == Resistance == Di Congolese dem no gree colonization; dem dey fight am steady, e come take many shapes. As modern ideas and education dey enter ground, e dey spark plenty action.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> Armed wahala show for small-small parts till Second World War finish (like Pende wahala for 1931, and di gbagbe for Luluabourg 1944). After di war till late 1950s, wetin dem dey call 'Pax belgica' go dey. But e no mean say dem no dey resist; passive resistance dey plenty too, like Kimbanguism wey be from di ‘prophet’ Simon Kimbangu wey di Belgians lock up. Aside active and passive wahala wey Congolese dey raise, di colonial government still dey hear plenty internal noise and gbege. Even for di 1920s, some people for Colonial Council wey dey for Brussels (like Octave Louwers) don talk plenty about di harsh way big companies dey recruit people for di mining places. Di slow growth for population for many areas—abi even wey dem dey chop plenty success for fight against sick sick like sleeping sickness—na another wahala wey dey worry dem. Low birth rate for countryside and some places dey empty usually link to di way traditional life don scatter because of forced work migration and compulsory farming. Dem dey talk say na wetin dem plan be dat, and dem dey point out how population dey increase for cities and how health plus lifespan don better thanks to modern medicine and better living condition.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hunt|first1=Nancy Rose|date=2002|title=Rewriting the Soul in Colonial Congo: Flemish Missionaries and Infertility|url=https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040613132330/https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|archive-date=2004-06-13|website=Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|publisher=Antwerp University Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|language=en}}</ref> Plenty missionaries wey dey connect with Congolese villagers dey carry dem wahala for heart plus sometimes dem dey fit intervene for dem matter with di colonial administration (like land property questions). Di missions plus some area administrators dem fit play big role for study and protect Congolese culture and language tradition plus di artifacts wey dey there. One good example na Father Gustaaf Hulstaert (1900–1990), wey insyde 1937 start di periodical Aequatoria wey dem dey use for di linguistic, ethnographic plus historical study of di Mongo people for di central Congo basin.<ref>See: aequatoria.be</ref> Di colonial state dey interested for di cultural and scientific study of Congo, especially after di Second World War, through di setup of di Institut pour la Recherche Scientifique en Afrique Centrale (IRSAC, 1948). == Toward independence == For early 1950s, di political freedom of di Congolese elites, no talk of di masses, e be like far dream. But e clear say Congo no fit dey far from di quick changes wey happen after di Second World War, wey scatter colonialism worldwide. Di independence wey di British, French, plus Dutch colonies for Asia get after 1945 no really change anything for Congo, but di pressure for Belgium from di United Nations don increase (just like all di other colonial powers). Belgium don agree to article 73 of di United Nations Charter wey talk about self-determination, plus di two superpowers dey pressure Belgium make dem change how dem dey run Congo; di Belgian government dey try hold body against wetin dem call 'interference' with dia colonial policy. Colonial government dey talk how dem go make life beta for Congolese pipo. Since 1940s, dem don dey try small-small give some elite wey dem call évolués small civil rights, dem fit get small political power later. So, 'deserving' Congolese fit apply for proof of 'civil merit', or if dem fit do better, 'immatriculation' (registration), wey go show say dem don join European way of life. To get this status, applicant gats meet strict rules (like marry one wife, show good behavior, etc.) and dem go dey watch dem well well (wey de include house visits). Dis policy no work at all. For around mid-1950s, no be plenty Congolese wey don fit get di civil merit diploma or dem don get di 'immatriculation'. Di benefits wey dem dey talk say come with am—like equal legal status with di white folks—na mostly just talk, no be real. E dey make di évolués frustrated well well. When Governor-General Pétillon start dey talk say he go fit give di native people more civil rights, even voting, to create wetin he dey call 'Belgo-Congolese community', di people for Brussels no really send am, and some Belgians for Congo dey vex as dem dey fear for demma privilege.<ref>[[Isidore Ndaywel è Nziem|Ndaywel è Nziem]], Isidore (1998), ''Histoire générale du Congo'', Paris-Brussels: De Boeck & Larcier, pp. 456–63.</ref> E clear say Belgian government no get proper long-term plan for Congo matter. 'Colonial wahala' no dey trend for Belgium, as long as di colony dey shine and e dey quiet. But one person wey show concern na di young King Baudouin, wey take over from him papa, King Leopold III, for 1951, when dem force Leopold III to waka. Baudouin dey follow wetin dey happen for Belgian Congo well well. Wen King Baudouin come visit Belgian Congo for de first time for 1955, crowd dey cheer am well-well, both whites and blacks dey dance, like as dem show for André Cauvin documentary, Bwana Kitoko.<ref>{{cite book|last=Raspoet|first=Erik|title=Bwana Kitoko en de koning van de Bakuba|publisher=Meulenhoff/Manteau|year=2005|isbn=90-8542-020-2}}</ref> Foreign people wey dey observe, suc as de international correspondent of ''The Manchester Guardian'' or a ''Time'' journalist,<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|title=Congo: Boom in the Jungle|date=16 May 1955|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=28 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028201856/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=May 16, 1955|title=CONGO: Boom in the Jungle|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=28 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828025115/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> talk say Belgian paddy paddy style dey work well, and dey compare how Belgian people dem loyal pass those French and British colonies wey dey restless. During di visit, King Baudouin carry Governor-General idea of 'Belgo-Congolese community' come front; but for real, dis plan dey move slow. At di same time, dem wahala wey dey divide for Belgium, wey dem fit hide from di colony before, start to enter Congo too. Dem talk say workers dey unite more now, dem dey call make public schools fit break mission schools for education, plus dem wan make both Belgian languages, French and Dutch, sabi equal treatment for colony. Before this, na only French dem dey push as colonial language. Governor-General dey fear say dis kind wahala fit spoil di colonial government image for Congolese, plus e go shift focus from di real need for true emancipation. ===== Political organisation ===== [[File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|right|thumb|[[:en:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu|Joseph Kasa-Vubu]], leader of ABAKO plus de first President dem elect democratically of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] [[File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Patrice_Lumumba|Patrice Lumumba]], first democratically elected Prime Minister of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] Di Congolese people join Second World War and dem hear say tings dey change for other colonies, e make dem start to organize make dem fit get power. Di colonial government no fit bring beta changes wey fit work, so di Congolese elites start to gather demself socially and later politically. For di 1950s, two separate types of nationalism show up among di Congolese elites. Di nationalist movement—wey di Belgian authorities no really watch—promote say di Belgian Congo go become one united state after dem get independence. E get wetin wey de oppose this matter, na di ethno-religious and regional nationalism wey catch for di Bakongo area for di west coast, Kasai plus Katanga.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} Di first political groups na dem one. ABAKO wey dem establish for 1950 as di Association culturelle des Bakongo, and wetin Joseph Kasa-Vubu dey run, start as cultural group wey turn political sharp sharp. From di middle of 1950s, dem don dey shout against Belgian colonial rule well well. Plus, di group still dey serve as di main ethno-religious group for di Bakongo and dem blend well with di Kimbanguist Church wey be popular for lower Congo.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} For 1955, Belgian prof Antoine van Bilsen drop one paper wey dem call Thirty Year Plan for the Political Emancipation of Belgian Africa.<ref>Gerard-Libois, Jules (1989), "Vers l'Indépendance: une accélération imprévue", In ''Congo-Zaïre'', Brussels: GRIP, pp. 43–56.</ref> De plan get timetable wey say make dem gradually free Congo for 30 years—na the time wey Van Bilsen believe say e go take to build educated people wey fit take over from the Belgians for power. But the Belgian government and plenty of the évolués no happy with the plan—government no wan lose Congo, and the évolués sabi say Belgium go still dey rule for another three decades. One group of Catholic évolués yan am positive for the plan with one moderate manifesto for one Congolese journal wey dem dey call Conscience Africaine; dem talk some matter about how Congolese fit take part well well.<ref>Kalulambi Pongo, Martin (2009), "Le manifeste 'Conscience africaine: genèse, influences et réactions", In Tousignant, Nathalie (ed.), ''Le manifeste Conscience africaine, 1956'', Brussels: Facultés Universitaires Saint-Louis, pp. 59–81.</ref> For 1957, as experiment matter, colonial government do organize di first local elections for three cities (Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Jadotville), wey Congolese people fit stand for office and vote. Watin happen for 1957–58 make demand for political freedom burst, no be small. Ghana independence for 1957 and President De Gaulle visit wey happen for August 1958 for Brazzaville, capital of di French Congo, across di Congo river from Léopoldville, wey e promise say France African colonies go fit choose between staying with France or full independence, make people for Congo get big dreams. Di World Exhibition wey dem do for Brussels for 1958 (Expo 58) be another eye-opener for plenty Congolese leaders, wey dem allow make dem travel go Belgium for di first time.<ref>Aziza Etambala, Zana (2008), ''De teloorgang van een modelkolonie, Belgisch Congo 1958–1960'', Leuven: Acco, pp. 105–110.</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|date=23 December 1957|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125731/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=December 23, 1957|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=1 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501001542/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> For 1958, people dey crave for independence sharp sharp and the koko don take off. Na Mouvement National Congolais (MNC) wey dey play big role for di matter. Dem start am for 1956, but dem officially set am up as national political party for October 1958, wey dey support make Congo be one strong nation. Di person wey dey lead dem well well na di charming Patrice Lumumba. For 1959, wahala start after Albert Kalonji and some MNC leaders wey wan dey moderate split from di main group (dem call dem Mouvement National Congolais-Kalonji). Even though di party get different waka, Lumumba faction (now Mouvement National Congolais-Lumumba) and di MNC still be di most important and influential party for Belgian Congo. Belgium vehemently de oppose Lumumba ein leftist views plus get grave concerns about de status of demma financial interests if Lumumba ein MNC come power.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} ===== Independence ===== As Belgium dey debate how to give Congolese people their freedom small-small, wahala just burst everywhere. On 4 January 1959, dem do one political demo for Léopoldville wey ABAKO organise, but e no gree control. Na so, the colonial capital begin catch fire with plenty chaos. E take dem days to bring back order, and if we count am well, hundreds don die. De eruption of violence sent a shockwave through de Congo den Belgium alike.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-01-if-blood-must-run.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: If Blood Must Run|date=19 January 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125735/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-01-if-blood-must-run.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=January 19, 1959|title=BELGIAN CONGO: If Blood Must Run|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,868969,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201082719/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,868969,00.html|archive-date=2011-02-01|magazine=Time}}</ref> On 13 January, King Baudouin use radio talk to the people say Belgium go work for Congo to get full independence fast, but no be to go rush am like mumu.<ref>Koning Boudewijn. 35 jaar dialoog met de natie. Een keuze uit de koninklijke toespraken van 1951 tot 1986. Lannoo Tielt, Inbel, 1986, blz. 124.</ref> Dem no fit talk say independence go happen one particular day, but di government wey Prime Minister Gaston Eyskens dey lead, get plan for multi-year transition period. Dem think say provincial elections go happen for December 1959, national elections for 1960 or 1961, den after, dem go start hand over di admin and political duties small small to di Congolese, as dem dey expect say by mid-1960s e go don finish. But for ground, things dey change fast fast.<ref>Young, Crawford (1965), ''Politics in the Congo" Decolonization and Independence'', Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 140–161.</ref> Di colonial admin dey see different type of resistance, like people wey no wan pay tax. For some places, anarchy threatened.<ref>Ryckmans, Geneviève (1995), ''André Ryckmans, un territorial du Congo belge''. Paris. L'Harmattan, pp. 215–224.</ref> At di same time, plenty Belgians wey dey di Congo no wan independence, dem dey feel say Brussels don betray dem. As di Congolese dem dey demand better change, di government don see say di chance to make am smooth smooth no dey happen again fast fast.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-10-return-of-the-mundele.pdf|title=The Belgian Congo : Return of the Mundele|date=12 October 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125737/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-10-return-of-the-mundele.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=October 12, 1959|title=THE BELGIAN CONGO: Return of the Mundele|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,864032,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101203183837/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,864032,00.html|archive-date=2010-12-03|magazine=Time}}</ref> [[File:Ronde_Tafel_Conferentie_te_Brussel_Congo,_Bestanddeelnr_910-9593.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ronde_Tafel_Conferentie_te_Brussel_Congo,_Bestanddeelnr_910-9593.jpg|thumb|220x220px|Opening meeting of de Belgo-Congolese Round Table Conference insyde Brussels on 20 January 1960]] For 1959, King Baudouin come back to Belgian Congo, and e see say everywhere don change from the last time wey e visit four years ago. When e land for Léopoldville, wahala start as black Belgo-Congolese people dey throw stone for am because dem vex say dem don lock Lumumba up, wey dem convict say im dey incite against colonial government. Even though for other cities dem receive am better, dem dey shout “Vive le roi!” but e follow with “Indépendance immédiate!” The Belgian government no wan enter any gbege wey fit turn bloody like wetin happen to France for Indochina and Algeria, or Netherlands for Indonesia. So, dem dey reason say make dem fit agree for Congolese leaders wey dey shout for immediate independence.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-11-now-now-now.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: Now Now Now|date=16 November 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125729/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-11-now-now-now.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=November 16, 1959|title=BELGIAN CONGO: Now Now Now|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811442,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201085122/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811442,00.html|archive-date=2011-02-01|magazine=Time}}</ref> Although dem no prepare well plus no plenty people wey educate dey (only small Congolese get degree for dat time), Belgian leaders still gree make independence happen. E be true say dem weak local elites fit work for Belgian government and business people, dem dey hope say dis go make am easy for dem to still dey control wetin dey happen for politics and economy. Dis style different from colonial wars and de slow decolonization wey other European countries dey do, dem sabi am as 'Le Pari Congolais'—di Congolese bet.<ref>{{cite book|last=De Witte|first=Ludo|title=Crisis in Kongo. De rol van de Verenigde Naties, de regering-Eyskens en het koningshuis in de omverwerping van Lumumba en de opkomst van Mobutu|date=1996|publisher=Uitgeverij Van Halewyck|isbn=9789056170523|location=Leuven|page=31|author-link=Ludo De Witte}}</ref> == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] osgbe1rhxdzs0a82klaomik7tgu6jmi 69158 69157 2025-07-06T00:06:48Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Independence */ 69158 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== [[File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Minière_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|right|thumb|Nurses of de [[:en:Union_Minière_du_Haut-Katanga|Union Minière du Haut-Katanga]] plus demma Congolese assistants, [[:en:Lubumbashi|Élisabethville]], 1918]] Health care too dey supported by missions, but colonial state wan show interest small. For 1906, dem start Institute of Tropical Medicine for Brussels. This ITM dey among di top places wey train and do research for tropical medicine and how health care dey work for developing countries. Dem fit clear endemic sickness like sleeping sickness well well with serious campaigns.<ref>A critical assessment of the colonial obsession with sleeping sickness in: Lyons, Maryinez (1992), ''The Colonial Disease, A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> For 1925, medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper be di first person wey carry tryparsamide, di drug from Rockefeller Foundation wey dey cure sleeping sickness, enter Congo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingman |first=Jack |year=1994 |title=Arthur Lewis Piper, M.D.: A Medical Missionary in the Belgian Congo |journal=Journal of Community Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/BF02260364 |pmid=8006209 |s2cid=37502216}}</ref> Di health-care system dey grow well well during colonial time, with plenty hospital beds dey available for di people, plus dem set up dispensaries for far away places. By 1960, di country get beta medical structure wey pass any other African nation for dat time. Belgian Congo get 3,000 health facilities, wey 380 be hospitals. Dem get 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 people (1 for every 187 people). Dem make huge progress for di fight against endemic diseases; dem report sleeping sickness cases drop from 34,000 in 1931 to just 1,100 in 1959, mainly because dem clear tsetse fly for where plenty people dey. All Europeans plus Congolese wey dey for Belgian Congo do dem vaccine for polio, measles and yellow fever. Big big disease prevention programs dem start, wey dem wan make polio, leprosy and tuberculosis no dey again. For primary schools, dem run disease prevention campaigns, and dem include disease prevention class for curriculum too.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319" /> ===== Social inequality den racial discrimination ===== [[File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|thumb|Dem dey pull one woman wey be missionary inside rickshaw by some Congolese guys, around 1920 to 1930.]] Di Belgia Congo get system wey dey separate people based on race an dem dey discriminate too.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Krauzman|first=Marine|date=2025-03-11|title=Belgium's Colonial Past on Trial: What the 2024 Ruling Means for Reparational Justice|url=http://spheresofinfluence.ca/belgiums-colonial-past-on-trial-what-the-2024-ruling-means-for-reparational-justice/|access-date=2025-06-26|website=Spheres of Influence|language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-29|title=Belgian Congo {{!}} History & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgian-Congo|access-date=2025-06-26|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Dem get wetin dem call 'implicit apartheid'. Di colony put curfew for Congolese wey dey live for city, an plenty racial wahala dey happen. Léopoldville get di racist curfew wey e famous for, an dem use am as template for other European colonies like French Equatorial Africa wey dey close by.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Njoh |first1=Ambe J. |date=March 2008 |title=Colonial Philosophies, Urban Space, and Racial Segregation in British and French Colonial Africa |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Black Studies]] |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=579–599 |doi=10.1177/0021934706288447 |s2cid=145775865 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228161615/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref> Even though dem no get proper laws wey dey separate people by race, segregation dey happen plenty for many places. For example, at first, de city centers be only for white people, while black people dey stay for places dem dey call 'cités indigènes' or 'le belge'. Hospitals, shop dem and other places no dey allow both whites and blacks to mix. For Force Publique, black people no fit rise pass non-commissioned officer rank. Plus, black folks for the cities no fit come out from 9 pm to 4 am. Dis kind segregation start dey vanish small-small only for 1950s, but even then, de Congolese dem still dey feel like second-class citizens, especially for politics and law matter. [[File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|right|thumb|King [[:en:Albert_I_of_Belgium|Albert I]] plus Queen [[:en:Elisabeth_of_Bavaria,_Queen_of_the_Belgians|Elisabeth]] inspecting de military camp of Léopoldville for de time of demma visit to de Belgian Congo, 1928]] Sekof dem dey connect ekonomi growth with di 'civilizing mission', plus as state officials, missionaries plus private companies dey always help each other, people don sabi sey Belgian Congo dey ruled by one 'colonial trinity' of King-Church-Capital. Dis one fit mean di colonial state, di Christian missions, plus Société Générale de Belgique too. Di way wey colonial policy take dey work, e get one saying wey Governor-General Pierre Ryckmans (1934–46) use: Dominer pour servir ('Dominate to serve').<ref>Vanderlinden, Jacques (1994), ''Pierre Ryckmans 1891–1959, Coloniser dans l'honneur'', Brussels: De Boeck.</ref> Di colonial government wan make wey see am say dem dey nice plus no wahala for di administration, plus dem wan show Belgian Congo as di perfect colony. But na only for di 1950s e start change. For di 1950s, dem dey gradually draw back dem plenty harsh laws dem use punish di Congolese people (like di chicote wey be whip). From 1953, plus di big visit wey King Baudouin make to di colony for 1955, Governor-General Léon Pétillon (1952–1958) start dey try build one 'Belgian-Congolese community', where black plus white go dey equal.<ref>Pétillon, L. A. M. (1967), ''Témoignage et réflexions'', Brussels: Renaissance du Livre.</ref> But still, di anti-miscegenation laws no clear, and from 1959 to 1962, plenty mixed-race Congolese pikin dem dey carry come out from Congo by Belgian government plus Catholic Church go Belgium.<ref>{{cite web|last=Paravicini|first=Giulia|date=4 April 2019|title=Belgium apologizes for colonial-era abduction of mixed-race children|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711005737/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|archive-date=11 July 2019|access-date=10 July 2019|publisher=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> For 1957, dem do first municipal elections wey black voters fit vote for some big cities — Léopoldville, Élisabethville, plus Jadotville. ===== Abolition of slavery ===== For Congo Free State, plenty men, women, and pikin dem free from Swahili Arab slave owners and traders for Eastern Congo between 1886 and 1892. Dem fit join militai (Force Publique) or dem go give am to local chiefs wey be friends, and dem go use dem as workers. Even though dem ban chattel slavery for 1910 when Belgian Congo start, dem still dey use prisoners as forced laborers for public den private projects.<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 40</ref> == Resistance == Di Congolese dem no gree colonization; dem dey fight am steady, e come take many shapes. As modern ideas and education dey enter ground, e dey spark plenty action.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> Armed wahala show for small-small parts till Second World War finish (like Pende wahala for 1931, and di gbagbe for Luluabourg 1944). After di war till late 1950s, wetin dem dey call 'Pax belgica' go dey. But e no mean say dem no dey resist; passive resistance dey plenty too, like Kimbanguism wey be from di ‘prophet’ Simon Kimbangu wey di Belgians lock up. Aside active and passive wahala wey Congolese dey raise, di colonial government still dey hear plenty internal noise and gbege. Even for di 1920s, some people for Colonial Council wey dey for Brussels (like Octave Louwers) don talk plenty about di harsh way big companies dey recruit people for di mining places. Di slow growth for population for many areas—abi even wey dem dey chop plenty success for fight against sick sick like sleeping sickness—na another wahala wey dey worry dem. Low birth rate for countryside and some places dey empty usually link to di way traditional life don scatter because of forced work migration and compulsory farming. Dem dey talk say na wetin dem plan be dat, and dem dey point out how population dey increase for cities and how health plus lifespan don better thanks to modern medicine and better living condition.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hunt|first1=Nancy Rose|date=2002|title=Rewriting the Soul in Colonial Congo: Flemish Missionaries and Infertility|url=https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040613132330/https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|archive-date=2004-06-13|website=Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|publisher=Antwerp University Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|language=en}}</ref> Plenty missionaries wey dey connect with Congolese villagers dey carry dem wahala for heart plus sometimes dem dey fit intervene for dem matter with di colonial administration (like land property questions). Di missions plus some area administrators dem fit play big role for study and protect Congolese culture and language tradition plus di artifacts wey dey there. One good example na Father Gustaaf Hulstaert (1900–1990), wey insyde 1937 start di periodical Aequatoria wey dem dey use for di linguistic, ethnographic plus historical study of di Mongo people for di central Congo basin.<ref>See: aequatoria.be</ref> Di colonial state dey interested for di cultural and scientific study of Congo, especially after di Second World War, through di setup of di Institut pour la Recherche Scientifique en Afrique Centrale (IRSAC, 1948). == Toward independence == For early 1950s, di political freedom of di Congolese elites, no talk of di masses, e be like far dream. But e clear say Congo no fit dey far from di quick changes wey happen after di Second World War, wey scatter colonialism worldwide. Di independence wey di British, French, plus Dutch colonies for Asia get after 1945 no really change anything for Congo, but di pressure for Belgium from di United Nations don increase (just like all di other colonial powers). Belgium don agree to article 73 of di United Nations Charter wey talk about self-determination, plus di two superpowers dey pressure Belgium make dem change how dem dey run Congo; di Belgian government dey try hold body against wetin dem call 'interference' with dia colonial policy. Colonial government dey talk how dem go make life beta for Congolese pipo. Since 1940s, dem don dey try small-small give some elite wey dem call évolués small civil rights, dem fit get small political power later. So, 'deserving' Congolese fit apply for proof of 'civil merit', or if dem fit do better, 'immatriculation' (registration), wey go show say dem don join European way of life. To get this status, applicant gats meet strict rules (like marry one wife, show good behavior, etc.) and dem go dey watch dem well well (wey de include house visits). Dis policy no work at all. For around mid-1950s, no be plenty Congolese wey don fit get di civil merit diploma or dem don get di 'immatriculation'. Di benefits wey dem dey talk say come with am—like equal legal status with di white folks—na mostly just talk, no be real. E dey make di évolués frustrated well well. When Governor-General Pétillon start dey talk say he go fit give di native people more civil rights, even voting, to create wetin he dey call 'Belgo-Congolese community', di people for Brussels no really send am, and some Belgians for Congo dey vex as dem dey fear for demma privilege.<ref>[[Isidore Ndaywel è Nziem|Ndaywel è Nziem]], Isidore (1998), ''Histoire générale du Congo'', Paris-Brussels: De Boeck & Larcier, pp. 456–63.</ref> E clear say Belgian government no get proper long-term plan for Congo matter. 'Colonial wahala' no dey trend for Belgium, as long as di colony dey shine and e dey quiet. But one person wey show concern na di young King Baudouin, wey take over from him papa, King Leopold III, for 1951, when dem force Leopold III to waka. Baudouin dey follow wetin dey happen for Belgian Congo well well. Wen King Baudouin come visit Belgian Congo for de first time for 1955, crowd dey cheer am well-well, both whites and blacks dey dance, like as dem show for André Cauvin documentary, Bwana Kitoko.<ref>{{cite book|last=Raspoet|first=Erik|title=Bwana Kitoko en de koning van de Bakuba|publisher=Meulenhoff/Manteau|year=2005|isbn=90-8542-020-2}}</ref> Foreign people wey dey observe, suc as de international correspondent of ''The Manchester Guardian'' or a ''Time'' journalist,<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|title=Congo: Boom in the Jungle|date=16 May 1955|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=28 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028201856/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=May 16, 1955|title=CONGO: Boom in the Jungle|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=28 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828025115/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> talk say Belgian paddy paddy style dey work well, and dey compare how Belgian people dem loyal pass those French and British colonies wey dey restless. During di visit, King Baudouin carry Governor-General idea of 'Belgo-Congolese community' come front; but for real, dis plan dey move slow. At di same time, dem wahala wey dey divide for Belgium, wey dem fit hide from di colony before, start to enter Congo too. Dem talk say workers dey unite more now, dem dey call make public schools fit break mission schools for education, plus dem wan make both Belgian languages, French and Dutch, sabi equal treatment for colony. Before this, na only French dem dey push as colonial language. Governor-General dey fear say dis kind wahala fit spoil di colonial government image for Congolese, plus e go shift focus from di real need for true emancipation. ===== Political organisation ===== [[File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|right|thumb|[[:en:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu|Joseph Kasa-Vubu]], leader of ABAKO plus de first President dem elect democratically of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] [[File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Patrice_Lumumba|Patrice Lumumba]], first democratically elected Prime Minister of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] Di Congolese people join Second World War and dem hear say tings dey change for other colonies, e make dem start to organize make dem fit get power. Di colonial government no fit bring beta changes wey fit work, so di Congolese elites start to gather demself socially and later politically. For di 1950s, two separate types of nationalism show up among di Congolese elites. Di nationalist movement—wey di Belgian authorities no really watch—promote say di Belgian Congo go become one united state after dem get independence. E get wetin wey de oppose this matter, na di ethno-religious and regional nationalism wey catch for di Bakongo area for di west coast, Kasai plus Katanga.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} Di first political groups na dem one. ABAKO wey dem establish for 1950 as di Association culturelle des Bakongo, and wetin Joseph Kasa-Vubu dey run, start as cultural group wey turn political sharp sharp. From di middle of 1950s, dem don dey shout against Belgian colonial rule well well. Plus, di group still dey serve as di main ethno-religious group for di Bakongo and dem blend well with di Kimbanguist Church wey be popular for lower Congo.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} For 1955, Belgian prof Antoine van Bilsen drop one paper wey dem call Thirty Year Plan for the Political Emancipation of Belgian Africa.<ref>Gerard-Libois, Jules (1989), "Vers l'Indépendance: une accélération imprévue", In ''Congo-Zaïre'', Brussels: GRIP, pp. 43–56.</ref> De plan get timetable wey say make dem gradually free Congo for 30 years—na the time wey Van Bilsen believe say e go take to build educated people wey fit take over from the Belgians for power. But the Belgian government and plenty of the évolués no happy with the plan—government no wan lose Congo, and the évolués sabi say Belgium go still dey rule for another three decades. One group of Catholic évolués yan am positive for the plan with one moderate manifesto for one Congolese journal wey dem dey call Conscience Africaine; dem talk some matter about how Congolese fit take part well well.<ref>Kalulambi Pongo, Martin (2009), "Le manifeste 'Conscience africaine: genèse, influences et réactions", In Tousignant, Nathalie (ed.), ''Le manifeste Conscience africaine, 1956'', Brussels: Facultés Universitaires Saint-Louis, pp. 59–81.</ref> For 1957, as experiment matter, colonial government do organize di first local elections for three cities (Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Jadotville), wey Congolese people fit stand for office and vote. Watin happen for 1957–58 make demand for political freedom burst, no be small. Ghana independence for 1957 and President De Gaulle visit wey happen for August 1958 for Brazzaville, capital of di French Congo, across di Congo river from Léopoldville, wey e promise say France African colonies go fit choose between staying with France or full independence, make people for Congo get big dreams. Di World Exhibition wey dem do for Brussels for 1958 (Expo 58) be another eye-opener for plenty Congolese leaders, wey dem allow make dem travel go Belgium for di first time.<ref>Aziza Etambala, Zana (2008), ''De teloorgang van een modelkolonie, Belgisch Congo 1958–1960'', Leuven: Acco, pp. 105–110.</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|date=23 December 1957|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125731/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=December 23, 1957|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=1 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501001542/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> For 1958, people dey crave for independence sharp sharp and the koko don take off. Na Mouvement National Congolais (MNC) wey dey play big role for di matter. Dem start am for 1956, but dem officially set am up as national political party for October 1958, wey dey support make Congo be one strong nation. Di person wey dey lead dem well well na di charming Patrice Lumumba. For 1959, wahala start after Albert Kalonji and some MNC leaders wey wan dey moderate split from di main group (dem call dem Mouvement National Congolais-Kalonji). Even though di party get different waka, Lumumba faction (now Mouvement National Congolais-Lumumba) and di MNC still be di most important and influential party for Belgian Congo. Belgium vehemently de oppose Lumumba ein leftist views plus get grave concerns about de status of demma financial interests if Lumumba ein MNC come power.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} ===== Independence ===== As Belgium dey debate how to give Congolese people their freedom small-small, wahala just burst everywhere. On 4 January 1959, dem do one political demo for Léopoldville wey ABAKO organise, but e no gree control. Na so, the colonial capital begin catch fire with plenty chaos. E take dem days to bring back order, and if we count am well, hundreds don die. De eruption of violence sent a shockwave through de Congo den Belgium alike.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-01-if-blood-must-run.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: If Blood Must Run|date=19 January 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125735/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-01-if-blood-must-run.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=January 19, 1959|title=BELGIAN CONGO: If Blood Must Run|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,868969,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201082719/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,868969,00.html|archive-date=2011-02-01|magazine=Time}}</ref> On 13 January, King Baudouin use radio talk to the people say Belgium go work for Congo to get full independence fast, but no be to go rush am like mumu.<ref>Koning Boudewijn. 35 jaar dialoog met de natie. Een keuze uit de koninklijke toespraken van 1951 tot 1986. Lannoo Tielt, Inbel, 1986, blz. 124.</ref> Dem no fit talk say independence go happen one particular day, but di government wey Prime Minister Gaston Eyskens dey lead, get plan for multi-year transition period. Dem think say provincial elections go happen for December 1959, national elections for 1960 or 1961, den after, dem go start hand over di admin and political duties small small to di Congolese, as dem dey expect say by mid-1960s e go don finish. But for ground, things dey change fast fast.<ref>Young, Crawford (1965), ''Politics in the Congo" Decolonization and Independence'', Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 140–161.</ref> Di colonial admin dey see different type of resistance, like people wey no wan pay tax. For some places, anarchy threatened.<ref>Ryckmans, Geneviève (1995), ''André Ryckmans, un territorial du Congo belge''. Paris. L'Harmattan, pp. 215–224.</ref> At di same time, plenty Belgians wey dey di Congo no wan independence, dem dey feel say Brussels don betray dem. As di Congolese dem dey demand better change, di government don see say di chance to make am smooth smooth no dey happen again fast fast.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-10-return-of-the-mundele.pdf|title=The Belgian Congo : Return of the Mundele|date=12 October 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125737/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-10-return-of-the-mundele.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=October 12, 1959|title=THE BELGIAN CONGO: Return of the Mundele|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,864032,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101203183837/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,864032,00.html|archive-date=2010-12-03|magazine=Time}}</ref> [[File:Ronde_Tafel_Conferentie_te_Brussel_Congo,_Bestanddeelnr_910-9593.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ronde_Tafel_Conferentie_te_Brussel_Congo,_Bestanddeelnr_910-9593.jpg|thumb|220x220px|Opening meeting of de Belgo-Congolese Round Table Conference insyde Brussels on 20 January 1960]] For 1959, King Baudouin come back to Belgian Congo, and e see say everywhere don change from the last time wey e visit four years ago. When e land for Léopoldville, wahala start as black Belgo-Congolese people dey throw stone for am because dem vex say dem don lock Lumumba up, wey dem convict say im dey incite against colonial government. Even though for other cities dem receive am better, dem dey shout “Vive le roi!” but e follow with “Indépendance immédiate!” The Belgian government no wan enter any gbege wey fit turn bloody like wetin happen to France for Indochina and Algeria, or Netherlands for Indonesia. So, dem dey reason say make dem fit agree for Congolese leaders wey dey shout for immediate independence.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-11-now-now-now.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: Now Now Now|date=16 November 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125729/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-11-now-now-now.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=November 16, 1959|title=BELGIAN CONGO: Now Now Now|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811442,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201085122/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811442,00.html|archive-date=2011-02-01|magazine=Time}}</ref> Although dem no prepare well plus no plenty people wey educate dey (only small Congolese get degree for dat time), Belgian leaders still gree make independence happen. E be true say dem weak local elites fit work for Belgian government and business people, dem dey hope say dis go make am easy for dem to still dey control wetin dey happen for politics and economy. Dis style different from colonial wars and de slow decolonization wey other European countries dey do, dem sabi am as 'Le Pari Congolais'—di Congolese bet.<ref>{{cite book|last=De Witte|first=Ludo|title=Crisis in Kongo. De rol van de Verenigde Naties, de regering-Eyskens en het koningshuis in de omverwerping van Lumumba en de opkomst van Mobutu|date=1996|publisher=Uitgeverij Van Halewyck|isbn=9789056170523|location=Leuven|page=31|author-link=Ludo De Witte}}</ref> For January 1960, dem call Congolese leaders come Brussels make dem fit gather for round-table talk about independence. Dem free Patrice Lumumba from prison just for this matter. Na so the conference quick quick agree give Congolese almost all wetin dem ask: make dem do general election for May 1960 and full independence—'Dipenda'—go land on 30 June 1960. Na because of di strong unity wey Congolese delegation carry come. == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] e0p0gu0b99pbket3jfxbbxbudsdsrlj 69160 69158 2025-07-06T00:11:28Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Independence */ 69160 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== [[File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Minière_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|right|thumb|Nurses of de [[:en:Union_Minière_du_Haut-Katanga|Union Minière du Haut-Katanga]] plus demma Congolese assistants, [[:en:Lubumbashi|Élisabethville]], 1918]] Health care too dey supported by missions, but colonial state wan show interest small. For 1906, dem start Institute of Tropical Medicine for Brussels. This ITM dey among di top places wey train and do research for tropical medicine and how health care dey work for developing countries. Dem fit clear endemic sickness like sleeping sickness well well with serious campaigns.<ref>A critical assessment of the colonial obsession with sleeping sickness in: Lyons, Maryinez (1992), ''The Colonial Disease, A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> For 1925, medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper be di first person wey carry tryparsamide, di drug from Rockefeller Foundation wey dey cure sleeping sickness, enter Congo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingman |first=Jack |year=1994 |title=Arthur Lewis Piper, M.D.: A Medical Missionary in the Belgian Congo |journal=Journal of Community Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/BF02260364 |pmid=8006209 |s2cid=37502216}}</ref> Di health-care system dey grow well well during colonial time, with plenty hospital beds dey available for di people, plus dem set up dispensaries for far away places. By 1960, di country get beta medical structure wey pass any other African nation for dat time. Belgian Congo get 3,000 health facilities, wey 380 be hospitals. Dem get 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 people (1 for every 187 people). Dem make huge progress for di fight against endemic diseases; dem report sleeping sickness cases drop from 34,000 in 1931 to just 1,100 in 1959, mainly because dem clear tsetse fly for where plenty people dey. All Europeans plus Congolese wey dey for Belgian Congo do dem vaccine for polio, measles and yellow fever. Big big disease prevention programs dem start, wey dem wan make polio, leprosy and tuberculosis no dey again. For primary schools, dem run disease prevention campaigns, and dem include disease prevention class for curriculum too.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319" /> ===== Social inequality den racial discrimination ===== [[File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|thumb|Dem dey pull one woman wey be missionary inside rickshaw by some Congolese guys, around 1920 to 1930.]] Di Belgia Congo get system wey dey separate people based on race an dem dey discriminate too.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Krauzman|first=Marine|date=2025-03-11|title=Belgium's Colonial Past on Trial: What the 2024 Ruling Means for Reparational Justice|url=http://spheresofinfluence.ca/belgiums-colonial-past-on-trial-what-the-2024-ruling-means-for-reparational-justice/|access-date=2025-06-26|website=Spheres of Influence|language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-29|title=Belgian Congo {{!}} History & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgian-Congo|access-date=2025-06-26|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Dem get wetin dem call 'implicit apartheid'. Di colony put curfew for Congolese wey dey live for city, an plenty racial wahala dey happen. Léopoldville get di racist curfew wey e famous for, an dem use am as template for other European colonies like French Equatorial Africa wey dey close by.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Njoh |first1=Ambe J. |date=March 2008 |title=Colonial Philosophies, Urban Space, and Racial Segregation in British and French Colonial Africa |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Black Studies]] |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=579–599 |doi=10.1177/0021934706288447 |s2cid=145775865 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228161615/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref> Even though dem no get proper laws wey dey separate people by race, segregation dey happen plenty for many places. For example, at first, de city centers be only for white people, while black people dey stay for places dem dey call 'cités indigènes' or 'le belge'. Hospitals, shop dem and other places no dey allow both whites and blacks to mix. For Force Publique, black people no fit rise pass non-commissioned officer rank. Plus, black folks for the cities no fit come out from 9 pm to 4 am. Dis kind segregation start dey vanish small-small only for 1950s, but even then, de Congolese dem still dey feel like second-class citizens, especially for politics and law matter. [[File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|right|thumb|King [[:en:Albert_I_of_Belgium|Albert I]] plus Queen [[:en:Elisabeth_of_Bavaria,_Queen_of_the_Belgians|Elisabeth]] inspecting de military camp of Léopoldville for de time of demma visit to de Belgian Congo, 1928]] Sekof dem dey connect ekonomi growth with di 'civilizing mission', plus as state officials, missionaries plus private companies dey always help each other, people don sabi sey Belgian Congo dey ruled by one 'colonial trinity' of King-Church-Capital. Dis one fit mean di colonial state, di Christian missions, plus Société Générale de Belgique too. Di way wey colonial policy take dey work, e get one saying wey Governor-General Pierre Ryckmans (1934–46) use: Dominer pour servir ('Dominate to serve').<ref>Vanderlinden, Jacques (1994), ''Pierre Ryckmans 1891–1959, Coloniser dans l'honneur'', Brussels: De Boeck.</ref> Di colonial government wan make wey see am say dem dey nice plus no wahala for di administration, plus dem wan show Belgian Congo as di perfect colony. But na only for di 1950s e start change. For di 1950s, dem dey gradually draw back dem plenty harsh laws dem use punish di Congolese people (like di chicote wey be whip). From 1953, plus di big visit wey King Baudouin make to di colony for 1955, Governor-General Léon Pétillon (1952–1958) start dey try build one 'Belgian-Congolese community', where black plus white go dey equal.<ref>Pétillon, L. A. M. (1967), ''Témoignage et réflexions'', Brussels: Renaissance du Livre.</ref> But still, di anti-miscegenation laws no clear, and from 1959 to 1962, plenty mixed-race Congolese pikin dem dey carry come out from Congo by Belgian government plus Catholic Church go Belgium.<ref>{{cite web|last=Paravicini|first=Giulia|date=4 April 2019|title=Belgium apologizes for colonial-era abduction of mixed-race children|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711005737/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|archive-date=11 July 2019|access-date=10 July 2019|publisher=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> For 1957, dem do first municipal elections wey black voters fit vote for some big cities — Léopoldville, Élisabethville, plus Jadotville. ===== Abolition of slavery ===== For Congo Free State, plenty men, women, and pikin dem free from Swahili Arab slave owners and traders for Eastern Congo between 1886 and 1892. Dem fit join militai (Force Publique) or dem go give am to local chiefs wey be friends, and dem go use dem as workers. Even though dem ban chattel slavery for 1910 when Belgian Congo start, dem still dey use prisoners as forced laborers for public den private projects.<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 40</ref> == Resistance == Di Congolese dem no gree colonization; dem dey fight am steady, e come take many shapes. As modern ideas and education dey enter ground, e dey spark plenty action.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> Armed wahala show for small-small parts till Second World War finish (like Pende wahala for 1931, and di gbagbe for Luluabourg 1944). After di war till late 1950s, wetin dem dey call 'Pax belgica' go dey. But e no mean say dem no dey resist; passive resistance dey plenty too, like Kimbanguism wey be from di ‘prophet’ Simon Kimbangu wey di Belgians lock up. Aside active and passive wahala wey Congolese dey raise, di colonial government still dey hear plenty internal noise and gbege. Even for di 1920s, some people for Colonial Council wey dey for Brussels (like Octave Louwers) don talk plenty about di harsh way big companies dey recruit people for di mining places. Di slow growth for population for many areas—abi even wey dem dey chop plenty success for fight against sick sick like sleeping sickness—na another wahala wey dey worry dem. Low birth rate for countryside and some places dey empty usually link to di way traditional life don scatter because of forced work migration and compulsory farming. Dem dey talk say na wetin dem plan be dat, and dem dey point out how population dey increase for cities and how health plus lifespan don better thanks to modern medicine and better living condition.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hunt|first1=Nancy Rose|date=2002|title=Rewriting the Soul in Colonial Congo: Flemish Missionaries and Infertility|url=https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040613132330/https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|archive-date=2004-06-13|website=Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|publisher=Antwerp University Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|language=en}}</ref> Plenty missionaries wey dey connect with Congolese villagers dey carry dem wahala for heart plus sometimes dem dey fit intervene for dem matter with di colonial administration (like land property questions). Di missions plus some area administrators dem fit play big role for study and protect Congolese culture and language tradition plus di artifacts wey dey there. One good example na Father Gustaaf Hulstaert (1900–1990), wey insyde 1937 start di periodical Aequatoria wey dem dey use for di linguistic, ethnographic plus historical study of di Mongo people for di central Congo basin.<ref>See: aequatoria.be</ref> Di colonial state dey interested for di cultural and scientific study of Congo, especially after di Second World War, through di setup of di Institut pour la Recherche Scientifique en Afrique Centrale (IRSAC, 1948). == Toward independence == For early 1950s, di political freedom of di Congolese elites, no talk of di masses, e be like far dream. But e clear say Congo no fit dey far from di quick changes wey happen after di Second World War, wey scatter colonialism worldwide. Di independence wey di British, French, plus Dutch colonies for Asia get after 1945 no really change anything for Congo, but di pressure for Belgium from di United Nations don increase (just like all di other colonial powers). Belgium don agree to article 73 of di United Nations Charter wey talk about self-determination, plus di two superpowers dey pressure Belgium make dem change how dem dey run Congo; di Belgian government dey try hold body against wetin dem call 'interference' with dia colonial policy. Colonial government dey talk how dem go make life beta for Congolese pipo. Since 1940s, dem don dey try small-small give some elite wey dem call évolués small civil rights, dem fit get small political power later. So, 'deserving' Congolese fit apply for proof of 'civil merit', or if dem fit do better, 'immatriculation' (registration), wey go show say dem don join European way of life. To get this status, applicant gats meet strict rules (like marry one wife, show good behavior, etc.) and dem go dey watch dem well well (wey de include house visits). Dis policy no work at all. For around mid-1950s, no be plenty Congolese wey don fit get di civil merit diploma or dem don get di 'immatriculation'. Di benefits wey dem dey talk say come with am—like equal legal status with di white folks—na mostly just talk, no be real. E dey make di évolués frustrated well well. When Governor-General Pétillon start dey talk say he go fit give di native people more civil rights, even voting, to create wetin he dey call 'Belgo-Congolese community', di people for Brussels no really send am, and some Belgians for Congo dey vex as dem dey fear for demma privilege.<ref>[[Isidore Ndaywel è Nziem|Ndaywel è Nziem]], Isidore (1998), ''Histoire générale du Congo'', Paris-Brussels: De Boeck & Larcier, pp. 456–63.</ref> E clear say Belgian government no get proper long-term plan for Congo matter. 'Colonial wahala' no dey trend for Belgium, as long as di colony dey shine and e dey quiet. But one person wey show concern na di young King Baudouin, wey take over from him papa, King Leopold III, for 1951, when dem force Leopold III to waka. Baudouin dey follow wetin dey happen for Belgian Congo well well. Wen King Baudouin come visit Belgian Congo for de first time for 1955, crowd dey cheer am well-well, both whites and blacks dey dance, like as dem show for André Cauvin documentary, Bwana Kitoko.<ref>{{cite book|last=Raspoet|first=Erik|title=Bwana Kitoko en de koning van de Bakuba|publisher=Meulenhoff/Manteau|year=2005|isbn=90-8542-020-2}}</ref> Foreign people wey dey observe, suc as de international correspondent of ''The Manchester Guardian'' or a ''Time'' journalist,<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|title=Congo: Boom in the Jungle|date=16 May 1955|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=28 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028201856/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=May 16, 1955|title=CONGO: Boom in the Jungle|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=28 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828025115/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> talk say Belgian paddy paddy style dey work well, and dey compare how Belgian people dem loyal pass those French and British colonies wey dey restless. During di visit, King Baudouin carry Governor-General idea of 'Belgo-Congolese community' come front; but for real, dis plan dey move slow. At di same time, dem wahala wey dey divide for Belgium, wey dem fit hide from di colony before, start to enter Congo too. Dem talk say workers dey unite more now, dem dey call make public schools fit break mission schools for education, plus dem wan make both Belgian languages, French and Dutch, sabi equal treatment for colony. Before this, na only French dem dey push as colonial language. Governor-General dey fear say dis kind wahala fit spoil di colonial government image for Congolese, plus e go shift focus from di real need for true emancipation. ===== Political organisation ===== [[File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|right|thumb|[[:en:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu|Joseph Kasa-Vubu]], leader of ABAKO plus de first President dem elect democratically of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] [[File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Patrice_Lumumba|Patrice Lumumba]], first democratically elected Prime Minister of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] Di Congolese people join Second World War and dem hear say tings dey change for other colonies, e make dem start to organize make dem fit get power. Di colonial government no fit bring beta changes wey fit work, so di Congolese elites start to gather demself socially and later politically. For di 1950s, two separate types of nationalism show up among di Congolese elites. Di nationalist movement—wey di Belgian authorities no really watch—promote say di Belgian Congo go become one united state after dem get independence. E get wetin wey de oppose this matter, na di ethno-religious and regional nationalism wey catch for di Bakongo area for di west coast, Kasai plus Katanga.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} Di first political groups na dem one. ABAKO wey dem establish for 1950 as di Association culturelle des Bakongo, and wetin Joseph Kasa-Vubu dey run, start as cultural group wey turn political sharp sharp. From di middle of 1950s, dem don dey shout against Belgian colonial rule well well. Plus, di group still dey serve as di main ethno-religious group for di Bakongo and dem blend well with di Kimbanguist Church wey be popular for lower Congo.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} For 1955, Belgian prof Antoine van Bilsen drop one paper wey dem call Thirty Year Plan for the Political Emancipation of Belgian Africa.<ref>Gerard-Libois, Jules (1989), "Vers l'Indépendance: une accélération imprévue", In ''Congo-Zaïre'', Brussels: GRIP, pp. 43–56.</ref> De plan get timetable wey say make dem gradually free Congo for 30 years—na the time wey Van Bilsen believe say e go take to build educated people wey fit take over from the Belgians for power. But the Belgian government and plenty of the évolués no happy with the plan—government no wan lose Congo, and the évolués sabi say Belgium go still dey rule for another three decades. One group of Catholic évolués yan am positive for the plan with one moderate manifesto for one Congolese journal wey dem dey call Conscience Africaine; dem talk some matter about how Congolese fit take part well well.<ref>Kalulambi Pongo, Martin (2009), "Le manifeste 'Conscience africaine: genèse, influences et réactions", In Tousignant, Nathalie (ed.), ''Le manifeste Conscience africaine, 1956'', Brussels: Facultés Universitaires Saint-Louis, pp. 59–81.</ref> For 1957, as experiment matter, colonial government do organize di first local elections for three cities (Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Jadotville), wey Congolese people fit stand for office and vote. Watin happen for 1957–58 make demand for political freedom burst, no be small. Ghana independence for 1957 and President De Gaulle visit wey happen for August 1958 for Brazzaville, capital of di French Congo, across di Congo river from Léopoldville, wey e promise say France African colonies go fit choose between staying with France or full independence, make people for Congo get big dreams. Di World Exhibition wey dem do for Brussels for 1958 (Expo 58) be another eye-opener for plenty Congolese leaders, wey dem allow make dem travel go Belgium for di first time.<ref>Aziza Etambala, Zana (2008), ''De teloorgang van een modelkolonie, Belgisch Congo 1958–1960'', Leuven: Acco, pp. 105–110.</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|date=23 December 1957|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125731/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=December 23, 1957|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=1 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501001542/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> For 1958, people dey crave for independence sharp sharp and the koko don take off. Na Mouvement National Congolais (MNC) wey dey play big role for di matter. Dem start am for 1956, but dem officially set am up as national political party for October 1958, wey dey support make Congo be one strong nation. Di person wey dey lead dem well well na di charming Patrice Lumumba. For 1959, wahala start after Albert Kalonji and some MNC leaders wey wan dey moderate split from di main group (dem call dem Mouvement National Congolais-Kalonji). Even though di party get different waka, Lumumba faction (now Mouvement National Congolais-Lumumba) and di MNC still be di most important and influential party for Belgian Congo. Belgium vehemently de oppose Lumumba ein leftist views plus get grave concerns about de status of demma financial interests if Lumumba ein MNC come power.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} ===== Independence ===== As Belgium dey debate how to give Congolese people their freedom small-small, wahala just burst everywhere. On 4 January 1959, dem do one political demo for Léopoldville wey ABAKO organise, but e no gree control. Na so, the colonial capital begin catch fire with plenty chaos. E take dem days to bring back order, and if we count am well, hundreds don die. De eruption of violence sent a shockwave through de Congo den Belgium alike.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-01-if-blood-must-run.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: If Blood Must Run|date=19 January 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125735/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-01-if-blood-must-run.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=January 19, 1959|title=BELGIAN CONGO: If Blood Must Run|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,868969,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201082719/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,868969,00.html|archive-date=2011-02-01|magazine=Time}}</ref> On 13 January, King Baudouin use radio talk to the people say Belgium go work for Congo to get full independence fast, but no be to go rush am like mumu.<ref>Koning Boudewijn. 35 jaar dialoog met de natie. Een keuze uit de koninklijke toespraken van 1951 tot 1986. Lannoo Tielt, Inbel, 1986, blz. 124.</ref> Dem no fit talk say independence go happen one particular day, but di government wey Prime Minister Gaston Eyskens dey lead, get plan for multi-year transition period. Dem think say provincial elections go happen for December 1959, national elections for 1960 or 1961, den after, dem go start hand over di admin and political duties small small to di Congolese, as dem dey expect say by mid-1960s e go don finish. But for ground, things dey change fast fast.<ref>Young, Crawford (1965), ''Politics in the Congo" Decolonization and Independence'', Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 140–161.</ref> Di colonial admin dey see different type of resistance, like people wey no wan pay tax. For some places, anarchy threatened.<ref>Ryckmans, Geneviève (1995), ''André Ryckmans, un territorial du Congo belge''. Paris. L'Harmattan, pp. 215–224.</ref> At di same time, plenty Belgians wey dey di Congo no wan independence, dem dey feel say Brussels don betray dem. As di Congolese dem dey demand better change, di government don see say di chance to make am smooth smooth no dey happen again fast fast.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-10-return-of-the-mundele.pdf|title=The Belgian Congo : Return of the Mundele|date=12 October 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125737/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-10-return-of-the-mundele.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=October 12, 1959|title=THE BELGIAN CONGO: Return of the Mundele|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,864032,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101203183837/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,864032,00.html|archive-date=2010-12-03|magazine=Time}}</ref> [[File:Ronde_Tafel_Conferentie_te_Brussel_Congo,_Bestanddeelnr_910-9593.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ronde_Tafel_Conferentie_te_Brussel_Congo,_Bestanddeelnr_910-9593.jpg|thumb|220x220px|Opening meeting of de Belgo-Congolese Round Table Conference insyde Brussels on 20 January 1960]] For 1959, King Baudouin come back to Belgian Congo, and e see say everywhere don change from the last time wey e visit four years ago. When e land for Léopoldville, wahala start as black Belgo-Congolese people dey throw stone for am because dem vex say dem don lock Lumumba up, wey dem convict say im dey incite against colonial government. Even though for other cities dem receive am better, dem dey shout “Vive le roi!” but e follow with “Indépendance immédiate!” The Belgian government no wan enter any gbege wey fit turn bloody like wetin happen to France for Indochina and Algeria, or Netherlands for Indonesia. So, dem dey reason say make dem fit agree for Congolese leaders wey dey shout for immediate independence.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-11-now-now-now.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: Now Now Now|date=16 November 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125729/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-11-now-now-now.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=November 16, 1959|title=BELGIAN CONGO: Now Now Now|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811442,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201085122/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811442,00.html|archive-date=2011-02-01|magazine=Time}}</ref> Although dem no prepare well plus no plenty people wey educate dey (only small Congolese get degree for dat time), Belgian leaders still gree make independence happen. E be true say dem weak local elites fit work for Belgian government and business people, dem dey hope say dis go make am easy for dem to still dey control wetin dey happen for politics and economy. Dis style different from colonial wars and de slow decolonization wey other European countries dey do, dem sabi am as 'Le Pari Congolais'—di Congolese bet.<ref>{{cite book|last=De Witte|first=Ludo|title=Crisis in Kongo. De rol van de Verenigde Naties, de regering-Eyskens en het koningshuis in de omverwerping van Lumumba en de opkomst van Mobutu|date=1996|publisher=Uitgeverij Van Halewyck|isbn=9789056170523|location=Leuven|page=31|author-link=Ludo De Witte}}</ref> For January 1960, dem call Congolese leaders come Brussels make dem fit gather for round-table talk about independence. Dem free Patrice Lumumba from prison just for this matter. Na so the conference quick quick agree give Congolese almost all wetin dem ask: make dem do general election for May 1960 and full independence—'Dipenda'—go land on 30 June 1960. Na because of di strong unity wey Congolese delegation carry come. [[File:Patrice_Lumumba_signs_the_document_granting_independence_to_the_Congo_next_to_Belgian_Prime_Minister_Gaston_Eyskens.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patrice_Lumumba_signs_the_document_granting_independence_to_the_Congo_next_to_Belgian_Prime_Minister_Gaston_Eyskens.jpg|right|thumb|Lumumba den Eyskens sign de document granting independence to de Congo]] Political maneuvering ahead of de elections, Elections dey come, so dem form three political groups for ground: one na the federalist nationalists, wey dey include six separatist parties, like ABAKO and MNC—Kalonji; another one na centralist MNC—Lumumba; and last one be Moïse Tshombe, wey be big man for Katanga, wey wan protect the business wey dey for Union Minière (like Kalonji do for de diamond exploitations matter insyde Kasaï). == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] k7r8ozl7t8zpcq58857nx06sswru7p3 69161 69160 2025-07-06T00:12:21Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Independence */ 69161 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== [[File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Minière_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|right|thumb|Nurses of de [[:en:Union_Minière_du_Haut-Katanga|Union Minière du Haut-Katanga]] plus demma Congolese assistants, [[:en:Lubumbashi|Élisabethville]], 1918]] Health care too dey supported by missions, but colonial state wan show interest small. For 1906, dem start Institute of Tropical Medicine for Brussels. This ITM dey among di top places wey train and do research for tropical medicine and how health care dey work for developing countries. Dem fit clear endemic sickness like sleeping sickness well well with serious campaigns.<ref>A critical assessment of the colonial obsession with sleeping sickness in: Lyons, Maryinez (1992), ''The Colonial Disease, A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> For 1925, medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper be di first person wey carry tryparsamide, di drug from Rockefeller Foundation wey dey cure sleeping sickness, enter Congo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingman |first=Jack |year=1994 |title=Arthur Lewis Piper, M.D.: A Medical Missionary in the Belgian Congo |journal=Journal of Community Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/BF02260364 |pmid=8006209 |s2cid=37502216}}</ref> Di health-care system dey grow well well during colonial time, with plenty hospital beds dey available for di people, plus dem set up dispensaries for far away places. By 1960, di country get beta medical structure wey pass any other African nation for dat time. Belgian Congo get 3,000 health facilities, wey 380 be hospitals. Dem get 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 people (1 for every 187 people). Dem make huge progress for di fight against endemic diseases; dem report sleeping sickness cases drop from 34,000 in 1931 to just 1,100 in 1959, mainly because dem clear tsetse fly for where plenty people dey. All Europeans plus Congolese wey dey for Belgian Congo do dem vaccine for polio, measles and yellow fever. Big big disease prevention programs dem start, wey dem wan make polio, leprosy and tuberculosis no dey again. For primary schools, dem run disease prevention campaigns, and dem include disease prevention class for curriculum too.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319" /> ===== Social inequality den racial discrimination ===== [[File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|thumb|Dem dey pull one woman wey be missionary inside rickshaw by some Congolese guys, around 1920 to 1930.]] Di Belgia Congo get system wey dey separate people based on race an dem dey discriminate too.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Krauzman|first=Marine|date=2025-03-11|title=Belgium's Colonial Past on Trial: What the 2024 Ruling Means for Reparational Justice|url=http://spheresofinfluence.ca/belgiums-colonial-past-on-trial-what-the-2024-ruling-means-for-reparational-justice/|access-date=2025-06-26|website=Spheres of Influence|language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-29|title=Belgian Congo {{!}} History & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgian-Congo|access-date=2025-06-26|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Dem get wetin dem call 'implicit apartheid'. Di colony put curfew for Congolese wey dey live for city, an plenty racial wahala dey happen. Léopoldville get di racist curfew wey e famous for, an dem use am as template for other European colonies like French Equatorial Africa wey dey close by.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Njoh |first1=Ambe J. |date=March 2008 |title=Colonial Philosophies, Urban Space, and Racial Segregation in British and French Colonial Africa |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Black Studies]] |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=579–599 |doi=10.1177/0021934706288447 |s2cid=145775865 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228161615/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref> Even though dem no get proper laws wey dey separate people by race, segregation dey happen plenty for many places. For example, at first, de city centers be only for white people, while black people dey stay for places dem dey call 'cités indigènes' or 'le belge'. Hospitals, shop dem and other places no dey allow both whites and blacks to mix. For Force Publique, black people no fit rise pass non-commissioned officer rank. Plus, black folks for the cities no fit come out from 9 pm to 4 am. Dis kind segregation start dey vanish small-small only for 1950s, but even then, de Congolese dem still dey feel like second-class citizens, especially for politics and law matter. [[File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|right|thumb|King [[:en:Albert_I_of_Belgium|Albert I]] plus Queen [[:en:Elisabeth_of_Bavaria,_Queen_of_the_Belgians|Elisabeth]] inspecting de military camp of Léopoldville for de time of demma visit to de Belgian Congo, 1928]] Sekof dem dey connect ekonomi growth with di 'civilizing mission', plus as state officials, missionaries plus private companies dey always help each other, people don sabi sey Belgian Congo dey ruled by one 'colonial trinity' of King-Church-Capital. Dis one fit mean di colonial state, di Christian missions, plus Société Générale de Belgique too. Di way wey colonial policy take dey work, e get one saying wey Governor-General Pierre Ryckmans (1934–46) use: Dominer pour servir ('Dominate to serve').<ref>Vanderlinden, Jacques (1994), ''Pierre Ryckmans 1891–1959, Coloniser dans l'honneur'', Brussels: De Boeck.</ref> Di colonial government wan make wey see am say dem dey nice plus no wahala for di administration, plus dem wan show Belgian Congo as di perfect colony. But na only for di 1950s e start change. For di 1950s, dem dey gradually draw back dem plenty harsh laws dem use punish di Congolese people (like di chicote wey be whip). From 1953, plus di big visit wey King Baudouin make to di colony for 1955, Governor-General Léon Pétillon (1952–1958) start dey try build one 'Belgian-Congolese community', where black plus white go dey equal.<ref>Pétillon, L. A. M. (1967), ''Témoignage et réflexions'', Brussels: Renaissance du Livre.</ref> But still, di anti-miscegenation laws no clear, and from 1959 to 1962, plenty mixed-race Congolese pikin dem dey carry come out from Congo by Belgian government plus Catholic Church go Belgium.<ref>{{cite web|last=Paravicini|first=Giulia|date=4 April 2019|title=Belgium apologizes for colonial-era abduction of mixed-race children|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711005737/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|archive-date=11 July 2019|access-date=10 July 2019|publisher=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> For 1957, dem do first municipal elections wey black voters fit vote for some big cities — Léopoldville, Élisabethville, plus Jadotville. ===== Abolition of slavery ===== For Congo Free State, plenty men, women, and pikin dem free from Swahili Arab slave owners and traders for Eastern Congo between 1886 and 1892. Dem fit join militai (Force Publique) or dem go give am to local chiefs wey be friends, and dem go use dem as workers. Even though dem ban chattel slavery for 1910 when Belgian Congo start, dem still dey use prisoners as forced laborers for public den private projects.<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 40</ref> == Resistance == Di Congolese dem no gree colonization; dem dey fight am steady, e come take many shapes. As modern ideas and education dey enter ground, e dey spark plenty action.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> Armed wahala show for small-small parts till Second World War finish (like Pende wahala for 1931, and di gbagbe for Luluabourg 1944). After di war till late 1950s, wetin dem dey call 'Pax belgica' go dey. But e no mean say dem no dey resist; passive resistance dey plenty too, like Kimbanguism wey be from di ‘prophet’ Simon Kimbangu wey di Belgians lock up. Aside active and passive wahala wey Congolese dey raise, di colonial government still dey hear plenty internal noise and gbege. Even for di 1920s, some people for Colonial Council wey dey for Brussels (like Octave Louwers) don talk plenty about di harsh way big companies dey recruit people for di mining places. Di slow growth for population for many areas—abi even wey dem dey chop plenty success for fight against sick sick like sleeping sickness—na another wahala wey dey worry dem. Low birth rate for countryside and some places dey empty usually link to di way traditional life don scatter because of forced work migration and compulsory farming. Dem dey talk say na wetin dem plan be dat, and dem dey point out how population dey increase for cities and how health plus lifespan don better thanks to modern medicine and better living condition.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hunt|first1=Nancy Rose|date=2002|title=Rewriting the Soul in Colonial Congo: Flemish Missionaries and Infertility|url=https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040613132330/https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|archive-date=2004-06-13|website=Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|publisher=Antwerp University Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|language=en}}</ref> Plenty missionaries wey dey connect with Congolese villagers dey carry dem wahala for heart plus sometimes dem dey fit intervene for dem matter with di colonial administration (like land property questions). Di missions plus some area administrators dem fit play big role for study and protect Congolese culture and language tradition plus di artifacts wey dey there. One good example na Father Gustaaf Hulstaert (1900–1990), wey insyde 1937 start di periodical Aequatoria wey dem dey use for di linguistic, ethnographic plus historical study of di Mongo people for di central Congo basin.<ref>See: aequatoria.be</ref> Di colonial state dey interested for di cultural and scientific study of Congo, especially after di Second World War, through di setup of di Institut pour la Recherche Scientifique en Afrique Centrale (IRSAC, 1948). == Toward independence == For early 1950s, di political freedom of di Congolese elites, no talk of di masses, e be like far dream. But e clear say Congo no fit dey far from di quick changes wey happen after di Second World War, wey scatter colonialism worldwide. Di independence wey di British, French, plus Dutch colonies for Asia get after 1945 no really change anything for Congo, but di pressure for Belgium from di United Nations don increase (just like all di other colonial powers). Belgium don agree to article 73 of di United Nations Charter wey talk about self-determination, plus di two superpowers dey pressure Belgium make dem change how dem dey run Congo; di Belgian government dey try hold body against wetin dem call 'interference' with dia colonial policy. Colonial government dey talk how dem go make life beta for Congolese pipo. Since 1940s, dem don dey try small-small give some elite wey dem call évolués small civil rights, dem fit get small political power later. So, 'deserving' Congolese fit apply for proof of 'civil merit', or if dem fit do better, 'immatriculation' (registration), wey go show say dem don join European way of life. To get this status, applicant gats meet strict rules (like marry one wife, show good behavior, etc.) and dem go dey watch dem well well (wey de include house visits). Dis policy no work at all. For around mid-1950s, no be plenty Congolese wey don fit get di civil merit diploma or dem don get di 'immatriculation'. Di benefits wey dem dey talk say come with am—like equal legal status with di white folks—na mostly just talk, no be real. E dey make di évolués frustrated well well. When Governor-General Pétillon start dey talk say he go fit give di native people more civil rights, even voting, to create wetin he dey call 'Belgo-Congolese community', di people for Brussels no really send am, and some Belgians for Congo dey vex as dem dey fear for demma privilege.<ref>[[Isidore Ndaywel è Nziem|Ndaywel è Nziem]], Isidore (1998), ''Histoire générale du Congo'', Paris-Brussels: De Boeck & Larcier, pp. 456–63.</ref> E clear say Belgian government no get proper long-term plan for Congo matter. 'Colonial wahala' no dey trend for Belgium, as long as di colony dey shine and e dey quiet. But one person wey show concern na di young King Baudouin, wey take over from him papa, King Leopold III, for 1951, when dem force Leopold III to waka. Baudouin dey follow wetin dey happen for Belgian Congo well well. Wen King Baudouin come visit Belgian Congo for de first time for 1955, crowd dey cheer am well-well, both whites and blacks dey dance, like as dem show for André Cauvin documentary, Bwana Kitoko.<ref>{{cite book|last=Raspoet|first=Erik|title=Bwana Kitoko en de koning van de Bakuba|publisher=Meulenhoff/Manteau|year=2005|isbn=90-8542-020-2}}</ref> Foreign people wey dey observe, suc as de international correspondent of ''The Manchester Guardian'' or a ''Time'' journalist,<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|title=Congo: Boom in the Jungle|date=16 May 1955|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=28 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028201856/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=May 16, 1955|title=CONGO: Boom in the Jungle|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=28 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828025115/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> talk say Belgian paddy paddy style dey work well, and dey compare how Belgian people dem loyal pass those French and British colonies wey dey restless. During di visit, King Baudouin carry Governor-General idea of 'Belgo-Congolese community' come front; but for real, dis plan dey move slow. At di same time, dem wahala wey dey divide for Belgium, wey dem fit hide from di colony before, start to enter Congo too. Dem talk say workers dey unite more now, dem dey call make public schools fit break mission schools for education, plus dem wan make both Belgian languages, French and Dutch, sabi equal treatment for colony. Before this, na only French dem dey push as colonial language. Governor-General dey fear say dis kind wahala fit spoil di colonial government image for Congolese, plus e go shift focus from di real need for true emancipation. ===== Political organisation ===== [[File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|right|thumb|[[:en:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu|Joseph Kasa-Vubu]], leader of ABAKO plus de first President dem elect democratically of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] [[File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Patrice_Lumumba|Patrice Lumumba]], first democratically elected Prime Minister of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] Di Congolese people join Second World War and dem hear say tings dey change for other colonies, e make dem start to organize make dem fit get power. Di colonial government no fit bring beta changes wey fit work, so di Congolese elites start to gather demself socially and later politically. For di 1950s, two separate types of nationalism show up among di Congolese elites. Di nationalist movement—wey di Belgian authorities no really watch—promote say di Belgian Congo go become one united state after dem get independence. E get wetin wey de oppose this matter, na di ethno-religious and regional nationalism wey catch for di Bakongo area for di west coast, Kasai plus Katanga.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} Di first political groups na dem one. ABAKO wey dem establish for 1950 as di Association culturelle des Bakongo, and wetin Joseph Kasa-Vubu dey run, start as cultural group wey turn political sharp sharp. From di middle of 1950s, dem don dey shout against Belgian colonial rule well well. Plus, di group still dey serve as di main ethno-religious group for di Bakongo and dem blend well with di Kimbanguist Church wey be popular for lower Congo.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} For 1955, Belgian prof Antoine van Bilsen drop one paper wey dem call Thirty Year Plan for the Political Emancipation of Belgian Africa.<ref>Gerard-Libois, Jules (1989), "Vers l'Indépendance: une accélération imprévue", In ''Congo-Zaïre'', Brussels: GRIP, pp. 43–56.</ref> De plan get timetable wey say make dem gradually free Congo for 30 years—na the time wey Van Bilsen believe say e go take to build educated people wey fit take over from the Belgians for power. But the Belgian government and plenty of the évolués no happy with the plan—government no wan lose Congo, and the évolués sabi say Belgium go still dey rule for another three decades. One group of Catholic évolués yan am positive for the plan with one moderate manifesto for one Congolese journal wey dem dey call Conscience Africaine; dem talk some matter about how Congolese fit take part well well.<ref>Kalulambi Pongo, Martin (2009), "Le manifeste 'Conscience africaine: genèse, influences et réactions", In Tousignant, Nathalie (ed.), ''Le manifeste Conscience africaine, 1956'', Brussels: Facultés Universitaires Saint-Louis, pp. 59–81.</ref> For 1957, as experiment matter, colonial government do organize di first local elections for three cities (Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Jadotville), wey Congolese people fit stand for office and vote. Watin happen for 1957–58 make demand for political freedom burst, no be small. Ghana independence for 1957 and President De Gaulle visit wey happen for August 1958 for Brazzaville, capital of di French Congo, across di Congo river from Léopoldville, wey e promise say France African colonies go fit choose between staying with France or full independence, make people for Congo get big dreams. Di World Exhibition wey dem do for Brussels for 1958 (Expo 58) be another eye-opener for plenty Congolese leaders, wey dem allow make dem travel go Belgium for di first time.<ref>Aziza Etambala, Zana (2008), ''De teloorgang van een modelkolonie, Belgisch Congo 1958–1960'', Leuven: Acco, pp. 105–110.</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|date=23 December 1957|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125731/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=December 23, 1957|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=1 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501001542/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> For 1958, people dey crave for independence sharp sharp and the koko don take off. Na Mouvement National Congolais (MNC) wey dey play big role for di matter. Dem start am for 1956, but dem officially set am up as national political party for October 1958, wey dey support make Congo be one strong nation. Di person wey dey lead dem well well na di charming Patrice Lumumba. For 1959, wahala start after Albert Kalonji and some MNC leaders wey wan dey moderate split from di main group (dem call dem Mouvement National Congolais-Kalonji). Even though di party get different waka, Lumumba faction (now Mouvement National Congolais-Lumumba) and di MNC still be di most important and influential party for Belgian Congo. Belgium vehemently de oppose Lumumba ein leftist views plus get grave concerns about de status of demma financial interests if Lumumba ein MNC come power.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} ===== Independence ===== As Belgium dey debate how to give Congolese people their freedom small-small, wahala just burst everywhere. On 4 January 1959, dem do one political demo for Léopoldville wey ABAKO organise, but e no gree control. Na so, the colonial capital begin catch fire with plenty chaos. E take dem days to bring back order, and if we count am well, hundreds don die. De eruption of violence sent a shockwave through de Congo den Belgium alike.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-01-if-blood-must-run.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: If Blood Must Run|date=19 January 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125735/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-01-if-blood-must-run.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=January 19, 1959|title=BELGIAN CONGO: If Blood Must Run|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,868969,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201082719/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,868969,00.html|archive-date=2011-02-01|magazine=Time}}</ref> On 13 January, King Baudouin use radio talk to the people say Belgium go work for Congo to get full independence fast, but no be to go rush am like mumu.<ref>Koning Boudewijn. 35 jaar dialoog met de natie. Een keuze uit de koninklijke toespraken van 1951 tot 1986. Lannoo Tielt, Inbel, 1986, blz. 124.</ref> Dem no fit talk say independence go happen one particular day, but di government wey Prime Minister Gaston Eyskens dey lead, get plan for multi-year transition period. Dem think say provincial elections go happen for December 1959, national elections for 1960 or 1961, den after, dem go start hand over di admin and political duties small small to di Congolese, as dem dey expect say by mid-1960s e go don finish. But for ground, things dey change fast fast.<ref>Young, Crawford (1965), ''Politics in the Congo" Decolonization and Independence'', Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 140–161.</ref> Di colonial admin dey see different type of resistance, like people wey no wan pay tax. For some places, anarchy threatened.<ref>Ryckmans, Geneviève (1995), ''André Ryckmans, un territorial du Congo belge''. Paris. L'Harmattan, pp. 215–224.</ref> At di same time, plenty Belgians wey dey di Congo no wan independence, dem dey feel say Brussels don betray dem. As di Congolese dem dey demand better change, di government don see say di chance to make am smooth smooth no dey happen again fast fast.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-10-return-of-the-mundele.pdf|title=The Belgian Congo : Return of the Mundele|date=12 October 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125737/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-10-return-of-the-mundele.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=October 12, 1959|title=THE BELGIAN CONGO: Return of the Mundele|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,864032,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101203183837/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,864032,00.html|archive-date=2010-12-03|magazine=Time}}</ref> [[File:Ronde_Tafel_Conferentie_te_Brussel_Congo,_Bestanddeelnr_910-9593.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ronde_Tafel_Conferentie_te_Brussel_Congo,_Bestanddeelnr_910-9593.jpg|thumb|220x220px|Opening meeting of de Belgo-Congolese Round Table Conference insyde Brussels on 20 January 1960]] For 1959, King Baudouin come back to Belgian Congo, and e see say everywhere don change from the last time wey e visit four years ago. When e land for Léopoldville, wahala start as black Belgo-Congolese people dey throw stone for am because dem vex say dem don lock Lumumba up, wey dem convict say im dey incite against colonial government. Even though for other cities dem receive am better, dem dey shout “Vive le roi!” but e follow with “Indépendance immédiate!” The Belgian government no wan enter any gbege wey fit turn bloody like wetin happen to France for Indochina and Algeria, or Netherlands for Indonesia. So, dem dey reason say make dem fit agree for Congolese leaders wey dey shout for immediate independence.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-11-now-now-now.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: Now Now Now|date=16 November 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125729/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-11-now-now-now.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=November 16, 1959|title=BELGIAN CONGO: Now Now Now|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811442,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201085122/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811442,00.html|archive-date=2011-02-01|magazine=Time}}</ref> Although dem no prepare well plus no plenty people wey educate dey (only small Congolese get degree for dat time), Belgian leaders still gree make independence happen. E be true say dem weak local elites fit work for Belgian government and business people, dem dey hope say dis go make am easy for dem to still dey control wetin dey happen for politics and economy. Dis style different from colonial wars and de slow decolonization wey other European countries dey do, dem sabi am as 'Le Pari Congolais'—di Congolese bet.<ref>{{cite book|last=De Witte|first=Ludo|title=Crisis in Kongo. De rol van de Verenigde Naties, de regering-Eyskens en het koningshuis in de omverwerping van Lumumba en de opkomst van Mobutu|date=1996|publisher=Uitgeverij Van Halewyck|isbn=9789056170523|location=Leuven|page=31|author-link=Ludo De Witte}}</ref> For January 1960, dem call Congolese leaders come Brussels make dem fit gather for round-table talk about independence. Dem free Patrice Lumumba from prison just for this matter. Na so the conference quick quick agree give Congolese almost all wetin dem ask: make dem do general election for May 1960 and full independence—'Dipenda'—go land on 30 June 1960. Na because of di strong unity wey Congolese delegation carry come. [[File:Patrice_Lumumba_signs_the_document_granting_independence_to_the_Congo_next_to_Belgian_Prime_Minister_Gaston_Eyskens.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patrice_Lumumba_signs_the_document_granting_independence_to_the_Congo_next_to_Belgian_Prime_Minister_Gaston_Eyskens.jpg|right|thumb|Lumumba den Eyskens sign de document granting independence to de Congo]] Political maneuvering ahead of de elections, Elections dey come, so dem form three political groups for ground: one na the federalist nationalists, wey dey include six separatist parties, like ABAKO and MNC—Kalonji; another one na centralist MNC—Lumumba; and last one be Moïse Tshombe, wey be big man for Katanga, wey wan protect the business wey dey for Union Minière (like Kalonji do for de diamond exploitations matter insyde Kasaï). Di parliamentary elections show say di political scene dey divided, with di regionalist group dem—ABAKO wey dey lead—plus di nationalist parties like MNC too do well. Dem force compromise make Kasa-Vubu be di first president of Republic of di Congo, and Lumumba be di first head of government. Just like dem plan am five months before, di handover ceremony wey di Belgians do happen well on time for 30 June 1960 for di new house of di Governor-General for Belgian Congo wey dey Léopoldville. == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] i6qe6vhbshas7077pihbtqc13dgugty 69162 69161 2025-07-06T00:13:30Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Independence */ 69162 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== [[File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Minière_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|right|thumb|Nurses of de [[:en:Union_Minière_du_Haut-Katanga|Union Minière du Haut-Katanga]] plus demma Congolese assistants, [[:en:Lubumbashi|Élisabethville]], 1918]] Health care too dey supported by missions, but colonial state wan show interest small. For 1906, dem start Institute of Tropical Medicine for Brussels. This ITM dey among di top places wey train and do research for tropical medicine and how health care dey work for developing countries. Dem fit clear endemic sickness like sleeping sickness well well with serious campaigns.<ref>A critical assessment of the colonial obsession with sleeping sickness in: Lyons, Maryinez (1992), ''The Colonial Disease, A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> For 1925, medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper be di first person wey carry tryparsamide, di drug from Rockefeller Foundation wey dey cure sleeping sickness, enter Congo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingman |first=Jack |year=1994 |title=Arthur Lewis Piper, M.D.: A Medical Missionary in the Belgian Congo |journal=Journal of Community Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/BF02260364 |pmid=8006209 |s2cid=37502216}}</ref> Di health-care system dey grow well well during colonial time, with plenty hospital beds dey available for di people, plus dem set up dispensaries for far away places. By 1960, di country get beta medical structure wey pass any other African nation for dat time. Belgian Congo get 3,000 health facilities, wey 380 be hospitals. Dem get 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 people (1 for every 187 people). Dem make huge progress for di fight against endemic diseases; dem report sleeping sickness cases drop from 34,000 in 1931 to just 1,100 in 1959, mainly because dem clear tsetse fly for where plenty people dey. All Europeans plus Congolese wey dey for Belgian Congo do dem vaccine for polio, measles and yellow fever. Big big disease prevention programs dem start, wey dem wan make polio, leprosy and tuberculosis no dey again. For primary schools, dem run disease prevention campaigns, and dem include disease prevention class for curriculum too.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319" /> ===== Social inequality den racial discrimination ===== [[File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|thumb|Dem dey pull one woman wey be missionary inside rickshaw by some Congolese guys, around 1920 to 1930.]] Di Belgia Congo get system wey dey separate people based on race an dem dey discriminate too.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Krauzman|first=Marine|date=2025-03-11|title=Belgium's Colonial Past on Trial: What the 2024 Ruling Means for Reparational Justice|url=http://spheresofinfluence.ca/belgiums-colonial-past-on-trial-what-the-2024-ruling-means-for-reparational-justice/|access-date=2025-06-26|website=Spheres of Influence|language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-29|title=Belgian Congo {{!}} History & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgian-Congo|access-date=2025-06-26|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Dem get wetin dem call 'implicit apartheid'. Di colony put curfew for Congolese wey dey live for city, an plenty racial wahala dey happen. Léopoldville get di racist curfew wey e famous for, an dem use am as template for other European colonies like French Equatorial Africa wey dey close by.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Njoh |first1=Ambe J. |date=March 2008 |title=Colonial Philosophies, Urban Space, and Racial Segregation in British and French Colonial Africa |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Black Studies]] |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=579–599 |doi=10.1177/0021934706288447 |s2cid=145775865 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228161615/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref> Even though dem no get proper laws wey dey separate people by race, segregation dey happen plenty for many places. For example, at first, de city centers be only for white people, while black people dey stay for places dem dey call 'cités indigènes' or 'le belge'. Hospitals, shop dem and other places no dey allow both whites and blacks to mix. For Force Publique, black people no fit rise pass non-commissioned officer rank. Plus, black folks for the cities no fit come out from 9 pm to 4 am. Dis kind segregation start dey vanish small-small only for 1950s, but even then, de Congolese dem still dey feel like second-class citizens, especially for politics and law matter. [[File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|right|thumb|King [[:en:Albert_I_of_Belgium|Albert I]] plus Queen [[:en:Elisabeth_of_Bavaria,_Queen_of_the_Belgians|Elisabeth]] inspecting de military camp of Léopoldville for de time of demma visit to de Belgian Congo, 1928]] Sekof dem dey connect ekonomi growth with di 'civilizing mission', plus as state officials, missionaries plus private companies dey always help each other, people don sabi sey Belgian Congo dey ruled by one 'colonial trinity' of King-Church-Capital. Dis one fit mean di colonial state, di Christian missions, plus Société Générale de Belgique too. Di way wey colonial policy take dey work, e get one saying wey Governor-General Pierre Ryckmans (1934–46) use: Dominer pour servir ('Dominate to serve').<ref>Vanderlinden, Jacques (1994), ''Pierre Ryckmans 1891–1959, Coloniser dans l'honneur'', Brussels: De Boeck.</ref> Di colonial government wan make wey see am say dem dey nice plus no wahala for di administration, plus dem wan show Belgian Congo as di perfect colony. But na only for di 1950s e start change. For di 1950s, dem dey gradually draw back dem plenty harsh laws dem use punish di Congolese people (like di chicote wey be whip). From 1953, plus di big visit wey King Baudouin make to di colony for 1955, Governor-General Léon Pétillon (1952–1958) start dey try build one 'Belgian-Congolese community', where black plus white go dey equal.<ref>Pétillon, L. A. M. (1967), ''Témoignage et réflexions'', Brussels: Renaissance du Livre.</ref> But still, di anti-miscegenation laws no clear, and from 1959 to 1962, plenty mixed-race Congolese pikin dem dey carry come out from Congo by Belgian government plus Catholic Church go Belgium.<ref>{{cite web|last=Paravicini|first=Giulia|date=4 April 2019|title=Belgium apologizes for colonial-era abduction of mixed-race children|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711005737/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|archive-date=11 July 2019|access-date=10 July 2019|publisher=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> For 1957, dem do first municipal elections wey black voters fit vote for some big cities — Léopoldville, Élisabethville, plus Jadotville. ===== Abolition of slavery ===== For Congo Free State, plenty men, women, and pikin dem free from Swahili Arab slave owners and traders for Eastern Congo between 1886 and 1892. Dem fit join militai (Force Publique) or dem go give am to local chiefs wey be friends, and dem go use dem as workers. Even though dem ban chattel slavery for 1910 when Belgian Congo start, dem still dey use prisoners as forced laborers for public den private projects.<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 40</ref> == Resistance == Di Congolese dem no gree colonization; dem dey fight am steady, e come take many shapes. As modern ideas and education dey enter ground, e dey spark plenty action.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> Armed wahala show for small-small parts till Second World War finish (like Pende wahala for 1931, and di gbagbe for Luluabourg 1944). After di war till late 1950s, wetin dem dey call 'Pax belgica' go dey. But e no mean say dem no dey resist; passive resistance dey plenty too, like Kimbanguism wey be from di ‘prophet’ Simon Kimbangu wey di Belgians lock up. Aside active and passive wahala wey Congolese dey raise, di colonial government still dey hear plenty internal noise and gbege. Even for di 1920s, some people for Colonial Council wey dey for Brussels (like Octave Louwers) don talk plenty about di harsh way big companies dey recruit people for di mining places. Di slow growth for population for many areas—abi even wey dem dey chop plenty success for fight against sick sick like sleeping sickness—na another wahala wey dey worry dem. Low birth rate for countryside and some places dey empty usually link to di way traditional life don scatter because of forced work migration and compulsory farming. Dem dey talk say na wetin dem plan be dat, and dem dey point out how population dey increase for cities and how health plus lifespan don better thanks to modern medicine and better living condition.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hunt|first1=Nancy Rose|date=2002|title=Rewriting the Soul in Colonial Congo: Flemish Missionaries and Infertility|url=https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040613132330/https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|archive-date=2004-06-13|website=Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|publisher=Antwerp University Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|language=en}}</ref> Plenty missionaries wey dey connect with Congolese villagers dey carry dem wahala for heart plus sometimes dem dey fit intervene for dem matter with di colonial administration (like land property questions). Di missions plus some area administrators dem fit play big role for study and protect Congolese culture and language tradition plus di artifacts wey dey there. One good example na Father Gustaaf Hulstaert (1900–1990), wey insyde 1937 start di periodical Aequatoria wey dem dey use for di linguistic, ethnographic plus historical study of di Mongo people for di central Congo basin.<ref>See: aequatoria.be</ref> Di colonial state dey interested for di cultural and scientific study of Congo, especially after di Second World War, through di setup of di Institut pour la Recherche Scientifique en Afrique Centrale (IRSAC, 1948). == Toward independence == For early 1950s, di political freedom of di Congolese elites, no talk of di masses, e be like far dream. But e clear say Congo no fit dey far from di quick changes wey happen after di Second World War, wey scatter colonialism worldwide. Di independence wey di British, French, plus Dutch colonies for Asia get after 1945 no really change anything for Congo, but di pressure for Belgium from di United Nations don increase (just like all di other colonial powers). Belgium don agree to article 73 of di United Nations Charter wey talk about self-determination, plus di two superpowers dey pressure Belgium make dem change how dem dey run Congo; di Belgian government dey try hold body against wetin dem call 'interference' with dia colonial policy. Colonial government dey talk how dem go make life beta for Congolese pipo. Since 1940s, dem don dey try small-small give some elite wey dem call évolués small civil rights, dem fit get small political power later. So, 'deserving' Congolese fit apply for proof of 'civil merit', or if dem fit do better, 'immatriculation' (registration), wey go show say dem don join European way of life. To get this status, applicant gats meet strict rules (like marry one wife, show good behavior, etc.) and dem go dey watch dem well well (wey de include house visits). Dis policy no work at all. For around mid-1950s, no be plenty Congolese wey don fit get di civil merit diploma or dem don get di 'immatriculation'. Di benefits wey dem dey talk say come with am—like equal legal status with di white folks—na mostly just talk, no be real. E dey make di évolués frustrated well well. When Governor-General Pétillon start dey talk say he go fit give di native people more civil rights, even voting, to create wetin he dey call 'Belgo-Congolese community', di people for Brussels no really send am, and some Belgians for Congo dey vex as dem dey fear for demma privilege.<ref>[[Isidore Ndaywel è Nziem|Ndaywel è Nziem]], Isidore (1998), ''Histoire générale du Congo'', Paris-Brussels: De Boeck & Larcier, pp. 456–63.</ref> E clear say Belgian government no get proper long-term plan for Congo matter. 'Colonial wahala' no dey trend for Belgium, as long as di colony dey shine and e dey quiet. But one person wey show concern na di young King Baudouin, wey take over from him papa, King Leopold III, for 1951, when dem force Leopold III to waka. Baudouin dey follow wetin dey happen for Belgian Congo well well. Wen King Baudouin come visit Belgian Congo for de first time for 1955, crowd dey cheer am well-well, both whites and blacks dey dance, like as dem show for André Cauvin documentary, Bwana Kitoko.<ref>{{cite book|last=Raspoet|first=Erik|title=Bwana Kitoko en de koning van de Bakuba|publisher=Meulenhoff/Manteau|year=2005|isbn=90-8542-020-2}}</ref> Foreign people wey dey observe, suc as de international correspondent of ''The Manchester Guardian'' or a ''Time'' journalist,<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|title=Congo: Boom in the Jungle|date=16 May 1955|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=28 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028201856/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=May 16, 1955|title=CONGO: Boom in the Jungle|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=28 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828025115/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> talk say Belgian paddy paddy style dey work well, and dey compare how Belgian people dem loyal pass those French and British colonies wey dey restless. During di visit, King Baudouin carry Governor-General idea of 'Belgo-Congolese community' come front; but for real, dis plan dey move slow. At di same time, dem wahala wey dey divide for Belgium, wey dem fit hide from di colony before, start to enter Congo too. Dem talk say workers dey unite more now, dem dey call make public schools fit break mission schools for education, plus dem wan make both Belgian languages, French and Dutch, sabi equal treatment for colony. Before this, na only French dem dey push as colonial language. Governor-General dey fear say dis kind wahala fit spoil di colonial government image for Congolese, plus e go shift focus from di real need for true emancipation. ===== Political organisation ===== [[File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|right|thumb|[[:en:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu|Joseph Kasa-Vubu]], leader of ABAKO plus de first President dem elect democratically of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] [[File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Patrice_Lumumba|Patrice Lumumba]], first democratically elected Prime Minister of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] Di Congolese people join Second World War and dem hear say tings dey change for other colonies, e make dem start to organize make dem fit get power. Di colonial government no fit bring beta changes wey fit work, so di Congolese elites start to gather demself socially and later politically. For di 1950s, two separate types of nationalism show up among di Congolese elites. Di nationalist movement—wey di Belgian authorities no really watch—promote say di Belgian Congo go become one united state after dem get independence. E get wetin wey de oppose this matter, na di ethno-religious and regional nationalism wey catch for di Bakongo area for di west coast, Kasai plus Katanga.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} Di first political groups na dem one. ABAKO wey dem establish for 1950 as di Association culturelle des Bakongo, and wetin Joseph Kasa-Vubu dey run, start as cultural group wey turn political sharp sharp. From di middle of 1950s, dem don dey shout against Belgian colonial rule well well. Plus, di group still dey serve as di main ethno-religious group for di Bakongo and dem blend well with di Kimbanguist Church wey be popular for lower Congo.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} For 1955, Belgian prof Antoine van Bilsen drop one paper wey dem call Thirty Year Plan for the Political Emancipation of Belgian Africa.<ref>Gerard-Libois, Jules (1989), "Vers l'Indépendance: une accélération imprévue", In ''Congo-Zaïre'', Brussels: GRIP, pp. 43–56.</ref> De plan get timetable wey say make dem gradually free Congo for 30 years—na the time wey Van Bilsen believe say e go take to build educated people wey fit take over from the Belgians for power. But the Belgian government and plenty of the évolués no happy with the plan—government no wan lose Congo, and the évolués sabi say Belgium go still dey rule for another three decades. One group of Catholic évolués yan am positive for the plan with one moderate manifesto for one Congolese journal wey dem dey call Conscience Africaine; dem talk some matter about how Congolese fit take part well well.<ref>Kalulambi Pongo, Martin (2009), "Le manifeste 'Conscience africaine: genèse, influences et réactions", In Tousignant, Nathalie (ed.), ''Le manifeste Conscience africaine, 1956'', Brussels: Facultés Universitaires Saint-Louis, pp. 59–81.</ref> For 1957, as experiment matter, colonial government do organize di first local elections for three cities (Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Jadotville), wey Congolese people fit stand for office and vote. Watin happen for 1957–58 make demand for political freedom burst, no be small. Ghana independence for 1957 and President De Gaulle visit wey happen for August 1958 for Brazzaville, capital of di French Congo, across di Congo river from Léopoldville, wey e promise say France African colonies go fit choose between staying with France or full independence, make people for Congo get big dreams. Di World Exhibition wey dem do for Brussels for 1958 (Expo 58) be another eye-opener for plenty Congolese leaders, wey dem allow make dem travel go Belgium for di first time.<ref>Aziza Etambala, Zana (2008), ''De teloorgang van een modelkolonie, Belgisch Congo 1958–1960'', Leuven: Acco, pp. 105–110.</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|date=23 December 1957|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125731/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=December 23, 1957|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=1 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501001542/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> For 1958, people dey crave for independence sharp sharp and the koko don take off. Na Mouvement National Congolais (MNC) wey dey play big role for di matter. Dem start am for 1956, but dem officially set am up as national political party for October 1958, wey dey support make Congo be one strong nation. Di person wey dey lead dem well well na di charming Patrice Lumumba. For 1959, wahala start after Albert Kalonji and some MNC leaders wey wan dey moderate split from di main group (dem call dem Mouvement National Congolais-Kalonji). Even though di party get different waka, Lumumba faction (now Mouvement National Congolais-Lumumba) and di MNC still be di most important and influential party for Belgian Congo. Belgium vehemently de oppose Lumumba ein leftist views plus get grave concerns about de status of demma financial interests if Lumumba ein MNC come power.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} ===== Independence ===== As Belgium dey debate how to give Congolese people their freedom small-small, wahala just burst everywhere. On 4 January 1959, dem do one political demo for Léopoldville wey ABAKO organise, but e no gree control. Na so, the colonial capital begin catch fire with plenty chaos. E take dem days to bring back order, and if we count am well, hundreds don die. De eruption of violence sent a shockwave through de Congo den Belgium alike.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-01-if-blood-must-run.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: If Blood Must Run|date=19 January 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125735/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-01-if-blood-must-run.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=January 19, 1959|title=BELGIAN CONGO: If Blood Must Run|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,868969,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201082719/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,868969,00.html|archive-date=2011-02-01|magazine=Time}}</ref> On 13 January, King Baudouin use radio talk to the people say Belgium go work for Congo to get full independence fast, but no be to go rush am like mumu.<ref>Koning Boudewijn. 35 jaar dialoog met de natie. Een keuze uit de koninklijke toespraken van 1951 tot 1986. Lannoo Tielt, Inbel, 1986, blz. 124.</ref> Dem no fit talk say independence go happen one particular day, but di government wey Prime Minister Gaston Eyskens dey lead, get plan for multi-year transition period. Dem think say provincial elections go happen for December 1959, national elections for 1960 or 1961, den after, dem go start hand over di admin and political duties small small to di Congolese, as dem dey expect say by mid-1960s e go don finish. But for ground, things dey change fast fast.<ref>Young, Crawford (1965), ''Politics in the Congo" Decolonization and Independence'', Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 140–161.</ref> Di colonial admin dey see different type of resistance, like people wey no wan pay tax. For some places, anarchy threatened.<ref>Ryckmans, Geneviève (1995), ''André Ryckmans, un territorial du Congo belge''. Paris. L'Harmattan, pp. 215–224.</ref> At di same time, plenty Belgians wey dey di Congo no wan independence, dem dey feel say Brussels don betray dem. As di Congolese dem dey demand better change, di government don see say di chance to make am smooth smooth no dey happen again fast fast.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-10-return-of-the-mundele.pdf|title=The Belgian Congo : Return of the Mundele|date=12 October 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125737/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-10-return-of-the-mundele.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=October 12, 1959|title=THE BELGIAN CONGO: Return of the Mundele|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,864032,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101203183837/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,864032,00.html|archive-date=2010-12-03|magazine=Time}}</ref> [[File:Ronde_Tafel_Conferentie_te_Brussel_Congo,_Bestanddeelnr_910-9593.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ronde_Tafel_Conferentie_te_Brussel_Congo,_Bestanddeelnr_910-9593.jpg|thumb|220x220px|Opening meeting of de Belgo-Congolese Round Table Conference insyde Brussels on 20 January 1960]] For 1959, King Baudouin come back to Belgian Congo, and e see say everywhere don change from the last time wey e visit four years ago. When e land for Léopoldville, wahala start as black Belgo-Congolese people dey throw stone for am because dem vex say dem don lock Lumumba up, wey dem convict say im dey incite against colonial government. Even though for other cities dem receive am better, dem dey shout “Vive le roi!” but e follow with “Indépendance immédiate!” The Belgian government no wan enter any gbege wey fit turn bloody like wetin happen to France for Indochina and Algeria, or Netherlands for Indonesia. So, dem dey reason say make dem fit agree for Congolese leaders wey dey shout for immediate independence.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-11-now-now-now.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: Now Now Now|date=16 November 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125729/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-11-now-now-now.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=November 16, 1959|title=BELGIAN CONGO: Now Now Now|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811442,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201085122/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811442,00.html|archive-date=2011-02-01|magazine=Time}}</ref> Although dem no prepare well plus no plenty people wey educate dey (only small Congolese get degree for dat time), Belgian leaders still gree make independence happen. E be true say dem weak local elites fit work for Belgian government and business people, dem dey hope say dis go make am easy for dem to still dey control wetin dey happen for politics and economy. Dis style different from colonial wars and de slow decolonization wey other European countries dey do, dem sabi am as 'Le Pari Congolais'—di Congolese bet.<ref>{{cite book|last=De Witte|first=Ludo|title=Crisis in Kongo. De rol van de Verenigde Naties, de regering-Eyskens en het koningshuis in de omverwerping van Lumumba en de opkomst van Mobutu|date=1996|publisher=Uitgeverij Van Halewyck|isbn=9789056170523|location=Leuven|page=31|author-link=Ludo De Witte}}</ref> For January 1960, dem call Congolese leaders come Brussels make dem fit gather for round-table talk about independence. Dem free Patrice Lumumba from prison just for this matter. Na so the conference quick quick agree give Congolese almost all wetin dem ask: make dem do general election for May 1960 and full independence—'Dipenda'—go land on 30 June 1960. Na because of di strong unity wey Congolese delegation carry come. [[File:Patrice_Lumumba_signs_the_document_granting_independence_to_the_Congo_next_to_Belgian_Prime_Minister_Gaston_Eyskens.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patrice_Lumumba_signs_the_document_granting_independence_to_the_Congo_next_to_Belgian_Prime_Minister_Gaston_Eyskens.jpg|right|thumb|Lumumba den Eyskens sign de document granting independence to de Congo]] Political maneuvering ahead of de elections, Elections dey come, so dem form three political groups for ground: one na the federalist nationalists, wey dey include six separatist parties, like ABAKO and MNC—Kalonji; another one na centralist MNC—Lumumba; and last one be Moïse Tshombe, wey be big man for Katanga, wey wan protect the business wey dey for Union Minière (like Kalonji do for de diamond exploitations matter insyde Kasaï). Di parliamentary elections show say di political scene dey divided, with di regionalist group dem—ABAKO wey dey lead—plus di nationalist parties like MNC too do well. Dem force compromise make Kasa-Vubu be di first president of Republic of di Congo, and Lumumba be di first head of government. Just like dem plan am five months before, di handover ceremony wey di Belgians do happen well on time for 30 June 1960 for di new house of di Governor-General for Belgian Congo wey dey Léopoldville. One week later, wahala begin for Force Publique, dem dey rebel against dem officers wey still dey mostly Belgian. Dis one spark plenty gbege all over Congo, na unhappy soldiers and sharp-sharp youths dey cause am. For plenty places, dem dey focus di violence on European people. In small time, Belgian soldiers and later UN intervention force carry plenty Belgians wey dey work and live for Congo come out, over 80,000 of dem.<ref>{{cite book|last=Verlinden|first=Peter|title=Weg uit Congo, Het drama van de kolonialen|publisher=[[Davidsfonds]]|year=2002|location=Leuven}}</ref> == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] 1svakof0rq8wtf4uoam6mpuatsynymp 69163 69162 2025-07-06T00:15:08Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 I don add de header 'Congo crisis plus wetin follow am' 69163 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== [[File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Minière_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|right|thumb|Nurses of de [[:en:Union_Minière_du_Haut-Katanga|Union Minière du Haut-Katanga]] plus demma Congolese assistants, [[:en:Lubumbashi|Élisabethville]], 1918]] Health care too dey supported by missions, but colonial state wan show interest small. For 1906, dem start Institute of Tropical Medicine for Brussels. This ITM dey among di top places wey train and do research for tropical medicine and how health care dey work for developing countries. Dem fit clear endemic sickness like sleeping sickness well well with serious campaigns.<ref>A critical assessment of the colonial obsession with sleeping sickness in: Lyons, Maryinez (1992), ''The Colonial Disease, A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> For 1925, medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper be di first person wey carry tryparsamide, di drug from Rockefeller Foundation wey dey cure sleeping sickness, enter Congo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingman |first=Jack |year=1994 |title=Arthur Lewis Piper, M.D.: A Medical Missionary in the Belgian Congo |journal=Journal of Community Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/BF02260364 |pmid=8006209 |s2cid=37502216}}</ref> Di health-care system dey grow well well during colonial time, with plenty hospital beds dey available for di people, plus dem set up dispensaries for far away places. By 1960, di country get beta medical structure wey pass any other African nation for dat time. Belgian Congo get 3,000 health facilities, wey 380 be hospitals. Dem get 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 people (1 for every 187 people). Dem make huge progress for di fight against endemic diseases; dem report sleeping sickness cases drop from 34,000 in 1931 to just 1,100 in 1959, mainly because dem clear tsetse fly for where plenty people dey. All Europeans plus Congolese wey dey for Belgian Congo do dem vaccine for polio, measles and yellow fever. Big big disease prevention programs dem start, wey dem wan make polio, leprosy and tuberculosis no dey again. For primary schools, dem run disease prevention campaigns, and dem include disease prevention class for curriculum too.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319" /> ===== Social inequality den racial discrimination ===== [[File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|thumb|Dem dey pull one woman wey be missionary inside rickshaw by some Congolese guys, around 1920 to 1930.]] Di Belgia Congo get system wey dey separate people based on race an dem dey discriminate too.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Krauzman|first=Marine|date=2025-03-11|title=Belgium's Colonial Past on Trial: What the 2024 Ruling Means for Reparational Justice|url=http://spheresofinfluence.ca/belgiums-colonial-past-on-trial-what-the-2024-ruling-means-for-reparational-justice/|access-date=2025-06-26|website=Spheres of Influence|language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-29|title=Belgian Congo {{!}} History & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgian-Congo|access-date=2025-06-26|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Dem get wetin dem call 'implicit apartheid'. Di colony put curfew for Congolese wey dey live for city, an plenty racial wahala dey happen. Léopoldville get di racist curfew wey e famous for, an dem use am as template for other European colonies like French Equatorial Africa wey dey close by.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Njoh |first1=Ambe J. |date=March 2008 |title=Colonial Philosophies, Urban Space, and Racial Segregation in British and French Colonial Africa |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Black Studies]] |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=579–599 |doi=10.1177/0021934706288447 |s2cid=145775865 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228161615/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref> Even though dem no get proper laws wey dey separate people by race, segregation dey happen plenty for many places. For example, at first, de city centers be only for white people, while black people dey stay for places dem dey call 'cités indigènes' or 'le belge'. Hospitals, shop dem and other places no dey allow both whites and blacks to mix. For Force Publique, black people no fit rise pass non-commissioned officer rank. Plus, black folks for the cities no fit come out from 9 pm to 4 am. Dis kind segregation start dey vanish small-small only for 1950s, but even then, de Congolese dem still dey feel like second-class citizens, especially for politics and law matter. [[File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|right|thumb|King [[:en:Albert_I_of_Belgium|Albert I]] plus Queen [[:en:Elisabeth_of_Bavaria,_Queen_of_the_Belgians|Elisabeth]] inspecting de military camp of Léopoldville for de time of demma visit to de Belgian Congo, 1928]] Sekof dem dey connect ekonomi growth with di 'civilizing mission', plus as state officials, missionaries plus private companies dey always help each other, people don sabi sey Belgian Congo dey ruled by one 'colonial trinity' of King-Church-Capital. Dis one fit mean di colonial state, di Christian missions, plus Société Générale de Belgique too. Di way wey colonial policy take dey work, e get one saying wey Governor-General Pierre Ryckmans (1934–46) use: Dominer pour servir ('Dominate to serve').<ref>Vanderlinden, Jacques (1994), ''Pierre Ryckmans 1891–1959, Coloniser dans l'honneur'', Brussels: De Boeck.</ref> Di colonial government wan make wey see am say dem dey nice plus no wahala for di administration, plus dem wan show Belgian Congo as di perfect colony. But na only for di 1950s e start change. For di 1950s, dem dey gradually draw back dem plenty harsh laws dem use punish di Congolese people (like di chicote wey be whip). From 1953, plus di big visit wey King Baudouin make to di colony for 1955, Governor-General Léon Pétillon (1952–1958) start dey try build one 'Belgian-Congolese community', where black plus white go dey equal.<ref>Pétillon, L. A. M. (1967), ''Témoignage et réflexions'', Brussels: Renaissance du Livre.</ref> But still, di anti-miscegenation laws no clear, and from 1959 to 1962, plenty mixed-race Congolese pikin dem dey carry come out from Congo by Belgian government plus Catholic Church go Belgium.<ref>{{cite web|last=Paravicini|first=Giulia|date=4 April 2019|title=Belgium apologizes for colonial-era abduction of mixed-race children|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711005737/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|archive-date=11 July 2019|access-date=10 July 2019|publisher=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> For 1957, dem do first municipal elections wey black voters fit vote for some big cities — Léopoldville, Élisabethville, plus Jadotville. ===== Abolition of slavery ===== For Congo Free State, plenty men, women, and pikin dem free from Swahili Arab slave owners and traders for Eastern Congo between 1886 and 1892. Dem fit join militai (Force Publique) or dem go give am to local chiefs wey be friends, and dem go use dem as workers. Even though dem ban chattel slavery for 1910 when Belgian Congo start, dem still dey use prisoners as forced laborers for public den private projects.<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 40</ref> == Resistance == Di Congolese dem no gree colonization; dem dey fight am steady, e come take many shapes. As modern ideas and education dey enter ground, e dey spark plenty action.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> Armed wahala show for small-small parts till Second World War finish (like Pende wahala for 1931, and di gbagbe for Luluabourg 1944). After di war till late 1950s, wetin dem dey call 'Pax belgica' go dey. But e no mean say dem no dey resist; passive resistance dey plenty too, like Kimbanguism wey be from di ‘prophet’ Simon Kimbangu wey di Belgians lock up. Aside active and passive wahala wey Congolese dey raise, di colonial government still dey hear plenty internal noise and gbege. Even for di 1920s, some people for Colonial Council wey dey for Brussels (like Octave Louwers) don talk plenty about di harsh way big companies dey recruit people for di mining places. Di slow growth for population for many areas—abi even wey dem dey chop plenty success for fight against sick sick like sleeping sickness—na another wahala wey dey worry dem. Low birth rate for countryside and some places dey empty usually link to di way traditional life don scatter because of forced work migration and compulsory farming. Dem dey talk say na wetin dem plan be dat, and dem dey point out how population dey increase for cities and how health plus lifespan don better thanks to modern medicine and better living condition.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hunt|first1=Nancy Rose|date=2002|title=Rewriting the Soul in Colonial Congo: Flemish Missionaries and Infertility|url=https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040613132330/https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|archive-date=2004-06-13|website=Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|publisher=Antwerp University Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|language=en}}</ref> Plenty missionaries wey dey connect with Congolese villagers dey carry dem wahala for heart plus sometimes dem dey fit intervene for dem matter with di colonial administration (like land property questions). Di missions plus some area administrators dem fit play big role for study and protect Congolese culture and language tradition plus di artifacts wey dey there. One good example na Father Gustaaf Hulstaert (1900–1990), wey insyde 1937 start di periodical Aequatoria wey dem dey use for di linguistic, ethnographic plus historical study of di Mongo people for di central Congo basin.<ref>See: aequatoria.be</ref> Di colonial state dey interested for di cultural and scientific study of Congo, especially after di Second World War, through di setup of di Institut pour la Recherche Scientifique en Afrique Centrale (IRSAC, 1948). == Toward independence == For early 1950s, di political freedom of di Congolese elites, no talk of di masses, e be like far dream. But e clear say Congo no fit dey far from di quick changes wey happen after di Second World War, wey scatter colonialism worldwide. Di independence wey di British, French, plus Dutch colonies for Asia get after 1945 no really change anything for Congo, but di pressure for Belgium from di United Nations don increase (just like all di other colonial powers). Belgium don agree to article 73 of di United Nations Charter wey talk about self-determination, plus di two superpowers dey pressure Belgium make dem change how dem dey run Congo; di Belgian government dey try hold body against wetin dem call 'interference' with dia colonial policy. Colonial government dey talk how dem go make life beta for Congolese pipo. Since 1940s, dem don dey try small-small give some elite wey dem call évolués small civil rights, dem fit get small political power later. So, 'deserving' Congolese fit apply for proof of 'civil merit', or if dem fit do better, 'immatriculation' (registration), wey go show say dem don join European way of life. To get this status, applicant gats meet strict rules (like marry one wife, show good behavior, etc.) and dem go dey watch dem well well (wey de include house visits). Dis policy no work at all. For around mid-1950s, no be plenty Congolese wey don fit get di civil merit diploma or dem don get di 'immatriculation'. Di benefits wey dem dey talk say come with am—like equal legal status with di white folks—na mostly just talk, no be real. E dey make di évolués frustrated well well. When Governor-General Pétillon start dey talk say he go fit give di native people more civil rights, even voting, to create wetin he dey call 'Belgo-Congolese community', di people for Brussels no really send am, and some Belgians for Congo dey vex as dem dey fear for demma privilege.<ref>[[Isidore Ndaywel è Nziem|Ndaywel è Nziem]], Isidore (1998), ''Histoire générale du Congo'', Paris-Brussels: De Boeck & Larcier, pp. 456–63.</ref> E clear say Belgian government no get proper long-term plan for Congo matter. 'Colonial wahala' no dey trend for Belgium, as long as di colony dey shine and e dey quiet. But one person wey show concern na di young King Baudouin, wey take over from him papa, King Leopold III, for 1951, when dem force Leopold III to waka. Baudouin dey follow wetin dey happen for Belgian Congo well well. Wen King Baudouin come visit Belgian Congo for de first time for 1955, crowd dey cheer am well-well, both whites and blacks dey dance, like as dem show for André Cauvin documentary, Bwana Kitoko.<ref>{{cite book|last=Raspoet|first=Erik|title=Bwana Kitoko en de koning van de Bakuba|publisher=Meulenhoff/Manteau|year=2005|isbn=90-8542-020-2}}</ref> Foreign people wey dey observe, suc as de international correspondent of ''The Manchester Guardian'' or a ''Time'' journalist,<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|title=Congo: Boom in the Jungle|date=16 May 1955|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=28 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028201856/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=May 16, 1955|title=CONGO: Boom in the Jungle|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=28 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828025115/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> talk say Belgian paddy paddy style dey work well, and dey compare how Belgian people dem loyal pass those French and British colonies wey dey restless. During di visit, King Baudouin carry Governor-General idea of 'Belgo-Congolese community' come front; but for real, dis plan dey move slow. At di same time, dem wahala wey dey divide for Belgium, wey dem fit hide from di colony before, start to enter Congo too. Dem talk say workers dey unite more now, dem dey call make public schools fit break mission schools for education, plus dem wan make both Belgian languages, French and Dutch, sabi equal treatment for colony. Before this, na only French dem dey push as colonial language. Governor-General dey fear say dis kind wahala fit spoil di colonial government image for Congolese, plus e go shift focus from di real need for true emancipation. ===== Political organisation ===== [[File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|right|thumb|[[:en:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu|Joseph Kasa-Vubu]], leader of ABAKO plus de first President dem elect democratically of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] [[File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Patrice_Lumumba|Patrice Lumumba]], first democratically elected Prime Minister of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] Di Congolese people join Second World War and dem hear say tings dey change for other colonies, e make dem start to organize make dem fit get power. Di colonial government no fit bring beta changes wey fit work, so di Congolese elites start to gather demself socially and later politically. For di 1950s, two separate types of nationalism show up among di Congolese elites. Di nationalist movement—wey di Belgian authorities no really watch—promote say di Belgian Congo go become one united state after dem get independence. E get wetin wey de oppose this matter, na di ethno-religious and regional nationalism wey catch for di Bakongo area for di west coast, Kasai plus Katanga.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} Di first political groups na dem one. ABAKO wey dem establish for 1950 as di Association culturelle des Bakongo, and wetin Joseph Kasa-Vubu dey run, start as cultural group wey turn political sharp sharp. From di middle of 1950s, dem don dey shout against Belgian colonial rule well well. Plus, di group still dey serve as di main ethno-religious group for di Bakongo and dem blend well with di Kimbanguist Church wey be popular for lower Congo.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} For 1955, Belgian prof Antoine van Bilsen drop one paper wey dem call Thirty Year Plan for the Political Emancipation of Belgian Africa.<ref>Gerard-Libois, Jules (1989), "Vers l'Indépendance: une accélération imprévue", In ''Congo-Zaïre'', Brussels: GRIP, pp. 43–56.</ref> De plan get timetable wey say make dem gradually free Congo for 30 years—na the time wey Van Bilsen believe say e go take to build educated people wey fit take over from the Belgians for power. But the Belgian government and plenty of the évolués no happy with the plan—government no wan lose Congo, and the évolués sabi say Belgium go still dey rule for another three decades. One group of Catholic évolués yan am positive for the plan with one moderate manifesto for one Congolese journal wey dem dey call Conscience Africaine; dem talk some matter about how Congolese fit take part well well.<ref>Kalulambi Pongo, Martin (2009), "Le manifeste 'Conscience africaine: genèse, influences et réactions", In Tousignant, Nathalie (ed.), ''Le manifeste Conscience africaine, 1956'', Brussels: Facultés Universitaires Saint-Louis, pp. 59–81.</ref> For 1957, as experiment matter, colonial government do organize di first local elections for three cities (Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Jadotville), wey Congolese people fit stand for office and vote. Watin happen for 1957–58 make demand for political freedom burst, no be small. Ghana independence for 1957 and President De Gaulle visit wey happen for August 1958 for Brazzaville, capital of di French Congo, across di Congo river from Léopoldville, wey e promise say France African colonies go fit choose between staying with France or full independence, make people for Congo get big dreams. Di World Exhibition wey dem do for Brussels for 1958 (Expo 58) be another eye-opener for plenty Congolese leaders, wey dem allow make dem travel go Belgium for di first time.<ref>Aziza Etambala, Zana (2008), ''De teloorgang van een modelkolonie, Belgisch Congo 1958–1960'', Leuven: Acco, pp. 105–110.</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|date=23 December 1957|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125731/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=December 23, 1957|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=1 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501001542/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> For 1958, people dey crave for independence sharp sharp and the koko don take off. Na Mouvement National Congolais (MNC) wey dey play big role for di matter. Dem start am for 1956, but dem officially set am up as national political party for October 1958, wey dey support make Congo be one strong nation. Di person wey dey lead dem well well na di charming Patrice Lumumba. For 1959, wahala start after Albert Kalonji and some MNC leaders wey wan dey moderate split from di main group (dem call dem Mouvement National Congolais-Kalonji). Even though di party get different waka, Lumumba faction (now Mouvement National Congolais-Lumumba) and di MNC still be di most important and influential party for Belgian Congo. Belgium vehemently de oppose Lumumba ein leftist views plus get grave concerns about de status of demma financial interests if Lumumba ein MNC come power.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} ===== Independence ===== As Belgium dey debate how to give Congolese people their freedom small-small, wahala just burst everywhere. On 4 January 1959, dem do one political demo for Léopoldville wey ABAKO organise, but e no gree control. Na so, the colonial capital begin catch fire with plenty chaos. E take dem days to bring back order, and if we count am well, hundreds don die. De eruption of violence sent a shockwave through de Congo den Belgium alike.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-01-if-blood-must-run.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: If Blood Must Run|date=19 January 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125735/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-01-if-blood-must-run.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=January 19, 1959|title=BELGIAN CONGO: If Blood Must Run|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,868969,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201082719/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,868969,00.html|archive-date=2011-02-01|magazine=Time}}</ref> On 13 January, King Baudouin use radio talk to the people say Belgium go work for Congo to get full independence fast, but no be to go rush am like mumu.<ref>Koning Boudewijn. 35 jaar dialoog met de natie. Een keuze uit de koninklijke toespraken van 1951 tot 1986. Lannoo Tielt, Inbel, 1986, blz. 124.</ref> Dem no fit talk say independence go happen one particular day, but di government wey Prime Minister Gaston Eyskens dey lead, get plan for multi-year transition period. Dem think say provincial elections go happen for December 1959, national elections for 1960 or 1961, den after, dem go start hand over di admin and political duties small small to di Congolese, as dem dey expect say by mid-1960s e go don finish. But for ground, things dey change fast fast.<ref>Young, Crawford (1965), ''Politics in the Congo" Decolonization and Independence'', Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 140–161.</ref> Di colonial admin dey see different type of resistance, like people wey no wan pay tax. For some places, anarchy threatened.<ref>Ryckmans, Geneviève (1995), ''André Ryckmans, un territorial du Congo belge''. Paris. L'Harmattan, pp. 215–224.</ref> At di same time, plenty Belgians wey dey di Congo no wan independence, dem dey feel say Brussels don betray dem. As di Congolese dem dey demand better change, di government don see say di chance to make am smooth smooth no dey happen again fast fast.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-10-return-of-the-mundele.pdf|title=The Belgian Congo : Return of the Mundele|date=12 October 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125737/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-10-return-of-the-mundele.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=October 12, 1959|title=THE BELGIAN CONGO: Return of the Mundele|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,864032,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101203183837/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,864032,00.html|archive-date=2010-12-03|magazine=Time}}</ref> [[File:Ronde_Tafel_Conferentie_te_Brussel_Congo,_Bestanddeelnr_910-9593.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ronde_Tafel_Conferentie_te_Brussel_Congo,_Bestanddeelnr_910-9593.jpg|thumb|220x220px|Opening meeting of de Belgo-Congolese Round Table Conference insyde Brussels on 20 January 1960]] For 1959, King Baudouin come back to Belgian Congo, and e see say everywhere don change from the last time wey e visit four years ago. When e land for Léopoldville, wahala start as black Belgo-Congolese people dey throw stone for am because dem vex say dem don lock Lumumba up, wey dem convict say im dey incite against colonial government. Even though for other cities dem receive am better, dem dey shout “Vive le roi!” but e follow with “Indépendance immédiate!” The Belgian government no wan enter any gbege wey fit turn bloody like wetin happen to France for Indochina and Algeria, or Netherlands for Indonesia. So, dem dey reason say make dem fit agree for Congolese leaders wey dey shout for immediate independence.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-11-now-now-now.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: Now Now Now|date=16 November 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125729/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-11-now-now-now.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=November 16, 1959|title=BELGIAN CONGO: Now Now Now|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811442,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201085122/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811442,00.html|archive-date=2011-02-01|magazine=Time}}</ref> Although dem no prepare well plus no plenty people wey educate dey (only small Congolese get degree for dat time), Belgian leaders still gree make independence happen. E be true say dem weak local elites fit work for Belgian government and business people, dem dey hope say dis go make am easy for dem to still dey control wetin dey happen for politics and economy. Dis style different from colonial wars and de slow decolonization wey other European countries dey do, dem sabi am as 'Le Pari Congolais'—di Congolese bet.<ref>{{cite book|last=De Witte|first=Ludo|title=Crisis in Kongo. De rol van de Verenigde Naties, de regering-Eyskens en het koningshuis in de omverwerping van Lumumba en de opkomst van Mobutu|date=1996|publisher=Uitgeverij Van Halewyck|isbn=9789056170523|location=Leuven|page=31|author-link=Ludo De Witte}}</ref> For January 1960, dem call Congolese leaders come Brussels make dem fit gather for round-table talk about independence. Dem free Patrice Lumumba from prison just for this matter. Na so the conference quick quick agree give Congolese almost all wetin dem ask: make dem do general election for May 1960 and full independence—'Dipenda'—go land on 30 June 1960. Na because of di strong unity wey Congolese delegation carry come. [[File:Patrice_Lumumba_signs_the_document_granting_independence_to_the_Congo_next_to_Belgian_Prime_Minister_Gaston_Eyskens.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patrice_Lumumba_signs_the_document_granting_independence_to_the_Congo_next_to_Belgian_Prime_Minister_Gaston_Eyskens.jpg|right|thumb|Lumumba den Eyskens sign de document granting independence to de Congo]] Political maneuvering ahead of de elections, Elections dey come, so dem form three political groups for ground: one na the federalist nationalists, wey dey include six separatist parties, like ABAKO and MNC—Kalonji; another one na centralist MNC—Lumumba; and last one be Moïse Tshombe, wey be big man for Katanga, wey wan protect the business wey dey for Union Minière (like Kalonji do for de diamond exploitations matter insyde Kasaï). Di parliamentary elections show say di political scene dey divided, with di regionalist group dem—ABAKO wey dey lead—plus di nationalist parties like MNC too do well. Dem force compromise make Kasa-Vubu be di first president of Republic of di Congo, and Lumumba be di first head of government. Just like dem plan am five months before, di handover ceremony wey di Belgians do happen well on time for 30 June 1960 for di new house of di Governor-General for Belgian Congo wey dey Léopoldville. One week later, wahala begin for Force Publique, dem dey rebel against dem officers wey still dey mostly Belgian. Dis one spark plenty gbege all over Congo, na unhappy soldiers and sharp-sharp youths dey cause am. For plenty places, dem dey focus di violence on European people. In small time, Belgian soldiers and later UN intervention force carry plenty Belgians wey dey work and live for Congo come out, over 80,000 of dem.<ref>{{cite book|last=Verlinden|first=Peter|title=Weg uit Congo, Het drama van de kolonialen|publisher=[[Davidsfonds]]|year=2002|location=Leuven}}</ref> == Congo crisis plus wetin follow am == == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] 104875krhfbz135a0yj2ylnnb2haqq5 69164 69163 2025-07-06T00:16:49Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Congo crisis plus wetin follow am */ 69164 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== [[File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Minière_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|right|thumb|Nurses of de [[:en:Union_Minière_du_Haut-Katanga|Union Minière du Haut-Katanga]] plus demma Congolese assistants, [[:en:Lubumbashi|Élisabethville]], 1918]] Health care too dey supported by missions, but colonial state wan show interest small. For 1906, dem start Institute of Tropical Medicine for Brussels. This ITM dey among di top places wey train and do research for tropical medicine and how health care dey work for developing countries. Dem fit clear endemic sickness like sleeping sickness well well with serious campaigns.<ref>A critical assessment of the colonial obsession with sleeping sickness in: Lyons, Maryinez (1992), ''The Colonial Disease, A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> For 1925, medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper be di first person wey carry tryparsamide, di drug from Rockefeller Foundation wey dey cure sleeping sickness, enter Congo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingman |first=Jack |year=1994 |title=Arthur Lewis Piper, M.D.: A Medical Missionary in the Belgian Congo |journal=Journal of Community Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/BF02260364 |pmid=8006209 |s2cid=37502216}}</ref> Di health-care system dey grow well well during colonial time, with plenty hospital beds dey available for di people, plus dem set up dispensaries for far away places. By 1960, di country get beta medical structure wey pass any other African nation for dat time. Belgian Congo get 3,000 health facilities, wey 380 be hospitals. Dem get 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 people (1 for every 187 people). Dem make huge progress for di fight against endemic diseases; dem report sleeping sickness cases drop from 34,000 in 1931 to just 1,100 in 1959, mainly because dem clear tsetse fly for where plenty people dey. All Europeans plus Congolese wey dey for Belgian Congo do dem vaccine for polio, measles and yellow fever. Big big disease prevention programs dem start, wey dem wan make polio, leprosy and tuberculosis no dey again. For primary schools, dem run disease prevention campaigns, and dem include disease prevention class for curriculum too.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319" /> ===== Social inequality den racial discrimination ===== [[File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|thumb|Dem dey pull one woman wey be missionary inside rickshaw by some Congolese guys, around 1920 to 1930.]] Di Belgia Congo get system wey dey separate people based on race an dem dey discriminate too.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Krauzman|first=Marine|date=2025-03-11|title=Belgium's Colonial Past on Trial: What the 2024 Ruling Means for Reparational Justice|url=http://spheresofinfluence.ca/belgiums-colonial-past-on-trial-what-the-2024-ruling-means-for-reparational-justice/|access-date=2025-06-26|website=Spheres of Influence|language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-29|title=Belgian Congo {{!}} History & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgian-Congo|access-date=2025-06-26|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Dem get wetin dem call 'implicit apartheid'. Di colony put curfew for Congolese wey dey live for city, an plenty racial wahala dey happen. Léopoldville get di racist curfew wey e famous for, an dem use am as template for other European colonies like French Equatorial Africa wey dey close by.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Njoh |first1=Ambe J. |date=March 2008 |title=Colonial Philosophies, Urban Space, and Racial Segregation in British and French Colonial Africa |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Black Studies]] |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=579–599 |doi=10.1177/0021934706288447 |s2cid=145775865 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228161615/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref> Even though dem no get proper laws wey dey separate people by race, segregation dey happen plenty for many places. For example, at first, de city centers be only for white people, while black people dey stay for places dem dey call 'cités indigènes' or 'le belge'. Hospitals, shop dem and other places no dey allow both whites and blacks to mix. For Force Publique, black people no fit rise pass non-commissioned officer rank. Plus, black folks for the cities no fit come out from 9 pm to 4 am. Dis kind segregation start dey vanish small-small only for 1950s, but even then, de Congolese dem still dey feel like second-class citizens, especially for politics and law matter. [[File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|right|thumb|King [[:en:Albert_I_of_Belgium|Albert I]] plus Queen [[:en:Elisabeth_of_Bavaria,_Queen_of_the_Belgians|Elisabeth]] inspecting de military camp of Léopoldville for de time of demma visit to de Belgian Congo, 1928]] Sekof dem dey connect ekonomi growth with di 'civilizing mission', plus as state officials, missionaries plus private companies dey always help each other, people don sabi sey Belgian Congo dey ruled by one 'colonial trinity' of King-Church-Capital. Dis one fit mean di colonial state, di Christian missions, plus Société Générale de Belgique too. Di way wey colonial policy take dey work, e get one saying wey Governor-General Pierre Ryckmans (1934–46) use: Dominer pour servir ('Dominate to serve').<ref>Vanderlinden, Jacques (1994), ''Pierre Ryckmans 1891–1959, Coloniser dans l'honneur'', Brussels: De Boeck.</ref> Di colonial government wan make wey see am say dem dey nice plus no wahala for di administration, plus dem wan show Belgian Congo as di perfect colony. But na only for di 1950s e start change. For di 1950s, dem dey gradually draw back dem plenty harsh laws dem use punish di Congolese people (like di chicote wey be whip). From 1953, plus di big visit wey King Baudouin make to di colony for 1955, Governor-General Léon Pétillon (1952–1958) start dey try build one 'Belgian-Congolese community', where black plus white go dey equal.<ref>Pétillon, L. A. M. (1967), ''Témoignage et réflexions'', Brussels: Renaissance du Livre.</ref> But still, di anti-miscegenation laws no clear, and from 1959 to 1962, plenty mixed-race Congolese pikin dem dey carry come out from Congo by Belgian government plus Catholic Church go Belgium.<ref>{{cite web|last=Paravicini|first=Giulia|date=4 April 2019|title=Belgium apologizes for colonial-era abduction of mixed-race children|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711005737/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|archive-date=11 July 2019|access-date=10 July 2019|publisher=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> For 1957, dem do first municipal elections wey black voters fit vote for some big cities — Léopoldville, Élisabethville, plus Jadotville. ===== Abolition of slavery ===== For Congo Free State, plenty men, women, and pikin dem free from Swahili Arab slave owners and traders for Eastern Congo between 1886 and 1892. Dem fit join militai (Force Publique) or dem go give am to local chiefs wey be friends, and dem go use dem as workers. Even though dem ban chattel slavery for 1910 when Belgian Congo start, dem still dey use prisoners as forced laborers for public den private projects.<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 40</ref> == Resistance == Di Congolese dem no gree colonization; dem dey fight am steady, e come take many shapes. As modern ideas and education dey enter ground, e dey spark plenty action.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> Armed wahala show for small-small parts till Second World War finish (like Pende wahala for 1931, and di gbagbe for Luluabourg 1944). After di war till late 1950s, wetin dem dey call 'Pax belgica' go dey. But e no mean say dem no dey resist; passive resistance dey plenty too, like Kimbanguism wey be from di ‘prophet’ Simon Kimbangu wey di Belgians lock up. Aside active and passive wahala wey Congolese dey raise, di colonial government still dey hear plenty internal noise and gbege. Even for di 1920s, some people for Colonial Council wey dey for Brussels (like Octave Louwers) don talk plenty about di harsh way big companies dey recruit people for di mining places. Di slow growth for population for many areas—abi even wey dem dey chop plenty success for fight against sick sick like sleeping sickness—na another wahala wey dey worry dem. Low birth rate for countryside and some places dey empty usually link to di way traditional life don scatter because of forced work migration and compulsory farming. Dem dey talk say na wetin dem plan be dat, and dem dey point out how population dey increase for cities and how health plus lifespan don better thanks to modern medicine and better living condition.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hunt|first1=Nancy Rose|date=2002|title=Rewriting the Soul in Colonial Congo: Flemish Missionaries and Infertility|url=https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040613132330/https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|archive-date=2004-06-13|website=Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|publisher=Antwerp University Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|language=en}}</ref> Plenty missionaries wey dey connect with Congolese villagers dey carry dem wahala for heart plus sometimes dem dey fit intervene for dem matter with di colonial administration (like land property questions). Di missions plus some area administrators dem fit play big role for study and protect Congolese culture and language tradition plus di artifacts wey dey there. One good example na Father Gustaaf Hulstaert (1900–1990), wey insyde 1937 start di periodical Aequatoria wey dem dey use for di linguistic, ethnographic plus historical study of di Mongo people for di central Congo basin.<ref>See: aequatoria.be</ref> Di colonial state dey interested for di cultural and scientific study of Congo, especially after di Second World War, through di setup of di Institut pour la Recherche Scientifique en Afrique Centrale (IRSAC, 1948). == Toward independence == For early 1950s, di political freedom of di Congolese elites, no talk of di masses, e be like far dream. But e clear say Congo no fit dey far from di quick changes wey happen after di Second World War, wey scatter colonialism worldwide. Di independence wey di British, French, plus Dutch colonies for Asia get after 1945 no really change anything for Congo, but di pressure for Belgium from di United Nations don increase (just like all di other colonial powers). Belgium don agree to article 73 of di United Nations Charter wey talk about self-determination, plus di two superpowers dey pressure Belgium make dem change how dem dey run Congo; di Belgian government dey try hold body against wetin dem call 'interference' with dia colonial policy. Colonial government dey talk how dem go make life beta for Congolese pipo. Since 1940s, dem don dey try small-small give some elite wey dem call évolués small civil rights, dem fit get small political power later. So, 'deserving' Congolese fit apply for proof of 'civil merit', or if dem fit do better, 'immatriculation' (registration), wey go show say dem don join European way of life. To get this status, applicant gats meet strict rules (like marry one wife, show good behavior, etc.) and dem go dey watch dem well well (wey de include house visits). Dis policy no work at all. For around mid-1950s, no be plenty Congolese wey don fit get di civil merit diploma or dem don get di 'immatriculation'. Di benefits wey dem dey talk say come with am—like equal legal status with di white folks—na mostly just talk, no be real. E dey make di évolués frustrated well well. When Governor-General Pétillon start dey talk say he go fit give di native people more civil rights, even voting, to create wetin he dey call 'Belgo-Congolese community', di people for Brussels no really send am, and some Belgians for Congo dey vex as dem dey fear for demma privilege.<ref>[[Isidore Ndaywel è Nziem|Ndaywel è Nziem]], Isidore (1998), ''Histoire générale du Congo'', Paris-Brussels: De Boeck & Larcier, pp. 456–63.</ref> E clear say Belgian government no get proper long-term plan for Congo matter. 'Colonial wahala' no dey trend for Belgium, as long as di colony dey shine and e dey quiet. But one person wey show concern na di young King Baudouin, wey take over from him papa, King Leopold III, for 1951, when dem force Leopold III to waka. Baudouin dey follow wetin dey happen for Belgian Congo well well. Wen King Baudouin come visit Belgian Congo for de first time for 1955, crowd dey cheer am well-well, both whites and blacks dey dance, like as dem show for André Cauvin documentary, Bwana Kitoko.<ref>{{cite book|last=Raspoet|first=Erik|title=Bwana Kitoko en de koning van de Bakuba|publisher=Meulenhoff/Manteau|year=2005|isbn=90-8542-020-2}}</ref> Foreign people wey dey observe, suc as de international correspondent of ''The Manchester Guardian'' or a ''Time'' journalist,<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|title=Congo: Boom in the Jungle|date=16 May 1955|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=28 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028201856/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=May 16, 1955|title=CONGO: Boom in the Jungle|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=28 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828025115/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> talk say Belgian paddy paddy style dey work well, and dey compare how Belgian people dem loyal pass those French and British colonies wey dey restless. During di visit, King Baudouin carry Governor-General idea of 'Belgo-Congolese community' come front; but for real, dis plan dey move slow. At di same time, dem wahala wey dey divide for Belgium, wey dem fit hide from di colony before, start to enter Congo too. Dem talk say workers dey unite more now, dem dey call make public schools fit break mission schools for education, plus dem wan make both Belgian languages, French and Dutch, sabi equal treatment for colony. Before this, na only French dem dey push as colonial language. Governor-General dey fear say dis kind wahala fit spoil di colonial government image for Congolese, plus e go shift focus from di real need for true emancipation. ===== Political organisation ===== [[File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|right|thumb|[[:en:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu|Joseph Kasa-Vubu]], leader of ABAKO plus de first President dem elect democratically of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] [[File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Patrice_Lumumba|Patrice Lumumba]], first democratically elected Prime Minister of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] Di Congolese people join Second World War and dem hear say tings dey change for other colonies, e make dem start to organize make dem fit get power. Di colonial government no fit bring beta changes wey fit work, so di Congolese elites start to gather demself socially and later politically. For di 1950s, two separate types of nationalism show up among di Congolese elites. Di nationalist movement—wey di Belgian authorities no really watch—promote say di Belgian Congo go become one united state after dem get independence. E get wetin wey de oppose this matter, na di ethno-religious and regional nationalism wey catch for di Bakongo area for di west coast, Kasai plus Katanga.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} Di first political groups na dem one. ABAKO wey dem establish for 1950 as di Association culturelle des Bakongo, and wetin Joseph Kasa-Vubu dey run, start as cultural group wey turn political sharp sharp. From di middle of 1950s, dem don dey shout against Belgian colonial rule well well. Plus, di group still dey serve as di main ethno-religious group for di Bakongo and dem blend well with di Kimbanguist Church wey be popular for lower Congo.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} For 1955, Belgian prof Antoine van Bilsen drop one paper wey dem call Thirty Year Plan for the Political Emancipation of Belgian Africa.<ref>Gerard-Libois, Jules (1989), "Vers l'Indépendance: une accélération imprévue", In ''Congo-Zaïre'', Brussels: GRIP, pp. 43–56.</ref> De plan get timetable wey say make dem gradually free Congo for 30 years—na the time wey Van Bilsen believe say e go take to build educated people wey fit take over from the Belgians for power. But the Belgian government and plenty of the évolués no happy with the plan—government no wan lose Congo, and the évolués sabi say Belgium go still dey rule for another three decades. One group of Catholic évolués yan am positive for the plan with one moderate manifesto for one Congolese journal wey dem dey call Conscience Africaine; dem talk some matter about how Congolese fit take part well well.<ref>Kalulambi Pongo, Martin (2009), "Le manifeste 'Conscience africaine: genèse, influences et réactions", In Tousignant, Nathalie (ed.), ''Le manifeste Conscience africaine, 1956'', Brussels: Facultés Universitaires Saint-Louis, pp. 59–81.</ref> For 1957, as experiment matter, colonial government do organize di first local elections for three cities (Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Jadotville), wey Congolese people fit stand for office and vote. Watin happen for 1957–58 make demand for political freedom burst, no be small. Ghana independence for 1957 and President De Gaulle visit wey happen for August 1958 for Brazzaville, capital of di French Congo, across di Congo river from Léopoldville, wey e promise say France African colonies go fit choose between staying with France or full independence, make people for Congo get big dreams. Di World Exhibition wey dem do for Brussels for 1958 (Expo 58) be another eye-opener for plenty Congolese leaders, wey dem allow make dem travel go Belgium for di first time.<ref>Aziza Etambala, Zana (2008), ''De teloorgang van een modelkolonie, Belgisch Congo 1958–1960'', Leuven: Acco, pp. 105–110.</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|date=23 December 1957|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125731/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=December 23, 1957|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=1 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501001542/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> For 1958, people dey crave for independence sharp sharp and the koko don take off. Na Mouvement National Congolais (MNC) wey dey play big role for di matter. Dem start am for 1956, but dem officially set am up as national political party for October 1958, wey dey support make Congo be one strong nation. Di person wey dey lead dem well well na di charming Patrice Lumumba. For 1959, wahala start after Albert Kalonji and some MNC leaders wey wan dey moderate split from di main group (dem call dem Mouvement National Congolais-Kalonji). Even though di party get different waka, Lumumba faction (now Mouvement National Congolais-Lumumba) and di MNC still be di most important and influential party for Belgian Congo. Belgium vehemently de oppose Lumumba ein leftist views plus get grave concerns about de status of demma financial interests if Lumumba ein MNC come power.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} ===== Independence ===== As Belgium dey debate how to give Congolese people their freedom small-small, wahala just burst everywhere. On 4 January 1959, dem do one political demo for Léopoldville wey ABAKO organise, but e no gree control. Na so, the colonial capital begin catch fire with plenty chaos. E take dem days to bring back order, and if we count am well, hundreds don die. De eruption of violence sent a shockwave through de Congo den Belgium alike.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-01-if-blood-must-run.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: If Blood Must Run|date=19 January 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125735/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-01-if-blood-must-run.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=January 19, 1959|title=BELGIAN CONGO: If Blood Must Run|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,868969,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201082719/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,868969,00.html|archive-date=2011-02-01|magazine=Time}}</ref> On 13 January, King Baudouin use radio talk to the people say Belgium go work for Congo to get full independence fast, but no be to go rush am like mumu.<ref>Koning Boudewijn. 35 jaar dialoog met de natie. Een keuze uit de koninklijke toespraken van 1951 tot 1986. Lannoo Tielt, Inbel, 1986, blz. 124.</ref> Dem no fit talk say independence go happen one particular day, but di government wey Prime Minister Gaston Eyskens dey lead, get plan for multi-year transition period. Dem think say provincial elections go happen for December 1959, national elections for 1960 or 1961, den after, dem go start hand over di admin and political duties small small to di Congolese, as dem dey expect say by mid-1960s e go don finish. But for ground, things dey change fast fast.<ref>Young, Crawford (1965), ''Politics in the Congo" Decolonization and Independence'', Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 140–161.</ref> Di colonial admin dey see different type of resistance, like people wey no wan pay tax. For some places, anarchy threatened.<ref>Ryckmans, Geneviève (1995), ''André Ryckmans, un territorial du Congo belge''. Paris. L'Harmattan, pp. 215–224.</ref> At di same time, plenty Belgians wey dey di Congo no wan independence, dem dey feel say Brussels don betray dem. As di Congolese dem dey demand better change, di government don see say di chance to make am smooth smooth no dey happen again fast fast.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-10-return-of-the-mundele.pdf|title=The Belgian Congo : Return of the Mundele|date=12 October 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125737/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-10-return-of-the-mundele.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=October 12, 1959|title=THE BELGIAN CONGO: Return of the Mundele|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,864032,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101203183837/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,864032,00.html|archive-date=2010-12-03|magazine=Time}}</ref> [[File:Ronde_Tafel_Conferentie_te_Brussel_Congo,_Bestanddeelnr_910-9593.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ronde_Tafel_Conferentie_te_Brussel_Congo,_Bestanddeelnr_910-9593.jpg|thumb|220x220px|Opening meeting of de Belgo-Congolese Round Table Conference insyde Brussels on 20 January 1960]] For 1959, King Baudouin come back to Belgian Congo, and e see say everywhere don change from the last time wey e visit four years ago. When e land for Léopoldville, wahala start as black Belgo-Congolese people dey throw stone for am because dem vex say dem don lock Lumumba up, wey dem convict say im dey incite against colonial government. Even though for other cities dem receive am better, dem dey shout “Vive le roi!” but e follow with “Indépendance immédiate!” The Belgian government no wan enter any gbege wey fit turn bloody like wetin happen to France for Indochina and Algeria, or Netherlands for Indonesia. So, dem dey reason say make dem fit agree for Congolese leaders wey dey shout for immediate independence.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-11-now-now-now.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: Now Now Now|date=16 November 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125729/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-11-now-now-now.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=November 16, 1959|title=BELGIAN CONGO: Now Now Now|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811442,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201085122/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811442,00.html|archive-date=2011-02-01|magazine=Time}}</ref> Although dem no prepare well plus no plenty people wey educate dey (only small Congolese get degree for dat time), Belgian leaders still gree make independence happen. E be true say dem weak local elites fit work for Belgian government and business people, dem dey hope say dis go make am easy for dem to still dey control wetin dey happen for politics and economy. Dis style different from colonial wars and de slow decolonization wey other European countries dey do, dem sabi am as 'Le Pari Congolais'—di Congolese bet.<ref>{{cite book|last=De Witte|first=Ludo|title=Crisis in Kongo. De rol van de Verenigde Naties, de regering-Eyskens en het koningshuis in de omverwerping van Lumumba en de opkomst van Mobutu|date=1996|publisher=Uitgeverij Van Halewyck|isbn=9789056170523|location=Leuven|page=31|author-link=Ludo De Witte}}</ref> For January 1960, dem call Congolese leaders come Brussels make dem fit gather for round-table talk about independence. Dem free Patrice Lumumba from prison just for this matter. Na so the conference quick quick agree give Congolese almost all wetin dem ask: make dem do general election for May 1960 and full independence—'Dipenda'—go land on 30 June 1960. Na because of di strong unity wey Congolese delegation carry come. [[File:Patrice_Lumumba_signs_the_document_granting_independence_to_the_Congo_next_to_Belgian_Prime_Minister_Gaston_Eyskens.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patrice_Lumumba_signs_the_document_granting_independence_to_the_Congo_next_to_Belgian_Prime_Minister_Gaston_Eyskens.jpg|right|thumb|Lumumba den Eyskens sign de document granting independence to de Congo]] Political maneuvering ahead of de elections, Elections dey come, so dem form three political groups for ground: one na the federalist nationalists, wey dey include six separatist parties, like ABAKO and MNC—Kalonji; another one na centralist MNC—Lumumba; and last one be Moïse Tshombe, wey be big man for Katanga, wey wan protect the business wey dey for Union Minière (like Kalonji do for de diamond exploitations matter insyde Kasaï). Di parliamentary elections show say di political scene dey divided, with di regionalist group dem—ABAKO wey dey lead—plus di nationalist parties like MNC too do well. Dem force compromise make Kasa-Vubu be di first president of Republic of di Congo, and Lumumba be di first head of government. Just like dem plan am five months before, di handover ceremony wey di Belgians do happen well on time for 30 June 1960 for di new house of di Governor-General for Belgian Congo wey dey Léopoldville. One week later, wahala begin for Force Publique, dem dey rebel against dem officers wey still dey mostly Belgian. Dis one spark plenty gbege all over Congo, na unhappy soldiers and sharp-sharp youths dey cause am. For plenty places, dem dey focus di violence on European people. In small time, Belgian soldiers and later UN intervention force carry plenty Belgians wey dey work and live for Congo come out, over 80,000 of dem.<ref>{{cite book|last=Verlinden|first=Peter|title=Weg uit Congo, Het drama van de kolonialen|publisher=[[Davidsfonds]]|year=2002|location=Leuven}}</ref> == Congo crisis plus wetin follow am == Di rebellion wey start for Thyssville for Bas-Congo for July 1960 quickly spread go everywhere for de Congo.<ref>For an overview of developments in the Congo after 1960 see: O'Ballance, Edgar (2000), ''The Congo-Zaire Experience, 1960–98'', Houndmills: MacMillan Press.</ref> For September 1960, di leaders split, wey President Kasa-Vubu declare say prime minister Lumumba no dey hold him work again, and di same thing happen back. Dem stop di stalemate when government arrest Lumumba. For January 1961, dem fly am go di rich mining province of Katanga, wey dem don declare say dem no wan join Léopoldville again under di leadership of Moïse Tshombe (wey Belgium dey support well well). Dem hand Lumumba over to Katangan authorities, wey kill am. == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] 56ku3sjjjqylqj1uq9nqfb9gt0973d4 69165 69164 2025-07-06T00:19:28Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Congo crisis plus wetin follow am */ 69165 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== [[File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Minière_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|right|thumb|Nurses of de [[:en:Union_Minière_du_Haut-Katanga|Union Minière du Haut-Katanga]] plus demma Congolese assistants, [[:en:Lubumbashi|Élisabethville]], 1918]] Health care too dey supported by missions, but colonial state wan show interest small. For 1906, dem start Institute of Tropical Medicine for Brussels. This ITM dey among di top places wey train and do research for tropical medicine and how health care dey work for developing countries. Dem fit clear endemic sickness like sleeping sickness well well with serious campaigns.<ref>A critical assessment of the colonial obsession with sleeping sickness in: Lyons, Maryinez (1992), ''The Colonial Disease, A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> For 1925, medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper be di first person wey carry tryparsamide, di drug from Rockefeller Foundation wey dey cure sleeping sickness, enter Congo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingman |first=Jack |year=1994 |title=Arthur Lewis Piper, M.D.: A Medical Missionary in the Belgian Congo |journal=Journal of Community Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/BF02260364 |pmid=8006209 |s2cid=37502216}}</ref> Di health-care system dey grow well well during colonial time, with plenty hospital beds dey available for di people, plus dem set up dispensaries for far away places. By 1960, di country get beta medical structure wey pass any other African nation for dat time. Belgian Congo get 3,000 health facilities, wey 380 be hospitals. Dem get 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 people (1 for every 187 people). Dem make huge progress for di fight against endemic diseases; dem report sleeping sickness cases drop from 34,000 in 1931 to just 1,100 in 1959, mainly because dem clear tsetse fly for where plenty people dey. All Europeans plus Congolese wey dey for Belgian Congo do dem vaccine for polio, measles and yellow fever. Big big disease prevention programs dem start, wey dem wan make polio, leprosy and tuberculosis no dey again. For primary schools, dem run disease prevention campaigns, and dem include disease prevention class for curriculum too.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319" /> ===== Social inequality den racial discrimination ===== [[File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|thumb|Dem dey pull one woman wey be missionary inside rickshaw by some Congolese guys, around 1920 to 1930.]] Di Belgia Congo get system wey dey separate people based on race an dem dey discriminate too.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Krauzman|first=Marine|date=2025-03-11|title=Belgium's Colonial Past on Trial: What the 2024 Ruling Means for Reparational Justice|url=http://spheresofinfluence.ca/belgiums-colonial-past-on-trial-what-the-2024-ruling-means-for-reparational-justice/|access-date=2025-06-26|website=Spheres of Influence|language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-29|title=Belgian Congo {{!}} History & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgian-Congo|access-date=2025-06-26|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Dem get wetin dem call 'implicit apartheid'. Di colony put curfew for Congolese wey dey live for city, an plenty racial wahala dey happen. Léopoldville get di racist curfew wey e famous for, an dem use am as template for other European colonies like French Equatorial Africa wey dey close by.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Njoh |first1=Ambe J. |date=March 2008 |title=Colonial Philosophies, Urban Space, and Racial Segregation in British and French Colonial Africa |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Black Studies]] |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=579–599 |doi=10.1177/0021934706288447 |s2cid=145775865 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228161615/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref> Even though dem no get proper laws wey dey separate people by race, segregation dey happen plenty for many places. For example, at first, de city centers be only for white people, while black people dey stay for places dem dey call 'cités indigènes' or 'le belge'. Hospitals, shop dem and other places no dey allow both whites and blacks to mix. For Force Publique, black people no fit rise pass non-commissioned officer rank. Plus, black folks for the cities no fit come out from 9 pm to 4 am. Dis kind segregation start dey vanish small-small only for 1950s, but even then, de Congolese dem still dey feel like second-class citizens, especially for politics and law matter. [[File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|right|thumb|King [[:en:Albert_I_of_Belgium|Albert I]] plus Queen [[:en:Elisabeth_of_Bavaria,_Queen_of_the_Belgians|Elisabeth]] inspecting de military camp of Léopoldville for de time of demma visit to de Belgian Congo, 1928]] Sekof dem dey connect ekonomi growth with di 'civilizing mission', plus as state officials, missionaries plus private companies dey always help each other, people don sabi sey Belgian Congo dey ruled by one 'colonial trinity' of King-Church-Capital. Dis one fit mean di colonial state, di Christian missions, plus Société Générale de Belgique too. Di way wey colonial policy take dey work, e get one saying wey Governor-General Pierre Ryckmans (1934–46) use: Dominer pour servir ('Dominate to serve').<ref>Vanderlinden, Jacques (1994), ''Pierre Ryckmans 1891–1959, Coloniser dans l'honneur'', Brussels: De Boeck.</ref> Di colonial government wan make wey see am say dem dey nice plus no wahala for di administration, plus dem wan show Belgian Congo as di perfect colony. But na only for di 1950s e start change. For di 1950s, dem dey gradually draw back dem plenty harsh laws dem use punish di Congolese people (like di chicote wey be whip). From 1953, plus di big visit wey King Baudouin make to di colony for 1955, Governor-General Léon Pétillon (1952–1958) start dey try build one 'Belgian-Congolese community', where black plus white go dey equal.<ref>Pétillon, L. A. M. (1967), ''Témoignage et réflexions'', Brussels: Renaissance du Livre.</ref> But still, di anti-miscegenation laws no clear, and from 1959 to 1962, plenty mixed-race Congolese pikin dem dey carry come out from Congo by Belgian government plus Catholic Church go Belgium.<ref>{{cite web|last=Paravicini|first=Giulia|date=4 April 2019|title=Belgium apologizes for colonial-era abduction of mixed-race children|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711005737/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|archive-date=11 July 2019|access-date=10 July 2019|publisher=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> For 1957, dem do first municipal elections wey black voters fit vote for some big cities — Léopoldville, Élisabethville, plus Jadotville. ===== Abolition of slavery ===== For Congo Free State, plenty men, women, and pikin dem free from Swahili Arab slave owners and traders for Eastern Congo between 1886 and 1892. Dem fit join militai (Force Publique) or dem go give am to local chiefs wey be friends, and dem go use dem as workers. Even though dem ban chattel slavery for 1910 when Belgian Congo start, dem still dey use prisoners as forced laborers for public den private projects.<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 40</ref> == Resistance == Di Congolese dem no gree colonization; dem dey fight am steady, e come take many shapes. As modern ideas and education dey enter ground, e dey spark plenty action.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> Armed wahala show for small-small parts till Second World War finish (like Pende wahala for 1931, and di gbagbe for Luluabourg 1944). After di war till late 1950s, wetin dem dey call 'Pax belgica' go dey. But e no mean say dem no dey resist; passive resistance dey plenty too, like Kimbanguism wey be from di ‘prophet’ Simon Kimbangu wey di Belgians lock up. Aside active and passive wahala wey Congolese dey raise, di colonial government still dey hear plenty internal noise and gbege. Even for di 1920s, some people for Colonial Council wey dey for Brussels (like Octave Louwers) don talk plenty about di harsh way big companies dey recruit people for di mining places. Di slow growth for population for many areas—abi even wey dem dey chop plenty success for fight against sick sick like sleeping sickness—na another wahala wey dey worry dem. Low birth rate for countryside and some places dey empty usually link to di way traditional life don scatter because of forced work migration and compulsory farming. Dem dey talk say na wetin dem plan be dat, and dem dey point out how population dey increase for cities and how health plus lifespan don better thanks to modern medicine and better living condition.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hunt|first1=Nancy Rose|date=2002|title=Rewriting the Soul in Colonial Congo: Flemish Missionaries and Infertility|url=https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040613132330/https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|archive-date=2004-06-13|website=Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|publisher=Antwerp University Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|language=en}}</ref> Plenty missionaries wey dey connect with Congolese villagers dey carry dem wahala for heart plus sometimes dem dey fit intervene for dem matter with di colonial administration (like land property questions). Di missions plus some area administrators dem fit play big role for study and protect Congolese culture and language tradition plus di artifacts wey dey there. One good example na Father Gustaaf Hulstaert (1900–1990), wey insyde 1937 start di periodical Aequatoria wey dem dey use for di linguistic, ethnographic plus historical study of di Mongo people for di central Congo basin.<ref>See: aequatoria.be</ref> Di colonial state dey interested for di cultural and scientific study of Congo, especially after di Second World War, through di setup of di Institut pour la Recherche Scientifique en Afrique Centrale (IRSAC, 1948). == Toward independence == For early 1950s, di political freedom of di Congolese elites, no talk of di masses, e be like far dream. But e clear say Congo no fit dey far from di quick changes wey happen after di Second World War, wey scatter colonialism worldwide. Di independence wey di British, French, plus Dutch colonies for Asia get after 1945 no really change anything for Congo, but di pressure for Belgium from di United Nations don increase (just like all di other colonial powers). Belgium don agree to article 73 of di United Nations Charter wey talk about self-determination, plus di two superpowers dey pressure Belgium make dem change how dem dey run Congo; di Belgian government dey try hold body against wetin dem call 'interference' with dia colonial policy. Colonial government dey talk how dem go make life beta for Congolese pipo. Since 1940s, dem don dey try small-small give some elite wey dem call évolués small civil rights, dem fit get small political power later. So, 'deserving' Congolese fit apply for proof of 'civil merit', or if dem fit do better, 'immatriculation' (registration), wey go show say dem don join European way of life. To get this status, applicant gats meet strict rules (like marry one wife, show good behavior, etc.) and dem go dey watch dem well well (wey de include house visits). Dis policy no work at all. For around mid-1950s, no be plenty Congolese wey don fit get di civil merit diploma or dem don get di 'immatriculation'. Di benefits wey dem dey talk say come with am—like equal legal status with di white folks—na mostly just talk, no be real. E dey make di évolués frustrated well well. When Governor-General Pétillon start dey talk say he go fit give di native people more civil rights, even voting, to create wetin he dey call 'Belgo-Congolese community', di people for Brussels no really send am, and some Belgians for Congo dey vex as dem dey fear for demma privilege.<ref>[[Isidore Ndaywel è Nziem|Ndaywel è Nziem]], Isidore (1998), ''Histoire générale du Congo'', Paris-Brussels: De Boeck & Larcier, pp. 456–63.</ref> E clear say Belgian government no get proper long-term plan for Congo matter. 'Colonial wahala' no dey trend for Belgium, as long as di colony dey shine and e dey quiet. But one person wey show concern na di young King Baudouin, wey take over from him papa, King Leopold III, for 1951, when dem force Leopold III to waka. Baudouin dey follow wetin dey happen for Belgian Congo well well. Wen King Baudouin come visit Belgian Congo for de first time for 1955, crowd dey cheer am well-well, both whites and blacks dey dance, like as dem show for André Cauvin documentary, Bwana Kitoko.<ref>{{cite book|last=Raspoet|first=Erik|title=Bwana Kitoko en de koning van de Bakuba|publisher=Meulenhoff/Manteau|year=2005|isbn=90-8542-020-2}}</ref> Foreign people wey dey observe, suc as de international correspondent of ''The Manchester Guardian'' or a ''Time'' journalist,<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|title=Congo: Boom in the Jungle|date=16 May 1955|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=28 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028201856/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=May 16, 1955|title=CONGO: Boom in the Jungle|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=28 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828025115/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> talk say Belgian paddy paddy style dey work well, and dey compare how Belgian people dem loyal pass those French and British colonies wey dey restless. During di visit, King Baudouin carry Governor-General idea of 'Belgo-Congolese community' come front; but for real, dis plan dey move slow. At di same time, dem wahala wey dey divide for Belgium, wey dem fit hide from di colony before, start to enter Congo too. Dem talk say workers dey unite more now, dem dey call make public schools fit break mission schools for education, plus dem wan make both Belgian languages, French and Dutch, sabi equal treatment for colony. Before this, na only French dem dey push as colonial language. Governor-General dey fear say dis kind wahala fit spoil di colonial government image for Congolese, plus e go shift focus from di real need for true emancipation. ===== Political organisation ===== [[File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|right|thumb|[[:en:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu|Joseph Kasa-Vubu]], leader of ABAKO plus de first President dem elect democratically of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] [[File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Patrice_Lumumba|Patrice Lumumba]], first democratically elected Prime Minister of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] Di Congolese people join Second World War and dem hear say tings dey change for other colonies, e make dem start to organize make dem fit get power. Di colonial government no fit bring beta changes wey fit work, so di Congolese elites start to gather demself socially and later politically. For di 1950s, two separate types of nationalism show up among di Congolese elites. Di nationalist movement—wey di Belgian authorities no really watch—promote say di Belgian Congo go become one united state after dem get independence. E get wetin wey de oppose this matter, na di ethno-religious and regional nationalism wey catch for di Bakongo area for di west coast, Kasai plus Katanga.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} Di first political groups na dem one. ABAKO wey dem establish for 1950 as di Association culturelle des Bakongo, and wetin Joseph Kasa-Vubu dey run, start as cultural group wey turn political sharp sharp. From di middle of 1950s, dem don dey shout against Belgian colonial rule well well. Plus, di group still dey serve as di main ethno-religious group for di Bakongo and dem blend well with di Kimbanguist Church wey be popular for lower Congo.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} For 1955, Belgian prof Antoine van Bilsen drop one paper wey dem call Thirty Year Plan for the Political Emancipation of Belgian Africa.<ref>Gerard-Libois, Jules (1989), "Vers l'Indépendance: une accélération imprévue", In ''Congo-Zaïre'', Brussels: GRIP, pp. 43–56.</ref> De plan get timetable wey say make dem gradually free Congo for 30 years—na the time wey Van Bilsen believe say e go take to build educated people wey fit take over from the Belgians for power. But the Belgian government and plenty of the évolués no happy with the plan—government no wan lose Congo, and the évolués sabi say Belgium go still dey rule for another three decades. One group of Catholic évolués yan am positive for the plan with one moderate manifesto for one Congolese journal wey dem dey call Conscience Africaine; dem talk some matter about how Congolese fit take part well well.<ref>Kalulambi Pongo, Martin (2009), "Le manifeste 'Conscience africaine: genèse, influences et réactions", In Tousignant, Nathalie (ed.), ''Le manifeste Conscience africaine, 1956'', Brussels: Facultés Universitaires Saint-Louis, pp. 59–81.</ref> For 1957, as experiment matter, colonial government do organize di first local elections for three cities (Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Jadotville), wey Congolese people fit stand for office and vote. Watin happen for 1957–58 make demand for political freedom burst, no be small. Ghana independence for 1957 and President De Gaulle visit wey happen for August 1958 for Brazzaville, capital of di French Congo, across di Congo river from Léopoldville, wey e promise say France African colonies go fit choose between staying with France or full independence, make people for Congo get big dreams. Di World Exhibition wey dem do for Brussels for 1958 (Expo 58) be another eye-opener for plenty Congolese leaders, wey dem allow make dem travel go Belgium for di first time.<ref>Aziza Etambala, Zana (2008), ''De teloorgang van een modelkolonie, Belgisch Congo 1958–1960'', Leuven: Acco, pp. 105–110.</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|date=23 December 1957|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125731/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=December 23, 1957|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=1 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501001542/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> For 1958, people dey crave for independence sharp sharp and the koko don take off. Na Mouvement National Congolais (MNC) wey dey play big role for di matter. Dem start am for 1956, but dem officially set am up as national political party for October 1958, wey dey support make Congo be one strong nation. Di person wey dey lead dem well well na di charming Patrice Lumumba. For 1959, wahala start after Albert Kalonji and some MNC leaders wey wan dey moderate split from di main group (dem call dem Mouvement National Congolais-Kalonji). Even though di party get different waka, Lumumba faction (now Mouvement National Congolais-Lumumba) and di MNC still be di most important and influential party for Belgian Congo. Belgium vehemently de oppose Lumumba ein leftist views plus get grave concerns about de status of demma financial interests if Lumumba ein MNC come power.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} ===== Independence ===== As Belgium dey debate how to give Congolese people their freedom small-small, wahala just burst everywhere. On 4 January 1959, dem do one political demo for Léopoldville wey ABAKO organise, but e no gree control. Na so, the colonial capital begin catch fire with plenty chaos. E take dem days to bring back order, and if we count am well, hundreds don die. De eruption of violence sent a shockwave through de Congo den Belgium alike.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-01-if-blood-must-run.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: If Blood Must Run|date=19 January 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125735/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-01-if-blood-must-run.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=January 19, 1959|title=BELGIAN CONGO: If Blood Must Run|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,868969,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201082719/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,868969,00.html|archive-date=2011-02-01|magazine=Time}}</ref> On 13 January, King Baudouin use radio talk to the people say Belgium go work for Congo to get full independence fast, but no be to go rush am like mumu.<ref>Koning Boudewijn. 35 jaar dialoog met de natie. Een keuze uit de koninklijke toespraken van 1951 tot 1986. Lannoo Tielt, Inbel, 1986, blz. 124.</ref> Dem no fit talk say independence go happen one particular day, but di government wey Prime Minister Gaston Eyskens dey lead, get plan for multi-year transition period. Dem think say provincial elections go happen for December 1959, national elections for 1960 or 1961, den after, dem go start hand over di admin and political duties small small to di Congolese, as dem dey expect say by mid-1960s e go don finish. But for ground, things dey change fast fast.<ref>Young, Crawford (1965), ''Politics in the Congo" Decolonization and Independence'', Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 140–161.</ref> Di colonial admin dey see different type of resistance, like people wey no wan pay tax. For some places, anarchy threatened.<ref>Ryckmans, Geneviève (1995), ''André Ryckmans, un territorial du Congo belge''. Paris. L'Harmattan, pp. 215–224.</ref> At di same time, plenty Belgians wey dey di Congo no wan independence, dem dey feel say Brussels don betray dem. As di Congolese dem dey demand better change, di government don see say di chance to make am smooth smooth no dey happen again fast fast.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-10-return-of-the-mundele.pdf|title=The Belgian Congo : Return of the Mundele|date=12 October 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125737/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-10-return-of-the-mundele.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=October 12, 1959|title=THE BELGIAN CONGO: Return of the Mundele|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,864032,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101203183837/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,864032,00.html|archive-date=2010-12-03|magazine=Time}}</ref> [[File:Ronde_Tafel_Conferentie_te_Brussel_Congo,_Bestanddeelnr_910-9593.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ronde_Tafel_Conferentie_te_Brussel_Congo,_Bestanddeelnr_910-9593.jpg|thumb|220x220px|Opening meeting of de Belgo-Congolese Round Table Conference insyde Brussels on 20 January 1960]] For 1959, King Baudouin come back to Belgian Congo, and e see say everywhere don change from the last time wey e visit four years ago. When e land for Léopoldville, wahala start as black Belgo-Congolese people dey throw stone for am because dem vex say dem don lock Lumumba up, wey dem convict say im dey incite against colonial government. Even though for other cities dem receive am better, dem dey shout “Vive le roi!” but e follow with “Indépendance immédiate!” The Belgian government no wan enter any gbege wey fit turn bloody like wetin happen to France for Indochina and Algeria, or Netherlands for Indonesia. So, dem dey reason say make dem fit agree for Congolese leaders wey dey shout for immediate independence.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-11-now-now-now.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: Now Now Now|date=16 November 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125729/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-11-now-now-now.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=November 16, 1959|title=BELGIAN CONGO: Now Now Now|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811442,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201085122/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811442,00.html|archive-date=2011-02-01|magazine=Time}}</ref> Although dem no prepare well plus no plenty people wey educate dey (only small Congolese get degree for dat time), Belgian leaders still gree make independence happen. E be true say dem weak local elites fit work for Belgian government and business people, dem dey hope say dis go make am easy for dem to still dey control wetin dey happen for politics and economy. Dis style different from colonial wars and de slow decolonization wey other European countries dey do, dem sabi am as 'Le Pari Congolais'—di Congolese bet.<ref>{{cite book|last=De Witte|first=Ludo|title=Crisis in Kongo. De rol van de Verenigde Naties, de regering-Eyskens en het koningshuis in de omverwerping van Lumumba en de opkomst van Mobutu|date=1996|publisher=Uitgeverij Van Halewyck|isbn=9789056170523|location=Leuven|page=31|author-link=Ludo De Witte}}</ref> For January 1960, dem call Congolese leaders come Brussels make dem fit gather for round-table talk about independence. Dem free Patrice Lumumba from prison just for this matter. Na so the conference quick quick agree give Congolese almost all wetin dem ask: make dem do general election for May 1960 and full independence—'Dipenda'—go land on 30 June 1960. Na because of di strong unity wey Congolese delegation carry come. [[File:Patrice_Lumumba_signs_the_document_granting_independence_to_the_Congo_next_to_Belgian_Prime_Minister_Gaston_Eyskens.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patrice_Lumumba_signs_the_document_granting_independence_to_the_Congo_next_to_Belgian_Prime_Minister_Gaston_Eyskens.jpg|right|thumb|Lumumba den Eyskens sign de document granting independence to de Congo]] Political maneuvering ahead of de elections, Elections dey come, so dem form three political groups for ground: one na the federalist nationalists, wey dey include six separatist parties, like ABAKO and MNC—Kalonji; another one na centralist MNC—Lumumba; and last one be Moïse Tshombe, wey be big man for Katanga, wey wan protect the business wey dey for Union Minière (like Kalonji do for de diamond exploitations matter insyde Kasaï). Di parliamentary elections show say di political scene dey divided, with di regionalist group dem—ABAKO wey dey lead—plus di nationalist parties like MNC too do well. Dem force compromise make Kasa-Vubu be di first president of Republic of di Congo, and Lumumba be di first head of government. Just like dem plan am five months before, di handover ceremony wey di Belgians do happen well on time for 30 June 1960 for di new house of di Governor-General for Belgian Congo wey dey Léopoldville. One week later, wahala begin for Force Publique, dem dey rebel against dem officers wey still dey mostly Belgian. Dis one spark plenty gbege all over Congo, na unhappy soldiers and sharp-sharp youths dey cause am. For plenty places, dem dey focus di violence on European people. In small time, Belgian soldiers and later UN intervention force carry plenty Belgians wey dey work and live for Congo come out, over 80,000 of dem.<ref>{{cite book|last=Verlinden|first=Peter|title=Weg uit Congo, Het drama van de kolonialen|publisher=[[Davidsfonds]]|year=2002|location=Leuven}}</ref> == Congo crisis plus wetin follow am == Di rebellion wey start for Thyssville for Bas-Congo for July 1960 quickly spread go everywhere for de Congo.<ref>For an overview of developments in the Congo after 1960 see: O'Ballance, Edgar (2000), ''The Congo-Zaire Experience, 1960–98'', Houndmills: MacMillan Press.</ref> For September 1960, di leaders split, wey President Kasa-Vubu declare say prime minister Lumumba no dey hold him work again, and di same thing happen back. Dem stop di stalemate when government arrest Lumumba. For January 1961, dem fly am go di rich mining province of Katanga, wey dem don declare say dem no wan join Léopoldville again under di leadership of Moïse Tshombe (wey Belgium dey support well well). Dem hand Lumumba over to Katangan authorities, wey kill am. For 2002, Belgium don officially say sorry for wetin dem do to Lumumba; people don dey talk say CIA sabi join am, because dem see say Lumumba dey too left. During Cold War, Soviet Union dey push e influence for Africa to gree fight European powers, e use 'anti-colonialism' as reason to increase de power insyde de region.<ref>A first-hand account of the CIA's activities in the Congo in 1960–61 in: Devlin, Larry (2008), ''Chief of Station, Congo: Fighting the Cold War in a Hot Zone'', Cambridge: PublicAffairs</ref> Plenty rebellions and separatist wahala really mash up di dream of one united Congolese state wen dem just born. Even though di country don dey independent, Belgian paratroopers still show face for Congo plenty times to protect and carry Belgian and foreign people comot. United Nations dey do big peace-keeping work for Congo since late 1960. Di whole matter no settle until 1964–65. Katanga province come back inside, and dem so-called Simba Rebellion end for Stanleyville (province Orientale). Small time after dat, army colonel Joseph Désiré Mobutu come clear di political ground by taking power through coup ''d'état''. == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] 2n63y3ri8mnx6kj5ag142e7kfg92szg 69166 69165 2025-07-06T00:21:32Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Congo crisis plus wetin follow am */ 69166 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== [[File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Minière_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|right|thumb|Nurses of de [[:en:Union_Minière_du_Haut-Katanga|Union Minière du Haut-Katanga]] plus demma Congolese assistants, [[:en:Lubumbashi|Élisabethville]], 1918]] Health care too dey supported by missions, but colonial state wan show interest small. For 1906, dem start Institute of Tropical Medicine for Brussels. This ITM dey among di top places wey train and do research for tropical medicine and how health care dey work for developing countries. Dem fit clear endemic sickness like sleeping sickness well well with serious campaigns.<ref>A critical assessment of the colonial obsession with sleeping sickness in: Lyons, Maryinez (1992), ''The Colonial Disease, A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> For 1925, medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper be di first person wey carry tryparsamide, di drug from Rockefeller Foundation wey dey cure sleeping sickness, enter Congo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingman |first=Jack |year=1994 |title=Arthur Lewis Piper, M.D.: A Medical Missionary in the Belgian Congo |journal=Journal of Community Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/BF02260364 |pmid=8006209 |s2cid=37502216}}</ref> Di health-care system dey grow well well during colonial time, with plenty hospital beds dey available for di people, plus dem set up dispensaries for far away places. By 1960, di country get beta medical structure wey pass any other African nation for dat time. Belgian Congo get 3,000 health facilities, wey 380 be hospitals. Dem get 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 people (1 for every 187 people). Dem make huge progress for di fight against endemic diseases; dem report sleeping sickness cases drop from 34,000 in 1931 to just 1,100 in 1959, mainly because dem clear tsetse fly for where plenty people dey. All Europeans plus Congolese wey dey for Belgian Congo do dem vaccine for polio, measles and yellow fever. Big big disease prevention programs dem start, wey dem wan make polio, leprosy and tuberculosis no dey again. For primary schools, dem run disease prevention campaigns, and dem include disease prevention class for curriculum too.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319" /> ===== Social inequality den racial discrimination ===== [[File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|thumb|Dem dey pull one woman wey be missionary inside rickshaw by some Congolese guys, around 1920 to 1930.]] Di Belgia Congo get system wey dey separate people based on race an dem dey discriminate too.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Krauzman|first=Marine|date=2025-03-11|title=Belgium's Colonial Past on Trial: What the 2024 Ruling Means for Reparational Justice|url=http://spheresofinfluence.ca/belgiums-colonial-past-on-trial-what-the-2024-ruling-means-for-reparational-justice/|access-date=2025-06-26|website=Spheres of Influence|language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-29|title=Belgian Congo {{!}} History & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgian-Congo|access-date=2025-06-26|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Dem get wetin dem call 'implicit apartheid'. Di colony put curfew for Congolese wey dey live for city, an plenty racial wahala dey happen. Léopoldville get di racist curfew wey e famous for, an dem use am as template for other European colonies like French Equatorial Africa wey dey close by.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Njoh |first1=Ambe J. |date=March 2008 |title=Colonial Philosophies, Urban Space, and Racial Segregation in British and French Colonial Africa |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Black Studies]] |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=579–599 |doi=10.1177/0021934706288447 |s2cid=145775865 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228161615/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref> Even though dem no get proper laws wey dey separate people by race, segregation dey happen plenty for many places. For example, at first, de city centers be only for white people, while black people dey stay for places dem dey call 'cités indigènes' or 'le belge'. Hospitals, shop dem and other places no dey allow both whites and blacks to mix. For Force Publique, black people no fit rise pass non-commissioned officer rank. Plus, black folks for the cities no fit come out from 9 pm to 4 am. Dis kind segregation start dey vanish small-small only for 1950s, but even then, de Congolese dem still dey feel like second-class citizens, especially for politics and law matter. [[File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|right|thumb|King [[:en:Albert_I_of_Belgium|Albert I]] plus Queen [[:en:Elisabeth_of_Bavaria,_Queen_of_the_Belgians|Elisabeth]] inspecting de military camp of Léopoldville for de time of demma visit to de Belgian Congo, 1928]] Sekof dem dey connect ekonomi growth with di 'civilizing mission', plus as state officials, missionaries plus private companies dey always help each other, people don sabi sey Belgian Congo dey ruled by one 'colonial trinity' of King-Church-Capital. Dis one fit mean di colonial state, di Christian missions, plus Société Générale de Belgique too. Di way wey colonial policy take dey work, e get one saying wey Governor-General Pierre Ryckmans (1934–46) use: Dominer pour servir ('Dominate to serve').<ref>Vanderlinden, Jacques (1994), ''Pierre Ryckmans 1891–1959, Coloniser dans l'honneur'', Brussels: De Boeck.</ref> Di colonial government wan make wey see am say dem dey nice plus no wahala for di administration, plus dem wan show Belgian Congo as di perfect colony. But na only for di 1950s e start change. For di 1950s, dem dey gradually draw back dem plenty harsh laws dem use punish di Congolese people (like di chicote wey be whip). From 1953, plus di big visit wey King Baudouin make to di colony for 1955, Governor-General Léon Pétillon (1952–1958) start dey try build one 'Belgian-Congolese community', where black plus white go dey equal.<ref>Pétillon, L. A. M. (1967), ''Témoignage et réflexions'', Brussels: Renaissance du Livre.</ref> But still, di anti-miscegenation laws no clear, and from 1959 to 1962, plenty mixed-race Congolese pikin dem dey carry come out from Congo by Belgian government plus Catholic Church go Belgium.<ref>{{cite web|last=Paravicini|first=Giulia|date=4 April 2019|title=Belgium apologizes for colonial-era abduction of mixed-race children|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711005737/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|archive-date=11 July 2019|access-date=10 July 2019|publisher=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> For 1957, dem do first municipal elections wey black voters fit vote for some big cities — Léopoldville, Élisabethville, plus Jadotville. ===== Abolition of slavery ===== For Congo Free State, plenty men, women, and pikin dem free from Swahili Arab slave owners and traders for Eastern Congo between 1886 and 1892. Dem fit join militai (Force Publique) or dem go give am to local chiefs wey be friends, and dem go use dem as workers. Even though dem ban chattel slavery for 1910 when Belgian Congo start, dem still dey use prisoners as forced laborers for public den private projects.<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 40</ref> == Resistance == Di Congolese dem no gree colonization; dem dey fight am steady, e come take many shapes. As modern ideas and education dey enter ground, e dey spark plenty action.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> Armed wahala show for small-small parts till Second World War finish (like Pende wahala for 1931, and di gbagbe for Luluabourg 1944). After di war till late 1950s, wetin dem dey call 'Pax belgica' go dey. But e no mean say dem no dey resist; passive resistance dey plenty too, like Kimbanguism wey be from di ‘prophet’ Simon Kimbangu wey di Belgians lock up. Aside active and passive wahala wey Congolese dey raise, di colonial government still dey hear plenty internal noise and gbege. Even for di 1920s, some people for Colonial Council wey dey for Brussels (like Octave Louwers) don talk plenty about di harsh way big companies dey recruit people for di mining places. Di slow growth for population for many areas—abi even wey dem dey chop plenty success for fight against sick sick like sleeping sickness—na another wahala wey dey worry dem. Low birth rate for countryside and some places dey empty usually link to di way traditional life don scatter because of forced work migration and compulsory farming. Dem dey talk say na wetin dem plan be dat, and dem dey point out how population dey increase for cities and how health plus lifespan don better thanks to modern medicine and better living condition.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hunt|first1=Nancy Rose|date=2002|title=Rewriting the Soul in Colonial Congo: Flemish Missionaries and Infertility|url=https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040613132330/https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|archive-date=2004-06-13|website=Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|publisher=Antwerp University Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|language=en}}</ref> Plenty missionaries wey dey connect with Congolese villagers dey carry dem wahala for heart plus sometimes dem dey fit intervene for dem matter with di colonial administration (like land property questions). Di missions plus some area administrators dem fit play big role for study and protect Congolese culture and language tradition plus di artifacts wey dey there. One good example na Father Gustaaf Hulstaert (1900–1990), wey insyde 1937 start di periodical Aequatoria wey dem dey use for di linguistic, ethnographic plus historical study of di Mongo people for di central Congo basin.<ref>See: aequatoria.be</ref> Di colonial state dey interested for di cultural and scientific study of Congo, especially after di Second World War, through di setup of di Institut pour la Recherche Scientifique en Afrique Centrale (IRSAC, 1948). == Toward independence == For early 1950s, di political freedom of di Congolese elites, no talk of di masses, e be like far dream. But e clear say Congo no fit dey far from di quick changes wey happen after di Second World War, wey scatter colonialism worldwide. Di independence wey di British, French, plus Dutch colonies for Asia get after 1945 no really change anything for Congo, but di pressure for Belgium from di United Nations don increase (just like all di other colonial powers). Belgium don agree to article 73 of di United Nations Charter wey talk about self-determination, plus di two superpowers dey pressure Belgium make dem change how dem dey run Congo; di Belgian government dey try hold body against wetin dem call 'interference' with dia colonial policy. Colonial government dey talk how dem go make life beta for Congolese pipo. Since 1940s, dem don dey try small-small give some elite wey dem call évolués small civil rights, dem fit get small political power later. So, 'deserving' Congolese fit apply for proof of 'civil merit', or if dem fit do better, 'immatriculation' (registration), wey go show say dem don join European way of life. To get this status, applicant gats meet strict rules (like marry one wife, show good behavior, etc.) and dem go dey watch dem well well (wey de include house visits). Dis policy no work at all. For around mid-1950s, no be plenty Congolese wey don fit get di civil merit diploma or dem don get di 'immatriculation'. Di benefits wey dem dey talk say come with am—like equal legal status with di white folks—na mostly just talk, no be real. E dey make di évolués frustrated well well. When Governor-General Pétillon start dey talk say he go fit give di native people more civil rights, even voting, to create wetin he dey call 'Belgo-Congolese community', di people for Brussels no really send am, and some Belgians for Congo dey vex as dem dey fear for demma privilege.<ref>[[Isidore Ndaywel è Nziem|Ndaywel è Nziem]], Isidore (1998), ''Histoire générale du Congo'', Paris-Brussels: De Boeck & Larcier, pp. 456–63.</ref> E clear say Belgian government no get proper long-term plan for Congo matter. 'Colonial wahala' no dey trend for Belgium, as long as di colony dey shine and e dey quiet. But one person wey show concern na di young King Baudouin, wey take over from him papa, King Leopold III, for 1951, when dem force Leopold III to waka. Baudouin dey follow wetin dey happen for Belgian Congo well well. Wen King Baudouin come visit Belgian Congo for de first time for 1955, crowd dey cheer am well-well, both whites and blacks dey dance, like as dem show for André Cauvin documentary, Bwana Kitoko.<ref>{{cite book|last=Raspoet|first=Erik|title=Bwana Kitoko en de koning van de Bakuba|publisher=Meulenhoff/Manteau|year=2005|isbn=90-8542-020-2}}</ref> Foreign people wey dey observe, suc as de international correspondent of ''The Manchester Guardian'' or a ''Time'' journalist,<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|title=Congo: Boom in the Jungle|date=16 May 1955|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=28 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028201856/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=May 16, 1955|title=CONGO: Boom in the Jungle|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=28 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828025115/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> talk say Belgian paddy paddy style dey work well, and dey compare how Belgian people dem loyal pass those French and British colonies wey dey restless. During di visit, King Baudouin carry Governor-General idea of 'Belgo-Congolese community' come front; but for real, dis plan dey move slow. At di same time, dem wahala wey dey divide for Belgium, wey dem fit hide from di colony before, start to enter Congo too. Dem talk say workers dey unite more now, dem dey call make public schools fit break mission schools for education, plus dem wan make both Belgian languages, French and Dutch, sabi equal treatment for colony. Before this, na only French dem dey push as colonial language. Governor-General dey fear say dis kind wahala fit spoil di colonial government image for Congolese, plus e go shift focus from di real need for true emancipation. ===== Political organisation ===== [[File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|right|thumb|[[:en:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu|Joseph Kasa-Vubu]], leader of ABAKO plus de first President dem elect democratically of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] [[File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Patrice_Lumumba|Patrice Lumumba]], first democratically elected Prime Minister of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] Di Congolese people join Second World War and dem hear say tings dey change for other colonies, e make dem start to organize make dem fit get power. Di colonial government no fit bring beta changes wey fit work, so di Congolese elites start to gather demself socially and later politically. For di 1950s, two separate types of nationalism show up among di Congolese elites. Di nationalist movement—wey di Belgian authorities no really watch—promote say di Belgian Congo go become one united state after dem get independence. E get wetin wey de oppose this matter, na di ethno-religious and regional nationalism wey catch for di Bakongo area for di west coast, Kasai plus Katanga.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} Di first political groups na dem one. ABAKO wey dem establish for 1950 as di Association culturelle des Bakongo, and wetin Joseph Kasa-Vubu dey run, start as cultural group wey turn political sharp sharp. From di middle of 1950s, dem don dey shout against Belgian colonial rule well well. Plus, di group still dey serve as di main ethno-religious group for di Bakongo and dem blend well with di Kimbanguist Church wey be popular for lower Congo.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} For 1955, Belgian prof Antoine van Bilsen drop one paper wey dem call Thirty Year Plan for the Political Emancipation of Belgian Africa.<ref>Gerard-Libois, Jules (1989), "Vers l'Indépendance: une accélération imprévue", In ''Congo-Zaïre'', Brussels: GRIP, pp. 43–56.</ref> De plan get timetable wey say make dem gradually free Congo for 30 years—na the time wey Van Bilsen believe say e go take to build educated people wey fit take over from the Belgians for power. But the Belgian government and plenty of the évolués no happy with the plan—government no wan lose Congo, and the évolués sabi say Belgium go still dey rule for another three decades. One group of Catholic évolués yan am positive for the plan with one moderate manifesto for one Congolese journal wey dem dey call Conscience Africaine; dem talk some matter about how Congolese fit take part well well.<ref>Kalulambi Pongo, Martin (2009), "Le manifeste 'Conscience africaine: genèse, influences et réactions", In Tousignant, Nathalie (ed.), ''Le manifeste Conscience africaine, 1956'', Brussels: Facultés Universitaires Saint-Louis, pp. 59–81.</ref> For 1957, as experiment matter, colonial government do organize di first local elections for three cities (Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Jadotville), wey Congolese people fit stand for office and vote. Watin happen for 1957–58 make demand for political freedom burst, no be small. Ghana independence for 1957 and President De Gaulle visit wey happen for August 1958 for Brazzaville, capital of di French Congo, across di Congo river from Léopoldville, wey e promise say France African colonies go fit choose between staying with France or full independence, make people for Congo get big dreams. Di World Exhibition wey dem do for Brussels for 1958 (Expo 58) be another eye-opener for plenty Congolese leaders, wey dem allow make dem travel go Belgium for di first time.<ref>Aziza Etambala, Zana (2008), ''De teloorgang van een modelkolonie, Belgisch Congo 1958–1960'', Leuven: Acco, pp. 105–110.</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|date=23 December 1957|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125731/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=December 23, 1957|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=1 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501001542/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> For 1958, people dey crave for independence sharp sharp and the koko don take off. Na Mouvement National Congolais (MNC) wey dey play big role for di matter. Dem start am for 1956, but dem officially set am up as national political party for October 1958, wey dey support make Congo be one strong nation. Di person wey dey lead dem well well na di charming Patrice Lumumba. For 1959, wahala start after Albert Kalonji and some MNC leaders wey wan dey moderate split from di main group (dem call dem Mouvement National Congolais-Kalonji). Even though di party get different waka, Lumumba faction (now Mouvement National Congolais-Lumumba) and di MNC still be di most important and influential party for Belgian Congo. Belgium vehemently de oppose Lumumba ein leftist views plus get grave concerns about de status of demma financial interests if Lumumba ein MNC come power.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} ===== Independence ===== As Belgium dey debate how to give Congolese people their freedom small-small, wahala just burst everywhere. On 4 January 1959, dem do one political demo for Léopoldville wey ABAKO organise, but e no gree control. Na so, the colonial capital begin catch fire with plenty chaos. E take dem days to bring back order, and if we count am well, hundreds don die. De eruption of violence sent a shockwave through de Congo den Belgium alike.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-01-if-blood-must-run.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: If Blood Must Run|date=19 January 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125735/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-01-if-blood-must-run.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=January 19, 1959|title=BELGIAN CONGO: If Blood Must Run|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,868969,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201082719/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,868969,00.html|archive-date=2011-02-01|magazine=Time}}</ref> On 13 January, King Baudouin use radio talk to the people say Belgium go work for Congo to get full independence fast, but no be to go rush am like mumu.<ref>Koning Boudewijn. 35 jaar dialoog met de natie. Een keuze uit de koninklijke toespraken van 1951 tot 1986. Lannoo Tielt, Inbel, 1986, blz. 124.</ref> Dem no fit talk say independence go happen one particular day, but di government wey Prime Minister Gaston Eyskens dey lead, get plan for multi-year transition period. Dem think say provincial elections go happen for December 1959, national elections for 1960 or 1961, den after, dem go start hand over di admin and political duties small small to di Congolese, as dem dey expect say by mid-1960s e go don finish. But for ground, things dey change fast fast.<ref>Young, Crawford (1965), ''Politics in the Congo" Decolonization and Independence'', Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 140–161.</ref> Di colonial admin dey see different type of resistance, like people wey no wan pay tax. For some places, anarchy threatened.<ref>Ryckmans, Geneviève (1995), ''André Ryckmans, un territorial du Congo belge''. Paris. L'Harmattan, pp. 215–224.</ref> At di same time, plenty Belgians wey dey di Congo no wan independence, dem dey feel say Brussels don betray dem. As di Congolese dem dey demand better change, di government don see say di chance to make am smooth smooth no dey happen again fast fast.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-10-return-of-the-mundele.pdf|title=The Belgian Congo : Return of the Mundele|date=12 October 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125737/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-10-return-of-the-mundele.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=October 12, 1959|title=THE BELGIAN CONGO: Return of the Mundele|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,864032,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101203183837/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,864032,00.html|archive-date=2010-12-03|magazine=Time}}</ref> [[File:Ronde_Tafel_Conferentie_te_Brussel_Congo,_Bestanddeelnr_910-9593.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ronde_Tafel_Conferentie_te_Brussel_Congo,_Bestanddeelnr_910-9593.jpg|thumb|220x220px|Opening meeting of de Belgo-Congolese Round Table Conference insyde Brussels on 20 January 1960]] For 1959, King Baudouin come back to Belgian Congo, and e see say everywhere don change from the last time wey e visit four years ago. When e land for Léopoldville, wahala start as black Belgo-Congolese people dey throw stone for am because dem vex say dem don lock Lumumba up, wey dem convict say im dey incite against colonial government. Even though for other cities dem receive am better, dem dey shout “Vive le roi!” but e follow with “Indépendance immédiate!” The Belgian government no wan enter any gbege wey fit turn bloody like wetin happen to France for Indochina and Algeria, or Netherlands for Indonesia. So, dem dey reason say make dem fit agree for Congolese leaders wey dey shout for immediate independence.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-11-now-now-now.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: Now Now Now|date=16 November 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125729/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-11-now-now-now.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=November 16, 1959|title=BELGIAN CONGO: Now Now Now|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811442,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201085122/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811442,00.html|archive-date=2011-02-01|magazine=Time}}</ref> Although dem no prepare well plus no plenty people wey educate dey (only small Congolese get degree for dat time), Belgian leaders still gree make independence happen. E be true say dem weak local elites fit work for Belgian government and business people, dem dey hope say dis go make am easy for dem to still dey control wetin dey happen for politics and economy. Dis style different from colonial wars and de slow decolonization wey other European countries dey do, dem sabi am as 'Le Pari Congolais'—di Congolese bet.<ref>{{cite book|last=De Witte|first=Ludo|title=Crisis in Kongo. De rol van de Verenigde Naties, de regering-Eyskens en het koningshuis in de omverwerping van Lumumba en de opkomst van Mobutu|date=1996|publisher=Uitgeverij Van Halewyck|isbn=9789056170523|location=Leuven|page=31|author-link=Ludo De Witte}}</ref> For January 1960, dem call Congolese leaders come Brussels make dem fit gather for round-table talk about independence. Dem free Patrice Lumumba from prison just for this matter. Na so the conference quick quick agree give Congolese almost all wetin dem ask: make dem do general election for May 1960 and full independence—'Dipenda'—go land on 30 June 1960. Na because of di strong unity wey Congolese delegation carry come. [[File:Patrice_Lumumba_signs_the_document_granting_independence_to_the_Congo_next_to_Belgian_Prime_Minister_Gaston_Eyskens.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patrice_Lumumba_signs_the_document_granting_independence_to_the_Congo_next_to_Belgian_Prime_Minister_Gaston_Eyskens.jpg|right|thumb|Lumumba den Eyskens sign de document granting independence to de Congo]] Political maneuvering ahead of de elections, Elections dey come, so dem form three political groups for ground: one na the federalist nationalists, wey dey include six separatist parties, like ABAKO and MNC—Kalonji; another one na centralist MNC—Lumumba; and last one be Moïse Tshombe, wey be big man for Katanga, wey wan protect the business wey dey for Union Minière (like Kalonji do for de diamond exploitations matter insyde Kasaï). Di parliamentary elections show say di political scene dey divided, with di regionalist group dem—ABAKO wey dey lead—plus di nationalist parties like MNC too do well. Dem force compromise make Kasa-Vubu be di first president of Republic of di Congo, and Lumumba be di first head of government. Just like dem plan am five months before, di handover ceremony wey di Belgians do happen well on time for 30 June 1960 for di new house of di Governor-General for Belgian Congo wey dey Léopoldville. One week later, wahala begin for Force Publique, dem dey rebel against dem officers wey still dey mostly Belgian. Dis one spark plenty gbege all over Congo, na unhappy soldiers and sharp-sharp youths dey cause am. For plenty places, dem dey focus di violence on European people. In small time, Belgian soldiers and later UN intervention force carry plenty Belgians wey dey work and live for Congo come out, over 80,000 of dem.<ref>{{cite book|last=Verlinden|first=Peter|title=Weg uit Congo, Het drama van de kolonialen|publisher=[[Davidsfonds]]|year=2002|location=Leuven}}</ref> == Congo crisis plus wetin follow am == Di rebellion wey start for Thyssville for Bas-Congo for July 1960 quickly spread go everywhere for de Congo.<ref>For an overview of developments in the Congo after 1960 see: O'Ballance, Edgar (2000), ''The Congo-Zaire Experience, 1960–98'', Houndmills: MacMillan Press.</ref> For September 1960, di leaders split, wey President Kasa-Vubu declare say prime minister Lumumba no dey hold him work again, and di same thing happen back. Dem stop di stalemate when government arrest Lumumba. For January 1961, dem fly am go di rich mining province of Katanga, wey dem don declare say dem no wan join Léopoldville again under di leadership of Moïse Tshombe (wey Belgium dey support well well). Dem hand Lumumba over to Katangan authorities, wey kill am. [[File:Congo_Crisis_dead_hostages.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_Crisis_dead_hostages.jpg|thumb|Belgian soldier dey lie for ground for de front of dead hostages, November 1964, for Stanleyville during [[:en:Operation_Dragon_Rouge|Operation Dragon Rouge]]. Belgian parachutists free over 1,800 European and American hostages wey Congolese rebels hold. ]] For 2002, Belgium don officially say sorry for wetin dem do to Lumumba; people don dey talk say CIA sabi join am, because dem see say Lumumba dey too left. During Cold War, Soviet Union dey push e influence for Africa to gree fight European powers, e use 'anti-colonialism' as reason to increase de power insyde de region.<ref>A first-hand account of the CIA's activities in the Congo in 1960–61 in: Devlin, Larry (2008), ''Chief of Station, Congo: Fighting the Cold War in a Hot Zone'', Cambridge: PublicAffairs</ref> Plenty rebellions and separatist wahala really mash up di dream of one united Congolese state wen dem just born. Even though di country don dey independent, Belgian paratroopers still show face for Congo plenty times to protect and carry Belgian and foreign people comot. United Nations dey do big peace-keeping work for Congo since late 1960. Di whole matter no settle until 1964–65. Katanga province come back inside, and dem so-called Simba Rebellion end for Stanleyville (province Orientale). Small time after dat, army colonel Joseph Désiré Mobutu come clear di political ground by taking power through coup ''d'état''. == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] c4u5znznc3faaaguyinunqjq9wqiwgi 69167 69166 2025-07-06T00:25:15Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Congo crisis plus wetin follow am */ 69167 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== [[File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Minière_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|right|thumb|Nurses of de [[:en:Union_Minière_du_Haut-Katanga|Union Minière du Haut-Katanga]] plus demma Congolese assistants, [[:en:Lubumbashi|Élisabethville]], 1918]] Health care too dey supported by missions, but colonial state wan show interest small. For 1906, dem start Institute of Tropical Medicine for Brussels. This ITM dey among di top places wey train and do research for tropical medicine and how health care dey work for developing countries. Dem fit clear endemic sickness like sleeping sickness well well with serious campaigns.<ref>A critical assessment of the colonial obsession with sleeping sickness in: Lyons, Maryinez (1992), ''The Colonial Disease, A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> For 1925, medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper be di first person wey carry tryparsamide, di drug from Rockefeller Foundation wey dey cure sleeping sickness, enter Congo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingman |first=Jack |year=1994 |title=Arthur Lewis Piper, M.D.: A Medical Missionary in the Belgian Congo |journal=Journal of Community Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/BF02260364 |pmid=8006209 |s2cid=37502216}}</ref> Di health-care system dey grow well well during colonial time, with plenty hospital beds dey available for di people, plus dem set up dispensaries for far away places. By 1960, di country get beta medical structure wey pass any other African nation for dat time. Belgian Congo get 3,000 health facilities, wey 380 be hospitals. Dem get 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 people (1 for every 187 people). Dem make huge progress for di fight against endemic diseases; dem report sleeping sickness cases drop from 34,000 in 1931 to just 1,100 in 1959, mainly because dem clear tsetse fly for where plenty people dey. All Europeans plus Congolese wey dey for Belgian Congo do dem vaccine for polio, measles and yellow fever. Big big disease prevention programs dem start, wey dem wan make polio, leprosy and tuberculosis no dey again. For primary schools, dem run disease prevention campaigns, and dem include disease prevention class for curriculum too.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319" /> ===== Social inequality den racial discrimination ===== [[File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|thumb|Dem dey pull one woman wey be missionary inside rickshaw by some Congolese guys, around 1920 to 1930.]] Di Belgia Congo get system wey dey separate people based on race an dem dey discriminate too.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Krauzman|first=Marine|date=2025-03-11|title=Belgium's Colonial Past on Trial: What the 2024 Ruling Means for Reparational Justice|url=http://spheresofinfluence.ca/belgiums-colonial-past-on-trial-what-the-2024-ruling-means-for-reparational-justice/|access-date=2025-06-26|website=Spheres of Influence|language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-29|title=Belgian Congo {{!}} History & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgian-Congo|access-date=2025-06-26|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Dem get wetin dem call 'implicit apartheid'. Di colony put curfew for Congolese wey dey live for city, an plenty racial wahala dey happen. Léopoldville get di racist curfew wey e famous for, an dem use am as template for other European colonies like French Equatorial Africa wey dey close by.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Njoh |first1=Ambe J. |date=March 2008 |title=Colonial Philosophies, Urban Space, and Racial Segregation in British and French Colonial Africa |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Black Studies]] |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=579–599 |doi=10.1177/0021934706288447 |s2cid=145775865 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228161615/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref> Even though dem no get proper laws wey dey separate people by race, segregation dey happen plenty for many places. For example, at first, de city centers be only for white people, while black people dey stay for places dem dey call 'cités indigènes' or 'le belge'. Hospitals, shop dem and other places no dey allow both whites and blacks to mix. For Force Publique, black people no fit rise pass non-commissioned officer rank. Plus, black folks for the cities no fit come out from 9 pm to 4 am. Dis kind segregation start dey vanish small-small only for 1950s, but even then, de Congolese dem still dey feel like second-class citizens, especially for politics and law matter. [[File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|right|thumb|King [[:en:Albert_I_of_Belgium|Albert I]] plus Queen [[:en:Elisabeth_of_Bavaria,_Queen_of_the_Belgians|Elisabeth]] inspecting de military camp of Léopoldville for de time of demma visit to de Belgian Congo, 1928]] Sekof dem dey connect ekonomi growth with di 'civilizing mission', plus as state officials, missionaries plus private companies dey always help each other, people don sabi sey Belgian Congo dey ruled by one 'colonial trinity' of King-Church-Capital. Dis one fit mean di colonial state, di Christian missions, plus Société Générale de Belgique too. Di way wey colonial policy take dey work, e get one saying wey Governor-General Pierre Ryckmans (1934–46) use: Dominer pour servir ('Dominate to serve').<ref>Vanderlinden, Jacques (1994), ''Pierre Ryckmans 1891–1959, Coloniser dans l'honneur'', Brussels: De Boeck.</ref> Di colonial government wan make wey see am say dem dey nice plus no wahala for di administration, plus dem wan show Belgian Congo as di perfect colony. But na only for di 1950s e start change. For di 1950s, dem dey gradually draw back dem plenty harsh laws dem use punish di Congolese people (like di chicote wey be whip). From 1953, plus di big visit wey King Baudouin make to di colony for 1955, Governor-General Léon Pétillon (1952–1958) start dey try build one 'Belgian-Congolese community', where black plus white go dey equal.<ref>Pétillon, L. A. M. (1967), ''Témoignage et réflexions'', Brussels: Renaissance du Livre.</ref> But still, di anti-miscegenation laws no clear, and from 1959 to 1962, plenty mixed-race Congolese pikin dem dey carry come out from Congo by Belgian government plus Catholic Church go Belgium.<ref>{{cite web|last=Paravicini|first=Giulia|date=4 April 2019|title=Belgium apologizes for colonial-era abduction of mixed-race children|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711005737/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|archive-date=11 July 2019|access-date=10 July 2019|publisher=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> For 1957, dem do first municipal elections wey black voters fit vote for some big cities — Léopoldville, Élisabethville, plus Jadotville. ===== Abolition of slavery ===== For Congo Free State, plenty men, women, and pikin dem free from Swahili Arab slave owners and traders for Eastern Congo between 1886 and 1892. Dem fit join militai (Force Publique) or dem go give am to local chiefs wey be friends, and dem go use dem as workers. Even though dem ban chattel slavery for 1910 when Belgian Congo start, dem still dey use prisoners as forced laborers for public den private projects.<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 40</ref> == Resistance == Di Congolese dem no gree colonization; dem dey fight am steady, e come take many shapes. As modern ideas and education dey enter ground, e dey spark plenty action.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> Armed wahala show for small-small parts till Second World War finish (like Pende wahala for 1931, and di gbagbe for Luluabourg 1944). After di war till late 1950s, wetin dem dey call 'Pax belgica' go dey. But e no mean say dem no dey resist; passive resistance dey plenty too, like Kimbanguism wey be from di ‘prophet’ Simon Kimbangu wey di Belgians lock up. Aside active and passive wahala wey Congolese dey raise, di colonial government still dey hear plenty internal noise and gbege. Even for di 1920s, some people for Colonial Council wey dey for Brussels (like Octave Louwers) don talk plenty about di harsh way big companies dey recruit people for di mining places. Di slow growth for population for many areas—abi even wey dem dey chop plenty success for fight against sick sick like sleeping sickness—na another wahala wey dey worry dem. Low birth rate for countryside and some places dey empty usually link to di way traditional life don scatter because of forced work migration and compulsory farming. Dem dey talk say na wetin dem plan be dat, and dem dey point out how population dey increase for cities and how health plus lifespan don better thanks to modern medicine and better living condition.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hunt|first1=Nancy Rose|date=2002|title=Rewriting the Soul in Colonial Congo: Flemish Missionaries and Infertility|url=https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040613132330/https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|archive-date=2004-06-13|website=Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|publisher=Antwerp University Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|language=en}}</ref> Plenty missionaries wey dey connect with Congolese villagers dey carry dem wahala for heart plus sometimes dem dey fit intervene for dem matter with di colonial administration (like land property questions). Di missions plus some area administrators dem fit play big role for study and protect Congolese culture and language tradition plus di artifacts wey dey there. One good example na Father Gustaaf Hulstaert (1900–1990), wey insyde 1937 start di periodical Aequatoria wey dem dey use for di linguistic, ethnographic plus historical study of di Mongo people for di central Congo basin.<ref>See: aequatoria.be</ref> Di colonial state dey interested for di cultural and scientific study of Congo, especially after di Second World War, through di setup of di Institut pour la Recherche Scientifique en Afrique Centrale (IRSAC, 1948). == Toward independence == For early 1950s, di political freedom of di Congolese elites, no talk of di masses, e be like far dream. But e clear say Congo no fit dey far from di quick changes wey happen after di Second World War, wey scatter colonialism worldwide. Di independence wey di British, French, plus Dutch colonies for Asia get after 1945 no really change anything for Congo, but di pressure for Belgium from di United Nations don increase (just like all di other colonial powers). Belgium don agree to article 73 of di United Nations Charter wey talk about self-determination, plus di two superpowers dey pressure Belgium make dem change how dem dey run Congo; di Belgian government dey try hold body against wetin dem call 'interference' with dia colonial policy. Colonial government dey talk how dem go make life beta for Congolese pipo. Since 1940s, dem don dey try small-small give some elite wey dem call évolués small civil rights, dem fit get small political power later. So, 'deserving' Congolese fit apply for proof of 'civil merit', or if dem fit do better, 'immatriculation' (registration), wey go show say dem don join European way of life. To get this status, applicant gats meet strict rules (like marry one wife, show good behavior, etc.) and dem go dey watch dem well well (wey de include house visits). Dis policy no work at all. For around mid-1950s, no be plenty Congolese wey don fit get di civil merit diploma or dem don get di 'immatriculation'. Di benefits wey dem dey talk say come with am—like equal legal status with di white folks—na mostly just talk, no be real. E dey make di évolués frustrated well well. When Governor-General Pétillon start dey talk say he go fit give di native people more civil rights, even voting, to create wetin he dey call 'Belgo-Congolese community', di people for Brussels no really send am, and some Belgians for Congo dey vex as dem dey fear for demma privilege.<ref>[[Isidore Ndaywel è Nziem|Ndaywel è Nziem]], Isidore (1998), ''Histoire générale du Congo'', Paris-Brussels: De Boeck & Larcier, pp. 456–63.</ref> E clear say Belgian government no get proper long-term plan for Congo matter. 'Colonial wahala' no dey trend for Belgium, as long as di colony dey shine and e dey quiet. But one person wey show concern na di young King Baudouin, wey take over from him papa, King Leopold III, for 1951, when dem force Leopold III to waka. Baudouin dey follow wetin dey happen for Belgian Congo well well. Wen King Baudouin come visit Belgian Congo for de first time for 1955, crowd dey cheer am well-well, both whites and blacks dey dance, like as dem show for André Cauvin documentary, Bwana Kitoko.<ref>{{cite book|last=Raspoet|first=Erik|title=Bwana Kitoko en de koning van de Bakuba|publisher=Meulenhoff/Manteau|year=2005|isbn=90-8542-020-2}}</ref> Foreign people wey dey observe, suc as de international correspondent of ''The Manchester Guardian'' or a ''Time'' journalist,<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|title=Congo: Boom in the Jungle|date=16 May 1955|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=28 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028201856/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=May 16, 1955|title=CONGO: Boom in the Jungle|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=28 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828025115/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> talk say Belgian paddy paddy style dey work well, and dey compare how Belgian people dem loyal pass those French and British colonies wey dey restless. During di visit, King Baudouin carry Governor-General idea of 'Belgo-Congolese community' come front; but for real, dis plan dey move slow. At di same time, dem wahala wey dey divide for Belgium, wey dem fit hide from di colony before, start to enter Congo too. Dem talk say workers dey unite more now, dem dey call make public schools fit break mission schools for education, plus dem wan make both Belgian languages, French and Dutch, sabi equal treatment for colony. Before this, na only French dem dey push as colonial language. Governor-General dey fear say dis kind wahala fit spoil di colonial government image for Congolese, plus e go shift focus from di real need for true emancipation. ===== Political organisation ===== [[File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|right|thumb|[[:en:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu|Joseph Kasa-Vubu]], leader of ABAKO plus de first President dem elect democratically of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] [[File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Patrice_Lumumba|Patrice Lumumba]], first democratically elected Prime Minister of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] Di Congolese people join Second World War and dem hear say tings dey change for other colonies, e make dem start to organize make dem fit get power. Di colonial government no fit bring beta changes wey fit work, so di Congolese elites start to gather demself socially and later politically. For di 1950s, two separate types of nationalism show up among di Congolese elites. Di nationalist movement—wey di Belgian authorities no really watch—promote say di Belgian Congo go become one united state after dem get independence. E get wetin wey de oppose this matter, na di ethno-religious and regional nationalism wey catch for di Bakongo area for di west coast, Kasai plus Katanga.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} Di first political groups na dem one. ABAKO wey dem establish for 1950 as di Association culturelle des Bakongo, and wetin Joseph Kasa-Vubu dey run, start as cultural group wey turn political sharp sharp. From di middle of 1950s, dem don dey shout against Belgian colonial rule well well. Plus, di group still dey serve as di main ethno-religious group for di Bakongo and dem blend well with di Kimbanguist Church wey be popular for lower Congo.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} For 1955, Belgian prof Antoine van Bilsen drop one paper wey dem call Thirty Year Plan for the Political Emancipation of Belgian Africa.<ref>Gerard-Libois, Jules (1989), "Vers l'Indépendance: une accélération imprévue", In ''Congo-Zaïre'', Brussels: GRIP, pp. 43–56.</ref> De plan get timetable wey say make dem gradually free Congo for 30 years—na the time wey Van Bilsen believe say e go take to build educated people wey fit take over from the Belgians for power. But the Belgian government and plenty of the évolués no happy with the plan—government no wan lose Congo, and the évolués sabi say Belgium go still dey rule for another three decades. One group of Catholic évolués yan am positive for the plan with one moderate manifesto for one Congolese journal wey dem dey call Conscience Africaine; dem talk some matter about how Congolese fit take part well well.<ref>Kalulambi Pongo, Martin (2009), "Le manifeste 'Conscience africaine: genèse, influences et réactions", In Tousignant, Nathalie (ed.), ''Le manifeste Conscience africaine, 1956'', Brussels: Facultés Universitaires Saint-Louis, pp. 59–81.</ref> For 1957, as experiment matter, colonial government do organize di first local elections for three cities (Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Jadotville), wey Congolese people fit stand for office and vote. Watin happen for 1957–58 make demand for political freedom burst, no be small. Ghana independence for 1957 and President De Gaulle visit wey happen for August 1958 for Brazzaville, capital of di French Congo, across di Congo river from Léopoldville, wey e promise say France African colonies go fit choose between staying with France or full independence, make people for Congo get big dreams. Di World Exhibition wey dem do for Brussels for 1958 (Expo 58) be another eye-opener for plenty Congolese leaders, wey dem allow make dem travel go Belgium for di first time.<ref>Aziza Etambala, Zana (2008), ''De teloorgang van een modelkolonie, Belgisch Congo 1958–1960'', Leuven: Acco, pp. 105–110.</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|date=23 December 1957|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125731/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=December 23, 1957|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=1 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501001542/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> For 1958, people dey crave for independence sharp sharp and the koko don take off. Na Mouvement National Congolais (MNC) wey dey play big role for di matter. Dem start am for 1956, but dem officially set am up as national political party for October 1958, wey dey support make Congo be one strong nation. Di person wey dey lead dem well well na di charming Patrice Lumumba. For 1959, wahala start after Albert Kalonji and some MNC leaders wey wan dey moderate split from di main group (dem call dem Mouvement National Congolais-Kalonji). Even though di party get different waka, Lumumba faction (now Mouvement National Congolais-Lumumba) and di MNC still be di most important and influential party for Belgian Congo. Belgium vehemently de oppose Lumumba ein leftist views plus get grave concerns about de status of demma financial interests if Lumumba ein MNC come power.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} ===== Independence ===== As Belgium dey debate how to give Congolese people their freedom small-small, wahala just burst everywhere. On 4 January 1959, dem do one political demo for Léopoldville wey ABAKO organise, but e no gree control. Na so, the colonial capital begin catch fire with plenty chaos. E take dem days to bring back order, and if we count am well, hundreds don die. De eruption of violence sent a shockwave through de Congo den Belgium alike.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-01-if-blood-must-run.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: If Blood Must Run|date=19 January 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125735/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-01-if-blood-must-run.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=January 19, 1959|title=BELGIAN CONGO: If Blood Must Run|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,868969,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201082719/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,868969,00.html|archive-date=2011-02-01|magazine=Time}}</ref> On 13 January, King Baudouin use radio talk to the people say Belgium go work for Congo to get full independence fast, but no be to go rush am like mumu.<ref>Koning Boudewijn. 35 jaar dialoog met de natie. Een keuze uit de koninklijke toespraken van 1951 tot 1986. Lannoo Tielt, Inbel, 1986, blz. 124.</ref> Dem no fit talk say independence go happen one particular day, but di government wey Prime Minister Gaston Eyskens dey lead, get plan for multi-year transition period. Dem think say provincial elections go happen for December 1959, national elections for 1960 or 1961, den after, dem go start hand over di admin and political duties small small to di Congolese, as dem dey expect say by mid-1960s e go don finish. But for ground, things dey change fast fast.<ref>Young, Crawford (1965), ''Politics in the Congo" Decolonization and Independence'', Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 140–161.</ref> Di colonial admin dey see different type of resistance, like people wey no wan pay tax. For some places, anarchy threatened.<ref>Ryckmans, Geneviève (1995), ''André Ryckmans, un territorial du Congo belge''. Paris. L'Harmattan, pp. 215–224.</ref> At di same time, plenty Belgians wey dey di Congo no wan independence, dem dey feel say Brussels don betray dem. As di Congolese dem dey demand better change, di government don see say di chance to make am smooth smooth no dey happen again fast fast.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-10-return-of-the-mundele.pdf|title=The Belgian Congo : Return of the Mundele|date=12 October 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125737/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-10-return-of-the-mundele.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=October 12, 1959|title=THE BELGIAN CONGO: Return of the Mundele|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,864032,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101203183837/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,864032,00.html|archive-date=2010-12-03|magazine=Time}}</ref> [[File:Ronde_Tafel_Conferentie_te_Brussel_Congo,_Bestanddeelnr_910-9593.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ronde_Tafel_Conferentie_te_Brussel_Congo,_Bestanddeelnr_910-9593.jpg|thumb|220x220px|Opening meeting of de Belgo-Congolese Round Table Conference insyde Brussels on 20 January 1960]] For 1959, King Baudouin come back to Belgian Congo, and e see say everywhere don change from the last time wey e visit four years ago. When e land for Léopoldville, wahala start as black Belgo-Congolese people dey throw stone for am because dem vex say dem don lock Lumumba up, wey dem convict say im dey incite against colonial government. Even though for other cities dem receive am better, dem dey shout “Vive le roi!” but e follow with “Indépendance immédiate!” The Belgian government no wan enter any gbege wey fit turn bloody like wetin happen to France for Indochina and Algeria, or Netherlands for Indonesia. So, dem dey reason say make dem fit agree for Congolese leaders wey dey shout for immediate independence.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-11-now-now-now.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: Now Now Now|date=16 November 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125729/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-11-now-now-now.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=November 16, 1959|title=BELGIAN CONGO: Now Now Now|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811442,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201085122/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811442,00.html|archive-date=2011-02-01|magazine=Time}}</ref> Although dem no prepare well plus no plenty people wey educate dey (only small Congolese get degree for dat time), Belgian leaders still gree make independence happen. E be true say dem weak local elites fit work for Belgian government and business people, dem dey hope say dis go make am easy for dem to still dey control wetin dey happen for politics and economy. Dis style different from colonial wars and de slow decolonization wey other European countries dey do, dem sabi am as 'Le Pari Congolais'—di Congolese bet.<ref>{{cite book|last=De Witte|first=Ludo|title=Crisis in Kongo. De rol van de Verenigde Naties, de regering-Eyskens en het koningshuis in de omverwerping van Lumumba en de opkomst van Mobutu|date=1996|publisher=Uitgeverij Van Halewyck|isbn=9789056170523|location=Leuven|page=31|author-link=Ludo De Witte}}</ref> For January 1960, dem call Congolese leaders come Brussels make dem fit gather for round-table talk about independence. Dem free Patrice Lumumba from prison just for this matter. Na so the conference quick quick agree give Congolese almost all wetin dem ask: make dem do general election for May 1960 and full independence—'Dipenda'—go land on 30 June 1960. Na because of di strong unity wey Congolese delegation carry come. [[File:Patrice_Lumumba_signs_the_document_granting_independence_to_the_Congo_next_to_Belgian_Prime_Minister_Gaston_Eyskens.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patrice_Lumumba_signs_the_document_granting_independence_to_the_Congo_next_to_Belgian_Prime_Minister_Gaston_Eyskens.jpg|right|thumb|Lumumba den Eyskens sign de document granting independence to de Congo]] Political maneuvering ahead of de elections, Elections dey come, so dem form three political groups for ground: one na the federalist nationalists, wey dey include six separatist parties, like ABAKO and MNC—Kalonji; another one na centralist MNC—Lumumba; and last one be Moïse Tshombe, wey be big man for Katanga, wey wan protect the business wey dey for Union Minière (like Kalonji do for de diamond exploitations matter insyde Kasaï). Di parliamentary elections show say di political scene dey divided, with di regionalist group dem—ABAKO wey dey lead—plus di nationalist parties like MNC too do well. Dem force compromise make Kasa-Vubu be di first president of Republic of di Congo, and Lumumba be di first head of government. Just like dem plan am five months before, di handover ceremony wey di Belgians do happen well on time for 30 June 1960 for di new house of di Governor-General for Belgian Congo wey dey Léopoldville. One week later, wahala begin for Force Publique, dem dey rebel against dem officers wey still dey mostly Belgian. Dis one spark plenty gbege all over Congo, na unhappy soldiers and sharp-sharp youths dey cause am. For plenty places, dem dey focus di violence on European people. In small time, Belgian soldiers and later UN intervention force carry plenty Belgians wey dey work and live for Congo come out, over 80,000 of dem.<ref>{{cite book|last=Verlinden|first=Peter|title=Weg uit Congo, Het drama van de kolonialen|publisher=[[Davidsfonds]]|year=2002|location=Leuven}}</ref> == Congo crisis plus wetin follow am == Di rebellion wey start for Thyssville for Bas-Congo for July 1960 quickly spread go everywhere for de Congo.<ref>For an overview of developments in the Congo after 1960 see: O'Ballance, Edgar (2000), ''The Congo-Zaire Experience, 1960–98'', Houndmills: MacMillan Press.</ref> For September 1960, di leaders split, wey President Kasa-Vubu declare say prime minister Lumumba no dey hold him work again, and di same thing happen back. Dem stop di stalemate when government arrest Lumumba. For January 1961, dem fly am go di rich mining province of Katanga, wey dem don declare say dem no wan join Léopoldville again under di leadership of Moïse Tshombe (wey Belgium dey support well well). Dem hand Lumumba over to Katangan authorities, wey kill am. [[File:Congo_Crisis_dead_hostages.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_Crisis_dead_hostages.jpg|thumb|Belgian soldier dey lie for ground for de front of dead hostages, November 1964, for Stanleyville during [[:en:Operation_Dragon_Rouge|Operation Dragon Rouge]]. Belgian parachutists free over 1,800 European and American hostages wey Congolese rebels hold. ]] For 2002, Belgium don officially say sorry for wetin dem do to Lumumba; people don dey talk say CIA sabi join am, because dem see say Lumumba dey too left. During Cold War, Soviet Union dey push e influence for Africa to gree fight European powers, e use 'anti-colonialism' as reason to increase de power insyde de region.<ref>A first-hand account of the CIA's activities in the Congo in 1960–61 in: Devlin, Larry (2008), ''Chief of Station, Congo: Fighting the Cold War in a Hot Zone'', Cambridge: PublicAffairs</ref> Plenty rebellions and separatist wahala really mash up di dream of one united Congolese state wen dem just born. Even though di country don dey independent, Belgian paratroopers still show face for Congo plenty times to protect and carry Belgian and foreign people comot. United Nations dey do big peace-keeping work for Congo since late 1960. Di whole matter no settle until 1964–65. Katanga province come back inside, and dem so-called Simba Rebellion end for Stanleyville (province Orientale). Small time after dat, army colonel Joseph Désiré Mobutu come clear di political ground by taking power through coup ''d'état''. Mobutu get some backing for de West, especially for America, sekof e dey strong against communist people. At first, him rule dey boost economy well (like when dem build Inga dam wey dem plan since 1950s). To show say e no be like di old regime, him start campaign wey dem call Congolese 'authenticity'. For 1966, di government stop to use colonial place names: Léopoldville change go Kinshasa, Elisabethville turn Lubumbashi, plus Stanleyville become Kisangani. This time, Congo dey maintain good economic den political relationship with Belgium. Some money matta still dey hang after independence (dem dey call am 'contentieux'), like how dem suppose transfer shares for de big mining companies wey colonial state hold.<ref>Willame, Jean-Claude (1989), "Vingt-cinq ans de rélations belgo-zaïroises", In ''Congo-Zaïre'', Brussels: GRIP, pp. 145–58.</ref> For 1970, on top de ten years independence celebration, King Baudouin come pay official state visit to de Congo. == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] 73tgaa8m8g3wfqmx7lo8in19vp5gkz0 69170 69167 2025-07-06T00:27:30Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Congo crisis plus wetin follow am */ 69170 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== [[File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Minière_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|right|thumb|Nurses of de [[:en:Union_Minière_du_Haut-Katanga|Union Minière du Haut-Katanga]] plus demma Congolese assistants, [[:en:Lubumbashi|Élisabethville]], 1918]] Health care too dey supported by missions, but colonial state wan show interest small. For 1906, dem start Institute of Tropical Medicine for Brussels. This ITM dey among di top places wey train and do research for tropical medicine and how health care dey work for developing countries. Dem fit clear endemic sickness like sleeping sickness well well with serious campaigns.<ref>A critical assessment of the colonial obsession with sleeping sickness in: Lyons, Maryinez (1992), ''The Colonial Disease, A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> For 1925, medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper be di first person wey carry tryparsamide, di drug from Rockefeller Foundation wey dey cure sleeping sickness, enter Congo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingman |first=Jack |year=1994 |title=Arthur Lewis Piper, M.D.: A Medical Missionary in the Belgian Congo |journal=Journal of Community Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/BF02260364 |pmid=8006209 |s2cid=37502216}}</ref> Di health-care system dey grow well well during colonial time, with plenty hospital beds dey available for di people, plus dem set up dispensaries for far away places. By 1960, di country get beta medical structure wey pass any other African nation for dat time. Belgian Congo get 3,000 health facilities, wey 380 be hospitals. Dem get 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 people (1 for every 187 people). Dem make huge progress for di fight against endemic diseases; dem report sleeping sickness cases drop from 34,000 in 1931 to just 1,100 in 1959, mainly because dem clear tsetse fly for where plenty people dey. All Europeans plus Congolese wey dey for Belgian Congo do dem vaccine for polio, measles and yellow fever. Big big disease prevention programs dem start, wey dem wan make polio, leprosy and tuberculosis no dey again. For primary schools, dem run disease prevention campaigns, and dem include disease prevention class for curriculum too.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319" /> ===== Social inequality den racial discrimination ===== [[File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|thumb|Dem dey pull one woman wey be missionary inside rickshaw by some Congolese guys, around 1920 to 1930.]] Di Belgia Congo get system wey dey separate people based on race an dem dey discriminate too.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Krauzman|first=Marine|date=2025-03-11|title=Belgium's Colonial Past on Trial: What the 2024 Ruling Means for Reparational Justice|url=http://spheresofinfluence.ca/belgiums-colonial-past-on-trial-what-the-2024-ruling-means-for-reparational-justice/|access-date=2025-06-26|website=Spheres of Influence|language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-29|title=Belgian Congo {{!}} History & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgian-Congo|access-date=2025-06-26|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Dem get wetin dem call 'implicit apartheid'. Di colony put curfew for Congolese wey dey live for city, an plenty racial wahala dey happen. Léopoldville get di racist curfew wey e famous for, an dem use am as template for other European colonies like French Equatorial Africa wey dey close by.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Njoh |first1=Ambe J. |date=March 2008 |title=Colonial Philosophies, Urban Space, and Racial Segregation in British and French Colonial Africa |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Black Studies]] |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=579–599 |doi=10.1177/0021934706288447 |s2cid=145775865 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228161615/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref> Even though dem no get proper laws wey dey separate people by race, segregation dey happen plenty for many places. For example, at first, de city centers be only for white people, while black people dey stay for places dem dey call 'cités indigènes' or 'le belge'. Hospitals, shop dem and other places no dey allow both whites and blacks to mix. For Force Publique, black people no fit rise pass non-commissioned officer rank. Plus, black folks for the cities no fit come out from 9 pm to 4 am. Dis kind segregation start dey vanish small-small only for 1950s, but even then, de Congolese dem still dey feel like second-class citizens, especially for politics and law matter. [[File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|right|thumb|King [[:en:Albert_I_of_Belgium|Albert I]] plus Queen [[:en:Elisabeth_of_Bavaria,_Queen_of_the_Belgians|Elisabeth]] inspecting de military camp of Léopoldville for de time of demma visit to de Belgian Congo, 1928]] Sekof dem dey connect ekonomi growth with di 'civilizing mission', plus as state officials, missionaries plus private companies dey always help each other, people don sabi sey Belgian Congo dey ruled by one 'colonial trinity' of King-Church-Capital. Dis one fit mean di colonial state, di Christian missions, plus Société Générale de Belgique too. Di way wey colonial policy take dey work, e get one saying wey Governor-General Pierre Ryckmans (1934–46) use: Dominer pour servir ('Dominate to serve').<ref>Vanderlinden, Jacques (1994), ''Pierre Ryckmans 1891–1959, Coloniser dans l'honneur'', Brussels: De Boeck.</ref> Di colonial government wan make wey see am say dem dey nice plus no wahala for di administration, plus dem wan show Belgian Congo as di perfect colony. But na only for di 1950s e start change. For di 1950s, dem dey gradually draw back dem plenty harsh laws dem use punish di Congolese people (like di chicote wey be whip). From 1953, plus di big visit wey King Baudouin make to di colony for 1955, Governor-General Léon Pétillon (1952–1958) start dey try build one 'Belgian-Congolese community', where black plus white go dey equal.<ref>Pétillon, L. A. M. (1967), ''Témoignage et réflexions'', Brussels: Renaissance du Livre.</ref> But still, di anti-miscegenation laws no clear, and from 1959 to 1962, plenty mixed-race Congolese pikin dem dey carry come out from Congo by Belgian government plus Catholic Church go Belgium.<ref>{{cite web|last=Paravicini|first=Giulia|date=4 April 2019|title=Belgium apologizes for colonial-era abduction of mixed-race children|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711005737/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|archive-date=11 July 2019|access-date=10 July 2019|publisher=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> For 1957, dem do first municipal elections wey black voters fit vote for some big cities — Léopoldville, Élisabethville, plus Jadotville. ===== Abolition of slavery ===== For Congo Free State, plenty men, women, and pikin dem free from Swahili Arab slave owners and traders for Eastern Congo between 1886 and 1892. Dem fit join militai (Force Publique) or dem go give am to local chiefs wey be friends, and dem go use dem as workers. Even though dem ban chattel slavery for 1910 when Belgian Congo start, dem still dey use prisoners as forced laborers for public den private projects.<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 40</ref> == Resistance == Di Congolese dem no gree colonization; dem dey fight am steady, e come take many shapes. As modern ideas and education dey enter ground, e dey spark plenty action.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> Armed wahala show for small-small parts till Second World War finish (like Pende wahala for 1931, and di gbagbe for Luluabourg 1944). After di war till late 1950s, wetin dem dey call 'Pax belgica' go dey. But e no mean say dem no dey resist; passive resistance dey plenty too, like Kimbanguism wey be from di ‘prophet’ Simon Kimbangu wey di Belgians lock up. Aside active and passive wahala wey Congolese dey raise, di colonial government still dey hear plenty internal noise and gbege. Even for di 1920s, some people for Colonial Council wey dey for Brussels (like Octave Louwers) don talk plenty about di harsh way big companies dey recruit people for di mining places. Di slow growth for population for many areas—abi even wey dem dey chop plenty success for fight against sick sick like sleeping sickness—na another wahala wey dey worry dem. Low birth rate for countryside and some places dey empty usually link to di way traditional life don scatter because of forced work migration and compulsory farming. Dem dey talk say na wetin dem plan be dat, and dem dey point out how population dey increase for cities and how health plus lifespan don better thanks to modern medicine and better living condition.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hunt|first1=Nancy Rose|date=2002|title=Rewriting the Soul in Colonial Congo: Flemish Missionaries and Infertility|url=https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040613132330/https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|archive-date=2004-06-13|website=Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|publisher=Antwerp University Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|language=en}}</ref> Plenty missionaries wey dey connect with Congolese villagers dey carry dem wahala for heart plus sometimes dem dey fit intervene for dem matter with di colonial administration (like land property questions). Di missions plus some area administrators dem fit play big role for study and protect Congolese culture and language tradition plus di artifacts wey dey there. One good example na Father Gustaaf Hulstaert (1900–1990), wey insyde 1937 start di periodical Aequatoria wey dem dey use for di linguistic, ethnographic plus historical study of di Mongo people for di central Congo basin.<ref>See: aequatoria.be</ref> Di colonial state dey interested for di cultural and scientific study of Congo, especially after di Second World War, through di setup of di Institut pour la Recherche Scientifique en Afrique Centrale (IRSAC, 1948). == Toward independence == For early 1950s, di political freedom of di Congolese elites, no talk of di masses, e be like far dream. But e clear say Congo no fit dey far from di quick changes wey happen after di Second World War, wey scatter colonialism worldwide. Di independence wey di British, French, plus Dutch colonies for Asia get after 1945 no really change anything for Congo, but di pressure for Belgium from di United Nations don increase (just like all di other colonial powers). Belgium don agree to article 73 of di United Nations Charter wey talk about self-determination, plus di two superpowers dey pressure Belgium make dem change how dem dey run Congo; di Belgian government dey try hold body against wetin dem call 'interference' with dia colonial policy. Colonial government dey talk how dem go make life beta for Congolese pipo. Since 1940s, dem don dey try small-small give some elite wey dem call évolués small civil rights, dem fit get small political power later. So, 'deserving' Congolese fit apply for proof of 'civil merit', or if dem fit do better, 'immatriculation' (registration), wey go show say dem don join European way of life. To get this status, applicant gats meet strict rules (like marry one wife, show good behavior, etc.) and dem go dey watch dem well well (wey de include house visits). Dis policy no work at all. For around mid-1950s, no be plenty Congolese wey don fit get di civil merit diploma or dem don get di 'immatriculation'. Di benefits wey dem dey talk say come with am—like equal legal status with di white folks—na mostly just talk, no be real. E dey make di évolués frustrated well well. When Governor-General Pétillon start dey talk say he go fit give di native people more civil rights, even voting, to create wetin he dey call 'Belgo-Congolese community', di people for Brussels no really send am, and some Belgians for Congo dey vex as dem dey fear for demma privilege.<ref>[[Isidore Ndaywel è Nziem|Ndaywel è Nziem]], Isidore (1998), ''Histoire générale du Congo'', Paris-Brussels: De Boeck & Larcier, pp. 456–63.</ref> E clear say Belgian government no get proper long-term plan for Congo matter. 'Colonial wahala' no dey trend for Belgium, as long as di colony dey shine and e dey quiet. But one person wey show concern na di young King Baudouin, wey take over from him papa, King Leopold III, for 1951, when dem force Leopold III to waka. Baudouin dey follow wetin dey happen for Belgian Congo well well. Wen King Baudouin come visit Belgian Congo for de first time for 1955, crowd dey cheer am well-well, both whites and blacks dey dance, like as dem show for André Cauvin documentary, Bwana Kitoko.<ref>{{cite book|last=Raspoet|first=Erik|title=Bwana Kitoko en de koning van de Bakuba|publisher=Meulenhoff/Manteau|year=2005|isbn=90-8542-020-2}}</ref> Foreign people wey dey observe, suc as de international correspondent of ''The Manchester Guardian'' or a ''Time'' journalist,<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|title=Congo: Boom in the Jungle|date=16 May 1955|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=28 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028201856/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=May 16, 1955|title=CONGO: Boom in the Jungle|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=28 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828025115/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> talk say Belgian paddy paddy style dey work well, and dey compare how Belgian people dem loyal pass those French and British colonies wey dey restless. During di visit, King Baudouin carry Governor-General idea of 'Belgo-Congolese community' come front; but for real, dis plan dey move slow. At di same time, dem wahala wey dey divide for Belgium, wey dem fit hide from di colony before, start to enter Congo too. Dem talk say workers dey unite more now, dem dey call make public schools fit break mission schools for education, plus dem wan make both Belgian languages, French and Dutch, sabi equal treatment for colony. Before this, na only French dem dey push as colonial language. Governor-General dey fear say dis kind wahala fit spoil di colonial government image for Congolese, plus e go shift focus from di real need for true emancipation. ===== Political organisation ===== [[File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|right|thumb|[[:en:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu|Joseph Kasa-Vubu]], leader of ABAKO plus de first President dem elect democratically of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] [[File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Patrice_Lumumba|Patrice Lumumba]], first democratically elected Prime Minister of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] Di Congolese people join Second World War and dem hear say tings dey change for other colonies, e make dem start to organize make dem fit get power. Di colonial government no fit bring beta changes wey fit work, so di Congolese elites start to gather demself socially and later politically. For di 1950s, two separate types of nationalism show up among di Congolese elites. Di nationalist movement—wey di Belgian authorities no really watch—promote say di Belgian Congo go become one united state after dem get independence. E get wetin wey de oppose this matter, na di ethno-religious and regional nationalism wey catch for di Bakongo area for di west coast, Kasai plus Katanga.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} Di first political groups na dem one. ABAKO wey dem establish for 1950 as di Association culturelle des Bakongo, and wetin Joseph Kasa-Vubu dey run, start as cultural group wey turn political sharp sharp. From di middle of 1950s, dem don dey shout against Belgian colonial rule well well. Plus, di group still dey serve as di main ethno-religious group for di Bakongo and dem blend well with di Kimbanguist Church wey be popular for lower Congo.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} For 1955, Belgian prof Antoine van Bilsen drop one paper wey dem call Thirty Year Plan for the Political Emancipation of Belgian Africa.<ref>Gerard-Libois, Jules (1989), "Vers l'Indépendance: une accélération imprévue", In ''Congo-Zaïre'', Brussels: GRIP, pp. 43–56.</ref> De plan get timetable wey say make dem gradually free Congo for 30 years—na the time wey Van Bilsen believe say e go take to build educated people wey fit take over from the Belgians for power. But the Belgian government and plenty of the évolués no happy with the plan—government no wan lose Congo, and the évolués sabi say Belgium go still dey rule for another three decades. One group of Catholic évolués yan am positive for the plan with one moderate manifesto for one Congolese journal wey dem dey call Conscience Africaine; dem talk some matter about how Congolese fit take part well well.<ref>Kalulambi Pongo, Martin (2009), "Le manifeste 'Conscience africaine: genèse, influences et réactions", In Tousignant, Nathalie (ed.), ''Le manifeste Conscience africaine, 1956'', Brussels: Facultés Universitaires Saint-Louis, pp. 59–81.</ref> For 1957, as experiment matter, colonial government do organize di first local elections for three cities (Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Jadotville), wey Congolese people fit stand for office and vote. Watin happen for 1957–58 make demand for political freedom burst, no be small. Ghana independence for 1957 and President De Gaulle visit wey happen for August 1958 for Brazzaville, capital of di French Congo, across di Congo river from Léopoldville, wey e promise say France African colonies go fit choose between staying with France or full independence, make people for Congo get big dreams. Di World Exhibition wey dem do for Brussels for 1958 (Expo 58) be another eye-opener for plenty Congolese leaders, wey dem allow make dem travel go Belgium for di first time.<ref>Aziza Etambala, Zana (2008), ''De teloorgang van een modelkolonie, Belgisch Congo 1958–1960'', Leuven: Acco, pp. 105–110.</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|date=23 December 1957|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125731/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=December 23, 1957|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=1 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501001542/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> For 1958, people dey crave for independence sharp sharp and the koko don take off. Na Mouvement National Congolais (MNC) wey dey play big role for di matter. Dem start am for 1956, but dem officially set am up as national political party for October 1958, wey dey support make Congo be one strong nation. Di person wey dey lead dem well well na di charming Patrice Lumumba. For 1959, wahala start after Albert Kalonji and some MNC leaders wey wan dey moderate split from di main group (dem call dem Mouvement National Congolais-Kalonji). Even though di party get different waka, Lumumba faction (now Mouvement National Congolais-Lumumba) and di MNC still be di most important and influential party for Belgian Congo. Belgium vehemently de oppose Lumumba ein leftist views plus get grave concerns about de status of demma financial interests if Lumumba ein MNC come power.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} ===== Independence ===== As Belgium dey debate how to give Congolese people their freedom small-small, wahala just burst everywhere. On 4 January 1959, dem do one political demo for Léopoldville wey ABAKO organise, but e no gree control. Na so, the colonial capital begin catch fire with plenty chaos. E take dem days to bring back order, and if we count am well, hundreds don die. De eruption of violence sent a shockwave through de Congo den Belgium alike.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-01-if-blood-must-run.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: If Blood Must Run|date=19 January 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125735/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-01-if-blood-must-run.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=January 19, 1959|title=BELGIAN CONGO: If Blood Must Run|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,868969,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201082719/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,868969,00.html|archive-date=2011-02-01|magazine=Time}}</ref> On 13 January, King Baudouin use radio talk to the people say Belgium go work for Congo to get full independence fast, but no be to go rush am like mumu.<ref>Koning Boudewijn. 35 jaar dialoog met de natie. Een keuze uit de koninklijke toespraken van 1951 tot 1986. Lannoo Tielt, Inbel, 1986, blz. 124.</ref> Dem no fit talk say independence go happen one particular day, but di government wey Prime Minister Gaston Eyskens dey lead, get plan for multi-year transition period. Dem think say provincial elections go happen for December 1959, national elections for 1960 or 1961, den after, dem go start hand over di admin and political duties small small to di Congolese, as dem dey expect say by mid-1960s e go don finish. But for ground, things dey change fast fast.<ref>Young, Crawford (1965), ''Politics in the Congo" Decolonization and Independence'', Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 140–161.</ref> Di colonial admin dey see different type of resistance, like people wey no wan pay tax. For some places, anarchy threatened.<ref>Ryckmans, Geneviève (1995), ''André Ryckmans, un territorial du Congo belge''. Paris. L'Harmattan, pp. 215–224.</ref> At di same time, plenty Belgians wey dey di Congo no wan independence, dem dey feel say Brussels don betray dem. As di Congolese dem dey demand better change, di government don see say di chance to make am smooth smooth no dey happen again fast fast.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-10-return-of-the-mundele.pdf|title=The Belgian Congo : Return of the Mundele|date=12 October 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125737/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-10-return-of-the-mundele.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=October 12, 1959|title=THE BELGIAN CONGO: Return of the Mundele|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,864032,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101203183837/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,864032,00.html|archive-date=2010-12-03|magazine=Time}}</ref> [[File:Ronde_Tafel_Conferentie_te_Brussel_Congo,_Bestanddeelnr_910-9593.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ronde_Tafel_Conferentie_te_Brussel_Congo,_Bestanddeelnr_910-9593.jpg|thumb|220x220px|Opening meeting of de Belgo-Congolese Round Table Conference insyde Brussels on 20 January 1960]] For 1959, King Baudouin come back to Belgian Congo, and e see say everywhere don change from the last time wey e visit four years ago. When e land for Léopoldville, wahala start as black Belgo-Congolese people dey throw stone for am because dem vex say dem don lock Lumumba up, wey dem convict say im dey incite against colonial government. Even though for other cities dem receive am better, dem dey shout “Vive le roi!” but e follow with “Indépendance immédiate!” The Belgian government no wan enter any gbege wey fit turn bloody like wetin happen to France for Indochina and Algeria, or Netherlands for Indonesia. So, dem dey reason say make dem fit agree for Congolese leaders wey dey shout for immediate independence.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-11-now-now-now.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: Now Now Now|date=16 November 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125729/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-11-now-now-now.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=November 16, 1959|title=BELGIAN CONGO: Now Now Now|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811442,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201085122/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811442,00.html|archive-date=2011-02-01|magazine=Time}}</ref> Although dem no prepare well plus no plenty people wey educate dey (only small Congolese get degree for dat time), Belgian leaders still gree make independence happen. E be true say dem weak local elites fit work for Belgian government and business people, dem dey hope say dis go make am easy for dem to still dey control wetin dey happen for politics and economy. Dis style different from colonial wars and de slow decolonization wey other European countries dey do, dem sabi am as 'Le Pari Congolais'—di Congolese bet.<ref>{{cite book|last=De Witte|first=Ludo|title=Crisis in Kongo. De rol van de Verenigde Naties, de regering-Eyskens en het koningshuis in de omverwerping van Lumumba en de opkomst van Mobutu|date=1996|publisher=Uitgeverij Van Halewyck|isbn=9789056170523|location=Leuven|page=31|author-link=Ludo De Witte}}</ref> For January 1960, dem call Congolese leaders come Brussels make dem fit gather for round-table talk about independence. Dem free Patrice Lumumba from prison just for this matter. Na so the conference quick quick agree give Congolese almost all wetin dem ask: make dem do general election for May 1960 and full independence—'Dipenda'—go land on 30 June 1960. Na because of di strong unity wey Congolese delegation carry come. [[File:Patrice_Lumumba_signs_the_document_granting_independence_to_the_Congo_next_to_Belgian_Prime_Minister_Gaston_Eyskens.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patrice_Lumumba_signs_the_document_granting_independence_to_the_Congo_next_to_Belgian_Prime_Minister_Gaston_Eyskens.jpg|right|thumb|Lumumba den Eyskens sign de document granting independence to de Congo]] Political maneuvering ahead of de elections, Elections dey come, so dem form three political groups for ground: one na the federalist nationalists, wey dey include six separatist parties, like ABAKO and MNC—Kalonji; another one na centralist MNC—Lumumba; and last one be Moïse Tshombe, wey be big man for Katanga, wey wan protect the business wey dey for Union Minière (like Kalonji do for de diamond exploitations matter insyde Kasaï). Di parliamentary elections show say di political scene dey divided, with di regionalist group dem—ABAKO wey dey lead—plus di nationalist parties like MNC too do well. Dem force compromise make Kasa-Vubu be di first president of Republic of di Congo, and Lumumba be di first head of government. Just like dem plan am five months before, di handover ceremony wey di Belgians do happen well on time for 30 June 1960 for di new house of di Governor-General for Belgian Congo wey dey Léopoldville. One week later, wahala begin for Force Publique, dem dey rebel against dem officers wey still dey mostly Belgian. Dis one spark plenty gbege all over Congo, na unhappy soldiers and sharp-sharp youths dey cause am. For plenty places, dem dey focus di violence on European people. In small time, Belgian soldiers and later UN intervention force carry plenty Belgians wey dey work and live for Congo come out, over 80,000 of dem.<ref>{{cite book|last=Verlinden|first=Peter|title=Weg uit Congo, Het drama van de kolonialen|publisher=[[Davidsfonds]]|year=2002|location=Leuven}}</ref> == Congo crisis plus wetin follow am == Di rebellion wey start for Thyssville for Bas-Congo for July 1960 quickly spread go everywhere for de Congo.<ref>For an overview of developments in the Congo after 1960 see: O'Ballance, Edgar (2000), ''The Congo-Zaire Experience, 1960–98'', Houndmills: MacMillan Press.</ref> For September 1960, di leaders split, wey President Kasa-Vubu declare say prime minister Lumumba no dey hold him work again, and di same thing happen back. Dem stop di stalemate when government arrest Lumumba. For January 1961, dem fly am go di rich mining province of Katanga, wey dem don declare say dem no wan join Léopoldville again under di leadership of Moïse Tshombe (wey Belgium dey support well well). Dem hand Lumumba over to Katangan authorities, wey kill am. [[File:Congo_Crisis_dead_hostages.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_Crisis_dead_hostages.jpg|thumb|Belgian soldier dey lie for ground for de front of dead hostages, November 1964, for Stanleyville during [[:en:Operation_Dragon_Rouge|Operation Dragon Rouge]]. Belgian parachutists free over 1,800 European and American hostages wey Congolese rebels hold. ]] For 2002, Belgium don officially say sorry for wetin dem do to Lumumba; people don dey talk say CIA sabi join am, because dem see say Lumumba dey too left. During Cold War, Soviet Union dey push e influence for Africa to gree fight European powers, e use 'anti-colonialism' as reason to increase de power insyde de region.<ref>A first-hand account of the CIA's activities in the Congo in 1960–61 in: Devlin, Larry (2008), ''Chief of Station, Congo: Fighting the Cold War in a Hot Zone'', Cambridge: PublicAffairs</ref> Plenty rebellions and separatist wahala really mash up di dream of one united Congolese state wen dem just born. Even though di country don dey independent, Belgian paratroopers still show face for Congo plenty times to protect and carry Belgian and foreign people comot. United Nations dey do big peace-keeping work for Congo since late 1960. Di whole matter no settle until 1964–65. Katanga province come back inside, and dem so-called Simba Rebellion end for Stanleyville (province Orientale). Small time after dat, army colonel Joseph Désiré Mobutu come clear di political ground by taking power through coup ''d'état''. Mobutu get some backing for de West, especially for America, sekof e dey strong against communist people. At first, him rule dey boost economy well (like when dem build Inga dam wey dem plan since 1950s). To show say e no be like di old regime, him start campaign wey dem call Congolese 'authenticity'. For 1966, di government stop to use colonial place names: Léopoldville change go Kinshasa, Elisabethville turn Lubumbashi, plus Stanleyville become Kisangani. This time, Congo dey maintain good economic den political relationship with Belgium. Some money matta still dey hang after independence (dem dey call am 'contentieux'), like how dem suppose transfer shares for de big mining companies wey colonial state hold.<ref>Willame, Jean-Claude (1989), "Vingt-cinq ans de rélations belgo-zaïroises", In ''Congo-Zaïre'', Brussels: GRIP, pp. 145–58.</ref> For 1970, on top de ten years independence celebration, King Baudouin come pay official state visit to de Congo. Mobutu regime dey turn more radical for the 1970s. Dem Mouvement populaire de la Révolution (MPR) wey Mobutu be di founder, don set up one-party rule well well. Political wahala increase plenty. Mobutu come change di name of Congo to republic of Zaïre. Di so-called 'Zaïrisation' wey happen for mid-1970s make plenty foreign workers run come out and e cause economic wahala. For di 1980s, Mobutu regime dey become big example of mismanagement plus corruption.<ref>Wrong, Michela (2001), ''Living on the Brink of Disaster in Mobutu's Congo, In the Footsteps of Mr Kurtz'', New York: HarperCollins, pp. 195–200.</ref> De relationship with Belgium, di former colonial master, dey chop ups and downs, show say e dey decline for economic, financial and political side. Since no be chance say di country go fall into Soviet hand, di Western powers just dey stay neutral.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bud |first=Guy |date=2013 |title=Imperial Transitions: Belgian-Congolese relations in the post-colonial era |journal=SIR |issue=2 |pages=7–8}}</ref> == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] 1vkd8f43a75nvok4nyd2x48hl44xfu2 69172 69170 2025-07-06T00:29:23Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Congo crisis plus wetin follow am */ 69172 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== [[File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Minière_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|right|thumb|Nurses of de [[:en:Union_Minière_du_Haut-Katanga|Union Minière du Haut-Katanga]] plus demma Congolese assistants, [[:en:Lubumbashi|Élisabethville]], 1918]] Health care too dey supported by missions, but colonial state wan show interest small. For 1906, dem start Institute of Tropical Medicine for Brussels. This ITM dey among di top places wey train and do research for tropical medicine and how health care dey work for developing countries. Dem fit clear endemic sickness like sleeping sickness well well with serious campaigns.<ref>A critical assessment of the colonial obsession with sleeping sickness in: Lyons, Maryinez (1992), ''The Colonial Disease, A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> For 1925, medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper be di first person wey carry tryparsamide, di drug from Rockefeller Foundation wey dey cure sleeping sickness, enter Congo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingman |first=Jack |year=1994 |title=Arthur Lewis Piper, M.D.: A Medical Missionary in the Belgian Congo |journal=Journal of Community Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/BF02260364 |pmid=8006209 |s2cid=37502216}}</ref> Di health-care system dey grow well well during colonial time, with plenty hospital beds dey available for di people, plus dem set up dispensaries for far away places. By 1960, di country get beta medical structure wey pass any other African nation for dat time. Belgian Congo get 3,000 health facilities, wey 380 be hospitals. Dem get 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 people (1 for every 187 people). Dem make huge progress for di fight against endemic diseases; dem report sleeping sickness cases drop from 34,000 in 1931 to just 1,100 in 1959, mainly because dem clear tsetse fly for where plenty people dey. All Europeans plus Congolese wey dey for Belgian Congo do dem vaccine for polio, measles and yellow fever. Big big disease prevention programs dem start, wey dem wan make polio, leprosy and tuberculosis no dey again. For primary schools, dem run disease prevention campaigns, and dem include disease prevention class for curriculum too.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319" /> ===== Social inequality den racial discrimination ===== [[File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|thumb|Dem dey pull one woman wey be missionary inside rickshaw by some Congolese guys, around 1920 to 1930.]] Di Belgia Congo get system wey dey separate people based on race an dem dey discriminate too.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Krauzman|first=Marine|date=2025-03-11|title=Belgium's Colonial Past on Trial: What the 2024 Ruling Means for Reparational Justice|url=http://spheresofinfluence.ca/belgiums-colonial-past-on-trial-what-the-2024-ruling-means-for-reparational-justice/|access-date=2025-06-26|website=Spheres of Influence|language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-29|title=Belgian Congo {{!}} History & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgian-Congo|access-date=2025-06-26|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Dem get wetin dem call 'implicit apartheid'. Di colony put curfew for Congolese wey dey live for city, an plenty racial wahala dey happen. Léopoldville get di racist curfew wey e famous for, an dem use am as template for other European colonies like French Equatorial Africa wey dey close by.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Njoh |first1=Ambe J. |date=March 2008 |title=Colonial Philosophies, Urban Space, and Racial Segregation in British and French Colonial Africa |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Black Studies]] |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=579–599 |doi=10.1177/0021934706288447 |s2cid=145775865 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228161615/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref> Even though dem no get proper laws wey dey separate people by race, segregation dey happen plenty for many places. For example, at first, de city centers be only for white people, while black people dey stay for places dem dey call 'cités indigènes' or 'le belge'. Hospitals, shop dem and other places no dey allow both whites and blacks to mix. For Force Publique, black people no fit rise pass non-commissioned officer rank. Plus, black folks for the cities no fit come out from 9 pm to 4 am. Dis kind segregation start dey vanish small-small only for 1950s, but even then, de Congolese dem still dey feel like second-class citizens, especially for politics and law matter. [[File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|right|thumb|King [[:en:Albert_I_of_Belgium|Albert I]] plus Queen [[:en:Elisabeth_of_Bavaria,_Queen_of_the_Belgians|Elisabeth]] inspecting de military camp of Léopoldville for de time of demma visit to de Belgian Congo, 1928]] Sekof dem dey connect ekonomi growth with di 'civilizing mission', plus as state officials, missionaries plus private companies dey always help each other, people don sabi sey Belgian Congo dey ruled by one 'colonial trinity' of King-Church-Capital. Dis one fit mean di colonial state, di Christian missions, plus Société Générale de Belgique too. Di way wey colonial policy take dey work, e get one saying wey Governor-General Pierre Ryckmans (1934–46) use: Dominer pour servir ('Dominate to serve').<ref>Vanderlinden, Jacques (1994), ''Pierre Ryckmans 1891–1959, Coloniser dans l'honneur'', Brussels: De Boeck.</ref> Di colonial government wan make wey see am say dem dey nice plus no wahala for di administration, plus dem wan show Belgian Congo as di perfect colony. But na only for di 1950s e start change. For di 1950s, dem dey gradually draw back dem plenty harsh laws dem use punish di Congolese people (like di chicote wey be whip). From 1953, plus di big visit wey King Baudouin make to di colony for 1955, Governor-General Léon Pétillon (1952–1958) start dey try build one 'Belgian-Congolese community', where black plus white go dey equal.<ref>Pétillon, L. A. M. (1967), ''Témoignage et réflexions'', Brussels: Renaissance du Livre.</ref> But still, di anti-miscegenation laws no clear, and from 1959 to 1962, plenty mixed-race Congolese pikin dem dey carry come out from Congo by Belgian government plus Catholic Church go Belgium.<ref>{{cite web|last=Paravicini|first=Giulia|date=4 April 2019|title=Belgium apologizes for colonial-era abduction of mixed-race children|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711005737/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|archive-date=11 July 2019|access-date=10 July 2019|publisher=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> For 1957, dem do first municipal elections wey black voters fit vote for some big cities — Léopoldville, Élisabethville, plus Jadotville. ===== Abolition of slavery ===== For Congo Free State, plenty men, women, and pikin dem free from Swahili Arab slave owners and traders for Eastern Congo between 1886 and 1892. Dem fit join militai (Force Publique) or dem go give am to local chiefs wey be friends, and dem go use dem as workers. Even though dem ban chattel slavery for 1910 when Belgian Congo start, dem still dey use prisoners as forced laborers for public den private projects.<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 40</ref> == Resistance == Di Congolese dem no gree colonization; dem dey fight am steady, e come take many shapes. As modern ideas and education dey enter ground, e dey spark plenty action.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> Armed wahala show for small-small parts till Second World War finish (like Pende wahala for 1931, and di gbagbe for Luluabourg 1944). After di war till late 1950s, wetin dem dey call 'Pax belgica' go dey. But e no mean say dem no dey resist; passive resistance dey plenty too, like Kimbanguism wey be from di ‘prophet’ Simon Kimbangu wey di Belgians lock up. Aside active and passive wahala wey Congolese dey raise, di colonial government still dey hear plenty internal noise and gbege. Even for di 1920s, some people for Colonial Council wey dey for Brussels (like Octave Louwers) don talk plenty about di harsh way big companies dey recruit people for di mining places. Di slow growth for population for many areas—abi even wey dem dey chop plenty success for fight against sick sick like sleeping sickness—na another wahala wey dey worry dem. Low birth rate for countryside and some places dey empty usually link to di way traditional life don scatter because of forced work migration and compulsory farming. Dem dey talk say na wetin dem plan be dat, and dem dey point out how population dey increase for cities and how health plus lifespan don better thanks to modern medicine and better living condition.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hunt|first1=Nancy Rose|date=2002|title=Rewriting the Soul in Colonial Congo: Flemish Missionaries and Infertility|url=https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040613132330/https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|archive-date=2004-06-13|website=Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|publisher=Antwerp University Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|language=en}}</ref> Plenty missionaries wey dey connect with Congolese villagers dey carry dem wahala for heart plus sometimes dem dey fit intervene for dem matter with di colonial administration (like land property questions). Di missions plus some area administrators dem fit play big role for study and protect Congolese culture and language tradition plus di artifacts wey dey there. One good example na Father Gustaaf Hulstaert (1900–1990), wey insyde 1937 start di periodical Aequatoria wey dem dey use for di linguistic, ethnographic plus historical study of di Mongo people for di central Congo basin.<ref>See: aequatoria.be</ref> Di colonial state dey interested for di cultural and scientific study of Congo, especially after di Second World War, through di setup of di Institut pour la Recherche Scientifique en Afrique Centrale (IRSAC, 1948). == Toward independence == For early 1950s, di political freedom of di Congolese elites, no talk of di masses, e be like far dream. But e clear say Congo no fit dey far from di quick changes wey happen after di Second World War, wey scatter colonialism worldwide. Di independence wey di British, French, plus Dutch colonies for Asia get after 1945 no really change anything for Congo, but di pressure for Belgium from di United Nations don increase (just like all di other colonial powers). Belgium don agree to article 73 of di United Nations Charter wey talk about self-determination, plus di two superpowers dey pressure Belgium make dem change how dem dey run Congo; di Belgian government dey try hold body against wetin dem call 'interference' with dia colonial policy. Colonial government dey talk how dem go make life beta for Congolese pipo. Since 1940s, dem don dey try small-small give some elite wey dem call évolués small civil rights, dem fit get small political power later. So, 'deserving' Congolese fit apply for proof of 'civil merit', or if dem fit do better, 'immatriculation' (registration), wey go show say dem don join European way of life. To get this status, applicant gats meet strict rules (like marry one wife, show good behavior, etc.) and dem go dey watch dem well well (wey de include house visits). Dis policy no work at all. For around mid-1950s, no be plenty Congolese wey don fit get di civil merit diploma or dem don get di 'immatriculation'. Di benefits wey dem dey talk say come with am—like equal legal status with di white folks—na mostly just talk, no be real. E dey make di évolués frustrated well well. When Governor-General Pétillon start dey talk say he go fit give di native people more civil rights, even voting, to create wetin he dey call 'Belgo-Congolese community', di people for Brussels no really send am, and some Belgians for Congo dey vex as dem dey fear for demma privilege.<ref>[[Isidore Ndaywel è Nziem|Ndaywel è Nziem]], Isidore (1998), ''Histoire générale du Congo'', Paris-Brussels: De Boeck & Larcier, pp. 456–63.</ref> E clear say Belgian government no get proper long-term plan for Congo matter. 'Colonial wahala' no dey trend for Belgium, as long as di colony dey shine and e dey quiet. But one person wey show concern na di young King Baudouin, wey take over from him papa, King Leopold III, for 1951, when dem force Leopold III to waka. Baudouin dey follow wetin dey happen for Belgian Congo well well. Wen King Baudouin come visit Belgian Congo for de first time for 1955, crowd dey cheer am well-well, both whites and blacks dey dance, like as dem show for André Cauvin documentary, Bwana Kitoko.<ref>{{cite book|last=Raspoet|first=Erik|title=Bwana Kitoko en de koning van de Bakuba|publisher=Meulenhoff/Manteau|year=2005|isbn=90-8542-020-2}}</ref> Foreign people wey dey observe, suc as de international correspondent of ''The Manchester Guardian'' or a ''Time'' journalist,<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|title=Congo: Boom in the Jungle|date=16 May 1955|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=28 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028201856/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=May 16, 1955|title=CONGO: Boom in the Jungle|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=28 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828025115/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> talk say Belgian paddy paddy style dey work well, and dey compare how Belgian people dem loyal pass those French and British colonies wey dey restless. During di visit, King Baudouin carry Governor-General idea of 'Belgo-Congolese community' come front; but for real, dis plan dey move slow. At di same time, dem wahala wey dey divide for Belgium, wey dem fit hide from di colony before, start to enter Congo too. Dem talk say workers dey unite more now, dem dey call make public schools fit break mission schools for education, plus dem wan make both Belgian languages, French and Dutch, sabi equal treatment for colony. Before this, na only French dem dey push as colonial language. Governor-General dey fear say dis kind wahala fit spoil di colonial government image for Congolese, plus e go shift focus from di real need for true emancipation. ===== Political organisation ===== [[File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|right|thumb|[[:en:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu|Joseph Kasa-Vubu]], leader of ABAKO plus de first President dem elect democratically of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] [[File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Patrice_Lumumba|Patrice Lumumba]], first democratically elected Prime Minister of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] Di Congolese people join Second World War and dem hear say tings dey change for other colonies, e make dem start to organize make dem fit get power. Di colonial government no fit bring beta changes wey fit work, so di Congolese elites start to gather demself socially and later politically. For di 1950s, two separate types of nationalism show up among di Congolese elites. Di nationalist movement—wey di Belgian authorities no really watch—promote say di Belgian Congo go become one united state after dem get independence. E get wetin wey de oppose this matter, na di ethno-religious and regional nationalism wey catch for di Bakongo area for di west coast, Kasai plus Katanga.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} Di first political groups na dem one. ABAKO wey dem establish for 1950 as di Association culturelle des Bakongo, and wetin Joseph Kasa-Vubu dey run, start as cultural group wey turn political sharp sharp. From di middle of 1950s, dem don dey shout against Belgian colonial rule well well. Plus, di group still dey serve as di main ethno-religious group for di Bakongo and dem blend well with di Kimbanguist Church wey be popular for lower Congo.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} For 1955, Belgian prof Antoine van Bilsen drop one paper wey dem call Thirty Year Plan for the Political Emancipation of Belgian Africa.<ref>Gerard-Libois, Jules (1989), "Vers l'Indépendance: une accélération imprévue", In ''Congo-Zaïre'', Brussels: GRIP, pp. 43–56.</ref> De plan get timetable wey say make dem gradually free Congo for 30 years—na the time wey Van Bilsen believe say e go take to build educated people wey fit take over from the Belgians for power. But the Belgian government and plenty of the évolués no happy with the plan—government no wan lose Congo, and the évolués sabi say Belgium go still dey rule for another three decades. One group of Catholic évolués yan am positive for the plan with one moderate manifesto for one Congolese journal wey dem dey call Conscience Africaine; dem talk some matter about how Congolese fit take part well well.<ref>Kalulambi Pongo, Martin (2009), "Le manifeste 'Conscience africaine: genèse, influences et réactions", In Tousignant, Nathalie (ed.), ''Le manifeste Conscience africaine, 1956'', Brussels: Facultés Universitaires Saint-Louis, pp. 59–81.</ref> For 1957, as experiment matter, colonial government do organize di first local elections for three cities (Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Jadotville), wey Congolese people fit stand for office and vote. Watin happen for 1957–58 make demand for political freedom burst, no be small. Ghana independence for 1957 and President De Gaulle visit wey happen for August 1958 for Brazzaville, capital of di French Congo, across di Congo river from Léopoldville, wey e promise say France African colonies go fit choose between staying with France or full independence, make people for Congo get big dreams. Di World Exhibition wey dem do for Brussels for 1958 (Expo 58) be another eye-opener for plenty Congolese leaders, wey dem allow make dem travel go Belgium for di first time.<ref>Aziza Etambala, Zana (2008), ''De teloorgang van een modelkolonie, Belgisch Congo 1958–1960'', Leuven: Acco, pp. 105–110.</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|date=23 December 1957|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125731/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=December 23, 1957|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=1 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501001542/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> For 1958, people dey crave for independence sharp sharp and the koko don take off. Na Mouvement National Congolais (MNC) wey dey play big role for di matter. Dem start am for 1956, but dem officially set am up as national political party for October 1958, wey dey support make Congo be one strong nation. Di person wey dey lead dem well well na di charming Patrice Lumumba. For 1959, wahala start after Albert Kalonji and some MNC leaders wey wan dey moderate split from di main group (dem call dem Mouvement National Congolais-Kalonji). Even though di party get different waka, Lumumba faction (now Mouvement National Congolais-Lumumba) and di MNC still be di most important and influential party for Belgian Congo. Belgium vehemently de oppose Lumumba ein leftist views plus get grave concerns about de status of demma financial interests if Lumumba ein MNC come power.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} ===== Independence ===== As Belgium dey debate how to give Congolese people their freedom small-small, wahala just burst everywhere. On 4 January 1959, dem do one political demo for Léopoldville wey ABAKO organise, but e no gree control. Na so, the colonial capital begin catch fire with plenty chaos. E take dem days to bring back order, and if we count am well, hundreds don die. De eruption of violence sent a shockwave through de Congo den Belgium alike.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-01-if-blood-must-run.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: If Blood Must Run|date=19 January 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125735/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-01-if-blood-must-run.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=January 19, 1959|title=BELGIAN CONGO: If Blood Must Run|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,868969,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201082719/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,868969,00.html|archive-date=2011-02-01|magazine=Time}}</ref> On 13 January, King Baudouin use radio talk to the people say Belgium go work for Congo to get full independence fast, but no be to go rush am like mumu.<ref>Koning Boudewijn. 35 jaar dialoog met de natie. Een keuze uit de koninklijke toespraken van 1951 tot 1986. Lannoo Tielt, Inbel, 1986, blz. 124.</ref> Dem no fit talk say independence go happen one particular day, but di government wey Prime Minister Gaston Eyskens dey lead, get plan for multi-year transition period. Dem think say provincial elections go happen for December 1959, national elections for 1960 or 1961, den after, dem go start hand over di admin and political duties small small to di Congolese, as dem dey expect say by mid-1960s e go don finish. But for ground, things dey change fast fast.<ref>Young, Crawford (1965), ''Politics in the Congo" Decolonization and Independence'', Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 140–161.</ref> Di colonial admin dey see different type of resistance, like people wey no wan pay tax. For some places, anarchy threatened.<ref>Ryckmans, Geneviève (1995), ''André Ryckmans, un territorial du Congo belge''. Paris. L'Harmattan, pp. 215–224.</ref> At di same time, plenty Belgians wey dey di Congo no wan independence, dem dey feel say Brussels don betray dem. As di Congolese dem dey demand better change, di government don see say di chance to make am smooth smooth no dey happen again fast fast.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-10-return-of-the-mundele.pdf|title=The Belgian Congo : Return of the Mundele|date=12 October 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125737/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-10-return-of-the-mundele.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=October 12, 1959|title=THE BELGIAN CONGO: Return of the Mundele|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,864032,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101203183837/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,864032,00.html|archive-date=2010-12-03|magazine=Time}}</ref> [[File:Ronde_Tafel_Conferentie_te_Brussel_Congo,_Bestanddeelnr_910-9593.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ronde_Tafel_Conferentie_te_Brussel_Congo,_Bestanddeelnr_910-9593.jpg|thumb|220x220px|Opening meeting of de Belgo-Congolese Round Table Conference insyde Brussels on 20 January 1960]] For 1959, King Baudouin come back to Belgian Congo, and e see say everywhere don change from the last time wey e visit four years ago. When e land for Léopoldville, wahala start as black Belgo-Congolese people dey throw stone for am because dem vex say dem don lock Lumumba up, wey dem convict say im dey incite against colonial government. Even though for other cities dem receive am better, dem dey shout “Vive le roi!” but e follow with “Indépendance immédiate!” The Belgian government no wan enter any gbege wey fit turn bloody like wetin happen to France for Indochina and Algeria, or Netherlands for Indonesia. So, dem dey reason say make dem fit agree for Congolese leaders wey dey shout for immediate independence.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-11-now-now-now.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: Now Now Now|date=16 November 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125729/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-11-now-now-now.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=November 16, 1959|title=BELGIAN CONGO: Now Now Now|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811442,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201085122/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811442,00.html|archive-date=2011-02-01|magazine=Time}}</ref> Although dem no prepare well plus no plenty people wey educate dey (only small Congolese get degree for dat time), Belgian leaders still gree make independence happen. E be true say dem weak local elites fit work for Belgian government and business people, dem dey hope say dis go make am easy for dem to still dey control wetin dey happen for politics and economy. Dis style different from colonial wars and de slow decolonization wey other European countries dey do, dem sabi am as 'Le Pari Congolais'—di Congolese bet.<ref>{{cite book|last=De Witte|first=Ludo|title=Crisis in Kongo. De rol van de Verenigde Naties, de regering-Eyskens en het koningshuis in de omverwerping van Lumumba en de opkomst van Mobutu|date=1996|publisher=Uitgeverij Van Halewyck|isbn=9789056170523|location=Leuven|page=31|author-link=Ludo De Witte}}</ref> For January 1960, dem call Congolese leaders come Brussels make dem fit gather for round-table talk about independence. Dem free Patrice Lumumba from prison just for this matter. Na so the conference quick quick agree give Congolese almost all wetin dem ask: make dem do general election for May 1960 and full independence—'Dipenda'—go land on 30 June 1960. Na because of di strong unity wey Congolese delegation carry come. [[File:Patrice_Lumumba_signs_the_document_granting_independence_to_the_Congo_next_to_Belgian_Prime_Minister_Gaston_Eyskens.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patrice_Lumumba_signs_the_document_granting_independence_to_the_Congo_next_to_Belgian_Prime_Minister_Gaston_Eyskens.jpg|right|thumb|Lumumba den Eyskens sign de document granting independence to de Congo]] Political maneuvering ahead of de elections, Elections dey come, so dem form three political groups for ground: one na the federalist nationalists, wey dey include six separatist parties, like ABAKO and MNC—Kalonji; another one na centralist MNC—Lumumba; and last one be Moïse Tshombe, wey be big man for Katanga, wey wan protect the business wey dey for Union Minière (like Kalonji do for de diamond exploitations matter insyde Kasaï). Di parliamentary elections show say di political scene dey divided, with di regionalist group dem—ABAKO wey dey lead—plus di nationalist parties like MNC too do well. Dem force compromise make Kasa-Vubu be di first president of Republic of di Congo, and Lumumba be di first head of government. Just like dem plan am five months before, di handover ceremony wey di Belgians do happen well on time for 30 June 1960 for di new house of di Governor-General for Belgian Congo wey dey Léopoldville. One week later, wahala begin for Force Publique, dem dey rebel against dem officers wey still dey mostly Belgian. Dis one spark plenty gbege all over Congo, na unhappy soldiers and sharp-sharp youths dey cause am. For plenty places, dem dey focus di violence on European people. In small time, Belgian soldiers and later UN intervention force carry plenty Belgians wey dey work and live for Congo come out, over 80,000 of dem.<ref>{{cite book|last=Verlinden|first=Peter|title=Weg uit Congo, Het drama van de kolonialen|publisher=[[Davidsfonds]]|year=2002|location=Leuven}}</ref> == Congo crisis plus wetin follow am == Di rebellion wey start for Thyssville for Bas-Congo for July 1960 quickly spread go everywhere for de Congo.<ref>For an overview of developments in the Congo after 1960 see: O'Ballance, Edgar (2000), ''The Congo-Zaire Experience, 1960–98'', Houndmills: MacMillan Press.</ref> For September 1960, di leaders split, wey President Kasa-Vubu declare say prime minister Lumumba no dey hold him work again, and di same thing happen back. Dem stop di stalemate when government arrest Lumumba. For January 1961, dem fly am go di rich mining province of Katanga, wey dem don declare say dem no wan join Léopoldville again under di leadership of Moïse Tshombe (wey Belgium dey support well well). Dem hand Lumumba over to Katangan authorities, wey kill am. [[File:Congo_Crisis_dead_hostages.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_Crisis_dead_hostages.jpg|thumb|Belgian soldier dey lie for ground for de front of dead hostages, November 1964, for Stanleyville during [[:en:Operation_Dragon_Rouge|Operation Dragon Rouge]]. Belgian parachutists free over 1,800 European and American hostages wey Congolese rebels hold. ]] For 2002, Belgium don officially say sorry for wetin dem do to Lumumba; people don dey talk say CIA sabi join am, because dem see say Lumumba dey too left. During Cold War, Soviet Union dey push e influence for Africa to gree fight European powers, e use 'anti-colonialism' as reason to increase de power insyde de region.<ref>A first-hand account of the CIA's activities in the Congo in 1960–61 in: Devlin, Larry (2008), ''Chief of Station, Congo: Fighting the Cold War in a Hot Zone'', Cambridge: PublicAffairs</ref> Plenty rebellions and separatist wahala really mash up di dream of one united Congolese state wen dem just born. Even though di country don dey independent, Belgian paratroopers still show face for Congo plenty times to protect and carry Belgian and foreign people comot. United Nations dey do big peace-keeping work for Congo since late 1960. Di whole matter no settle until 1964–65. Katanga province come back inside, and dem so-called Simba Rebellion end for Stanleyville (province Orientale). Small time after dat, army colonel Joseph Désiré Mobutu come clear di political ground by taking power through coup ''d'état''. Mobutu get some backing for de West, especially for America, sekof e dey strong against communist people. At first, him rule dey boost economy well (like when dem build Inga dam wey dem plan since 1950s). To show say e no be like di old regime, him start campaign wey dem call Congolese 'authenticity'. For 1966, di government stop to use colonial place names: Léopoldville change go Kinshasa, Elisabethville turn Lubumbashi, plus Stanleyville become Kisangani. This time, Congo dey maintain good economic den political relationship with Belgium. Some money matta still dey hang after independence (dem dey call am 'contentieux'), like how dem suppose transfer shares for de big mining companies wey colonial state hold.<ref>Willame, Jean-Claude (1989), "Vingt-cinq ans de rélations belgo-zaïroises", In ''Congo-Zaïre'', Brussels: GRIP, pp. 145–58.</ref> For 1970, on top de ten years independence celebration, King Baudouin come pay official state visit to de Congo. Mobutu regime dey turn more radical for the 1970s. Dem Mouvement populaire de la Révolution (MPR) wey Mobutu be di founder, don set up one-party rule well well. Political wahala increase plenty. Mobutu come change di name of Congo to republic of Zaïre. Di so-called 'Zaïrisation' wey happen for mid-1970s make plenty foreign workers run come out and e cause economic wahala. For di 1980s, Mobutu regime dey become big example of mismanagement plus corruption.<ref>Wrong, Michela (2001), ''Living on the Brink of Disaster in Mobutu's Congo, In the Footsteps of Mr Kurtz'', New York: HarperCollins, pp. 195–200.</ref> De relationship with Belgium, di former colonial master, dey chop ups and downs, show say e dey decline for economic, financial and political side. Since no be chance say di country go fall into Soviet hand, di Western powers just dey stay neutral.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bud |first=Guy |date=2013 |title=Imperial Transitions: Belgian-Congolese relations in the post-colonial era |journal=SIR |issue=2 |pages=7–8}}</ref> [[File:Statue_de_Léopold_II_à_Kinshasa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Statue_de_L%C3%A9opold_II_%C3%A0_Kinshasa.jpg|thumb|Equestrian statue of [[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]] insyde Kinshasa]] After Soviet Union fall and Cold War end for late 1980s, Mobutu no get support from West again. For 1990, e decide say make e end the one-party matter and come back to democracy sharp-sharp. But he dey drag feet, dey play his enemies against each other make e fit buy time. That bloody wahala from Zaïrian Army dem give students for Lubumbashi University Campus May 1990 come make Belgium and Zaïre relationship spoil. Not so nice, Mobutu no receive invite for King Baudouin funeral for 1993, wey him see am as big personal insult. == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] r4kz1c6m71wpn05sfl0zjfcoakvxx9u 69174 69172 2025-07-06T00:30:46Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Congo crisis plus wetin follow am */ 69174 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== [[File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Minière_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|right|thumb|Nurses of de [[:en:Union_Minière_du_Haut-Katanga|Union Minière du Haut-Katanga]] plus demma Congolese assistants, [[:en:Lubumbashi|Élisabethville]], 1918]] Health care too dey supported by missions, but colonial state wan show interest small. For 1906, dem start Institute of Tropical Medicine for Brussels. This ITM dey among di top places wey train and do research for tropical medicine and how health care dey work for developing countries. Dem fit clear endemic sickness like sleeping sickness well well with serious campaigns.<ref>A critical assessment of the colonial obsession with sleeping sickness in: Lyons, Maryinez (1992), ''The Colonial Disease, A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> For 1925, medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper be di first person wey carry tryparsamide, di drug from Rockefeller Foundation wey dey cure sleeping sickness, enter Congo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingman |first=Jack |year=1994 |title=Arthur Lewis Piper, M.D.: A Medical Missionary in the Belgian Congo |journal=Journal of Community Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/BF02260364 |pmid=8006209 |s2cid=37502216}}</ref> Di health-care system dey grow well well during colonial time, with plenty hospital beds dey available for di people, plus dem set up dispensaries for far away places. By 1960, di country get beta medical structure wey pass any other African nation for dat time. Belgian Congo get 3,000 health facilities, wey 380 be hospitals. Dem get 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 people (1 for every 187 people). Dem make huge progress for di fight against endemic diseases; dem report sleeping sickness cases drop from 34,000 in 1931 to just 1,100 in 1959, mainly because dem clear tsetse fly for where plenty people dey. All Europeans plus Congolese wey dey for Belgian Congo do dem vaccine for polio, measles and yellow fever. Big big disease prevention programs dem start, wey dem wan make polio, leprosy and tuberculosis no dey again. For primary schools, dem run disease prevention campaigns, and dem include disease prevention class for curriculum too.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319" /> ===== Social inequality den racial discrimination ===== [[File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|thumb|Dem dey pull one woman wey be missionary inside rickshaw by some Congolese guys, around 1920 to 1930.]] Di Belgia Congo get system wey dey separate people based on race an dem dey discriminate too.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Krauzman|first=Marine|date=2025-03-11|title=Belgium's Colonial Past on Trial: What the 2024 Ruling Means for Reparational Justice|url=http://spheresofinfluence.ca/belgiums-colonial-past-on-trial-what-the-2024-ruling-means-for-reparational-justice/|access-date=2025-06-26|website=Spheres of Influence|language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-29|title=Belgian Congo {{!}} History & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgian-Congo|access-date=2025-06-26|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Dem get wetin dem call 'implicit apartheid'. Di colony put curfew for Congolese wey dey live for city, an plenty racial wahala dey happen. Léopoldville get di racist curfew wey e famous for, an dem use am as template for other European colonies like French Equatorial Africa wey dey close by.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Njoh |first1=Ambe J. |date=March 2008 |title=Colonial Philosophies, Urban Space, and Racial Segregation in British and French Colonial Africa |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Black Studies]] |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=579–599 |doi=10.1177/0021934706288447 |s2cid=145775865 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228161615/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref> Even though dem no get proper laws wey dey separate people by race, segregation dey happen plenty for many places. For example, at first, de city centers be only for white people, while black people dey stay for places dem dey call 'cités indigènes' or 'le belge'. Hospitals, shop dem and other places no dey allow both whites and blacks to mix. For Force Publique, black people no fit rise pass non-commissioned officer rank. Plus, black folks for the cities no fit come out from 9 pm to 4 am. Dis kind segregation start dey vanish small-small only for 1950s, but even then, de Congolese dem still dey feel like second-class citizens, especially for politics and law matter. [[File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|right|thumb|King [[:en:Albert_I_of_Belgium|Albert I]] plus Queen [[:en:Elisabeth_of_Bavaria,_Queen_of_the_Belgians|Elisabeth]] inspecting de military camp of Léopoldville for de time of demma visit to de Belgian Congo, 1928]] Sekof dem dey connect ekonomi growth with di 'civilizing mission', plus as state officials, missionaries plus private companies dey always help each other, people don sabi sey Belgian Congo dey ruled by one 'colonial trinity' of King-Church-Capital. Dis one fit mean di colonial state, di Christian missions, plus Société Générale de Belgique too. Di way wey colonial policy take dey work, e get one saying wey Governor-General Pierre Ryckmans (1934–46) use: Dominer pour servir ('Dominate to serve').<ref>Vanderlinden, Jacques (1994), ''Pierre Ryckmans 1891–1959, Coloniser dans l'honneur'', Brussels: De Boeck.</ref> Di colonial government wan make wey see am say dem dey nice plus no wahala for di administration, plus dem wan show Belgian Congo as di perfect colony. But na only for di 1950s e start change. For di 1950s, dem dey gradually draw back dem plenty harsh laws dem use punish di Congolese people (like di chicote wey be whip). From 1953, plus di big visit wey King Baudouin make to di colony for 1955, Governor-General Léon Pétillon (1952–1958) start dey try build one 'Belgian-Congolese community', where black plus white go dey equal.<ref>Pétillon, L. A. M. (1967), ''Témoignage et réflexions'', Brussels: Renaissance du Livre.</ref> But still, di anti-miscegenation laws no clear, and from 1959 to 1962, plenty mixed-race Congolese pikin dem dey carry come out from Congo by Belgian government plus Catholic Church go Belgium.<ref>{{cite web|last=Paravicini|first=Giulia|date=4 April 2019|title=Belgium apologizes for colonial-era abduction of mixed-race children|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711005737/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|archive-date=11 July 2019|access-date=10 July 2019|publisher=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> For 1957, dem do first municipal elections wey black voters fit vote for some big cities — Léopoldville, Élisabethville, plus Jadotville. ===== Abolition of slavery ===== For Congo Free State, plenty men, women, and pikin dem free from Swahili Arab slave owners and traders for Eastern Congo between 1886 and 1892. Dem fit join militai (Force Publique) or dem go give am to local chiefs wey be friends, and dem go use dem as workers. Even though dem ban chattel slavery for 1910 when Belgian Congo start, dem still dey use prisoners as forced laborers for public den private projects.<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 40</ref> == Resistance == Di Congolese dem no gree colonization; dem dey fight am steady, e come take many shapes. As modern ideas and education dey enter ground, e dey spark plenty action.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> Armed wahala show for small-small parts till Second World War finish (like Pende wahala for 1931, and di gbagbe for Luluabourg 1944). After di war till late 1950s, wetin dem dey call 'Pax belgica' go dey. But e no mean say dem no dey resist; passive resistance dey plenty too, like Kimbanguism wey be from di ‘prophet’ Simon Kimbangu wey di Belgians lock up. Aside active and passive wahala wey Congolese dey raise, di colonial government still dey hear plenty internal noise and gbege. Even for di 1920s, some people for Colonial Council wey dey for Brussels (like Octave Louwers) don talk plenty about di harsh way big companies dey recruit people for di mining places. Di slow growth for population for many areas—abi even wey dem dey chop plenty success for fight against sick sick like sleeping sickness—na another wahala wey dey worry dem. Low birth rate for countryside and some places dey empty usually link to di way traditional life don scatter because of forced work migration and compulsory farming. Dem dey talk say na wetin dem plan be dat, and dem dey point out how population dey increase for cities and how health plus lifespan don better thanks to modern medicine and better living condition.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hunt|first1=Nancy Rose|date=2002|title=Rewriting the Soul in Colonial Congo: Flemish Missionaries and Infertility|url=https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040613132330/https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|archive-date=2004-06-13|website=Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|publisher=Antwerp University Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|language=en}}</ref> Plenty missionaries wey dey connect with Congolese villagers dey carry dem wahala for heart plus sometimes dem dey fit intervene for dem matter with di colonial administration (like land property questions). Di missions plus some area administrators dem fit play big role for study and protect Congolese culture and language tradition plus di artifacts wey dey there. One good example na Father Gustaaf Hulstaert (1900–1990), wey insyde 1937 start di periodical Aequatoria wey dem dey use for di linguistic, ethnographic plus historical study of di Mongo people for di central Congo basin.<ref>See: aequatoria.be</ref> Di colonial state dey interested for di cultural and scientific study of Congo, especially after di Second World War, through di setup of di Institut pour la Recherche Scientifique en Afrique Centrale (IRSAC, 1948). == Toward independence == For early 1950s, di political freedom of di Congolese elites, no talk of di masses, e be like far dream. But e clear say Congo no fit dey far from di quick changes wey happen after di Second World War, wey scatter colonialism worldwide. Di independence wey di British, French, plus Dutch colonies for Asia get after 1945 no really change anything for Congo, but di pressure for Belgium from di United Nations don increase (just like all di other colonial powers). Belgium don agree to article 73 of di United Nations Charter wey talk about self-determination, plus di two superpowers dey pressure Belgium make dem change how dem dey run Congo; di Belgian government dey try hold body against wetin dem call 'interference' with dia colonial policy. Colonial government dey talk how dem go make life beta for Congolese pipo. Since 1940s, dem don dey try small-small give some elite wey dem call évolués small civil rights, dem fit get small political power later. So, 'deserving' Congolese fit apply for proof of 'civil merit', or if dem fit do better, 'immatriculation' (registration), wey go show say dem don join European way of life. To get this status, applicant gats meet strict rules (like marry one wife, show good behavior, etc.) and dem go dey watch dem well well (wey de include house visits). Dis policy no work at all. For around mid-1950s, no be plenty Congolese wey don fit get di civil merit diploma or dem don get di 'immatriculation'. Di benefits wey dem dey talk say come with am—like equal legal status with di white folks—na mostly just talk, no be real. E dey make di évolués frustrated well well. When Governor-General Pétillon start dey talk say he go fit give di native people more civil rights, even voting, to create wetin he dey call 'Belgo-Congolese community', di people for Brussels no really send am, and some Belgians for Congo dey vex as dem dey fear for demma privilege.<ref>[[Isidore Ndaywel è Nziem|Ndaywel è Nziem]], Isidore (1998), ''Histoire générale du Congo'', Paris-Brussels: De Boeck & Larcier, pp. 456–63.</ref> E clear say Belgian government no get proper long-term plan for Congo matter. 'Colonial wahala' no dey trend for Belgium, as long as di colony dey shine and e dey quiet. But one person wey show concern na di young King Baudouin, wey take over from him papa, King Leopold III, for 1951, when dem force Leopold III to waka. Baudouin dey follow wetin dey happen for Belgian Congo well well. Wen King Baudouin come visit Belgian Congo for de first time for 1955, crowd dey cheer am well-well, both whites and blacks dey dance, like as dem show for André Cauvin documentary, Bwana Kitoko.<ref>{{cite book|last=Raspoet|first=Erik|title=Bwana Kitoko en de koning van de Bakuba|publisher=Meulenhoff/Manteau|year=2005|isbn=90-8542-020-2}}</ref> Foreign people wey dey observe, suc as de international correspondent of ''The Manchester Guardian'' or a ''Time'' journalist,<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|title=Congo: Boom in the Jungle|date=16 May 1955|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=28 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028201856/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=May 16, 1955|title=CONGO: Boom in the Jungle|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=28 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828025115/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> talk say Belgian paddy paddy style dey work well, and dey compare how Belgian people dem loyal pass those French and British colonies wey dey restless. During di visit, King Baudouin carry Governor-General idea of 'Belgo-Congolese community' come front; but for real, dis plan dey move slow. At di same time, dem wahala wey dey divide for Belgium, wey dem fit hide from di colony before, start to enter Congo too. Dem talk say workers dey unite more now, dem dey call make public schools fit break mission schools for education, plus dem wan make both Belgian languages, French and Dutch, sabi equal treatment for colony. Before this, na only French dem dey push as colonial language. Governor-General dey fear say dis kind wahala fit spoil di colonial government image for Congolese, plus e go shift focus from di real need for true emancipation. ===== Political organisation ===== [[File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|right|thumb|[[:en:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu|Joseph Kasa-Vubu]], leader of ABAKO plus de first President dem elect democratically of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] [[File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Patrice_Lumumba|Patrice Lumumba]], first democratically elected Prime Minister of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] Di Congolese people join Second World War and dem hear say tings dey change for other colonies, e make dem start to organize make dem fit get power. Di colonial government no fit bring beta changes wey fit work, so di Congolese elites start to gather demself socially and later politically. For di 1950s, two separate types of nationalism show up among di Congolese elites. Di nationalist movement—wey di Belgian authorities no really watch—promote say di Belgian Congo go become one united state after dem get independence. E get wetin wey de oppose this matter, na di ethno-religious and regional nationalism wey catch for di Bakongo area for di west coast, Kasai plus Katanga.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} Di first political groups na dem one. ABAKO wey dem establish for 1950 as di Association culturelle des Bakongo, and wetin Joseph Kasa-Vubu dey run, start as cultural group wey turn political sharp sharp. From di middle of 1950s, dem don dey shout against Belgian colonial rule well well. Plus, di group still dey serve as di main ethno-religious group for di Bakongo and dem blend well with di Kimbanguist Church wey be popular for lower Congo.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} For 1955, Belgian prof Antoine van Bilsen drop one paper wey dem call Thirty Year Plan for the Political Emancipation of Belgian Africa.<ref>Gerard-Libois, Jules (1989), "Vers l'Indépendance: une accélération imprévue", In ''Congo-Zaïre'', Brussels: GRIP, pp. 43–56.</ref> De plan get timetable wey say make dem gradually free Congo for 30 years—na the time wey Van Bilsen believe say e go take to build educated people wey fit take over from the Belgians for power. But the Belgian government and plenty of the évolués no happy with the plan—government no wan lose Congo, and the évolués sabi say Belgium go still dey rule for another three decades. One group of Catholic évolués yan am positive for the plan with one moderate manifesto for one Congolese journal wey dem dey call Conscience Africaine; dem talk some matter about how Congolese fit take part well well.<ref>Kalulambi Pongo, Martin (2009), "Le manifeste 'Conscience africaine: genèse, influences et réactions", In Tousignant, Nathalie (ed.), ''Le manifeste Conscience africaine, 1956'', Brussels: Facultés Universitaires Saint-Louis, pp. 59–81.</ref> For 1957, as experiment matter, colonial government do organize di first local elections for three cities (Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Jadotville), wey Congolese people fit stand for office and vote. Watin happen for 1957–58 make demand for political freedom burst, no be small. Ghana independence for 1957 and President De Gaulle visit wey happen for August 1958 for Brazzaville, capital of di French Congo, across di Congo river from Léopoldville, wey e promise say France African colonies go fit choose between staying with France or full independence, make people for Congo get big dreams. Di World Exhibition wey dem do for Brussels for 1958 (Expo 58) be another eye-opener for plenty Congolese leaders, wey dem allow make dem travel go Belgium for di first time.<ref>Aziza Etambala, Zana (2008), ''De teloorgang van een modelkolonie, Belgisch Congo 1958–1960'', Leuven: Acco, pp. 105–110.</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|date=23 December 1957|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125731/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=December 23, 1957|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=1 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501001542/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> For 1958, people dey crave for independence sharp sharp and the koko don take off. Na Mouvement National Congolais (MNC) wey dey play big role for di matter. Dem start am for 1956, but dem officially set am up as national political party for October 1958, wey dey support make Congo be one strong nation. Di person wey dey lead dem well well na di charming Patrice Lumumba. For 1959, wahala start after Albert Kalonji and some MNC leaders wey wan dey moderate split from di main group (dem call dem Mouvement National Congolais-Kalonji). Even though di party get different waka, Lumumba faction (now Mouvement National Congolais-Lumumba) and di MNC still be di most important and influential party for Belgian Congo. Belgium vehemently de oppose Lumumba ein leftist views plus get grave concerns about de status of demma financial interests if Lumumba ein MNC come power.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} ===== Independence ===== As Belgium dey debate how to give Congolese people their freedom small-small, wahala just burst everywhere. On 4 January 1959, dem do one political demo for Léopoldville wey ABAKO organise, but e no gree control. Na so, the colonial capital begin catch fire with plenty chaos. E take dem days to bring back order, and if we count am well, hundreds don die. De eruption of violence sent a shockwave through de Congo den Belgium alike.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-01-if-blood-must-run.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: If Blood Must Run|date=19 January 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125735/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-01-if-blood-must-run.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=January 19, 1959|title=BELGIAN CONGO: If Blood Must Run|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,868969,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201082719/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,868969,00.html|archive-date=2011-02-01|magazine=Time}}</ref> On 13 January, King Baudouin use radio talk to the people say Belgium go work for Congo to get full independence fast, but no be to go rush am like mumu.<ref>Koning Boudewijn. 35 jaar dialoog met de natie. Een keuze uit de koninklijke toespraken van 1951 tot 1986. Lannoo Tielt, Inbel, 1986, blz. 124.</ref> Dem no fit talk say independence go happen one particular day, but di government wey Prime Minister Gaston Eyskens dey lead, get plan for multi-year transition period. Dem think say provincial elections go happen for December 1959, national elections for 1960 or 1961, den after, dem go start hand over di admin and political duties small small to di Congolese, as dem dey expect say by mid-1960s e go don finish. But for ground, things dey change fast fast.<ref>Young, Crawford (1965), ''Politics in the Congo" Decolonization and Independence'', Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 140–161.</ref> Di colonial admin dey see different type of resistance, like people wey no wan pay tax. For some places, anarchy threatened.<ref>Ryckmans, Geneviève (1995), ''André Ryckmans, un territorial du Congo belge''. Paris. L'Harmattan, pp. 215–224.</ref> At di same time, plenty Belgians wey dey di Congo no wan independence, dem dey feel say Brussels don betray dem. As di Congolese dem dey demand better change, di government don see say di chance to make am smooth smooth no dey happen again fast fast.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-10-return-of-the-mundele.pdf|title=The Belgian Congo : Return of the Mundele|date=12 October 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125737/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-10-return-of-the-mundele.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=October 12, 1959|title=THE BELGIAN CONGO: Return of the Mundele|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,864032,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101203183837/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,864032,00.html|archive-date=2010-12-03|magazine=Time}}</ref> [[File:Ronde_Tafel_Conferentie_te_Brussel_Congo,_Bestanddeelnr_910-9593.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ronde_Tafel_Conferentie_te_Brussel_Congo,_Bestanddeelnr_910-9593.jpg|thumb|220x220px|Opening meeting of de Belgo-Congolese Round Table Conference insyde Brussels on 20 January 1960]] For 1959, King Baudouin come back to Belgian Congo, and e see say everywhere don change from the last time wey e visit four years ago. When e land for Léopoldville, wahala start as black Belgo-Congolese people dey throw stone for am because dem vex say dem don lock Lumumba up, wey dem convict say im dey incite against colonial government. Even though for other cities dem receive am better, dem dey shout “Vive le roi!” but e follow with “Indépendance immédiate!” The Belgian government no wan enter any gbege wey fit turn bloody like wetin happen to France for Indochina and Algeria, or Netherlands for Indonesia. So, dem dey reason say make dem fit agree for Congolese leaders wey dey shout for immediate independence.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-11-now-now-now.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: Now Now Now|date=16 November 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125729/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-11-now-now-now.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=November 16, 1959|title=BELGIAN CONGO: Now Now Now|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811442,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201085122/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811442,00.html|archive-date=2011-02-01|magazine=Time}}</ref> Although dem no prepare well plus no plenty people wey educate dey (only small Congolese get degree for dat time), Belgian leaders still gree make independence happen. E be true say dem weak local elites fit work for Belgian government and business people, dem dey hope say dis go make am easy for dem to still dey control wetin dey happen for politics and economy. Dis style different from colonial wars and de slow decolonization wey other European countries dey do, dem sabi am as 'Le Pari Congolais'—di Congolese bet.<ref>{{cite book|last=De Witte|first=Ludo|title=Crisis in Kongo. De rol van de Verenigde Naties, de regering-Eyskens en het koningshuis in de omverwerping van Lumumba en de opkomst van Mobutu|date=1996|publisher=Uitgeverij Van Halewyck|isbn=9789056170523|location=Leuven|page=31|author-link=Ludo De Witte}}</ref> For January 1960, dem call Congolese leaders come Brussels make dem fit gather for round-table talk about independence. Dem free Patrice Lumumba from prison just for this matter. Na so the conference quick quick agree give Congolese almost all wetin dem ask: make dem do general election for May 1960 and full independence—'Dipenda'—go land on 30 June 1960. Na because of di strong unity wey Congolese delegation carry come. [[File:Patrice_Lumumba_signs_the_document_granting_independence_to_the_Congo_next_to_Belgian_Prime_Minister_Gaston_Eyskens.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patrice_Lumumba_signs_the_document_granting_independence_to_the_Congo_next_to_Belgian_Prime_Minister_Gaston_Eyskens.jpg|right|thumb|Lumumba den Eyskens sign de document granting independence to de Congo]] Political maneuvering ahead of de elections, Elections dey come, so dem form three political groups for ground: one na the federalist nationalists, wey dey include six separatist parties, like ABAKO and MNC—Kalonji; another one na centralist MNC—Lumumba; and last one be Moïse Tshombe, wey be big man for Katanga, wey wan protect the business wey dey for Union Minière (like Kalonji do for de diamond exploitations matter insyde Kasaï). Di parliamentary elections show say di political scene dey divided, with di regionalist group dem—ABAKO wey dey lead—plus di nationalist parties like MNC too do well. Dem force compromise make Kasa-Vubu be di first president of Republic of di Congo, and Lumumba be di first head of government. Just like dem plan am five months before, di handover ceremony wey di Belgians do happen well on time for 30 June 1960 for di new house of di Governor-General for Belgian Congo wey dey Léopoldville. One week later, wahala begin for Force Publique, dem dey rebel against dem officers wey still dey mostly Belgian. Dis one spark plenty gbege all over Congo, na unhappy soldiers and sharp-sharp youths dey cause am. For plenty places, dem dey focus di violence on European people. In small time, Belgian soldiers and later UN intervention force carry plenty Belgians wey dey work and live for Congo come out, over 80,000 of dem.<ref>{{cite book|last=Verlinden|first=Peter|title=Weg uit Congo, Het drama van de kolonialen|publisher=[[Davidsfonds]]|year=2002|location=Leuven}}</ref> == Congo crisis plus wetin follow am == Di rebellion wey start for Thyssville for Bas-Congo for July 1960 quickly spread go everywhere for de Congo.<ref>For an overview of developments in the Congo after 1960 see: O'Ballance, Edgar (2000), ''The Congo-Zaire Experience, 1960–98'', Houndmills: MacMillan Press.</ref> For September 1960, di leaders split, wey President Kasa-Vubu declare say prime minister Lumumba no dey hold him work again, and di same thing happen back. Dem stop di stalemate when government arrest Lumumba. For January 1961, dem fly am go di rich mining province of Katanga, wey dem don declare say dem no wan join Léopoldville again under di leadership of Moïse Tshombe (wey Belgium dey support well well). Dem hand Lumumba over to Katangan authorities, wey kill am. [[File:Congo_Crisis_dead_hostages.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_Crisis_dead_hostages.jpg|thumb|Belgian soldier dey lie for ground for de front of dead hostages, November 1964, for Stanleyville during [[:en:Operation_Dragon_Rouge|Operation Dragon Rouge]]. Belgian parachutists free over 1,800 European and American hostages wey Congolese rebels hold. ]] For 2002, Belgium don officially say sorry for wetin dem do to Lumumba; people don dey talk say CIA sabi join am, because dem see say Lumumba dey too left. During Cold War, Soviet Union dey push e influence for Africa to gree fight European powers, e use 'anti-colonialism' as reason to increase de power insyde de region.<ref>A first-hand account of the CIA's activities in the Congo in 1960–61 in: Devlin, Larry (2008), ''Chief of Station, Congo: Fighting the Cold War in a Hot Zone'', Cambridge: PublicAffairs</ref> Plenty rebellions and separatist wahala really mash up di dream of one united Congolese state wen dem just born. Even though di country don dey independent, Belgian paratroopers still show face for Congo plenty times to protect and carry Belgian and foreign people comot. United Nations dey do big peace-keeping work for Congo since late 1960. Di whole matter no settle until 1964–65. Katanga province come back inside, and dem so-called Simba Rebellion end for Stanleyville (province Orientale). Small time after dat, army colonel Joseph Désiré Mobutu come clear di political ground by taking power through coup ''d'état''. Mobutu get some backing for de West, especially for America, sekof e dey strong against communist people. At first, him rule dey boost economy well (like when dem build Inga dam wey dem plan since 1950s). To show say e no be like di old regime, him start campaign wey dem call Congolese 'authenticity'. For 1966, di government stop to use colonial place names: Léopoldville change go Kinshasa, Elisabethville turn Lubumbashi, plus Stanleyville become Kisangani. This time, Congo dey maintain good economic den political relationship with Belgium. Some money matta still dey hang after independence (dem dey call am 'contentieux'), like how dem suppose transfer shares for de big mining companies wey colonial state hold.<ref>Willame, Jean-Claude (1989), "Vingt-cinq ans de rélations belgo-zaïroises", In ''Congo-Zaïre'', Brussels: GRIP, pp. 145–58.</ref> For 1970, on top de ten years independence celebration, King Baudouin come pay official state visit to de Congo. Mobutu regime dey turn more radical for the 1970s. Dem Mouvement populaire de la Révolution (MPR) wey Mobutu be di founder, don set up one-party rule well well. Political wahala increase plenty. Mobutu come change di name of Congo to republic of Zaïre. Di so-called 'Zaïrisation' wey happen for mid-1970s make plenty foreign workers run come out and e cause economic wahala. For di 1980s, Mobutu regime dey become big example of mismanagement plus corruption.<ref>Wrong, Michela (2001), ''Living on the Brink of Disaster in Mobutu's Congo, In the Footsteps of Mr Kurtz'', New York: HarperCollins, pp. 195–200.</ref> De relationship with Belgium, di former colonial master, dey chop ups and downs, show say e dey decline for economic, financial and political side. Since no be chance say di country go fall into Soviet hand, di Western powers just dey stay neutral.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bud |first=Guy |date=2013 |title=Imperial Transitions: Belgian-Congolese relations in the post-colonial era |journal=SIR |issue=2 |pages=7–8}}</ref> [[File:Statue_de_Léopold_II_à_Kinshasa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Statue_de_L%C3%A9opold_II_%C3%A0_Kinshasa.jpg|thumb|Equestrian statue of [[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]] insyde Kinshasa]] After Soviet Union fall and Cold War end for late 1980s, Mobutu no get support from West again. For 1990, e decide say make e end the one-party matter and come back to democracy sharp-sharp. But he dey drag feet, dey play his enemies against each other make e fit buy time. That bloody wahala from Zaïrian Army dem give students for Lubumbashi University Campus May 1990 come make Belgium and Zaïre relationship spoil. Not so nice, Mobutu no receive invite for King Baudouin funeral for 1993, wey him see am as big personal insult. For 1997, dem force Mobutu comot power by rebel wey Laurent-Désiré Kabila dey lead. E come declare say e be president and change Zaïre name to Democratic Republic of the Congo. Dem kill Kabila for 2001, plus him son Joseph Kabila take over. For 2006, dem confirm Joseph Kabila as president when dem do di first nationwide free elections for Congo since 1960. From 30 June – 2 July 2010, King Albert II and Yves Leterme, di Belgian Prime Minister, come visit Kinshasa for celebrate di 50th anniversary of Congolese independence. == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] 5brpwig3q0dq5kzu6efa2bzammcwiq4 69180 69174 2025-07-06T00:38:35Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Congo crisis plus wetin follow am */ 69180 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== [[File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Minière_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|right|thumb|Nurses of de [[:en:Union_Minière_du_Haut-Katanga|Union Minière du Haut-Katanga]] plus demma Congolese assistants, [[:en:Lubumbashi|Élisabethville]], 1918]] Health care too dey supported by missions, but colonial state wan show interest small. For 1906, dem start Institute of Tropical Medicine for Brussels. This ITM dey among di top places wey train and do research for tropical medicine and how health care dey work for developing countries. Dem fit clear endemic sickness like sleeping sickness well well with serious campaigns.<ref>A critical assessment of the colonial obsession with sleeping sickness in: Lyons, Maryinez (1992), ''The Colonial Disease, A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> For 1925, medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper be di first person wey carry tryparsamide, di drug from Rockefeller Foundation wey dey cure sleeping sickness, enter Congo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingman |first=Jack |year=1994 |title=Arthur Lewis Piper, M.D.: A Medical Missionary in the Belgian Congo |journal=Journal of Community Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/BF02260364 |pmid=8006209 |s2cid=37502216}}</ref> Di health-care system dey grow well well during colonial time, with plenty hospital beds dey available for di people, plus dem set up dispensaries for far away places. By 1960, di country get beta medical structure wey pass any other African nation for dat time. Belgian Congo get 3,000 health facilities, wey 380 be hospitals. Dem get 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 people (1 for every 187 people). Dem make huge progress for di fight against endemic diseases; dem report sleeping sickness cases drop from 34,000 in 1931 to just 1,100 in 1959, mainly because dem clear tsetse fly for where plenty people dey. All Europeans plus Congolese wey dey for Belgian Congo do dem vaccine for polio, measles and yellow fever. Big big disease prevention programs dem start, wey dem wan make polio, leprosy and tuberculosis no dey again. For primary schools, dem run disease prevention campaigns, and dem include disease prevention class for curriculum too.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319" /> ===== Social inequality den racial discrimination ===== [[File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|thumb|Dem dey pull one woman wey be missionary inside rickshaw by some Congolese guys, around 1920 to 1930.]] Di Belgia Congo get system wey dey separate people based on race an dem dey discriminate too.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Krauzman|first=Marine|date=2025-03-11|title=Belgium's Colonial Past on Trial: What the 2024 Ruling Means for Reparational Justice|url=http://spheresofinfluence.ca/belgiums-colonial-past-on-trial-what-the-2024-ruling-means-for-reparational-justice/|access-date=2025-06-26|website=Spheres of Influence|language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-29|title=Belgian Congo {{!}} History & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgian-Congo|access-date=2025-06-26|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Dem get wetin dem call 'implicit apartheid'. Di colony put curfew for Congolese wey dey live for city, an plenty racial wahala dey happen. Léopoldville get di racist curfew wey e famous for, an dem use am as template for other European colonies like French Equatorial Africa wey dey close by.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Njoh |first1=Ambe J. |date=March 2008 |title=Colonial Philosophies, Urban Space, and Racial Segregation in British and French Colonial Africa |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Black Studies]] |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=579–599 |doi=10.1177/0021934706288447 |s2cid=145775865 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228161615/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref> Even though dem no get proper laws wey dey separate people by race, segregation dey happen plenty for many places. For example, at first, de city centers be only for white people, while black people dey stay for places dem dey call 'cités indigènes' or 'le belge'. Hospitals, shop dem and other places no dey allow both whites and blacks to mix. For Force Publique, black people no fit rise pass non-commissioned officer rank. Plus, black folks for the cities no fit come out from 9 pm to 4 am. Dis kind segregation start dey vanish small-small only for 1950s, but even then, de Congolese dem still dey feel like second-class citizens, especially for politics and law matter. [[File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|right|thumb|King [[:en:Albert_I_of_Belgium|Albert I]] plus Queen [[:en:Elisabeth_of_Bavaria,_Queen_of_the_Belgians|Elisabeth]] inspecting de military camp of Léopoldville for de time of demma visit to de Belgian Congo, 1928]] Sekof dem dey connect ekonomi growth with di 'civilizing mission', plus as state officials, missionaries plus private companies dey always help each other, people don sabi sey Belgian Congo dey ruled by one 'colonial trinity' of King-Church-Capital. Dis one fit mean di colonial state, di Christian missions, plus Société Générale de Belgique too. Di way wey colonial policy take dey work, e get one saying wey Governor-General Pierre Ryckmans (1934–46) use: Dominer pour servir ('Dominate to serve').<ref>Vanderlinden, Jacques (1994), ''Pierre Ryckmans 1891–1959, Coloniser dans l'honneur'', Brussels: De Boeck.</ref> Di colonial government wan make wey see am say dem dey nice plus no wahala for di administration, plus dem wan show Belgian Congo as di perfect colony. But na only for di 1950s e start change. For di 1950s, dem dey gradually draw back dem plenty harsh laws dem use punish di Congolese people (like di chicote wey be whip). From 1953, plus di big visit wey King Baudouin make to di colony for 1955, Governor-General Léon Pétillon (1952–1958) start dey try build one 'Belgian-Congolese community', where black plus white go dey equal.<ref>Pétillon, L. A. M. (1967), ''Témoignage et réflexions'', Brussels: Renaissance du Livre.</ref> But still, di anti-miscegenation laws no clear, and from 1959 to 1962, plenty mixed-race Congolese pikin dem dey carry come out from Congo by Belgian government plus Catholic Church go Belgium.<ref>{{cite web|last=Paravicini|first=Giulia|date=4 April 2019|title=Belgium apologizes for colonial-era abduction of mixed-race children|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711005737/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|archive-date=11 July 2019|access-date=10 July 2019|publisher=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> For 1957, dem do first municipal elections wey black voters fit vote for some big cities — Léopoldville, Élisabethville, plus Jadotville. ===== Abolition of slavery ===== For Congo Free State, plenty men, women, and pikin dem free from Swahili Arab slave owners and traders for Eastern Congo between 1886 and 1892. Dem fit join militai (Force Publique) or dem go give am to local chiefs wey be friends, and dem go use dem as workers. Even though dem ban chattel slavery for 1910 when Belgian Congo start, dem still dey use prisoners as forced laborers for public den private projects.<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 40</ref> == Resistance == Di Congolese dem no gree colonization; dem dey fight am steady, e come take many shapes. As modern ideas and education dey enter ground, e dey spark plenty action.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> Armed wahala show for small-small parts till Second World War finish (like Pende wahala for 1931, and di gbagbe for Luluabourg 1944). After di war till late 1950s, wetin dem dey call 'Pax belgica' go dey. But e no mean say dem no dey resist; passive resistance dey plenty too, like Kimbanguism wey be from di ‘prophet’ Simon Kimbangu wey di Belgians lock up. Aside active and passive wahala wey Congolese dey raise, di colonial government still dey hear plenty internal noise and gbege. Even for di 1920s, some people for Colonial Council wey dey for Brussels (like Octave Louwers) don talk plenty about di harsh way big companies dey recruit people for di mining places. Di slow growth for population for many areas—abi even wey dem dey chop plenty success for fight against sick sick like sleeping sickness—na another wahala wey dey worry dem. Low birth rate for countryside and some places dey empty usually link to di way traditional life don scatter because of forced work migration and compulsory farming. Dem dey talk say na wetin dem plan be dat, and dem dey point out how population dey increase for cities and how health plus lifespan don better thanks to modern medicine and better living condition.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hunt|first1=Nancy Rose|date=2002|title=Rewriting the Soul in Colonial Congo: Flemish Missionaries and Infertility|url=https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040613132330/https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|archive-date=2004-06-13|website=Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|publisher=Antwerp University Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|language=en}}</ref> Plenty missionaries wey dey connect with Congolese villagers dey carry dem wahala for heart plus sometimes dem dey fit intervene for dem matter with di colonial administration (like land property questions). Di missions plus some area administrators dem fit play big role for study and protect Congolese culture and language tradition plus di artifacts wey dey there. One good example na Father Gustaaf Hulstaert (1900–1990), wey insyde 1937 start di periodical Aequatoria wey dem dey use for di linguistic, ethnographic plus historical study of di Mongo people for di central Congo basin.<ref>See: aequatoria.be</ref> Di colonial state dey interested for di cultural and scientific study of Congo, especially after di Second World War, through di setup of di Institut pour la Recherche Scientifique en Afrique Centrale (IRSAC, 1948). == Toward independence == For early 1950s, di political freedom of di Congolese elites, no talk of di masses, e be like far dream. But e clear say Congo no fit dey far from di quick changes wey happen after di Second World War, wey scatter colonialism worldwide. Di independence wey di British, French, plus Dutch colonies for Asia get after 1945 no really change anything for Congo, but di pressure for Belgium from di United Nations don increase (just like all di other colonial powers). Belgium don agree to article 73 of di United Nations Charter wey talk about self-determination, plus di two superpowers dey pressure Belgium make dem change how dem dey run Congo; di Belgian government dey try hold body against wetin dem call 'interference' with dia colonial policy. Colonial government dey talk how dem go make life beta for Congolese pipo. Since 1940s, dem don dey try small-small give some elite wey dem call évolués small civil rights, dem fit get small political power later. So, 'deserving' Congolese fit apply for proof of 'civil merit', or if dem fit do better, 'immatriculation' (registration), wey go show say dem don join European way of life. To get this status, applicant gats meet strict rules (like marry one wife, show good behavior, etc.) and dem go dey watch dem well well (wey de include house visits). Dis policy no work at all. For around mid-1950s, no be plenty Congolese wey don fit get di civil merit diploma or dem don get di 'immatriculation'. Di benefits wey dem dey talk say come with am—like equal legal status with di white folks—na mostly just talk, no be real. E dey make di évolués frustrated well well. When Governor-General Pétillon start dey talk say he go fit give di native people more civil rights, even voting, to create wetin he dey call 'Belgo-Congolese community', di people for Brussels no really send am, and some Belgians for Congo dey vex as dem dey fear for demma privilege.<ref>[[Isidore Ndaywel è Nziem|Ndaywel è Nziem]], Isidore (1998), ''Histoire générale du Congo'', Paris-Brussels: De Boeck & Larcier, pp. 456–63.</ref> E clear say Belgian government no get proper long-term plan for Congo matter. 'Colonial wahala' no dey trend for Belgium, as long as di colony dey shine and e dey quiet. But one person wey show concern na di young King Baudouin, wey take over from him papa, King Leopold III, for 1951, when dem force Leopold III to waka. Baudouin dey follow wetin dey happen for Belgian Congo well well. Wen King Baudouin come visit Belgian Congo for de first time for 1955, crowd dey cheer am well-well, both whites and blacks dey dance, like as dem show for André Cauvin documentary, Bwana Kitoko.<ref>{{cite book|last=Raspoet|first=Erik|title=Bwana Kitoko en de koning van de Bakuba|publisher=Meulenhoff/Manteau|year=2005|isbn=90-8542-020-2}}</ref> Foreign people wey dey observe, suc as de international correspondent of ''The Manchester Guardian'' or a ''Time'' journalist,<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|title=Congo: Boom in the Jungle|date=16 May 1955|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=28 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028201856/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=May 16, 1955|title=CONGO: Boom in the Jungle|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=28 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828025115/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> talk say Belgian paddy paddy style dey work well, and dey compare how Belgian people dem loyal pass those French and British colonies wey dey restless. During di visit, King Baudouin carry Governor-General idea of 'Belgo-Congolese community' come front; but for real, dis plan dey move slow. At di same time, dem wahala wey dey divide for Belgium, wey dem fit hide from di colony before, start to enter Congo too. Dem talk say workers dey unite more now, dem dey call make public schools fit break mission schools for education, plus dem wan make both Belgian languages, French and Dutch, sabi equal treatment for colony. Before this, na only French dem dey push as colonial language. Governor-General dey fear say dis kind wahala fit spoil di colonial government image for Congolese, plus e go shift focus from di real need for true emancipation. ===== Political organisation ===== [[File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|right|thumb|[[:en:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu|Joseph Kasa-Vubu]], leader of ABAKO plus de first President dem elect democratically of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] [[File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Patrice_Lumumba|Patrice Lumumba]], first democratically elected Prime Minister of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] Di Congolese people join Second World War and dem hear say tings dey change for other colonies, e make dem start to organize make dem fit get power. Di colonial government no fit bring beta changes wey fit work, so di Congolese elites start to gather demself socially and later politically. For di 1950s, two separate types of nationalism show up among di Congolese elites. Di nationalist movement—wey di Belgian authorities no really watch—promote say di Belgian Congo go become one united state after dem get independence. E get wetin wey de oppose this matter, na di ethno-religious and regional nationalism wey catch for di Bakongo area for di west coast, Kasai plus Katanga.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} Di first political groups na dem one. ABAKO wey dem establish for 1950 as di Association culturelle des Bakongo, and wetin Joseph Kasa-Vubu dey run, start as cultural group wey turn political sharp sharp. From di middle of 1950s, dem don dey shout against Belgian colonial rule well well. Plus, di group still dey serve as di main ethno-religious group for di Bakongo and dem blend well with di Kimbanguist Church wey be popular for lower Congo.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} For 1955, Belgian prof Antoine van Bilsen drop one paper wey dem call Thirty Year Plan for the Political Emancipation of Belgian Africa.<ref>Gerard-Libois, Jules (1989), "Vers l'Indépendance: une accélération imprévue", In ''Congo-Zaïre'', Brussels: GRIP, pp. 43–56.</ref> De plan get timetable wey say make dem gradually free Congo for 30 years—na the time wey Van Bilsen believe say e go take to build educated people wey fit take over from the Belgians for power. But the Belgian government and plenty of the évolués no happy with the plan—government no wan lose Congo, and the évolués sabi say Belgium go still dey rule for another three decades. One group of Catholic évolués yan am positive for the plan with one moderate manifesto for one Congolese journal wey dem dey call Conscience Africaine; dem talk some matter about how Congolese fit take part well well.<ref>Kalulambi Pongo, Martin (2009), "Le manifeste 'Conscience africaine: genèse, influences et réactions", In Tousignant, Nathalie (ed.), ''Le manifeste Conscience africaine, 1956'', Brussels: Facultés Universitaires Saint-Louis, pp. 59–81.</ref> For 1957, as experiment matter, colonial government do organize di first local elections for three cities (Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Jadotville), wey Congolese people fit stand for office and vote. Watin happen for 1957–58 make demand for political freedom burst, no be small. Ghana independence for 1957 and President De Gaulle visit wey happen for August 1958 for Brazzaville, capital of di French Congo, across di Congo river from Léopoldville, wey e promise say France African colonies go fit choose between staying with France or full independence, make people for Congo get big dreams. Di World Exhibition wey dem do for Brussels for 1958 (Expo 58) be another eye-opener for plenty Congolese leaders, wey dem allow make dem travel go Belgium for di first time.<ref>Aziza Etambala, Zana (2008), ''De teloorgang van een modelkolonie, Belgisch Congo 1958–1960'', Leuven: Acco, pp. 105–110.</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|date=23 December 1957|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125731/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=December 23, 1957|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=1 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501001542/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> For 1958, people dey crave for independence sharp sharp and the koko don take off. Na Mouvement National Congolais (MNC) wey dey play big role for di matter. Dem start am for 1956, but dem officially set am up as national political party for October 1958, wey dey support make Congo be one strong nation. Di person wey dey lead dem well well na di charming Patrice Lumumba. For 1959, wahala start after Albert Kalonji and some MNC leaders wey wan dey moderate split from di main group (dem call dem Mouvement National Congolais-Kalonji). Even though di party get different waka, Lumumba faction (now Mouvement National Congolais-Lumumba) and di MNC still be di most important and influential party for Belgian Congo. Belgium vehemently de oppose Lumumba ein leftist views plus get grave concerns about de status of demma financial interests if Lumumba ein MNC come power.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} ===== Independence ===== As Belgium dey debate how to give Congolese people their freedom small-small, wahala just burst everywhere. On 4 January 1959, dem do one political demo for Léopoldville wey ABAKO organise, but e no gree control. Na so, the colonial capital begin catch fire with plenty chaos. E take dem days to bring back order, and if we count am well, hundreds don die. De eruption of violence sent a shockwave through de Congo den Belgium alike.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-01-if-blood-must-run.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: If Blood Must Run|date=19 January 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125735/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-01-if-blood-must-run.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=January 19, 1959|title=BELGIAN CONGO: If Blood Must Run|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,868969,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201082719/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,868969,00.html|archive-date=2011-02-01|magazine=Time}}</ref> On 13 January, King Baudouin use radio talk to the people say Belgium go work for Congo to get full independence fast, but no be to go rush am like mumu.<ref>Koning Boudewijn. 35 jaar dialoog met de natie. Een keuze uit de koninklijke toespraken van 1951 tot 1986. Lannoo Tielt, Inbel, 1986, blz. 124.</ref> Dem no fit talk say independence go happen one particular day, but di government wey Prime Minister Gaston Eyskens dey lead, get plan for multi-year transition period. Dem think say provincial elections go happen for December 1959, national elections for 1960 or 1961, den after, dem go start hand over di admin and political duties small small to di Congolese, as dem dey expect say by mid-1960s e go don finish. But for ground, things dey change fast fast.<ref>Young, Crawford (1965), ''Politics in the Congo" Decolonization and Independence'', Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 140–161.</ref> Di colonial admin dey see different type of resistance, like people wey no wan pay tax. For some places, anarchy threatened.<ref>Ryckmans, Geneviève (1995), ''André Ryckmans, un territorial du Congo belge''. Paris. L'Harmattan, pp. 215–224.</ref> At di same time, plenty Belgians wey dey di Congo no wan independence, dem dey feel say Brussels don betray dem. As di Congolese dem dey demand better change, di government don see say di chance to make am smooth smooth no dey happen again fast fast.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-10-return-of-the-mundele.pdf|title=The Belgian Congo : Return of the Mundele|date=12 October 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125737/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-10-return-of-the-mundele.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=October 12, 1959|title=THE BELGIAN CONGO: Return of the Mundele|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,864032,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101203183837/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,864032,00.html|archive-date=2010-12-03|magazine=Time}}</ref> [[File:Ronde_Tafel_Conferentie_te_Brussel_Congo,_Bestanddeelnr_910-9593.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ronde_Tafel_Conferentie_te_Brussel_Congo,_Bestanddeelnr_910-9593.jpg|thumb|220x220px|Opening meeting of de Belgo-Congolese Round Table Conference insyde Brussels on 20 January 1960]] For 1959, King Baudouin come back to Belgian Congo, and e see say everywhere don change from the last time wey e visit four years ago. When e land for Léopoldville, wahala start as black Belgo-Congolese people dey throw stone for am because dem vex say dem don lock Lumumba up, wey dem convict say im dey incite against colonial government. Even though for other cities dem receive am better, dem dey shout “Vive le roi!” but e follow with “Indépendance immédiate!” The Belgian government no wan enter any gbege wey fit turn bloody like wetin happen to France for Indochina and Algeria, or Netherlands for Indonesia. So, dem dey reason say make dem fit agree for Congolese leaders wey dey shout for immediate independence.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-11-now-now-now.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: Now Now Now|date=16 November 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125729/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-11-now-now-now.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=November 16, 1959|title=BELGIAN CONGO: Now Now Now|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811442,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201085122/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811442,00.html|archive-date=2011-02-01|magazine=Time}}</ref> Although dem no prepare well plus no plenty people wey educate dey (only small Congolese get degree for dat time), Belgian leaders still gree make independence happen. E be true say dem weak local elites fit work for Belgian government and business people, dem dey hope say dis go make am easy for dem to still dey control wetin dey happen for politics and economy. Dis style different from colonial wars and de slow decolonization wey other European countries dey do, dem sabi am as 'Le Pari Congolais'—di Congolese bet.<ref>{{cite book|last=De Witte|first=Ludo|title=Crisis in Kongo. De rol van de Verenigde Naties, de regering-Eyskens en het koningshuis in de omverwerping van Lumumba en de opkomst van Mobutu|date=1996|publisher=Uitgeverij Van Halewyck|isbn=9789056170523|location=Leuven|page=31|author-link=Ludo De Witte}}</ref> For January 1960, dem call Congolese leaders come Brussels make dem fit gather for round-table talk about independence. Dem free Patrice Lumumba from prison just for this matter. Na so the conference quick quick agree give Congolese almost all wetin dem ask: make dem do general election for May 1960 and full independence—'Dipenda'—go land on 30 June 1960. Na because of di strong unity wey Congolese delegation carry come. [[File:Patrice_Lumumba_signs_the_document_granting_independence_to_the_Congo_next_to_Belgian_Prime_Minister_Gaston_Eyskens.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patrice_Lumumba_signs_the_document_granting_independence_to_the_Congo_next_to_Belgian_Prime_Minister_Gaston_Eyskens.jpg|right|thumb|Lumumba den Eyskens sign de document granting independence to de Congo]] Political maneuvering ahead of de elections, Elections dey come, so dem form three political groups for ground: one na the federalist nationalists, wey dey include six separatist parties, like ABAKO and MNC—Kalonji; another one na centralist MNC—Lumumba; and last one be Moïse Tshombe, wey be big man for Katanga, wey wan protect the business wey dey for Union Minière (like Kalonji do for de diamond exploitations matter insyde Kasaï). Di parliamentary elections show say di political scene dey divided, with di regionalist group dem—ABAKO wey dey lead—plus di nationalist parties like MNC too do well. Dem force compromise make Kasa-Vubu be di first president of Republic of di Congo, and Lumumba be di first head of government. Just like dem plan am five months before, di handover ceremony wey di Belgians do happen well on time for 30 June 1960 for di new house of di Governor-General for Belgian Congo wey dey Léopoldville. One week later, wahala begin for Force Publique, dem dey rebel against dem officers wey still dey mostly Belgian. Dis one spark plenty gbege all over Congo, na unhappy soldiers and sharp-sharp youths dey cause am. For plenty places, dem dey focus di violence on European people. In small time, Belgian soldiers and later UN intervention force carry plenty Belgians wey dey work and live for Congo come out, over 80,000 of dem.<ref>{{cite book|last=Verlinden|first=Peter|title=Weg uit Congo, Het drama van de kolonialen|publisher=[[Davidsfonds]]|year=2002|location=Leuven}}</ref> == Congo crisis plus wetin follow am == Di rebellion wey start for Thyssville for Bas-Congo for July 1960 quickly spread go everywhere for de Congo.<ref>For an overview of developments in the Congo after 1960 see: O'Ballance, Edgar (2000), ''The Congo-Zaire Experience, 1960–98'', Houndmills: MacMillan Press.</ref> For September 1960, di leaders split, wey President Kasa-Vubu declare say prime minister Lumumba no dey hold him work again, and di same thing happen back. Dem stop di stalemate when government arrest Lumumba. For January 1961, dem fly am go di rich mining province of Katanga, wey dem don declare say dem no wan join Léopoldville again under di leadership of Moïse Tshombe (wey Belgium dey support well well). Dem hand Lumumba over to Katangan authorities, wey kill am. [[File:Congo_Crisis_dead_hostages.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_Crisis_dead_hostages.jpg|thumb|Belgian soldier dey lie for ground for de front of dead hostages, November 1964, for Stanleyville during [[:en:Operation_Dragon_Rouge|Operation Dragon Rouge]]. Belgian parachutists free over 1,800 European and American hostages wey Congolese rebels hold. ]] For 2002, Belgium don officially say sorry for wetin dem do to Lumumba; people don dey talk say CIA sabi join am, because dem see say Lumumba dey too left. During Cold War, Soviet Union dey push e influence for Africa to gree fight European powers, e use 'anti-colonialism' as reason to increase de power insyde de region.<ref>A first-hand account of the CIA's activities in the Congo in 1960–61 in: Devlin, Larry (2008), ''Chief of Station, Congo: Fighting the Cold War in a Hot Zone'', Cambridge: PublicAffairs</ref> Plenty rebellions and separatist wahala really mash up di dream of one united Congolese state wen dem just born. Even though di country don dey independent, Belgian paratroopers still show face for Congo plenty times to protect and carry Belgian and foreign people comot. United Nations dey do big peace-keeping work for Congo since late 1960. Di whole matter no settle until 1964–65. Katanga province come back inside, and dem so-called Simba Rebellion end for Stanleyville (province Orientale). Small time after dat, army colonel Joseph Désiré Mobutu come clear di political ground by taking power through coup ''d'état''. Mobutu get some backing for de West, especially for America, sekof e dey strong against communist people. At first, him rule dey boost economy well (like when dem build Inga dam wey dem plan since 1950s). To show say e no be like di old regime, him start campaign wey dem call Congolese 'authenticity'. For 1966, di government stop to use colonial place names: Léopoldville change go Kinshasa, Elisabethville turn Lubumbashi, plus Stanleyville become Kisangani. This time, Congo dey maintain good economic den political relationship with Belgium. Some money matta still dey hang after independence (dem dey call am 'contentieux'), like how dem suppose transfer shares for de big mining companies wey colonial state hold.<ref>Willame, Jean-Claude (1989), "Vingt-cinq ans de rélations belgo-zaïroises", In ''Congo-Zaïre'', Brussels: GRIP, pp. 145–58.</ref> For 1970, on top de ten years independence celebration, King Baudouin come pay official state visit to de Congo. Mobutu regime dey turn more radical for the 1970s. Dem Mouvement populaire de la Révolution (MPR) wey Mobutu be di founder, don set up one-party rule well well. Political wahala increase plenty. Mobutu come change di name of Congo to republic of Zaïre. Di so-called 'Zaïrisation' wey happen for mid-1970s make plenty foreign workers run come out and e cause economic wahala. For di 1980s, Mobutu regime dey become big example of mismanagement plus corruption.<ref>Wrong, Michela (2001), ''Living on the Brink of Disaster in Mobutu's Congo, In the Footsteps of Mr Kurtz'', New York: HarperCollins, pp. 195–200.</ref> De relationship with Belgium, di former colonial master, dey chop ups and downs, show say e dey decline for economic, financial and political side. Since no be chance say di country go fall into Soviet hand, di Western powers just dey stay neutral.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bud |first=Guy |date=2013 |title=Imperial Transitions: Belgian-Congolese relations in the post-colonial era |journal=SIR |issue=2 |pages=7–8}}</ref> [[File:Statue_de_Léopold_II_à_Kinshasa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Statue_de_L%C3%A9opold_II_%C3%A0_Kinshasa.jpg|thumb|Equestrian statue of [[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]] insyde Kinshasa]] After Soviet Union fall and Cold War end for late 1980s, Mobutu no get support from West again. For 1990, e decide say make e end the one-party matter and come back to democracy sharp-sharp. But he dey drag feet, dey play his enemies against each other make e fit buy time. That bloody wahala from Zaïrian Army dem give students for Lubumbashi University Campus May 1990 come make Belgium and Zaïre relationship spoil. Not so nice, Mobutu no receive invite for King Baudouin funeral for 1993, wey him see am as big personal insult. For 1997, dem force Mobutu comot power by rebel wey Laurent-Désiré Kabila dey lead. E come declare say e be president and change Zaïre name to Democratic Republic of the Congo. Dem kill Kabila for 2001, plus him son Joseph Kabila take over. For 2006, dem confirm Joseph Kabila as president when dem do di first nationwide free elections for Congo since 1960. From 30 June – 2 July 2010, King Albert II and Yves Leterme, di Belgian Prime Minister, come visit Kinshasa for celebrate di 50th anniversary of Congolese independence. Some practices plus traditions from colonial days still dey happen for independent Congo. Dem get strong central government wey be bureaucratic, and dem still dey follow di same setup for education and court system. Congo don influence Belgium mostly for money matter: with Union Minière (now Umicore) work, nonferrous metal industry dey grow, plus Port of Antwerp plus diamond business too. Till now, Brussels Airlines wey take over from Sabena still dey carry weight for DRC. Dem talk say insyde 2010, over 4,000 Belgian people dey stay for DRC, plus de Congolese community for Belgium atleast strong pass 16,000. De "Matongé" quarter insyde Brussels be de traditional focal point of de Congolese community insyde Belgium.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Swyngedouw |first1=Eva |last2=Swyngedouw |first2=Erik |year=2009 |title=The Congolese Diaspora in Brussels and hybrid identity formation |journal=Urban Research & Practice |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=68–90 |doi=10.1080/17535060902727074 |s2cid=143979364}}</ref> == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] qs32mbi4ctamh6ieo5nrzby3hqp258g 69181 69180 2025-07-06T00:39:51Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 I don add de header 'Culture' 69181 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== [[File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Minière_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|right|thumb|Nurses of de [[:en:Union_Minière_du_Haut-Katanga|Union Minière du Haut-Katanga]] plus demma Congolese assistants, [[:en:Lubumbashi|Élisabethville]], 1918]] Health care too dey supported by missions, but colonial state wan show interest small. For 1906, dem start Institute of Tropical Medicine for Brussels. This ITM dey among di top places wey train and do research for tropical medicine and how health care dey work for developing countries. Dem fit clear endemic sickness like sleeping sickness well well with serious campaigns.<ref>A critical assessment of the colonial obsession with sleeping sickness in: Lyons, Maryinez (1992), ''The Colonial Disease, A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> For 1925, medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper be di first person wey carry tryparsamide, di drug from Rockefeller Foundation wey dey cure sleeping sickness, enter Congo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingman |first=Jack |year=1994 |title=Arthur Lewis Piper, M.D.: A Medical Missionary in the Belgian Congo |journal=Journal of Community Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/BF02260364 |pmid=8006209 |s2cid=37502216}}</ref> Di health-care system dey grow well well during colonial time, with plenty hospital beds dey available for di people, plus dem set up dispensaries for far away places. By 1960, di country get beta medical structure wey pass any other African nation for dat time. Belgian Congo get 3,000 health facilities, wey 380 be hospitals. Dem get 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 people (1 for every 187 people). Dem make huge progress for di fight against endemic diseases; dem report sleeping sickness cases drop from 34,000 in 1931 to just 1,100 in 1959, mainly because dem clear tsetse fly for where plenty people dey. All Europeans plus Congolese wey dey for Belgian Congo do dem vaccine for polio, measles and yellow fever. Big big disease prevention programs dem start, wey dem wan make polio, leprosy and tuberculosis no dey again. For primary schools, dem run disease prevention campaigns, and dem include disease prevention class for curriculum too.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319" /> ===== Social inequality den racial discrimination ===== [[File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|thumb|Dem dey pull one woman wey be missionary inside rickshaw by some Congolese guys, around 1920 to 1930.]] Di Belgia Congo get system wey dey separate people based on race an dem dey discriminate too.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Krauzman|first=Marine|date=2025-03-11|title=Belgium's Colonial Past on Trial: What the 2024 Ruling Means for Reparational Justice|url=http://spheresofinfluence.ca/belgiums-colonial-past-on-trial-what-the-2024-ruling-means-for-reparational-justice/|access-date=2025-06-26|website=Spheres of Influence|language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-29|title=Belgian Congo {{!}} History & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgian-Congo|access-date=2025-06-26|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Dem get wetin dem call 'implicit apartheid'. Di colony put curfew for Congolese wey dey live for city, an plenty racial wahala dey happen. Léopoldville get di racist curfew wey e famous for, an dem use am as template for other European colonies like French Equatorial Africa wey dey close by.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Njoh |first1=Ambe J. |date=March 2008 |title=Colonial Philosophies, Urban Space, and Racial Segregation in British and French Colonial Africa |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Black Studies]] |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=579–599 |doi=10.1177/0021934706288447 |s2cid=145775865 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228161615/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref> Even though dem no get proper laws wey dey separate people by race, segregation dey happen plenty for many places. For example, at first, de city centers be only for white people, while black people dey stay for places dem dey call 'cités indigènes' or 'le belge'. Hospitals, shop dem and other places no dey allow both whites and blacks to mix. For Force Publique, black people no fit rise pass non-commissioned officer rank. Plus, black folks for the cities no fit come out from 9 pm to 4 am. Dis kind segregation start dey vanish small-small only for 1950s, but even then, de Congolese dem still dey feel like second-class citizens, especially for politics and law matter. [[File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|right|thumb|King [[:en:Albert_I_of_Belgium|Albert I]] plus Queen [[:en:Elisabeth_of_Bavaria,_Queen_of_the_Belgians|Elisabeth]] inspecting de military camp of Léopoldville for de time of demma visit to de Belgian Congo, 1928]] Sekof dem dey connect ekonomi growth with di 'civilizing mission', plus as state officials, missionaries plus private companies dey always help each other, people don sabi sey Belgian Congo dey ruled by one 'colonial trinity' of King-Church-Capital. Dis one fit mean di colonial state, di Christian missions, plus Société Générale de Belgique too. Di way wey colonial policy take dey work, e get one saying wey Governor-General Pierre Ryckmans (1934–46) use: Dominer pour servir ('Dominate to serve').<ref>Vanderlinden, Jacques (1994), ''Pierre Ryckmans 1891–1959, Coloniser dans l'honneur'', Brussels: De Boeck.</ref> Di colonial government wan make wey see am say dem dey nice plus no wahala for di administration, plus dem wan show Belgian Congo as di perfect colony. But na only for di 1950s e start change. For di 1950s, dem dey gradually draw back dem plenty harsh laws dem use punish di Congolese people (like di chicote wey be whip). From 1953, plus di big visit wey King Baudouin make to di colony for 1955, Governor-General Léon Pétillon (1952–1958) start dey try build one 'Belgian-Congolese community', where black plus white go dey equal.<ref>Pétillon, L. A. M. (1967), ''Témoignage et réflexions'', Brussels: Renaissance du Livre.</ref> But still, di anti-miscegenation laws no clear, and from 1959 to 1962, plenty mixed-race Congolese pikin dem dey carry come out from Congo by Belgian government plus Catholic Church go Belgium.<ref>{{cite web|last=Paravicini|first=Giulia|date=4 April 2019|title=Belgium apologizes for colonial-era abduction of mixed-race children|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711005737/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|archive-date=11 July 2019|access-date=10 July 2019|publisher=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> For 1957, dem do first municipal elections wey black voters fit vote for some big cities — Léopoldville, Élisabethville, plus Jadotville. ===== Abolition of slavery ===== For Congo Free State, plenty men, women, and pikin dem free from Swahili Arab slave owners and traders for Eastern Congo between 1886 and 1892. Dem fit join militai (Force Publique) or dem go give am to local chiefs wey be friends, and dem go use dem as workers. Even though dem ban chattel slavery for 1910 when Belgian Congo start, dem still dey use prisoners as forced laborers for public den private projects.<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 40</ref> == Resistance == Di Congolese dem no gree colonization; dem dey fight am steady, e come take many shapes. As modern ideas and education dey enter ground, e dey spark plenty action.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> Armed wahala show for small-small parts till Second World War finish (like Pende wahala for 1931, and di gbagbe for Luluabourg 1944). After di war till late 1950s, wetin dem dey call 'Pax belgica' go dey. But e no mean say dem no dey resist; passive resistance dey plenty too, like Kimbanguism wey be from di ‘prophet’ Simon Kimbangu wey di Belgians lock up. Aside active and passive wahala wey Congolese dey raise, di colonial government still dey hear plenty internal noise and gbege. Even for di 1920s, some people for Colonial Council wey dey for Brussels (like Octave Louwers) don talk plenty about di harsh way big companies dey recruit people for di mining places. Di slow growth for population for many areas—abi even wey dem dey chop plenty success for fight against sick sick like sleeping sickness—na another wahala wey dey worry dem. Low birth rate for countryside and some places dey empty usually link to di way traditional life don scatter because of forced work migration and compulsory farming. Dem dey talk say na wetin dem plan be dat, and dem dey point out how population dey increase for cities and how health plus lifespan don better thanks to modern medicine and better living condition.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hunt|first1=Nancy Rose|date=2002|title=Rewriting the Soul in Colonial Congo: Flemish Missionaries and Infertility|url=https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040613132330/https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|archive-date=2004-06-13|website=Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|publisher=Antwerp University Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|language=en}}</ref> Plenty missionaries wey dey connect with Congolese villagers dey carry dem wahala for heart plus sometimes dem dey fit intervene for dem matter with di colonial administration (like land property questions). Di missions plus some area administrators dem fit play big role for study and protect Congolese culture and language tradition plus di artifacts wey dey there. One good example na Father Gustaaf Hulstaert (1900–1990), wey insyde 1937 start di periodical Aequatoria wey dem dey use for di linguistic, ethnographic plus historical study of di Mongo people for di central Congo basin.<ref>See: aequatoria.be</ref> Di colonial state dey interested for di cultural and scientific study of Congo, especially after di Second World War, through di setup of di Institut pour la Recherche Scientifique en Afrique Centrale (IRSAC, 1948). == Toward independence == For early 1950s, di political freedom of di Congolese elites, no talk of di masses, e be like far dream. But e clear say Congo no fit dey far from di quick changes wey happen after di Second World War, wey scatter colonialism worldwide. Di independence wey di British, French, plus Dutch colonies for Asia get after 1945 no really change anything for Congo, but di pressure for Belgium from di United Nations don increase (just like all di other colonial powers). Belgium don agree to article 73 of di United Nations Charter wey talk about self-determination, plus di two superpowers dey pressure Belgium make dem change how dem dey run Congo; di Belgian government dey try hold body against wetin dem call 'interference' with dia colonial policy. Colonial government dey talk how dem go make life beta for Congolese pipo. Since 1940s, dem don dey try small-small give some elite wey dem call évolués small civil rights, dem fit get small political power later. So, 'deserving' Congolese fit apply for proof of 'civil merit', or if dem fit do better, 'immatriculation' (registration), wey go show say dem don join European way of life. To get this status, applicant gats meet strict rules (like marry one wife, show good behavior, etc.) and dem go dey watch dem well well (wey de include house visits). Dis policy no work at all. For around mid-1950s, no be plenty Congolese wey don fit get di civil merit diploma or dem don get di 'immatriculation'. Di benefits wey dem dey talk say come with am—like equal legal status with di white folks—na mostly just talk, no be real. E dey make di évolués frustrated well well. When Governor-General Pétillon start dey talk say he go fit give di native people more civil rights, even voting, to create wetin he dey call 'Belgo-Congolese community', di people for Brussels no really send am, and some Belgians for Congo dey vex as dem dey fear for demma privilege.<ref>[[Isidore Ndaywel è Nziem|Ndaywel è Nziem]], Isidore (1998), ''Histoire générale du Congo'', Paris-Brussels: De Boeck & Larcier, pp. 456–63.</ref> E clear say Belgian government no get proper long-term plan for Congo matter. 'Colonial wahala' no dey trend for Belgium, as long as di colony dey shine and e dey quiet. But one person wey show concern na di young King Baudouin, wey take over from him papa, King Leopold III, for 1951, when dem force Leopold III to waka. Baudouin dey follow wetin dey happen for Belgian Congo well well. Wen King Baudouin come visit Belgian Congo for de first time for 1955, crowd dey cheer am well-well, both whites and blacks dey dance, like as dem show for André Cauvin documentary, Bwana Kitoko.<ref>{{cite book|last=Raspoet|first=Erik|title=Bwana Kitoko en de koning van de Bakuba|publisher=Meulenhoff/Manteau|year=2005|isbn=90-8542-020-2}}</ref> Foreign people wey dey observe, suc as de international correspondent of ''The Manchester Guardian'' or a ''Time'' journalist,<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|title=Congo: Boom in the Jungle|date=16 May 1955|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=28 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028201856/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=May 16, 1955|title=CONGO: Boom in the Jungle|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=28 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828025115/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> talk say Belgian paddy paddy style dey work well, and dey compare how Belgian people dem loyal pass those French and British colonies wey dey restless. During di visit, King Baudouin carry Governor-General idea of 'Belgo-Congolese community' come front; but for real, dis plan dey move slow. At di same time, dem wahala wey dey divide for Belgium, wey dem fit hide from di colony before, start to enter Congo too. Dem talk say workers dey unite more now, dem dey call make public schools fit break mission schools for education, plus dem wan make both Belgian languages, French and Dutch, sabi equal treatment for colony. Before this, na only French dem dey push as colonial language. Governor-General dey fear say dis kind wahala fit spoil di colonial government image for Congolese, plus e go shift focus from di real need for true emancipation. ===== Political organisation ===== [[File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|right|thumb|[[:en:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu|Joseph Kasa-Vubu]], leader of ABAKO plus de first President dem elect democratically of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] [[File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Patrice_Lumumba|Patrice Lumumba]], first democratically elected Prime Minister of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] Di Congolese people join Second World War and dem hear say tings dey change for other colonies, e make dem start to organize make dem fit get power. Di colonial government no fit bring beta changes wey fit work, so di Congolese elites start to gather demself socially and later politically. For di 1950s, two separate types of nationalism show up among di Congolese elites. Di nationalist movement—wey di Belgian authorities no really watch—promote say di Belgian Congo go become one united state after dem get independence. E get wetin wey de oppose this matter, na di ethno-religious and regional nationalism wey catch for di Bakongo area for di west coast, Kasai plus Katanga.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} Di first political groups na dem one. ABAKO wey dem establish for 1950 as di Association culturelle des Bakongo, and wetin Joseph Kasa-Vubu dey run, start as cultural group wey turn political sharp sharp. From di middle of 1950s, dem don dey shout against Belgian colonial rule well well. Plus, di group still dey serve as di main ethno-religious group for di Bakongo and dem blend well with di Kimbanguist Church wey be popular for lower Congo.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} For 1955, Belgian prof Antoine van Bilsen drop one paper wey dem call Thirty Year Plan for the Political Emancipation of Belgian Africa.<ref>Gerard-Libois, Jules (1989), "Vers l'Indépendance: une accélération imprévue", In ''Congo-Zaïre'', Brussels: GRIP, pp. 43–56.</ref> De plan get timetable wey say make dem gradually free Congo for 30 years—na the time wey Van Bilsen believe say e go take to build educated people wey fit take over from the Belgians for power. But the Belgian government and plenty of the évolués no happy with the plan—government no wan lose Congo, and the évolués sabi say Belgium go still dey rule for another three decades. One group of Catholic évolués yan am positive for the plan with one moderate manifesto for one Congolese journal wey dem dey call Conscience Africaine; dem talk some matter about how Congolese fit take part well well.<ref>Kalulambi Pongo, Martin (2009), "Le manifeste 'Conscience africaine: genèse, influences et réactions", In Tousignant, Nathalie (ed.), ''Le manifeste Conscience africaine, 1956'', Brussels: Facultés Universitaires Saint-Louis, pp. 59–81.</ref> For 1957, as experiment matter, colonial government do organize di first local elections for three cities (Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Jadotville), wey Congolese people fit stand for office and vote. Watin happen for 1957–58 make demand for political freedom burst, no be small. Ghana independence for 1957 and President De Gaulle visit wey happen for August 1958 for Brazzaville, capital of di French Congo, across di Congo river from Léopoldville, wey e promise say France African colonies go fit choose between staying with France or full independence, make people for Congo get big dreams. Di World Exhibition wey dem do for Brussels for 1958 (Expo 58) be another eye-opener for plenty Congolese leaders, wey dem allow make dem travel go Belgium for di first time.<ref>Aziza Etambala, Zana (2008), ''De teloorgang van een modelkolonie, Belgisch Congo 1958–1960'', Leuven: Acco, pp. 105–110.</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|date=23 December 1957|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125731/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=December 23, 1957|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=1 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501001542/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> For 1958, people dey crave for independence sharp sharp and the koko don take off. Na Mouvement National Congolais (MNC) wey dey play big role for di matter. Dem start am for 1956, but dem officially set am up as national political party for October 1958, wey dey support make Congo be one strong nation. Di person wey dey lead dem well well na di charming Patrice Lumumba. For 1959, wahala start after Albert Kalonji and some MNC leaders wey wan dey moderate split from di main group (dem call dem Mouvement National Congolais-Kalonji). Even though di party get different waka, Lumumba faction (now Mouvement National Congolais-Lumumba) and di MNC still be di most important and influential party for Belgian Congo. Belgium vehemently de oppose Lumumba ein leftist views plus get grave concerns about de status of demma financial interests if Lumumba ein MNC come power.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} ===== Independence ===== As Belgium dey debate how to give Congolese people their freedom small-small, wahala just burst everywhere. On 4 January 1959, dem do one political demo for Léopoldville wey ABAKO organise, but e no gree control. Na so, the colonial capital begin catch fire with plenty chaos. E take dem days to bring back order, and if we count am well, hundreds don die. De eruption of violence sent a shockwave through de Congo den Belgium alike.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-01-if-blood-must-run.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: If Blood Must Run|date=19 January 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125735/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-01-if-blood-must-run.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=January 19, 1959|title=BELGIAN CONGO: If Blood Must Run|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,868969,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201082719/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,868969,00.html|archive-date=2011-02-01|magazine=Time}}</ref> On 13 January, King Baudouin use radio talk to the people say Belgium go work for Congo to get full independence fast, but no be to go rush am like mumu.<ref>Koning Boudewijn. 35 jaar dialoog met de natie. Een keuze uit de koninklijke toespraken van 1951 tot 1986. Lannoo Tielt, Inbel, 1986, blz. 124.</ref> Dem no fit talk say independence go happen one particular day, but di government wey Prime Minister Gaston Eyskens dey lead, get plan for multi-year transition period. Dem think say provincial elections go happen for December 1959, national elections for 1960 or 1961, den after, dem go start hand over di admin and political duties small small to di Congolese, as dem dey expect say by mid-1960s e go don finish. But for ground, things dey change fast fast.<ref>Young, Crawford (1965), ''Politics in the Congo" Decolonization and Independence'', Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 140–161.</ref> Di colonial admin dey see different type of resistance, like people wey no wan pay tax. For some places, anarchy threatened.<ref>Ryckmans, Geneviève (1995), ''André Ryckmans, un territorial du Congo belge''. Paris. L'Harmattan, pp. 215–224.</ref> At di same time, plenty Belgians wey dey di Congo no wan independence, dem dey feel say Brussels don betray dem. As di Congolese dem dey demand better change, di government don see say di chance to make am smooth smooth no dey happen again fast fast.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-10-return-of-the-mundele.pdf|title=The Belgian Congo : Return of the Mundele|date=12 October 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125737/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-10-return-of-the-mundele.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=October 12, 1959|title=THE BELGIAN CONGO: Return of the Mundele|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,864032,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101203183837/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,864032,00.html|archive-date=2010-12-03|magazine=Time}}</ref> [[File:Ronde_Tafel_Conferentie_te_Brussel_Congo,_Bestanddeelnr_910-9593.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ronde_Tafel_Conferentie_te_Brussel_Congo,_Bestanddeelnr_910-9593.jpg|thumb|220x220px|Opening meeting of de Belgo-Congolese Round Table Conference insyde Brussels on 20 January 1960]] For 1959, King Baudouin come back to Belgian Congo, and e see say everywhere don change from the last time wey e visit four years ago. When e land for Léopoldville, wahala start as black Belgo-Congolese people dey throw stone for am because dem vex say dem don lock Lumumba up, wey dem convict say im dey incite against colonial government. Even though for other cities dem receive am better, dem dey shout “Vive le roi!” but e follow with “Indépendance immédiate!” The Belgian government no wan enter any gbege wey fit turn bloody like wetin happen to France for Indochina and Algeria, or Netherlands for Indonesia. So, dem dey reason say make dem fit agree for Congolese leaders wey dey shout for immediate independence.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-11-now-now-now.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: Now Now Now|date=16 November 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125729/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-11-now-now-now.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=November 16, 1959|title=BELGIAN CONGO: Now Now Now|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811442,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201085122/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811442,00.html|archive-date=2011-02-01|magazine=Time}}</ref> Although dem no prepare well plus no plenty people wey educate dey (only small Congolese get degree for dat time), Belgian leaders still gree make independence happen. E be true say dem weak local elites fit work for Belgian government and business people, dem dey hope say dis go make am easy for dem to still dey control wetin dey happen for politics and economy. Dis style different from colonial wars and de slow decolonization wey other European countries dey do, dem sabi am as 'Le Pari Congolais'—di Congolese bet.<ref>{{cite book|last=De Witte|first=Ludo|title=Crisis in Kongo. De rol van de Verenigde Naties, de regering-Eyskens en het koningshuis in de omverwerping van Lumumba en de opkomst van Mobutu|date=1996|publisher=Uitgeverij Van Halewyck|isbn=9789056170523|location=Leuven|page=31|author-link=Ludo De Witte}}</ref> For January 1960, dem call Congolese leaders come Brussels make dem fit gather for round-table talk about independence. Dem free Patrice Lumumba from prison just for this matter. Na so the conference quick quick agree give Congolese almost all wetin dem ask: make dem do general election for May 1960 and full independence—'Dipenda'—go land on 30 June 1960. Na because of di strong unity wey Congolese delegation carry come. [[File:Patrice_Lumumba_signs_the_document_granting_independence_to_the_Congo_next_to_Belgian_Prime_Minister_Gaston_Eyskens.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patrice_Lumumba_signs_the_document_granting_independence_to_the_Congo_next_to_Belgian_Prime_Minister_Gaston_Eyskens.jpg|right|thumb|Lumumba den Eyskens sign de document granting independence to de Congo]] Political maneuvering ahead of de elections, Elections dey come, so dem form three political groups for ground: one na the federalist nationalists, wey dey include six separatist parties, like ABAKO and MNC—Kalonji; another one na centralist MNC—Lumumba; and last one be Moïse Tshombe, wey be big man for Katanga, wey wan protect the business wey dey for Union Minière (like Kalonji do for de diamond exploitations matter insyde Kasaï). Di parliamentary elections show say di political scene dey divided, with di regionalist group dem—ABAKO wey dey lead—plus di nationalist parties like MNC too do well. Dem force compromise make Kasa-Vubu be di first president of Republic of di Congo, and Lumumba be di first head of government. Just like dem plan am five months before, di handover ceremony wey di Belgians do happen well on time for 30 June 1960 for di new house of di Governor-General for Belgian Congo wey dey Léopoldville. One week later, wahala begin for Force Publique, dem dey rebel against dem officers wey still dey mostly Belgian. Dis one spark plenty gbege all over Congo, na unhappy soldiers and sharp-sharp youths dey cause am. For plenty places, dem dey focus di violence on European people. In small time, Belgian soldiers and later UN intervention force carry plenty Belgians wey dey work and live for Congo come out, over 80,000 of dem.<ref>{{cite book|last=Verlinden|first=Peter|title=Weg uit Congo, Het drama van de kolonialen|publisher=[[Davidsfonds]]|year=2002|location=Leuven}}</ref> == Congo crisis plus wetin follow am == Di rebellion wey start for Thyssville for Bas-Congo for July 1960 quickly spread go everywhere for de Congo.<ref>For an overview of developments in the Congo after 1960 see: O'Ballance, Edgar (2000), ''The Congo-Zaire Experience, 1960–98'', Houndmills: MacMillan Press.</ref> For September 1960, di leaders split, wey President Kasa-Vubu declare say prime minister Lumumba no dey hold him work again, and di same thing happen back. Dem stop di stalemate when government arrest Lumumba. For January 1961, dem fly am go di rich mining province of Katanga, wey dem don declare say dem no wan join Léopoldville again under di leadership of Moïse Tshombe (wey Belgium dey support well well). Dem hand Lumumba over to Katangan authorities, wey kill am. [[File:Congo_Crisis_dead_hostages.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_Crisis_dead_hostages.jpg|thumb|Belgian soldier dey lie for ground for de front of dead hostages, November 1964, for Stanleyville during [[:en:Operation_Dragon_Rouge|Operation Dragon Rouge]]. Belgian parachutists free over 1,800 European and American hostages wey Congolese rebels hold. ]] For 2002, Belgium don officially say sorry for wetin dem do to Lumumba; people don dey talk say CIA sabi join am, because dem see say Lumumba dey too left. During Cold War, Soviet Union dey push e influence for Africa to gree fight European powers, e use 'anti-colonialism' as reason to increase de power insyde de region.<ref>A first-hand account of the CIA's activities in the Congo in 1960–61 in: Devlin, Larry (2008), ''Chief of Station, Congo: Fighting the Cold War in a Hot Zone'', Cambridge: PublicAffairs</ref> Plenty rebellions and separatist wahala really mash up di dream of one united Congolese state wen dem just born. Even though di country don dey independent, Belgian paratroopers still show face for Congo plenty times to protect and carry Belgian and foreign people comot. United Nations dey do big peace-keeping work for Congo since late 1960. Di whole matter no settle until 1964–65. Katanga province come back inside, and dem so-called Simba Rebellion end for Stanleyville (province Orientale). Small time after dat, army colonel Joseph Désiré Mobutu come clear di political ground by taking power through coup ''d'état''. Mobutu get some backing for de West, especially for America, sekof e dey strong against communist people. At first, him rule dey boost economy well (like when dem build Inga dam wey dem plan since 1950s). To show say e no be like di old regime, him start campaign wey dem call Congolese 'authenticity'. For 1966, di government stop to use colonial place names: Léopoldville change go Kinshasa, Elisabethville turn Lubumbashi, plus Stanleyville become Kisangani. This time, Congo dey maintain good economic den political relationship with Belgium. Some money matta still dey hang after independence (dem dey call am 'contentieux'), like how dem suppose transfer shares for de big mining companies wey colonial state hold.<ref>Willame, Jean-Claude (1989), "Vingt-cinq ans de rélations belgo-zaïroises", In ''Congo-Zaïre'', Brussels: GRIP, pp. 145–58.</ref> For 1970, on top de ten years independence celebration, King Baudouin come pay official state visit to de Congo. Mobutu regime dey turn more radical for the 1970s. Dem Mouvement populaire de la Révolution (MPR) wey Mobutu be di founder, don set up one-party rule well well. Political wahala increase plenty. Mobutu come change di name of Congo to republic of Zaïre. Di so-called 'Zaïrisation' wey happen for mid-1970s make plenty foreign workers run come out and e cause economic wahala. For di 1980s, Mobutu regime dey become big example of mismanagement plus corruption.<ref>Wrong, Michela (2001), ''Living on the Brink of Disaster in Mobutu's Congo, In the Footsteps of Mr Kurtz'', New York: HarperCollins, pp. 195–200.</ref> De relationship with Belgium, di former colonial master, dey chop ups and downs, show say e dey decline for economic, financial and political side. Since no be chance say di country go fall into Soviet hand, di Western powers just dey stay neutral.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bud |first=Guy |date=2013 |title=Imperial Transitions: Belgian-Congolese relations in the post-colonial era |journal=SIR |issue=2 |pages=7–8}}</ref> [[File:Statue_de_Léopold_II_à_Kinshasa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Statue_de_L%C3%A9opold_II_%C3%A0_Kinshasa.jpg|thumb|Equestrian statue of [[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]] insyde Kinshasa]] After Soviet Union fall and Cold War end for late 1980s, Mobutu no get support from West again. For 1990, e decide say make e end the one-party matter and come back to democracy sharp-sharp. But he dey drag feet, dey play his enemies against each other make e fit buy time. That bloody wahala from Zaïrian Army dem give students for Lubumbashi University Campus May 1990 come make Belgium and Zaïre relationship spoil. Not so nice, Mobutu no receive invite for King Baudouin funeral for 1993, wey him see am as big personal insult. For 1997, dem force Mobutu comot power by rebel wey Laurent-Désiré Kabila dey lead. E come declare say e be president and change Zaïre name to Democratic Republic of the Congo. Dem kill Kabila for 2001, plus him son Joseph Kabila take over. For 2006, dem confirm Joseph Kabila as president when dem do di first nationwide free elections for Congo since 1960. From 30 June – 2 July 2010, King Albert II and Yves Leterme, di Belgian Prime Minister, come visit Kinshasa for celebrate di 50th anniversary of Congolese independence. Some practices plus traditions from colonial days still dey happen for independent Congo. Dem get strong central government wey be bureaucratic, and dem still dey follow di same setup for education and court system. Congo don influence Belgium mostly for money matter: with Union Minière (now Umicore) work, nonferrous metal industry dey grow, plus Port of Antwerp plus diamond business too. Till now, Brussels Airlines wey take over from Sabena still dey carry weight for DRC. Dem talk say insyde 2010, over 4,000 Belgian people dey stay for DRC, plus de Congolese community for Belgium atleast strong pass 16,000. De "Matongé" quarter insyde Brussels be de traditional focal point of de Congolese community insyde Belgium.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Swyngedouw |first1=Eva |last2=Swyngedouw |first2=Erik |year=2009 |title=The Congolese Diaspora in Brussels and hybrid identity formation |journal=Urban Research & Practice |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=68–90 |doi=10.1080/17535060902727074 |s2cid=143979364}}</ref> == Culture == == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] eer87uj7v5wcvj9nonnjsf9n3o215fq 69183 69181 2025-07-06T00:40:42Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Culture */ I don add de sub-header 'Music' 69183 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== [[File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Minière_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|right|thumb|Nurses of de [[:en:Union_Minière_du_Haut-Katanga|Union Minière du Haut-Katanga]] plus demma Congolese assistants, [[:en:Lubumbashi|Élisabethville]], 1918]] Health care too dey supported by missions, but colonial state wan show interest small. For 1906, dem start Institute of Tropical Medicine for Brussels. This ITM dey among di top places wey train and do research for tropical medicine and how health care dey work for developing countries. Dem fit clear endemic sickness like sleeping sickness well well with serious campaigns.<ref>A critical assessment of the colonial obsession with sleeping sickness in: Lyons, Maryinez (1992), ''The Colonial Disease, A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> For 1925, medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper be di first person wey carry tryparsamide, di drug from Rockefeller Foundation wey dey cure sleeping sickness, enter Congo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingman |first=Jack |year=1994 |title=Arthur Lewis Piper, M.D.: A Medical Missionary in the Belgian Congo |journal=Journal of Community Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/BF02260364 |pmid=8006209 |s2cid=37502216}}</ref> Di health-care system dey grow well well during colonial time, with plenty hospital beds dey available for di people, plus dem set up dispensaries for far away places. By 1960, di country get beta medical structure wey pass any other African nation for dat time. Belgian Congo get 3,000 health facilities, wey 380 be hospitals. Dem get 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 people (1 for every 187 people). Dem make huge progress for di fight against endemic diseases; dem report sleeping sickness cases drop from 34,000 in 1931 to just 1,100 in 1959, mainly because dem clear tsetse fly for where plenty people dey. All Europeans plus Congolese wey dey for Belgian Congo do dem vaccine for polio, measles and yellow fever. Big big disease prevention programs dem start, wey dem wan make polio, leprosy and tuberculosis no dey again. For primary schools, dem run disease prevention campaigns, and dem include disease prevention class for curriculum too.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319" /> ===== Social inequality den racial discrimination ===== [[File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|thumb|Dem dey pull one woman wey be missionary inside rickshaw by some Congolese guys, around 1920 to 1930.]] Di Belgia Congo get system wey dey separate people based on race an dem dey discriminate too.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Krauzman|first=Marine|date=2025-03-11|title=Belgium's Colonial Past on Trial: What the 2024 Ruling Means for Reparational Justice|url=http://spheresofinfluence.ca/belgiums-colonial-past-on-trial-what-the-2024-ruling-means-for-reparational-justice/|access-date=2025-06-26|website=Spheres of Influence|language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-29|title=Belgian Congo {{!}} History & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgian-Congo|access-date=2025-06-26|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Dem get wetin dem call 'implicit apartheid'. Di colony put curfew for Congolese wey dey live for city, an plenty racial wahala dey happen. Léopoldville get di racist curfew wey e famous for, an dem use am as template for other European colonies like French Equatorial Africa wey dey close by.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Njoh |first1=Ambe J. |date=March 2008 |title=Colonial Philosophies, Urban Space, and Racial Segregation in British and French Colonial Africa |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Black Studies]] |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=579–599 |doi=10.1177/0021934706288447 |s2cid=145775865 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228161615/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref> Even though dem no get proper laws wey dey separate people by race, segregation dey happen plenty for many places. For example, at first, de city centers be only for white people, while black people dey stay for places dem dey call 'cités indigènes' or 'le belge'. Hospitals, shop dem and other places no dey allow both whites and blacks to mix. For Force Publique, black people no fit rise pass non-commissioned officer rank. Plus, black folks for the cities no fit come out from 9 pm to 4 am. Dis kind segregation start dey vanish small-small only for 1950s, but even then, de Congolese dem still dey feel like second-class citizens, especially for politics and law matter. [[File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|right|thumb|King [[:en:Albert_I_of_Belgium|Albert I]] plus Queen [[:en:Elisabeth_of_Bavaria,_Queen_of_the_Belgians|Elisabeth]] inspecting de military camp of Léopoldville for de time of demma visit to de Belgian Congo, 1928]] Sekof dem dey connect ekonomi growth with di 'civilizing mission', plus as state officials, missionaries plus private companies dey always help each other, people don sabi sey Belgian Congo dey ruled by one 'colonial trinity' of King-Church-Capital. Dis one fit mean di colonial state, di Christian missions, plus Société Générale de Belgique too. Di way wey colonial policy take dey work, e get one saying wey Governor-General Pierre Ryckmans (1934–46) use: Dominer pour servir ('Dominate to serve').<ref>Vanderlinden, Jacques (1994), ''Pierre Ryckmans 1891–1959, Coloniser dans l'honneur'', Brussels: De Boeck.</ref> Di colonial government wan make wey see am say dem dey nice plus no wahala for di administration, plus dem wan show Belgian Congo as di perfect colony. But na only for di 1950s e start change. For di 1950s, dem dey gradually draw back dem plenty harsh laws dem use punish di Congolese people (like di chicote wey be whip). From 1953, plus di big visit wey King Baudouin make to di colony for 1955, Governor-General Léon Pétillon (1952–1958) start dey try build one 'Belgian-Congolese community', where black plus white go dey equal.<ref>Pétillon, L. A. M. (1967), ''Témoignage et réflexions'', Brussels: Renaissance du Livre.</ref> But still, di anti-miscegenation laws no clear, and from 1959 to 1962, plenty mixed-race Congolese pikin dem dey carry come out from Congo by Belgian government plus Catholic Church go Belgium.<ref>{{cite web|last=Paravicini|first=Giulia|date=4 April 2019|title=Belgium apologizes for colonial-era abduction of mixed-race children|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711005737/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|archive-date=11 July 2019|access-date=10 July 2019|publisher=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> For 1957, dem do first municipal elections wey black voters fit vote for some big cities — Léopoldville, Élisabethville, plus Jadotville. ===== Abolition of slavery ===== For Congo Free State, plenty men, women, and pikin dem free from Swahili Arab slave owners and traders for Eastern Congo between 1886 and 1892. Dem fit join militai (Force Publique) or dem go give am to local chiefs wey be friends, and dem go use dem as workers. Even though dem ban chattel slavery for 1910 when Belgian Congo start, dem still dey use prisoners as forced laborers for public den private projects.<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 40</ref> == Resistance == Di Congolese dem no gree colonization; dem dey fight am steady, e come take many shapes. As modern ideas and education dey enter ground, e dey spark plenty action.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> Armed wahala show for small-small parts till Second World War finish (like Pende wahala for 1931, and di gbagbe for Luluabourg 1944). After di war till late 1950s, wetin dem dey call 'Pax belgica' go dey. But e no mean say dem no dey resist; passive resistance dey plenty too, like Kimbanguism wey be from di ‘prophet’ Simon Kimbangu wey di Belgians lock up. Aside active and passive wahala wey Congolese dey raise, di colonial government still dey hear plenty internal noise and gbege. Even for di 1920s, some people for Colonial Council wey dey for Brussels (like Octave Louwers) don talk plenty about di harsh way big companies dey recruit people for di mining places. Di slow growth for population for many areas—abi even wey dem dey chop plenty success for fight against sick sick like sleeping sickness—na another wahala wey dey worry dem. Low birth rate for countryside and some places dey empty usually link to di way traditional life don scatter because of forced work migration and compulsory farming. Dem dey talk say na wetin dem plan be dat, and dem dey point out how population dey increase for cities and how health plus lifespan don better thanks to modern medicine and better living condition.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hunt|first1=Nancy Rose|date=2002|title=Rewriting the Soul in Colonial Congo: Flemish Missionaries and Infertility|url=https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040613132330/https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|archive-date=2004-06-13|website=Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|publisher=Antwerp University Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|language=en}}</ref> Plenty missionaries wey dey connect with Congolese villagers dey carry dem wahala for heart plus sometimes dem dey fit intervene for dem matter with di colonial administration (like land property questions). Di missions plus some area administrators dem fit play big role for study and protect Congolese culture and language tradition plus di artifacts wey dey there. One good example na Father Gustaaf Hulstaert (1900–1990), wey insyde 1937 start di periodical Aequatoria wey dem dey use for di linguistic, ethnographic plus historical study of di Mongo people for di central Congo basin.<ref>See: aequatoria.be</ref> Di colonial state dey interested for di cultural and scientific study of Congo, especially after di Second World War, through di setup of di Institut pour la Recherche Scientifique en Afrique Centrale (IRSAC, 1948). == Toward independence == For early 1950s, di political freedom of di Congolese elites, no talk of di masses, e be like far dream. But e clear say Congo no fit dey far from di quick changes wey happen after di Second World War, wey scatter colonialism worldwide. Di independence wey di British, French, plus Dutch colonies for Asia get after 1945 no really change anything for Congo, but di pressure for Belgium from di United Nations don increase (just like all di other colonial powers). Belgium don agree to article 73 of di United Nations Charter wey talk about self-determination, plus di two superpowers dey pressure Belgium make dem change how dem dey run Congo; di Belgian government dey try hold body against wetin dem call 'interference' with dia colonial policy. Colonial government dey talk how dem go make life beta for Congolese pipo. Since 1940s, dem don dey try small-small give some elite wey dem call évolués small civil rights, dem fit get small political power later. So, 'deserving' Congolese fit apply for proof of 'civil merit', or if dem fit do better, 'immatriculation' (registration), wey go show say dem don join European way of life. To get this status, applicant gats meet strict rules (like marry one wife, show good behavior, etc.) and dem go dey watch dem well well (wey de include house visits). Dis policy no work at all. For around mid-1950s, no be plenty Congolese wey don fit get di civil merit diploma or dem don get di 'immatriculation'. Di benefits wey dem dey talk say come with am—like equal legal status with di white folks—na mostly just talk, no be real. E dey make di évolués frustrated well well. When Governor-General Pétillon start dey talk say he go fit give di native people more civil rights, even voting, to create wetin he dey call 'Belgo-Congolese community', di people for Brussels no really send am, and some Belgians for Congo dey vex as dem dey fear for demma privilege.<ref>[[Isidore Ndaywel è Nziem|Ndaywel è Nziem]], Isidore (1998), ''Histoire générale du Congo'', Paris-Brussels: De Boeck & Larcier, pp. 456–63.</ref> E clear say Belgian government no get proper long-term plan for Congo matter. 'Colonial wahala' no dey trend for Belgium, as long as di colony dey shine and e dey quiet. But one person wey show concern na di young King Baudouin, wey take over from him papa, King Leopold III, for 1951, when dem force Leopold III to waka. Baudouin dey follow wetin dey happen for Belgian Congo well well. Wen King Baudouin come visit Belgian Congo for de first time for 1955, crowd dey cheer am well-well, both whites and blacks dey dance, like as dem show for André Cauvin documentary, Bwana Kitoko.<ref>{{cite book|last=Raspoet|first=Erik|title=Bwana Kitoko en de koning van de Bakuba|publisher=Meulenhoff/Manteau|year=2005|isbn=90-8542-020-2}}</ref> Foreign people wey dey observe, suc as de international correspondent of ''The Manchester Guardian'' or a ''Time'' journalist,<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|title=Congo: Boom in the Jungle|date=16 May 1955|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=28 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028201856/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=May 16, 1955|title=CONGO: Boom in the Jungle|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=28 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828025115/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> talk say Belgian paddy paddy style dey work well, and dey compare how Belgian people dem loyal pass those French and British colonies wey dey restless. During di visit, King Baudouin carry Governor-General idea of 'Belgo-Congolese community' come front; but for real, dis plan dey move slow. At di same time, dem wahala wey dey divide for Belgium, wey dem fit hide from di colony before, start to enter Congo too. Dem talk say workers dey unite more now, dem dey call make public schools fit break mission schools for education, plus dem wan make both Belgian languages, French and Dutch, sabi equal treatment for colony. Before this, na only French dem dey push as colonial language. Governor-General dey fear say dis kind wahala fit spoil di colonial government image for Congolese, plus e go shift focus from di real need for true emancipation. ===== Political organisation ===== [[File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|right|thumb|[[:en:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu|Joseph Kasa-Vubu]], leader of ABAKO plus de first President dem elect democratically of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] [[File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Patrice_Lumumba|Patrice Lumumba]], first democratically elected Prime Minister of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] Di Congolese people join Second World War and dem hear say tings dey change for other colonies, e make dem start to organize make dem fit get power. Di colonial government no fit bring beta changes wey fit work, so di Congolese elites start to gather demself socially and later politically. For di 1950s, two separate types of nationalism show up among di Congolese elites. Di nationalist movement—wey di Belgian authorities no really watch—promote say di Belgian Congo go become one united state after dem get independence. E get wetin wey de oppose this matter, na di ethno-religious and regional nationalism wey catch for di Bakongo area for di west coast, Kasai plus Katanga.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} Di first political groups na dem one. ABAKO wey dem establish for 1950 as di Association culturelle des Bakongo, and wetin Joseph Kasa-Vubu dey run, start as cultural group wey turn political sharp sharp. From di middle of 1950s, dem don dey shout against Belgian colonial rule well well. Plus, di group still dey serve as di main ethno-religious group for di Bakongo and dem blend well with di Kimbanguist Church wey be popular for lower Congo.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} For 1955, Belgian prof Antoine van Bilsen drop one paper wey dem call Thirty Year Plan for the Political Emancipation of Belgian Africa.<ref>Gerard-Libois, Jules (1989), "Vers l'Indépendance: une accélération imprévue", In ''Congo-Zaïre'', Brussels: GRIP, pp. 43–56.</ref> De plan get timetable wey say make dem gradually free Congo for 30 years—na the time wey Van Bilsen believe say e go take to build educated people wey fit take over from the Belgians for power. But the Belgian government and plenty of the évolués no happy with the plan—government no wan lose Congo, and the évolués sabi say Belgium go still dey rule for another three decades. One group of Catholic évolués yan am positive for the plan with one moderate manifesto for one Congolese journal wey dem dey call Conscience Africaine; dem talk some matter about how Congolese fit take part well well.<ref>Kalulambi Pongo, Martin (2009), "Le manifeste 'Conscience africaine: genèse, influences et réactions", In Tousignant, Nathalie (ed.), ''Le manifeste Conscience africaine, 1956'', Brussels: Facultés Universitaires Saint-Louis, pp. 59–81.</ref> For 1957, as experiment matter, colonial government do organize di first local elections for three cities (Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Jadotville), wey Congolese people fit stand for office and vote. Watin happen for 1957–58 make demand for political freedom burst, no be small. Ghana independence for 1957 and President De Gaulle visit wey happen for August 1958 for Brazzaville, capital of di French Congo, across di Congo river from Léopoldville, wey e promise say France African colonies go fit choose between staying with France or full independence, make people for Congo get big dreams. Di World Exhibition wey dem do for Brussels for 1958 (Expo 58) be another eye-opener for plenty Congolese leaders, wey dem allow make dem travel go Belgium for di first time.<ref>Aziza Etambala, Zana (2008), ''De teloorgang van een modelkolonie, Belgisch Congo 1958–1960'', Leuven: Acco, pp. 105–110.</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|date=23 December 1957|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125731/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=December 23, 1957|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=1 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501001542/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> For 1958, people dey crave for independence sharp sharp and the koko don take off. Na Mouvement National Congolais (MNC) wey dey play big role for di matter. Dem start am for 1956, but dem officially set am up as national political party for October 1958, wey dey support make Congo be one strong nation. Di person wey dey lead dem well well na di charming Patrice Lumumba. For 1959, wahala start after Albert Kalonji and some MNC leaders wey wan dey moderate split from di main group (dem call dem Mouvement National Congolais-Kalonji). Even though di party get different waka, Lumumba faction (now Mouvement National Congolais-Lumumba) and di MNC still be di most important and influential party for Belgian Congo. Belgium vehemently de oppose Lumumba ein leftist views plus get grave concerns about de status of demma financial interests if Lumumba ein MNC come power.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} ===== Independence ===== As Belgium dey debate how to give Congolese people their freedom small-small, wahala just burst everywhere. On 4 January 1959, dem do one political demo for Léopoldville wey ABAKO organise, but e no gree control. Na so, the colonial capital begin catch fire with plenty chaos. E take dem days to bring back order, and if we count am well, hundreds don die. De eruption of violence sent a shockwave through de Congo den Belgium alike.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-01-if-blood-must-run.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: If Blood Must Run|date=19 January 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125735/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-01-if-blood-must-run.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=January 19, 1959|title=BELGIAN CONGO: If Blood Must Run|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,868969,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201082719/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,868969,00.html|archive-date=2011-02-01|magazine=Time}}</ref> On 13 January, King Baudouin use radio talk to the people say Belgium go work for Congo to get full independence fast, but no be to go rush am like mumu.<ref>Koning Boudewijn. 35 jaar dialoog met de natie. Een keuze uit de koninklijke toespraken van 1951 tot 1986. Lannoo Tielt, Inbel, 1986, blz. 124.</ref> Dem no fit talk say independence go happen one particular day, but di government wey Prime Minister Gaston Eyskens dey lead, get plan for multi-year transition period. Dem think say provincial elections go happen for December 1959, national elections for 1960 or 1961, den after, dem go start hand over di admin and political duties small small to di Congolese, as dem dey expect say by mid-1960s e go don finish. But for ground, things dey change fast fast.<ref>Young, Crawford (1965), ''Politics in the Congo" Decolonization and Independence'', Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 140–161.</ref> Di colonial admin dey see different type of resistance, like people wey no wan pay tax. For some places, anarchy threatened.<ref>Ryckmans, Geneviève (1995), ''André Ryckmans, un territorial du Congo belge''. Paris. L'Harmattan, pp. 215–224.</ref> At di same time, plenty Belgians wey dey di Congo no wan independence, dem dey feel say Brussels don betray dem. As di Congolese dem dey demand better change, di government don see say di chance to make am smooth smooth no dey happen again fast fast.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-10-return-of-the-mundele.pdf|title=The Belgian Congo : Return of the Mundele|date=12 October 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125737/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-10-return-of-the-mundele.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=October 12, 1959|title=THE BELGIAN CONGO: Return of the Mundele|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,864032,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101203183837/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,864032,00.html|archive-date=2010-12-03|magazine=Time}}</ref> [[File:Ronde_Tafel_Conferentie_te_Brussel_Congo,_Bestanddeelnr_910-9593.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ronde_Tafel_Conferentie_te_Brussel_Congo,_Bestanddeelnr_910-9593.jpg|thumb|220x220px|Opening meeting of de Belgo-Congolese Round Table Conference insyde Brussels on 20 January 1960]] For 1959, King Baudouin come back to Belgian Congo, and e see say everywhere don change from the last time wey e visit four years ago. When e land for Léopoldville, wahala start as black Belgo-Congolese people dey throw stone for am because dem vex say dem don lock Lumumba up, wey dem convict say im dey incite against colonial government. Even though for other cities dem receive am better, dem dey shout “Vive le roi!” but e follow with “Indépendance immédiate!” The Belgian government no wan enter any gbege wey fit turn bloody like wetin happen to France for Indochina and Algeria, or Netherlands for Indonesia. So, dem dey reason say make dem fit agree for Congolese leaders wey dey shout for immediate independence.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-11-now-now-now.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: Now Now Now|date=16 November 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125729/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-11-now-now-now.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=November 16, 1959|title=BELGIAN CONGO: Now Now Now|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811442,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201085122/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811442,00.html|archive-date=2011-02-01|magazine=Time}}</ref> Although dem no prepare well plus no plenty people wey educate dey (only small Congolese get degree for dat time), Belgian leaders still gree make independence happen. E be true say dem weak local elites fit work for Belgian government and business people, dem dey hope say dis go make am easy for dem to still dey control wetin dey happen for politics and economy. Dis style different from colonial wars and de slow decolonization wey other European countries dey do, dem sabi am as 'Le Pari Congolais'—di Congolese bet.<ref>{{cite book|last=De Witte|first=Ludo|title=Crisis in Kongo. De rol van de Verenigde Naties, de regering-Eyskens en het koningshuis in de omverwerping van Lumumba en de opkomst van Mobutu|date=1996|publisher=Uitgeverij Van Halewyck|isbn=9789056170523|location=Leuven|page=31|author-link=Ludo De Witte}}</ref> For January 1960, dem call Congolese leaders come Brussels make dem fit gather for round-table talk about independence. Dem free Patrice Lumumba from prison just for this matter. Na so the conference quick quick agree give Congolese almost all wetin dem ask: make dem do general election for May 1960 and full independence—'Dipenda'—go land on 30 June 1960. Na because of di strong unity wey Congolese delegation carry come. [[File:Patrice_Lumumba_signs_the_document_granting_independence_to_the_Congo_next_to_Belgian_Prime_Minister_Gaston_Eyskens.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patrice_Lumumba_signs_the_document_granting_independence_to_the_Congo_next_to_Belgian_Prime_Minister_Gaston_Eyskens.jpg|right|thumb|Lumumba den Eyskens sign de document granting independence to de Congo]] Political maneuvering ahead of de elections, Elections dey come, so dem form three political groups for ground: one na the federalist nationalists, wey dey include six separatist parties, like ABAKO and MNC—Kalonji; another one na centralist MNC—Lumumba; and last one be Moïse Tshombe, wey be big man for Katanga, wey wan protect the business wey dey for Union Minière (like Kalonji do for de diamond exploitations matter insyde Kasaï). Di parliamentary elections show say di political scene dey divided, with di regionalist group dem—ABAKO wey dey lead—plus di nationalist parties like MNC too do well. Dem force compromise make Kasa-Vubu be di first president of Republic of di Congo, and Lumumba be di first head of government. Just like dem plan am five months before, di handover ceremony wey di Belgians do happen well on time for 30 June 1960 for di new house of di Governor-General for Belgian Congo wey dey Léopoldville. One week later, wahala begin for Force Publique, dem dey rebel against dem officers wey still dey mostly Belgian. Dis one spark plenty gbege all over Congo, na unhappy soldiers and sharp-sharp youths dey cause am. For plenty places, dem dey focus di violence on European people. In small time, Belgian soldiers and later UN intervention force carry plenty Belgians wey dey work and live for Congo come out, over 80,000 of dem.<ref>{{cite book|last=Verlinden|first=Peter|title=Weg uit Congo, Het drama van de kolonialen|publisher=[[Davidsfonds]]|year=2002|location=Leuven}}</ref> == Congo crisis plus wetin follow am == Di rebellion wey start for Thyssville for Bas-Congo for July 1960 quickly spread go everywhere for de Congo.<ref>For an overview of developments in the Congo after 1960 see: O'Ballance, Edgar (2000), ''The Congo-Zaire Experience, 1960–98'', Houndmills: MacMillan Press.</ref> For September 1960, di leaders split, wey President Kasa-Vubu declare say prime minister Lumumba no dey hold him work again, and di same thing happen back. Dem stop di stalemate when government arrest Lumumba. For January 1961, dem fly am go di rich mining province of Katanga, wey dem don declare say dem no wan join Léopoldville again under di leadership of Moïse Tshombe (wey Belgium dey support well well). Dem hand Lumumba over to Katangan authorities, wey kill am. [[File:Congo_Crisis_dead_hostages.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_Crisis_dead_hostages.jpg|thumb|Belgian soldier dey lie for ground for de front of dead hostages, November 1964, for Stanleyville during [[:en:Operation_Dragon_Rouge|Operation Dragon Rouge]]. Belgian parachutists free over 1,800 European and American hostages wey Congolese rebels hold. ]] For 2002, Belgium don officially say sorry for wetin dem do to Lumumba; people don dey talk say CIA sabi join am, because dem see say Lumumba dey too left. During Cold War, Soviet Union dey push e influence for Africa to gree fight European powers, e use 'anti-colonialism' as reason to increase de power insyde de region.<ref>A first-hand account of the CIA's activities in the Congo in 1960–61 in: Devlin, Larry (2008), ''Chief of Station, Congo: Fighting the Cold War in a Hot Zone'', Cambridge: PublicAffairs</ref> Plenty rebellions and separatist wahala really mash up di dream of one united Congolese state wen dem just born. Even though di country don dey independent, Belgian paratroopers still show face for Congo plenty times to protect and carry Belgian and foreign people comot. United Nations dey do big peace-keeping work for Congo since late 1960. Di whole matter no settle until 1964–65. Katanga province come back inside, and dem so-called Simba Rebellion end for Stanleyville (province Orientale). Small time after dat, army colonel Joseph Désiré Mobutu come clear di political ground by taking power through coup ''d'état''. Mobutu get some backing for de West, especially for America, sekof e dey strong against communist people. At first, him rule dey boost economy well (like when dem build Inga dam wey dem plan since 1950s). To show say e no be like di old regime, him start campaign wey dem call Congolese 'authenticity'. For 1966, di government stop to use colonial place names: Léopoldville change go Kinshasa, Elisabethville turn Lubumbashi, plus Stanleyville become Kisangani. This time, Congo dey maintain good economic den political relationship with Belgium. Some money matta still dey hang after independence (dem dey call am 'contentieux'), like how dem suppose transfer shares for de big mining companies wey colonial state hold.<ref>Willame, Jean-Claude (1989), "Vingt-cinq ans de rélations belgo-zaïroises", In ''Congo-Zaïre'', Brussels: GRIP, pp. 145–58.</ref> For 1970, on top de ten years independence celebration, King Baudouin come pay official state visit to de Congo. Mobutu regime dey turn more radical for the 1970s. Dem Mouvement populaire de la Révolution (MPR) wey Mobutu be di founder, don set up one-party rule well well. Political wahala increase plenty. Mobutu come change di name of Congo to republic of Zaïre. Di so-called 'Zaïrisation' wey happen for mid-1970s make plenty foreign workers run come out and e cause economic wahala. For di 1980s, Mobutu regime dey become big example of mismanagement plus corruption.<ref>Wrong, Michela (2001), ''Living on the Brink of Disaster in Mobutu's Congo, In the Footsteps of Mr Kurtz'', New York: HarperCollins, pp. 195–200.</ref> De relationship with Belgium, di former colonial master, dey chop ups and downs, show say e dey decline for economic, financial and political side. Since no be chance say di country go fall into Soviet hand, di Western powers just dey stay neutral.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bud |first=Guy |date=2013 |title=Imperial Transitions: Belgian-Congolese relations in the post-colonial era |journal=SIR |issue=2 |pages=7–8}}</ref> [[File:Statue_de_Léopold_II_à_Kinshasa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Statue_de_L%C3%A9opold_II_%C3%A0_Kinshasa.jpg|thumb|Equestrian statue of [[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]] insyde Kinshasa]] After Soviet Union fall and Cold War end for late 1980s, Mobutu no get support from West again. For 1990, e decide say make e end the one-party matter and come back to democracy sharp-sharp. But he dey drag feet, dey play his enemies against each other make e fit buy time. That bloody wahala from Zaïrian Army dem give students for Lubumbashi University Campus May 1990 come make Belgium and Zaïre relationship spoil. Not so nice, Mobutu no receive invite for King Baudouin funeral for 1993, wey him see am as big personal insult. For 1997, dem force Mobutu comot power by rebel wey Laurent-Désiré Kabila dey lead. E come declare say e be president and change Zaïre name to Democratic Republic of the Congo. Dem kill Kabila for 2001, plus him son Joseph Kabila take over. For 2006, dem confirm Joseph Kabila as president when dem do di first nationwide free elections for Congo since 1960. From 30 June – 2 July 2010, King Albert II and Yves Leterme, di Belgian Prime Minister, come visit Kinshasa for celebrate di 50th anniversary of Congolese independence. Some practices plus traditions from colonial days still dey happen for independent Congo. Dem get strong central government wey be bureaucratic, and dem still dey follow di same setup for education and court system. Congo don influence Belgium mostly for money matter: with Union Minière (now Umicore) work, nonferrous metal industry dey grow, plus Port of Antwerp plus diamond business too. Till now, Brussels Airlines wey take over from Sabena still dey carry weight for DRC. Dem talk say insyde 2010, over 4,000 Belgian people dey stay for DRC, plus de Congolese community for Belgium atleast strong pass 16,000. De "Matongé" quarter insyde Brussels be de traditional focal point of de Congolese community insyde Belgium.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Swyngedouw |first1=Eva |last2=Swyngedouw |first2=Erik |year=2009 |title=The Congolese Diaspora in Brussels and hybrid identity formation |journal=Urban Research & Practice |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=68–90 |doi=10.1080/17535060902727074 |s2cid=143979364}}</ref> == Culture == === Music === == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] kipcdks2xb0iox3liestedh7zx5xt1j 69184 69183 2025-07-06T00:42:22Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Music */ 69184 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== [[File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Minière_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|right|thumb|Nurses of de [[:en:Union_Minière_du_Haut-Katanga|Union Minière du Haut-Katanga]] plus demma Congolese assistants, [[:en:Lubumbashi|Élisabethville]], 1918]] Health care too dey supported by missions, but colonial state wan show interest small. For 1906, dem start Institute of Tropical Medicine for Brussels. This ITM dey among di top places wey train and do research for tropical medicine and how health care dey work for developing countries. Dem fit clear endemic sickness like sleeping sickness well well with serious campaigns.<ref>A critical assessment of the colonial obsession with sleeping sickness in: Lyons, Maryinez (1992), ''The Colonial Disease, A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> For 1925, medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper be di first person wey carry tryparsamide, di drug from Rockefeller Foundation wey dey cure sleeping sickness, enter Congo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingman |first=Jack |year=1994 |title=Arthur Lewis Piper, M.D.: A Medical Missionary in the Belgian Congo |journal=Journal of Community Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/BF02260364 |pmid=8006209 |s2cid=37502216}}</ref> Di health-care system dey grow well well during colonial time, with plenty hospital beds dey available for di people, plus dem set up dispensaries for far away places. By 1960, di country get beta medical structure wey pass any other African nation for dat time. Belgian Congo get 3,000 health facilities, wey 380 be hospitals. Dem get 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 people (1 for every 187 people). Dem make huge progress for di fight against endemic diseases; dem report sleeping sickness cases drop from 34,000 in 1931 to just 1,100 in 1959, mainly because dem clear tsetse fly for where plenty people dey. All Europeans plus Congolese wey dey for Belgian Congo do dem vaccine for polio, measles and yellow fever. Big big disease prevention programs dem start, wey dem wan make polio, leprosy and tuberculosis no dey again. For primary schools, dem run disease prevention campaigns, and dem include disease prevention class for curriculum too.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319" /> ===== Social inequality den racial discrimination ===== [[File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|thumb|Dem dey pull one woman wey be missionary inside rickshaw by some Congolese guys, around 1920 to 1930.]] Di Belgia Congo get system wey dey separate people based on race an dem dey discriminate too.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Krauzman|first=Marine|date=2025-03-11|title=Belgium's Colonial Past on Trial: What the 2024 Ruling Means for Reparational Justice|url=http://spheresofinfluence.ca/belgiums-colonial-past-on-trial-what-the-2024-ruling-means-for-reparational-justice/|access-date=2025-06-26|website=Spheres of Influence|language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-29|title=Belgian Congo {{!}} History & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgian-Congo|access-date=2025-06-26|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Dem get wetin dem call 'implicit apartheid'. Di colony put curfew for Congolese wey dey live for city, an plenty racial wahala dey happen. Léopoldville get di racist curfew wey e famous for, an dem use am as template for other European colonies like French Equatorial Africa wey dey close by.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Njoh |first1=Ambe J. |date=March 2008 |title=Colonial Philosophies, Urban Space, and Racial Segregation in British and French Colonial Africa |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Black Studies]] |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=579–599 |doi=10.1177/0021934706288447 |s2cid=145775865 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228161615/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref> Even though dem no get proper laws wey dey separate people by race, segregation dey happen plenty for many places. For example, at first, de city centers be only for white people, while black people dey stay for places dem dey call 'cités indigènes' or 'le belge'. Hospitals, shop dem and other places no dey allow both whites and blacks to mix. For Force Publique, black people no fit rise pass non-commissioned officer rank. Plus, black folks for the cities no fit come out from 9 pm to 4 am. Dis kind segregation start dey vanish small-small only for 1950s, but even then, de Congolese dem still dey feel like second-class citizens, especially for politics and law matter. [[File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|right|thumb|King [[:en:Albert_I_of_Belgium|Albert I]] plus Queen [[:en:Elisabeth_of_Bavaria,_Queen_of_the_Belgians|Elisabeth]] inspecting de military camp of Léopoldville for de time of demma visit to de Belgian Congo, 1928]] Sekof dem dey connect ekonomi growth with di 'civilizing mission', plus as state officials, missionaries plus private companies dey always help each other, people don sabi sey Belgian Congo dey ruled by one 'colonial trinity' of King-Church-Capital. Dis one fit mean di colonial state, di Christian missions, plus Société Générale de Belgique too. Di way wey colonial policy take dey work, e get one saying wey Governor-General Pierre Ryckmans (1934–46) use: Dominer pour servir ('Dominate to serve').<ref>Vanderlinden, Jacques (1994), ''Pierre Ryckmans 1891–1959, Coloniser dans l'honneur'', Brussels: De Boeck.</ref> Di colonial government wan make wey see am say dem dey nice plus no wahala for di administration, plus dem wan show Belgian Congo as di perfect colony. But na only for di 1950s e start change. For di 1950s, dem dey gradually draw back dem plenty harsh laws dem use punish di Congolese people (like di chicote wey be whip). From 1953, plus di big visit wey King Baudouin make to di colony for 1955, Governor-General Léon Pétillon (1952–1958) start dey try build one 'Belgian-Congolese community', where black plus white go dey equal.<ref>Pétillon, L. A. M. (1967), ''Témoignage et réflexions'', Brussels: Renaissance du Livre.</ref> But still, di anti-miscegenation laws no clear, and from 1959 to 1962, plenty mixed-race Congolese pikin dem dey carry come out from Congo by Belgian government plus Catholic Church go Belgium.<ref>{{cite web|last=Paravicini|first=Giulia|date=4 April 2019|title=Belgium apologizes for colonial-era abduction of mixed-race children|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711005737/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|archive-date=11 July 2019|access-date=10 July 2019|publisher=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> For 1957, dem do first municipal elections wey black voters fit vote for some big cities — Léopoldville, Élisabethville, plus Jadotville. ===== Abolition of slavery ===== For Congo Free State, plenty men, women, and pikin dem free from Swahili Arab slave owners and traders for Eastern Congo between 1886 and 1892. Dem fit join militai (Force Publique) or dem go give am to local chiefs wey be friends, and dem go use dem as workers. Even though dem ban chattel slavery for 1910 when Belgian Congo start, dem still dey use prisoners as forced laborers for public den private projects.<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 40</ref> == Resistance == Di Congolese dem no gree colonization; dem dey fight am steady, e come take many shapes. As modern ideas and education dey enter ground, e dey spark plenty action.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> Armed wahala show for small-small parts till Second World War finish (like Pende wahala for 1931, and di gbagbe for Luluabourg 1944). After di war till late 1950s, wetin dem dey call 'Pax belgica' go dey. But e no mean say dem no dey resist; passive resistance dey plenty too, like Kimbanguism wey be from di ‘prophet’ Simon Kimbangu wey di Belgians lock up. Aside active and passive wahala wey Congolese dey raise, di colonial government still dey hear plenty internal noise and gbege. Even for di 1920s, some people for Colonial Council wey dey for Brussels (like Octave Louwers) don talk plenty about di harsh way big companies dey recruit people for di mining places. Di slow growth for population for many areas—abi even wey dem dey chop plenty success for fight against sick sick like sleeping sickness—na another wahala wey dey worry dem. Low birth rate for countryside and some places dey empty usually link to di way traditional life don scatter because of forced work migration and compulsory farming. Dem dey talk say na wetin dem plan be dat, and dem dey point out how population dey increase for cities and how health plus lifespan don better thanks to modern medicine and better living condition.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hunt|first1=Nancy Rose|date=2002|title=Rewriting the Soul in Colonial Congo: Flemish Missionaries and Infertility|url=https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040613132330/https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|archive-date=2004-06-13|website=Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|publisher=Antwerp University Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|language=en}}</ref> Plenty missionaries wey dey connect with Congolese villagers dey carry dem wahala for heart plus sometimes dem dey fit intervene for dem matter with di colonial administration (like land property questions). Di missions plus some area administrators dem fit play big role for study and protect Congolese culture and language tradition plus di artifacts wey dey there. One good example na Father Gustaaf Hulstaert (1900–1990), wey insyde 1937 start di periodical Aequatoria wey dem dey use for di linguistic, ethnographic plus historical study of di Mongo people for di central Congo basin.<ref>See: aequatoria.be</ref> Di colonial state dey interested for di cultural and scientific study of Congo, especially after di Second World War, through di setup of di Institut pour la Recherche Scientifique en Afrique Centrale (IRSAC, 1948). == Toward independence == For early 1950s, di political freedom of di Congolese elites, no talk of di masses, e be like far dream. But e clear say Congo no fit dey far from di quick changes wey happen after di Second World War, wey scatter colonialism worldwide. Di independence wey di British, French, plus Dutch colonies for Asia get after 1945 no really change anything for Congo, but di pressure for Belgium from di United Nations don increase (just like all di other colonial powers). Belgium don agree to article 73 of di United Nations Charter wey talk about self-determination, plus di two superpowers dey pressure Belgium make dem change how dem dey run Congo; di Belgian government dey try hold body against wetin dem call 'interference' with dia colonial policy. Colonial government dey talk how dem go make life beta for Congolese pipo. Since 1940s, dem don dey try small-small give some elite wey dem call évolués small civil rights, dem fit get small political power later. So, 'deserving' Congolese fit apply for proof of 'civil merit', or if dem fit do better, 'immatriculation' (registration), wey go show say dem don join European way of life. To get this status, applicant gats meet strict rules (like marry one wife, show good behavior, etc.) and dem go dey watch dem well well (wey de include house visits). Dis policy no work at all. For around mid-1950s, no be plenty Congolese wey don fit get di civil merit diploma or dem don get di 'immatriculation'. Di benefits wey dem dey talk say come with am—like equal legal status with di white folks—na mostly just talk, no be real. E dey make di évolués frustrated well well. When Governor-General Pétillon start dey talk say he go fit give di native people more civil rights, even voting, to create wetin he dey call 'Belgo-Congolese community', di people for Brussels no really send am, and some Belgians for Congo dey vex as dem dey fear for demma privilege.<ref>[[Isidore Ndaywel è Nziem|Ndaywel è Nziem]], Isidore (1998), ''Histoire générale du Congo'', Paris-Brussels: De Boeck & Larcier, pp. 456–63.</ref> E clear say Belgian government no get proper long-term plan for Congo matter. 'Colonial wahala' no dey trend for Belgium, as long as di colony dey shine and e dey quiet. But one person wey show concern na di young King Baudouin, wey take over from him papa, King Leopold III, for 1951, when dem force Leopold III to waka. Baudouin dey follow wetin dey happen for Belgian Congo well well. Wen King Baudouin come visit Belgian Congo for de first time for 1955, crowd dey cheer am well-well, both whites and blacks dey dance, like as dem show for André Cauvin documentary, Bwana Kitoko.<ref>{{cite book|last=Raspoet|first=Erik|title=Bwana Kitoko en de koning van de Bakuba|publisher=Meulenhoff/Manteau|year=2005|isbn=90-8542-020-2}}</ref> Foreign people wey dey observe, suc as de international correspondent of ''The Manchester Guardian'' or a ''Time'' journalist,<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|title=Congo: Boom in the Jungle|date=16 May 1955|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=28 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028201856/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=May 16, 1955|title=CONGO: Boom in the Jungle|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=28 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828025115/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> talk say Belgian paddy paddy style dey work well, and dey compare how Belgian people dem loyal pass those French and British colonies wey dey restless. During di visit, King Baudouin carry Governor-General idea of 'Belgo-Congolese community' come front; but for real, dis plan dey move slow. At di same time, dem wahala wey dey divide for Belgium, wey dem fit hide from di colony before, start to enter Congo too. Dem talk say workers dey unite more now, dem dey call make public schools fit break mission schools for education, plus dem wan make both Belgian languages, French and Dutch, sabi equal treatment for colony. Before this, na only French dem dey push as colonial language. Governor-General dey fear say dis kind wahala fit spoil di colonial government image for Congolese, plus e go shift focus from di real need for true emancipation. ===== Political organisation ===== [[File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|right|thumb|[[:en:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu|Joseph Kasa-Vubu]], leader of ABAKO plus de first President dem elect democratically of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] [[File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Patrice_Lumumba|Patrice Lumumba]], first democratically elected Prime Minister of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] Di Congolese people join Second World War and dem hear say tings dey change for other colonies, e make dem start to organize make dem fit get power. Di colonial government no fit bring beta changes wey fit work, so di Congolese elites start to gather demself socially and later politically. For di 1950s, two separate types of nationalism show up among di Congolese elites. Di nationalist movement—wey di Belgian authorities no really watch—promote say di Belgian Congo go become one united state after dem get independence. E get wetin wey de oppose this matter, na di ethno-religious and regional nationalism wey catch for di Bakongo area for di west coast, Kasai plus Katanga.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} Di first political groups na dem one. ABAKO wey dem establish for 1950 as di Association culturelle des Bakongo, and wetin Joseph Kasa-Vubu dey run, start as cultural group wey turn political sharp sharp. From di middle of 1950s, dem don dey shout against Belgian colonial rule well well. Plus, di group still dey serve as di main ethno-religious group for di Bakongo and dem blend well with di Kimbanguist Church wey be popular for lower Congo.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} For 1955, Belgian prof Antoine van Bilsen drop one paper wey dem call Thirty Year Plan for the Political Emancipation of Belgian Africa.<ref>Gerard-Libois, Jules (1989), "Vers l'Indépendance: une accélération imprévue", In ''Congo-Zaïre'', Brussels: GRIP, pp. 43–56.</ref> De plan get timetable wey say make dem gradually free Congo for 30 years—na the time wey Van Bilsen believe say e go take to build educated people wey fit take over from the Belgians for power. But the Belgian government and plenty of the évolués no happy with the plan—government no wan lose Congo, and the évolués sabi say Belgium go still dey rule for another three decades. One group of Catholic évolués yan am positive for the plan with one moderate manifesto for one Congolese journal wey dem dey call Conscience Africaine; dem talk some matter about how Congolese fit take part well well.<ref>Kalulambi Pongo, Martin (2009), "Le manifeste 'Conscience africaine: genèse, influences et réactions", In Tousignant, Nathalie (ed.), ''Le manifeste Conscience africaine, 1956'', Brussels: Facultés Universitaires Saint-Louis, pp. 59–81.</ref> For 1957, as experiment matter, colonial government do organize di first local elections for three cities (Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Jadotville), wey Congolese people fit stand for office and vote. Watin happen for 1957–58 make demand for political freedom burst, no be small. Ghana independence for 1957 and President De Gaulle visit wey happen for August 1958 for Brazzaville, capital of di French Congo, across di Congo river from Léopoldville, wey e promise say France African colonies go fit choose between staying with France or full independence, make people for Congo get big dreams. Di World Exhibition wey dem do for Brussels for 1958 (Expo 58) be another eye-opener for plenty Congolese leaders, wey dem allow make dem travel go Belgium for di first time.<ref>Aziza Etambala, Zana (2008), ''De teloorgang van een modelkolonie, Belgisch Congo 1958–1960'', Leuven: Acco, pp. 105–110.</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|date=23 December 1957|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125731/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=December 23, 1957|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=1 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501001542/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> For 1958, people dey crave for independence sharp sharp and the koko don take off. Na Mouvement National Congolais (MNC) wey dey play big role for di matter. Dem start am for 1956, but dem officially set am up as national political party for October 1958, wey dey support make Congo be one strong nation. Di person wey dey lead dem well well na di charming Patrice Lumumba. For 1959, wahala start after Albert Kalonji and some MNC leaders wey wan dey moderate split from di main group (dem call dem Mouvement National Congolais-Kalonji). Even though di party get different waka, Lumumba faction (now Mouvement National Congolais-Lumumba) and di MNC still be di most important and influential party for Belgian Congo. Belgium vehemently de oppose Lumumba ein leftist views plus get grave concerns about de status of demma financial interests if Lumumba ein MNC come power.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} ===== Independence ===== As Belgium dey debate how to give Congolese people their freedom small-small, wahala just burst everywhere. On 4 January 1959, dem do one political demo for Léopoldville wey ABAKO organise, but e no gree control. Na so, the colonial capital begin catch fire with plenty chaos. E take dem days to bring back order, and if we count am well, hundreds don die. De eruption of violence sent a shockwave through de Congo den Belgium alike.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-01-if-blood-must-run.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: If Blood Must Run|date=19 January 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125735/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-01-if-blood-must-run.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=January 19, 1959|title=BELGIAN CONGO: If Blood Must Run|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,868969,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201082719/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,868969,00.html|archive-date=2011-02-01|magazine=Time}}</ref> On 13 January, King Baudouin use radio talk to the people say Belgium go work for Congo to get full independence fast, but no be to go rush am like mumu.<ref>Koning Boudewijn. 35 jaar dialoog met de natie. Een keuze uit de koninklijke toespraken van 1951 tot 1986. Lannoo Tielt, Inbel, 1986, blz. 124.</ref> Dem no fit talk say independence go happen one particular day, but di government wey Prime Minister Gaston Eyskens dey lead, get plan for multi-year transition period. Dem think say provincial elections go happen for December 1959, national elections for 1960 or 1961, den after, dem go start hand over di admin and political duties small small to di Congolese, as dem dey expect say by mid-1960s e go don finish. But for ground, things dey change fast fast.<ref>Young, Crawford (1965), ''Politics in the Congo" Decolonization and Independence'', Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 140–161.</ref> Di colonial admin dey see different type of resistance, like people wey no wan pay tax. For some places, anarchy threatened.<ref>Ryckmans, Geneviève (1995), ''André Ryckmans, un territorial du Congo belge''. Paris. L'Harmattan, pp. 215–224.</ref> At di same time, plenty Belgians wey dey di Congo no wan independence, dem dey feel say Brussels don betray dem. As di Congolese dem dey demand better change, di government don see say di chance to make am smooth smooth no dey happen again fast fast.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-10-return-of-the-mundele.pdf|title=The Belgian Congo : Return of the Mundele|date=12 October 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125737/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-10-return-of-the-mundele.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=October 12, 1959|title=THE BELGIAN CONGO: Return of the Mundele|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,864032,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101203183837/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,864032,00.html|archive-date=2010-12-03|magazine=Time}}</ref> [[File:Ronde_Tafel_Conferentie_te_Brussel_Congo,_Bestanddeelnr_910-9593.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ronde_Tafel_Conferentie_te_Brussel_Congo,_Bestanddeelnr_910-9593.jpg|thumb|220x220px|Opening meeting of de Belgo-Congolese Round Table Conference insyde Brussels on 20 January 1960]] For 1959, King Baudouin come back to Belgian Congo, and e see say everywhere don change from the last time wey e visit four years ago. When e land for Léopoldville, wahala start as black Belgo-Congolese people dey throw stone for am because dem vex say dem don lock Lumumba up, wey dem convict say im dey incite against colonial government. Even though for other cities dem receive am better, dem dey shout “Vive le roi!” but e follow with “Indépendance immédiate!” The Belgian government no wan enter any gbege wey fit turn bloody like wetin happen to France for Indochina and Algeria, or Netherlands for Indonesia. So, dem dey reason say make dem fit agree for Congolese leaders wey dey shout for immediate independence.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-11-now-now-now.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: Now Now Now|date=16 November 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125729/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-11-now-now-now.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=November 16, 1959|title=BELGIAN CONGO: Now Now Now|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811442,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201085122/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811442,00.html|archive-date=2011-02-01|magazine=Time}}</ref> Although dem no prepare well plus no plenty people wey educate dey (only small Congolese get degree for dat time), Belgian leaders still gree make independence happen. E be true say dem weak local elites fit work for Belgian government and business people, dem dey hope say dis go make am easy for dem to still dey control wetin dey happen for politics and economy. Dis style different from colonial wars and de slow decolonization wey other European countries dey do, dem sabi am as 'Le Pari Congolais'—di Congolese bet.<ref>{{cite book|last=De Witte|first=Ludo|title=Crisis in Kongo. De rol van de Verenigde Naties, de regering-Eyskens en het koningshuis in de omverwerping van Lumumba en de opkomst van Mobutu|date=1996|publisher=Uitgeverij Van Halewyck|isbn=9789056170523|location=Leuven|page=31|author-link=Ludo De Witte}}</ref> For January 1960, dem call Congolese leaders come Brussels make dem fit gather for round-table talk about independence. Dem free Patrice Lumumba from prison just for this matter. Na so the conference quick quick agree give Congolese almost all wetin dem ask: make dem do general election for May 1960 and full independence—'Dipenda'—go land on 30 June 1960. Na because of di strong unity wey Congolese delegation carry come. [[File:Patrice_Lumumba_signs_the_document_granting_independence_to_the_Congo_next_to_Belgian_Prime_Minister_Gaston_Eyskens.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patrice_Lumumba_signs_the_document_granting_independence_to_the_Congo_next_to_Belgian_Prime_Minister_Gaston_Eyskens.jpg|right|thumb|Lumumba den Eyskens sign de document granting independence to de Congo]] Political maneuvering ahead of de elections, Elections dey come, so dem form three political groups for ground: one na the federalist nationalists, wey dey include six separatist parties, like ABAKO and MNC—Kalonji; another one na centralist MNC—Lumumba; and last one be Moïse Tshombe, wey be big man for Katanga, wey wan protect the business wey dey for Union Minière (like Kalonji do for de diamond exploitations matter insyde Kasaï). Di parliamentary elections show say di political scene dey divided, with di regionalist group dem—ABAKO wey dey lead—plus di nationalist parties like MNC too do well. Dem force compromise make Kasa-Vubu be di first president of Republic of di Congo, and Lumumba be di first head of government. Just like dem plan am five months before, di handover ceremony wey di Belgians do happen well on time for 30 June 1960 for di new house of di Governor-General for Belgian Congo wey dey Léopoldville. One week later, wahala begin for Force Publique, dem dey rebel against dem officers wey still dey mostly Belgian. Dis one spark plenty gbege all over Congo, na unhappy soldiers and sharp-sharp youths dey cause am. For plenty places, dem dey focus di violence on European people. In small time, Belgian soldiers and later UN intervention force carry plenty Belgians wey dey work and live for Congo come out, over 80,000 of dem.<ref>{{cite book|last=Verlinden|first=Peter|title=Weg uit Congo, Het drama van de kolonialen|publisher=[[Davidsfonds]]|year=2002|location=Leuven}}</ref> == Congo crisis plus wetin follow am == Di rebellion wey start for Thyssville for Bas-Congo for July 1960 quickly spread go everywhere for de Congo.<ref>For an overview of developments in the Congo after 1960 see: O'Ballance, Edgar (2000), ''The Congo-Zaire Experience, 1960–98'', Houndmills: MacMillan Press.</ref> For September 1960, di leaders split, wey President Kasa-Vubu declare say prime minister Lumumba no dey hold him work again, and di same thing happen back. Dem stop di stalemate when government arrest Lumumba. For January 1961, dem fly am go di rich mining province of Katanga, wey dem don declare say dem no wan join Léopoldville again under di leadership of Moïse Tshombe (wey Belgium dey support well well). Dem hand Lumumba over to Katangan authorities, wey kill am. [[File:Congo_Crisis_dead_hostages.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_Crisis_dead_hostages.jpg|thumb|Belgian soldier dey lie for ground for de front of dead hostages, November 1964, for Stanleyville during [[:en:Operation_Dragon_Rouge|Operation Dragon Rouge]]. Belgian parachutists free over 1,800 European and American hostages wey Congolese rebels hold. ]] For 2002, Belgium don officially say sorry for wetin dem do to Lumumba; people don dey talk say CIA sabi join am, because dem see say Lumumba dey too left. During Cold War, Soviet Union dey push e influence for Africa to gree fight European powers, e use 'anti-colonialism' as reason to increase de power insyde de region.<ref>A first-hand account of the CIA's activities in the Congo in 1960–61 in: Devlin, Larry (2008), ''Chief of Station, Congo: Fighting the Cold War in a Hot Zone'', Cambridge: PublicAffairs</ref> Plenty rebellions and separatist wahala really mash up di dream of one united Congolese state wen dem just born. Even though di country don dey independent, Belgian paratroopers still show face for Congo plenty times to protect and carry Belgian and foreign people comot. United Nations dey do big peace-keeping work for Congo since late 1960. Di whole matter no settle until 1964–65. Katanga province come back inside, and dem so-called Simba Rebellion end for Stanleyville (province Orientale). Small time after dat, army colonel Joseph Désiré Mobutu come clear di political ground by taking power through coup ''d'état''. Mobutu get some backing for de West, especially for America, sekof e dey strong against communist people. At first, him rule dey boost economy well (like when dem build Inga dam wey dem plan since 1950s). To show say e no be like di old regime, him start campaign wey dem call Congolese 'authenticity'. For 1966, di government stop to use colonial place names: Léopoldville change go Kinshasa, Elisabethville turn Lubumbashi, plus Stanleyville become Kisangani. This time, Congo dey maintain good economic den political relationship with Belgium. Some money matta still dey hang after independence (dem dey call am 'contentieux'), like how dem suppose transfer shares for de big mining companies wey colonial state hold.<ref>Willame, Jean-Claude (1989), "Vingt-cinq ans de rélations belgo-zaïroises", In ''Congo-Zaïre'', Brussels: GRIP, pp. 145–58.</ref> For 1970, on top de ten years independence celebration, King Baudouin come pay official state visit to de Congo. Mobutu regime dey turn more radical for the 1970s. Dem Mouvement populaire de la Révolution (MPR) wey Mobutu be di founder, don set up one-party rule well well. Political wahala increase plenty. Mobutu come change di name of Congo to republic of Zaïre. Di so-called 'Zaïrisation' wey happen for mid-1970s make plenty foreign workers run come out and e cause economic wahala. For di 1980s, Mobutu regime dey become big example of mismanagement plus corruption.<ref>Wrong, Michela (2001), ''Living on the Brink of Disaster in Mobutu's Congo, In the Footsteps of Mr Kurtz'', New York: HarperCollins, pp. 195–200.</ref> De relationship with Belgium, di former colonial master, dey chop ups and downs, show say e dey decline for economic, financial and political side. Since no be chance say di country go fall into Soviet hand, di Western powers just dey stay neutral.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bud |first=Guy |date=2013 |title=Imperial Transitions: Belgian-Congolese relations in the post-colonial era |journal=SIR |issue=2 |pages=7–8}}</ref> [[File:Statue_de_Léopold_II_à_Kinshasa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Statue_de_L%C3%A9opold_II_%C3%A0_Kinshasa.jpg|thumb|Equestrian statue of [[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]] insyde Kinshasa]] After Soviet Union fall and Cold War end for late 1980s, Mobutu no get support from West again. For 1990, e decide say make e end the one-party matter and come back to democracy sharp-sharp. But he dey drag feet, dey play his enemies against each other make e fit buy time. That bloody wahala from Zaïrian Army dem give students for Lubumbashi University Campus May 1990 come make Belgium and Zaïre relationship spoil. Not so nice, Mobutu no receive invite for King Baudouin funeral for 1993, wey him see am as big personal insult. For 1997, dem force Mobutu comot power by rebel wey Laurent-Désiré Kabila dey lead. E come declare say e be president and change Zaïre name to Democratic Republic of the Congo. Dem kill Kabila for 2001, plus him son Joseph Kabila take over. For 2006, dem confirm Joseph Kabila as president when dem do di first nationwide free elections for Congo since 1960. From 30 June – 2 July 2010, King Albert II and Yves Leterme, di Belgian Prime Minister, come visit Kinshasa for celebrate di 50th anniversary of Congolese independence. Some practices plus traditions from colonial days still dey happen for independent Congo. Dem get strong central government wey be bureaucratic, and dem still dey follow di same setup for education and court system. Congo don influence Belgium mostly for money matter: with Union Minière (now Umicore) work, nonferrous metal industry dey grow, plus Port of Antwerp plus diamond business too. Till now, Brussels Airlines wey take over from Sabena still dey carry weight for DRC. Dem talk say insyde 2010, over 4,000 Belgian people dey stay for DRC, plus de Congolese community for Belgium atleast strong pass 16,000. De "Matongé" quarter insyde Brussels be de traditional focal point of de Congolese community insyde Belgium.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Swyngedouw |first1=Eva |last2=Swyngedouw |first2=Erik |year=2009 |title=The Congolese Diaspora in Brussels and hybrid identity formation |journal=Urban Research & Practice |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=68–90 |doi=10.1080/17535060902727074 |s2cid=143979364}}</ref> == Culture == === Music === For popular music, Latin music like rumba come from Cuba for 1930s and 1940s when colonial time dey run, and dem dey play Latin music well plenty for Belgian Congo. For 1950s, American jazz also come enter as African jazz. For 1956, Franco form OK Jazz (later dem change de name to TPOK Jazz).<ref>{{cite web|last=Al Angeloro|date=March 2005|title=World Music Legends: Franco|url=http://www.globalrhythm.net/WorldMusicLegends/Franco.cfm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928055648/http://www.globalrhythm.net/WorldMusicLegends/Franco.cfm|archive-date=28 September 2007|access-date=30 December 2019|work=Global Rhythm|publisher=Zenbu Media}}</ref> == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] 33fvs3lwnyah65k399bl5yq7skhhgho 69185 69184 2025-07-06T00:43:09Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Music */ 69185 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== [[File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Minière_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|right|thumb|Nurses of de [[:en:Union_Minière_du_Haut-Katanga|Union Minière du Haut-Katanga]] plus demma Congolese assistants, [[:en:Lubumbashi|Élisabethville]], 1918]] Health care too dey supported by missions, but colonial state wan show interest small. For 1906, dem start Institute of Tropical Medicine for Brussels. This ITM dey among di top places wey train and do research for tropical medicine and how health care dey work for developing countries. Dem fit clear endemic sickness like sleeping sickness well well with serious campaigns.<ref>A critical assessment of the colonial obsession with sleeping sickness in: Lyons, Maryinez (1992), ''The Colonial Disease, A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> For 1925, medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper be di first person wey carry tryparsamide, di drug from Rockefeller Foundation wey dey cure sleeping sickness, enter Congo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingman |first=Jack |year=1994 |title=Arthur Lewis Piper, M.D.: A Medical Missionary in the Belgian Congo |journal=Journal of Community Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/BF02260364 |pmid=8006209 |s2cid=37502216}}</ref> Di health-care system dey grow well well during colonial time, with plenty hospital beds dey available for di people, plus dem set up dispensaries for far away places. By 1960, di country get beta medical structure wey pass any other African nation for dat time. Belgian Congo get 3,000 health facilities, wey 380 be hospitals. Dem get 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 people (1 for every 187 people). Dem make huge progress for di fight against endemic diseases; dem report sleeping sickness cases drop from 34,000 in 1931 to just 1,100 in 1959, mainly because dem clear tsetse fly for where plenty people dey. All Europeans plus Congolese wey dey for Belgian Congo do dem vaccine for polio, measles and yellow fever. Big big disease prevention programs dem start, wey dem wan make polio, leprosy and tuberculosis no dey again. For primary schools, dem run disease prevention campaigns, and dem include disease prevention class for curriculum too.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319" /> ===== Social inequality den racial discrimination ===== [[File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|thumb|Dem dey pull one woman wey be missionary inside rickshaw by some Congolese guys, around 1920 to 1930.]] Di Belgia Congo get system wey dey separate people based on race an dem dey discriminate too.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Krauzman|first=Marine|date=2025-03-11|title=Belgium's Colonial Past on Trial: What the 2024 Ruling Means for Reparational Justice|url=http://spheresofinfluence.ca/belgiums-colonial-past-on-trial-what-the-2024-ruling-means-for-reparational-justice/|access-date=2025-06-26|website=Spheres of Influence|language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-29|title=Belgian Congo {{!}} History & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgian-Congo|access-date=2025-06-26|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Dem get wetin dem call 'implicit apartheid'. Di colony put curfew for Congolese wey dey live for city, an plenty racial wahala dey happen. Léopoldville get di racist curfew wey e famous for, an dem use am as template for other European colonies like French Equatorial Africa wey dey close by.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Njoh |first1=Ambe J. |date=March 2008 |title=Colonial Philosophies, Urban Space, and Racial Segregation in British and French Colonial Africa |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Black Studies]] |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=579–599 |doi=10.1177/0021934706288447 |s2cid=145775865 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228161615/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref> Even though dem no get proper laws wey dey separate people by race, segregation dey happen plenty for many places. For example, at first, de city centers be only for white people, while black people dey stay for places dem dey call 'cités indigènes' or 'le belge'. Hospitals, shop dem and other places no dey allow both whites and blacks to mix. For Force Publique, black people no fit rise pass non-commissioned officer rank. Plus, black folks for the cities no fit come out from 9 pm to 4 am. Dis kind segregation start dey vanish small-small only for 1950s, but even then, de Congolese dem still dey feel like second-class citizens, especially for politics and law matter. [[File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|right|thumb|King [[:en:Albert_I_of_Belgium|Albert I]] plus Queen [[:en:Elisabeth_of_Bavaria,_Queen_of_the_Belgians|Elisabeth]] inspecting de military camp of Léopoldville for de time of demma visit to de Belgian Congo, 1928]] Sekof dem dey connect ekonomi growth with di 'civilizing mission', plus as state officials, missionaries plus private companies dey always help each other, people don sabi sey Belgian Congo dey ruled by one 'colonial trinity' of King-Church-Capital. Dis one fit mean di colonial state, di Christian missions, plus Société Générale de Belgique too. Di way wey colonial policy take dey work, e get one saying wey Governor-General Pierre Ryckmans (1934–46) use: Dominer pour servir ('Dominate to serve').<ref>Vanderlinden, Jacques (1994), ''Pierre Ryckmans 1891–1959, Coloniser dans l'honneur'', Brussels: De Boeck.</ref> Di colonial government wan make wey see am say dem dey nice plus no wahala for di administration, plus dem wan show Belgian Congo as di perfect colony. But na only for di 1950s e start change. For di 1950s, dem dey gradually draw back dem plenty harsh laws dem use punish di Congolese people (like di chicote wey be whip). From 1953, plus di big visit wey King Baudouin make to di colony for 1955, Governor-General Léon Pétillon (1952–1958) start dey try build one 'Belgian-Congolese community', where black plus white go dey equal.<ref>Pétillon, L. A. M. (1967), ''Témoignage et réflexions'', Brussels: Renaissance du Livre.</ref> But still, di anti-miscegenation laws no clear, and from 1959 to 1962, plenty mixed-race Congolese pikin dem dey carry come out from Congo by Belgian government plus Catholic Church go Belgium.<ref>{{cite web|last=Paravicini|first=Giulia|date=4 April 2019|title=Belgium apologizes for colonial-era abduction of mixed-race children|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711005737/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|archive-date=11 July 2019|access-date=10 July 2019|publisher=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> For 1957, dem do first municipal elections wey black voters fit vote for some big cities — Léopoldville, Élisabethville, plus Jadotville. ===== Abolition of slavery ===== For Congo Free State, plenty men, women, and pikin dem free from Swahili Arab slave owners and traders for Eastern Congo between 1886 and 1892. Dem fit join militai (Force Publique) or dem go give am to local chiefs wey be friends, and dem go use dem as workers. Even though dem ban chattel slavery for 1910 when Belgian Congo start, dem still dey use prisoners as forced laborers for public den private projects.<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 40</ref> == Resistance == Di Congolese dem no gree colonization; dem dey fight am steady, e come take many shapes. As modern ideas and education dey enter ground, e dey spark plenty action.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> Armed wahala show for small-small parts till Second World War finish (like Pende wahala for 1931, and di gbagbe for Luluabourg 1944). After di war till late 1950s, wetin dem dey call 'Pax belgica' go dey. But e no mean say dem no dey resist; passive resistance dey plenty too, like Kimbanguism wey be from di ‘prophet’ Simon Kimbangu wey di Belgians lock up. Aside active and passive wahala wey Congolese dey raise, di colonial government still dey hear plenty internal noise and gbege. Even for di 1920s, some people for Colonial Council wey dey for Brussels (like Octave Louwers) don talk plenty about di harsh way big companies dey recruit people for di mining places. Di slow growth for population for many areas—abi even wey dem dey chop plenty success for fight against sick sick like sleeping sickness—na another wahala wey dey worry dem. Low birth rate for countryside and some places dey empty usually link to di way traditional life don scatter because of forced work migration and compulsory farming. Dem dey talk say na wetin dem plan be dat, and dem dey point out how population dey increase for cities and how health plus lifespan don better thanks to modern medicine and better living condition.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hunt|first1=Nancy Rose|date=2002|title=Rewriting the Soul in Colonial Congo: Flemish Missionaries and Infertility|url=https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040613132330/https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|archive-date=2004-06-13|website=Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|publisher=Antwerp University Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|language=en}}</ref> Plenty missionaries wey dey connect with Congolese villagers dey carry dem wahala for heart plus sometimes dem dey fit intervene for dem matter with di colonial administration (like land property questions). Di missions plus some area administrators dem fit play big role for study and protect Congolese culture and language tradition plus di artifacts wey dey there. One good example na Father Gustaaf Hulstaert (1900–1990), wey insyde 1937 start di periodical Aequatoria wey dem dey use for di linguistic, ethnographic plus historical study of di Mongo people for di central Congo basin.<ref>See: aequatoria.be</ref> Di colonial state dey interested for di cultural and scientific study of Congo, especially after di Second World War, through di setup of di Institut pour la Recherche Scientifique en Afrique Centrale (IRSAC, 1948). == Toward independence == For early 1950s, di political freedom of di Congolese elites, no talk of di masses, e be like far dream. But e clear say Congo no fit dey far from di quick changes wey happen after di Second World War, wey scatter colonialism worldwide. Di independence wey di British, French, plus Dutch colonies for Asia get after 1945 no really change anything for Congo, but di pressure for Belgium from di United Nations don increase (just like all di other colonial powers). Belgium don agree to article 73 of di United Nations Charter wey talk about self-determination, plus di two superpowers dey pressure Belgium make dem change how dem dey run Congo; di Belgian government dey try hold body against wetin dem call 'interference' with dia colonial policy. Colonial government dey talk how dem go make life beta for Congolese pipo. Since 1940s, dem don dey try small-small give some elite wey dem call évolués small civil rights, dem fit get small political power later. So, 'deserving' Congolese fit apply for proof of 'civil merit', or if dem fit do better, 'immatriculation' (registration), wey go show say dem don join European way of life. To get this status, applicant gats meet strict rules (like marry one wife, show good behavior, etc.) and dem go dey watch dem well well (wey de include house visits). Dis policy no work at all. For around mid-1950s, no be plenty Congolese wey don fit get di civil merit diploma or dem don get di 'immatriculation'. Di benefits wey dem dey talk say come with am—like equal legal status with di white folks—na mostly just talk, no be real. E dey make di évolués frustrated well well. When Governor-General Pétillon start dey talk say he go fit give di native people more civil rights, even voting, to create wetin he dey call 'Belgo-Congolese community', di people for Brussels no really send am, and some Belgians for Congo dey vex as dem dey fear for demma privilege.<ref>[[Isidore Ndaywel è Nziem|Ndaywel è Nziem]], Isidore (1998), ''Histoire générale du Congo'', Paris-Brussels: De Boeck & Larcier, pp. 456–63.</ref> E clear say Belgian government no get proper long-term plan for Congo matter. 'Colonial wahala' no dey trend for Belgium, as long as di colony dey shine and e dey quiet. But one person wey show concern na di young King Baudouin, wey take over from him papa, King Leopold III, for 1951, when dem force Leopold III to waka. Baudouin dey follow wetin dey happen for Belgian Congo well well. Wen King Baudouin come visit Belgian Congo for de first time for 1955, crowd dey cheer am well-well, both whites and blacks dey dance, like as dem show for André Cauvin documentary, Bwana Kitoko.<ref>{{cite book|last=Raspoet|first=Erik|title=Bwana Kitoko en de koning van de Bakuba|publisher=Meulenhoff/Manteau|year=2005|isbn=90-8542-020-2}}</ref> Foreign people wey dey observe, suc as de international correspondent of ''The Manchester Guardian'' or a ''Time'' journalist,<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|title=Congo: Boom in the Jungle|date=16 May 1955|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=28 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028201856/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=May 16, 1955|title=CONGO: Boom in the Jungle|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=28 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828025115/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> talk say Belgian paddy paddy style dey work well, and dey compare how Belgian people dem loyal pass those French and British colonies wey dey restless. During di visit, King Baudouin carry Governor-General idea of 'Belgo-Congolese community' come front; but for real, dis plan dey move slow. At di same time, dem wahala wey dey divide for Belgium, wey dem fit hide from di colony before, start to enter Congo too. Dem talk say workers dey unite more now, dem dey call make public schools fit break mission schools for education, plus dem wan make both Belgian languages, French and Dutch, sabi equal treatment for colony. Before this, na only French dem dey push as colonial language. Governor-General dey fear say dis kind wahala fit spoil di colonial government image for Congolese, plus e go shift focus from di real need for true emancipation. ===== Political organisation ===== [[File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|right|thumb|[[:en:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu|Joseph Kasa-Vubu]], leader of ABAKO plus de first President dem elect democratically of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] [[File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Patrice_Lumumba|Patrice Lumumba]], first democratically elected Prime Minister of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] Di Congolese people join Second World War and dem hear say tings dey change for other colonies, e make dem start to organize make dem fit get power. Di colonial government no fit bring beta changes wey fit work, so di Congolese elites start to gather demself socially and later politically. For di 1950s, two separate types of nationalism show up among di Congolese elites. Di nationalist movement—wey di Belgian authorities no really watch—promote say di Belgian Congo go become one united state after dem get independence. E get wetin wey de oppose this matter, na di ethno-religious and regional nationalism wey catch for di Bakongo area for di west coast, Kasai plus Katanga.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} Di first political groups na dem one. ABAKO wey dem establish for 1950 as di Association culturelle des Bakongo, and wetin Joseph Kasa-Vubu dey run, start as cultural group wey turn political sharp sharp. From di middle of 1950s, dem don dey shout against Belgian colonial rule well well. Plus, di group still dey serve as di main ethno-religious group for di Bakongo and dem blend well with di Kimbanguist Church wey be popular for lower Congo.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} For 1955, Belgian prof Antoine van Bilsen drop one paper wey dem call Thirty Year Plan for the Political Emancipation of Belgian Africa.<ref>Gerard-Libois, Jules (1989), "Vers l'Indépendance: une accélération imprévue", In ''Congo-Zaïre'', Brussels: GRIP, pp. 43–56.</ref> De plan get timetable wey say make dem gradually free Congo for 30 years—na the time wey Van Bilsen believe say e go take to build educated people wey fit take over from the Belgians for power. But the Belgian government and plenty of the évolués no happy with the plan—government no wan lose Congo, and the évolués sabi say Belgium go still dey rule for another three decades. One group of Catholic évolués yan am positive for the plan with one moderate manifesto for one Congolese journal wey dem dey call Conscience Africaine; dem talk some matter about how Congolese fit take part well well.<ref>Kalulambi Pongo, Martin (2009), "Le manifeste 'Conscience africaine: genèse, influences et réactions", In Tousignant, Nathalie (ed.), ''Le manifeste Conscience africaine, 1956'', Brussels: Facultés Universitaires Saint-Louis, pp. 59–81.</ref> For 1957, as experiment matter, colonial government do organize di first local elections for three cities (Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Jadotville), wey Congolese people fit stand for office and vote. Watin happen for 1957–58 make demand for political freedom burst, no be small. Ghana independence for 1957 and President De Gaulle visit wey happen for August 1958 for Brazzaville, capital of di French Congo, across di Congo river from Léopoldville, wey e promise say France African colonies go fit choose between staying with France or full independence, make people for Congo get big dreams. Di World Exhibition wey dem do for Brussels for 1958 (Expo 58) be another eye-opener for plenty Congolese leaders, wey dem allow make dem travel go Belgium for di first time.<ref>Aziza Etambala, Zana (2008), ''De teloorgang van een modelkolonie, Belgisch Congo 1958–1960'', Leuven: Acco, pp. 105–110.</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|date=23 December 1957|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125731/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=December 23, 1957|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=1 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501001542/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> For 1958, people dey crave for independence sharp sharp and the koko don take off. Na Mouvement National Congolais (MNC) wey dey play big role for di matter. Dem start am for 1956, but dem officially set am up as national political party for October 1958, wey dey support make Congo be one strong nation. Di person wey dey lead dem well well na di charming Patrice Lumumba. For 1959, wahala start after Albert Kalonji and some MNC leaders wey wan dey moderate split from di main group (dem call dem Mouvement National Congolais-Kalonji). Even though di party get different waka, Lumumba faction (now Mouvement National Congolais-Lumumba) and di MNC still be di most important and influential party for Belgian Congo. Belgium vehemently de oppose Lumumba ein leftist views plus get grave concerns about de status of demma financial interests if Lumumba ein MNC come power.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} ===== Independence ===== As Belgium dey debate how to give Congolese people their freedom small-small, wahala just burst everywhere. On 4 January 1959, dem do one political demo for Léopoldville wey ABAKO organise, but e no gree control. Na so, the colonial capital begin catch fire with plenty chaos. E take dem days to bring back order, and if we count am well, hundreds don die. De eruption of violence sent a shockwave through de Congo den Belgium alike.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-01-if-blood-must-run.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: If Blood Must Run|date=19 January 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125735/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-01-if-blood-must-run.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=January 19, 1959|title=BELGIAN CONGO: If Blood Must Run|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,868969,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201082719/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,868969,00.html|archive-date=2011-02-01|magazine=Time}}</ref> On 13 January, King Baudouin use radio talk to the people say Belgium go work for Congo to get full independence fast, but no be to go rush am like mumu.<ref>Koning Boudewijn. 35 jaar dialoog met de natie. Een keuze uit de koninklijke toespraken van 1951 tot 1986. Lannoo Tielt, Inbel, 1986, blz. 124.</ref> Dem no fit talk say independence go happen one particular day, but di government wey Prime Minister Gaston Eyskens dey lead, get plan for multi-year transition period. Dem think say provincial elections go happen for December 1959, national elections for 1960 or 1961, den after, dem go start hand over di admin and political duties small small to di Congolese, as dem dey expect say by mid-1960s e go don finish. But for ground, things dey change fast fast.<ref>Young, Crawford (1965), ''Politics in the Congo" Decolonization and Independence'', Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 140–161.</ref> Di colonial admin dey see different type of resistance, like people wey no wan pay tax. For some places, anarchy threatened.<ref>Ryckmans, Geneviève (1995), ''André Ryckmans, un territorial du Congo belge''. Paris. L'Harmattan, pp. 215–224.</ref> At di same time, plenty Belgians wey dey di Congo no wan independence, dem dey feel say Brussels don betray dem. As di Congolese dem dey demand better change, di government don see say di chance to make am smooth smooth no dey happen again fast fast.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-10-return-of-the-mundele.pdf|title=The Belgian Congo : Return of the Mundele|date=12 October 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125737/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-10-return-of-the-mundele.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=October 12, 1959|title=THE BELGIAN CONGO: Return of the Mundele|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,864032,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101203183837/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,864032,00.html|archive-date=2010-12-03|magazine=Time}}</ref> [[File:Ronde_Tafel_Conferentie_te_Brussel_Congo,_Bestanddeelnr_910-9593.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ronde_Tafel_Conferentie_te_Brussel_Congo,_Bestanddeelnr_910-9593.jpg|thumb|220x220px|Opening meeting of de Belgo-Congolese Round Table Conference insyde Brussels on 20 January 1960]] For 1959, King Baudouin come back to Belgian Congo, and e see say everywhere don change from the last time wey e visit four years ago. When e land for Léopoldville, wahala start as black Belgo-Congolese people dey throw stone for am because dem vex say dem don lock Lumumba up, wey dem convict say im dey incite against colonial government. Even though for other cities dem receive am better, dem dey shout “Vive le roi!” but e follow with “Indépendance immédiate!” The Belgian government no wan enter any gbege wey fit turn bloody like wetin happen to France for Indochina and Algeria, or Netherlands for Indonesia. So, dem dey reason say make dem fit agree for Congolese leaders wey dey shout for immediate independence.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-11-now-now-now.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: Now Now Now|date=16 November 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125729/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-11-now-now-now.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=November 16, 1959|title=BELGIAN CONGO: Now Now Now|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811442,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201085122/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811442,00.html|archive-date=2011-02-01|magazine=Time}}</ref> Although dem no prepare well plus no plenty people wey educate dey (only small Congolese get degree for dat time), Belgian leaders still gree make independence happen. E be true say dem weak local elites fit work for Belgian government and business people, dem dey hope say dis go make am easy for dem to still dey control wetin dey happen for politics and economy. Dis style different from colonial wars and de slow decolonization wey other European countries dey do, dem sabi am as 'Le Pari Congolais'—di Congolese bet.<ref>{{cite book|last=De Witte|first=Ludo|title=Crisis in Kongo. De rol van de Verenigde Naties, de regering-Eyskens en het koningshuis in de omverwerping van Lumumba en de opkomst van Mobutu|date=1996|publisher=Uitgeverij Van Halewyck|isbn=9789056170523|location=Leuven|page=31|author-link=Ludo De Witte}}</ref> For January 1960, dem call Congolese leaders come Brussels make dem fit gather for round-table talk about independence. Dem free Patrice Lumumba from prison just for this matter. Na so the conference quick quick agree give Congolese almost all wetin dem ask: make dem do general election for May 1960 and full independence—'Dipenda'—go land on 30 June 1960. Na because of di strong unity wey Congolese delegation carry come. [[File:Patrice_Lumumba_signs_the_document_granting_independence_to_the_Congo_next_to_Belgian_Prime_Minister_Gaston_Eyskens.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patrice_Lumumba_signs_the_document_granting_independence_to_the_Congo_next_to_Belgian_Prime_Minister_Gaston_Eyskens.jpg|right|thumb|Lumumba den Eyskens sign de document granting independence to de Congo]] Political maneuvering ahead of de elections, Elections dey come, so dem form three political groups for ground: one na the federalist nationalists, wey dey include six separatist parties, like ABAKO and MNC—Kalonji; another one na centralist MNC—Lumumba; and last one be Moïse Tshombe, wey be big man for Katanga, wey wan protect the business wey dey for Union Minière (like Kalonji do for de diamond exploitations matter insyde Kasaï). Di parliamentary elections show say di political scene dey divided, with di regionalist group dem—ABAKO wey dey lead—plus di nationalist parties like MNC too do well. Dem force compromise make Kasa-Vubu be di first president of Republic of di Congo, and Lumumba be di first head of government. Just like dem plan am five months before, di handover ceremony wey di Belgians do happen well on time for 30 June 1960 for di new house of di Governor-General for Belgian Congo wey dey Léopoldville. One week later, wahala begin for Force Publique, dem dey rebel against dem officers wey still dey mostly Belgian. Dis one spark plenty gbege all over Congo, na unhappy soldiers and sharp-sharp youths dey cause am. For plenty places, dem dey focus di violence on European people. In small time, Belgian soldiers and later UN intervention force carry plenty Belgians wey dey work and live for Congo come out, over 80,000 of dem.<ref>{{cite book|last=Verlinden|first=Peter|title=Weg uit Congo, Het drama van de kolonialen|publisher=[[Davidsfonds]]|year=2002|location=Leuven}}</ref> == Congo crisis plus wetin follow am == Di rebellion wey start for Thyssville for Bas-Congo for July 1960 quickly spread go everywhere for de Congo.<ref>For an overview of developments in the Congo after 1960 see: O'Ballance, Edgar (2000), ''The Congo-Zaire Experience, 1960–98'', Houndmills: MacMillan Press.</ref> For September 1960, di leaders split, wey President Kasa-Vubu declare say prime minister Lumumba no dey hold him work again, and di same thing happen back. Dem stop di stalemate when government arrest Lumumba. For January 1961, dem fly am go di rich mining province of Katanga, wey dem don declare say dem no wan join Léopoldville again under di leadership of Moïse Tshombe (wey Belgium dey support well well). Dem hand Lumumba over to Katangan authorities, wey kill am. [[File:Congo_Crisis_dead_hostages.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_Crisis_dead_hostages.jpg|thumb|Belgian soldier dey lie for ground for de front of dead hostages, November 1964, for Stanleyville during [[:en:Operation_Dragon_Rouge|Operation Dragon Rouge]]. Belgian parachutists free over 1,800 European and American hostages wey Congolese rebels hold. ]] For 2002, Belgium don officially say sorry for wetin dem do to Lumumba; people don dey talk say CIA sabi join am, because dem see say Lumumba dey too left. During Cold War, Soviet Union dey push e influence for Africa to gree fight European powers, e use 'anti-colonialism' as reason to increase de power insyde de region.<ref>A first-hand account of the CIA's activities in the Congo in 1960–61 in: Devlin, Larry (2008), ''Chief of Station, Congo: Fighting the Cold War in a Hot Zone'', Cambridge: PublicAffairs</ref> Plenty rebellions and separatist wahala really mash up di dream of one united Congolese state wen dem just born. Even though di country don dey independent, Belgian paratroopers still show face for Congo plenty times to protect and carry Belgian and foreign people comot. United Nations dey do big peace-keeping work for Congo since late 1960. Di whole matter no settle until 1964–65. Katanga province come back inside, and dem so-called Simba Rebellion end for Stanleyville (province Orientale). Small time after dat, army colonel Joseph Désiré Mobutu come clear di political ground by taking power through coup ''d'état''. Mobutu get some backing for de West, especially for America, sekof e dey strong against communist people. At first, him rule dey boost economy well (like when dem build Inga dam wey dem plan since 1950s). To show say e no be like di old regime, him start campaign wey dem call Congolese 'authenticity'. For 1966, di government stop to use colonial place names: Léopoldville change go Kinshasa, Elisabethville turn Lubumbashi, plus Stanleyville become Kisangani. This time, Congo dey maintain good economic den political relationship with Belgium. Some money matta still dey hang after independence (dem dey call am 'contentieux'), like how dem suppose transfer shares for de big mining companies wey colonial state hold.<ref>Willame, Jean-Claude (1989), "Vingt-cinq ans de rélations belgo-zaïroises", In ''Congo-Zaïre'', Brussels: GRIP, pp. 145–58.</ref> For 1970, on top de ten years independence celebration, King Baudouin come pay official state visit to de Congo. Mobutu regime dey turn more radical for the 1970s. Dem Mouvement populaire de la Révolution (MPR) wey Mobutu be di founder, don set up one-party rule well well. Political wahala increase plenty. Mobutu come change di name of Congo to republic of Zaïre. Di so-called 'Zaïrisation' wey happen for mid-1970s make plenty foreign workers run come out and e cause economic wahala. For di 1980s, Mobutu regime dey become big example of mismanagement plus corruption.<ref>Wrong, Michela (2001), ''Living on the Brink of Disaster in Mobutu's Congo, In the Footsteps of Mr Kurtz'', New York: HarperCollins, pp. 195–200.</ref> De relationship with Belgium, di former colonial master, dey chop ups and downs, show say e dey decline for economic, financial and political side. Since no be chance say di country go fall into Soviet hand, di Western powers just dey stay neutral.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bud |first=Guy |date=2013 |title=Imperial Transitions: Belgian-Congolese relations in the post-colonial era |journal=SIR |issue=2 |pages=7–8}}</ref> [[File:Statue_de_Léopold_II_à_Kinshasa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Statue_de_L%C3%A9opold_II_%C3%A0_Kinshasa.jpg|thumb|Equestrian statue of [[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]] insyde Kinshasa]] After Soviet Union fall and Cold War end for late 1980s, Mobutu no get support from West again. For 1990, e decide say make e end the one-party matter and come back to democracy sharp-sharp. But he dey drag feet, dey play his enemies against each other make e fit buy time. That bloody wahala from Zaïrian Army dem give students for Lubumbashi University Campus May 1990 come make Belgium and Zaïre relationship spoil. Not so nice, Mobutu no receive invite for King Baudouin funeral for 1993, wey him see am as big personal insult. For 1997, dem force Mobutu comot power by rebel wey Laurent-Désiré Kabila dey lead. E come declare say e be president and change Zaïre name to Democratic Republic of the Congo. Dem kill Kabila for 2001, plus him son Joseph Kabila take over. For 2006, dem confirm Joseph Kabila as president when dem do di first nationwide free elections for Congo since 1960. From 30 June – 2 July 2010, King Albert II and Yves Leterme, di Belgian Prime Minister, come visit Kinshasa for celebrate di 50th anniversary of Congolese independence. Some practices plus traditions from colonial days still dey happen for independent Congo. Dem get strong central government wey be bureaucratic, and dem still dey follow di same setup for education and court system. Congo don influence Belgium mostly for money matter: with Union Minière (now Umicore) work, nonferrous metal industry dey grow, plus Port of Antwerp plus diamond business too. Till now, Brussels Airlines wey take over from Sabena still dey carry weight for DRC. Dem talk say insyde 2010, over 4,000 Belgian people dey stay for DRC, plus de Congolese community for Belgium atleast strong pass 16,000. De "Matongé" quarter insyde Brussels be de traditional focal point of de Congolese community insyde Belgium.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Swyngedouw |first1=Eva |last2=Swyngedouw |first2=Erik |year=2009 |title=The Congolese Diaspora in Brussels and hybrid identity formation |journal=Urban Research & Practice |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=68–90 |doi=10.1080/17535060902727074 |s2cid=143979364}}</ref> == Culture == === Music === For popular music, Latin music like rumba come from Cuba for 1930s and 1940s when colonial time dey run, plus dem dey play Latin music well plenty for Belgian Congo. For 1950s, American jazz also come enter as African jazz. For 1956, Franco form OK Jazz (later dem change de name to TPOK Jazz).<ref>{{cite web|last=Al Angeloro|date=March 2005|title=World Music Legends: Franco|url=http://www.globalrhythm.net/WorldMusicLegends/Franco.cfm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928055648/http://www.globalrhythm.net/WorldMusicLegends/Franco.cfm|archive-date=28 September 2007|access-date=30 December 2019|work=Global Rhythm|publisher=Zenbu Media}}</ref> Joseph Kabasele, wey dem dey call Le Grand Kallé (The Great Kallé), na him start African Jazz. House bands dey trend now, and rumba congolaise dey show face too. Marlo Mashi na one musician from dat same time. Congo popular music come from all these continental rhythm, church music, Ghana high life, plus traditional Congo music. == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] p2pfssv1p18se5bpw2p2zq14b98s6gm 69186 69185 2025-07-06T00:47:35Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 I don add de header 'Check am too' 69186 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== [[File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Minière_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|right|thumb|Nurses of de [[:en:Union_Minière_du_Haut-Katanga|Union Minière du Haut-Katanga]] plus demma Congolese assistants, [[:en:Lubumbashi|Élisabethville]], 1918]] Health care too dey supported by missions, but colonial state wan show interest small. For 1906, dem start Institute of Tropical Medicine for Brussels. This ITM dey among di top places wey train and do research for tropical medicine and how health care dey work for developing countries. Dem fit clear endemic sickness like sleeping sickness well well with serious campaigns.<ref>A critical assessment of the colonial obsession with sleeping sickness in: Lyons, Maryinez (1992), ''The Colonial Disease, A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> For 1925, medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper be di first person wey carry tryparsamide, di drug from Rockefeller Foundation wey dey cure sleeping sickness, enter Congo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingman |first=Jack |year=1994 |title=Arthur Lewis Piper, M.D.: A Medical Missionary in the Belgian Congo |journal=Journal of Community Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/BF02260364 |pmid=8006209 |s2cid=37502216}}</ref> Di health-care system dey grow well well during colonial time, with plenty hospital beds dey available for di people, plus dem set up dispensaries for far away places. By 1960, di country get beta medical structure wey pass any other African nation for dat time. Belgian Congo get 3,000 health facilities, wey 380 be hospitals. Dem get 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 people (1 for every 187 people). Dem make huge progress for di fight against endemic diseases; dem report sleeping sickness cases drop from 34,000 in 1931 to just 1,100 in 1959, mainly because dem clear tsetse fly for where plenty people dey. All Europeans plus Congolese wey dey for Belgian Congo do dem vaccine for polio, measles and yellow fever. Big big disease prevention programs dem start, wey dem wan make polio, leprosy and tuberculosis no dey again. For primary schools, dem run disease prevention campaigns, and dem include disease prevention class for curriculum too.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319" /> ===== Social inequality den racial discrimination ===== [[File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|thumb|Dem dey pull one woman wey be missionary inside rickshaw by some Congolese guys, around 1920 to 1930.]] Di Belgia Congo get system wey dey separate people based on race an dem dey discriminate too.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Krauzman|first=Marine|date=2025-03-11|title=Belgium's Colonial Past on Trial: What the 2024 Ruling Means for Reparational Justice|url=http://spheresofinfluence.ca/belgiums-colonial-past-on-trial-what-the-2024-ruling-means-for-reparational-justice/|access-date=2025-06-26|website=Spheres of Influence|language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-29|title=Belgian Congo {{!}} History & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgian-Congo|access-date=2025-06-26|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Dem get wetin dem call 'implicit apartheid'. Di colony put curfew for Congolese wey dey live for city, an plenty racial wahala dey happen. Léopoldville get di racist curfew wey e famous for, an dem use am as template for other European colonies like French Equatorial Africa wey dey close by.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Njoh |first1=Ambe J. |date=March 2008 |title=Colonial Philosophies, Urban Space, and Racial Segregation in British and French Colonial Africa |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Black Studies]] |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=579–599 |doi=10.1177/0021934706288447 |s2cid=145775865 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228161615/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref> Even though dem no get proper laws wey dey separate people by race, segregation dey happen plenty for many places. For example, at first, de city centers be only for white people, while black people dey stay for places dem dey call 'cités indigènes' or 'le belge'. Hospitals, shop dem and other places no dey allow both whites and blacks to mix. For Force Publique, black people no fit rise pass non-commissioned officer rank. Plus, black folks for the cities no fit come out from 9 pm to 4 am. Dis kind segregation start dey vanish small-small only for 1950s, but even then, de Congolese dem still dey feel like second-class citizens, especially for politics and law matter. [[File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|right|thumb|King [[:en:Albert_I_of_Belgium|Albert I]] plus Queen [[:en:Elisabeth_of_Bavaria,_Queen_of_the_Belgians|Elisabeth]] inspecting de military camp of Léopoldville for de time of demma visit to de Belgian Congo, 1928]] Sekof dem dey connect ekonomi growth with di 'civilizing mission', plus as state officials, missionaries plus private companies dey always help each other, people don sabi sey Belgian Congo dey ruled by one 'colonial trinity' of King-Church-Capital. Dis one fit mean di colonial state, di Christian missions, plus Société Générale de Belgique too. Di way wey colonial policy take dey work, e get one saying wey Governor-General Pierre Ryckmans (1934–46) use: Dominer pour servir ('Dominate to serve').<ref>Vanderlinden, Jacques (1994), ''Pierre Ryckmans 1891–1959, Coloniser dans l'honneur'', Brussels: De Boeck.</ref> Di colonial government wan make wey see am say dem dey nice plus no wahala for di administration, plus dem wan show Belgian Congo as di perfect colony. But na only for di 1950s e start change. For di 1950s, dem dey gradually draw back dem plenty harsh laws dem use punish di Congolese people (like di chicote wey be whip). From 1953, plus di big visit wey King Baudouin make to di colony for 1955, Governor-General Léon Pétillon (1952–1958) start dey try build one 'Belgian-Congolese community', where black plus white go dey equal.<ref>Pétillon, L. A. M. (1967), ''Témoignage et réflexions'', Brussels: Renaissance du Livre.</ref> But still, di anti-miscegenation laws no clear, and from 1959 to 1962, plenty mixed-race Congolese pikin dem dey carry come out from Congo by Belgian government plus Catholic Church go Belgium.<ref>{{cite web|last=Paravicini|first=Giulia|date=4 April 2019|title=Belgium apologizes for colonial-era abduction of mixed-race children|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711005737/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|archive-date=11 July 2019|access-date=10 July 2019|publisher=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> For 1957, dem do first municipal elections wey black voters fit vote for some big cities — Léopoldville, Élisabethville, plus Jadotville. ===== Abolition of slavery ===== For Congo Free State, plenty men, women, and pikin dem free from Swahili Arab slave owners and traders for Eastern Congo between 1886 and 1892. Dem fit join militai (Force Publique) or dem go give am to local chiefs wey be friends, and dem go use dem as workers. Even though dem ban chattel slavery for 1910 when Belgian Congo start, dem still dey use prisoners as forced laborers for public den private projects.<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 40</ref> == Resistance == Di Congolese dem no gree colonization; dem dey fight am steady, e come take many shapes. As modern ideas and education dey enter ground, e dey spark plenty action.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> Armed wahala show for small-small parts till Second World War finish (like Pende wahala for 1931, and di gbagbe for Luluabourg 1944). After di war till late 1950s, wetin dem dey call 'Pax belgica' go dey. But e no mean say dem no dey resist; passive resistance dey plenty too, like Kimbanguism wey be from di ‘prophet’ Simon Kimbangu wey di Belgians lock up. Aside active and passive wahala wey Congolese dey raise, di colonial government still dey hear plenty internal noise and gbege. Even for di 1920s, some people for Colonial Council wey dey for Brussels (like Octave Louwers) don talk plenty about di harsh way big companies dey recruit people for di mining places. Di slow growth for population for many areas—abi even wey dem dey chop plenty success for fight against sick sick like sleeping sickness—na another wahala wey dey worry dem. Low birth rate for countryside and some places dey empty usually link to di way traditional life don scatter because of forced work migration and compulsory farming. Dem dey talk say na wetin dem plan be dat, and dem dey point out how population dey increase for cities and how health plus lifespan don better thanks to modern medicine and better living condition.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hunt|first1=Nancy Rose|date=2002|title=Rewriting the Soul in Colonial Congo: Flemish Missionaries and Infertility|url=https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040613132330/https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|archive-date=2004-06-13|website=Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|publisher=Antwerp University Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|language=en}}</ref> Plenty missionaries wey dey connect with Congolese villagers dey carry dem wahala for heart plus sometimes dem dey fit intervene for dem matter with di colonial administration (like land property questions). Di missions plus some area administrators dem fit play big role for study and protect Congolese culture and language tradition plus di artifacts wey dey there. One good example na Father Gustaaf Hulstaert (1900–1990), wey insyde 1937 start di periodical Aequatoria wey dem dey use for di linguistic, ethnographic plus historical study of di Mongo people for di central Congo basin.<ref>See: aequatoria.be</ref> Di colonial state dey interested for di cultural and scientific study of Congo, especially after di Second World War, through di setup of di Institut pour la Recherche Scientifique en Afrique Centrale (IRSAC, 1948). == Toward independence == For early 1950s, di political freedom of di Congolese elites, no talk of di masses, e be like far dream. But e clear say Congo no fit dey far from di quick changes wey happen after di Second World War, wey scatter colonialism worldwide. Di independence wey di British, French, plus Dutch colonies for Asia get after 1945 no really change anything for Congo, but di pressure for Belgium from di United Nations don increase (just like all di other colonial powers). Belgium don agree to article 73 of di United Nations Charter wey talk about self-determination, plus di two superpowers dey pressure Belgium make dem change how dem dey run Congo; di Belgian government dey try hold body against wetin dem call 'interference' with dia colonial policy. Colonial government dey talk how dem go make life beta for Congolese pipo. Since 1940s, dem don dey try small-small give some elite wey dem call évolués small civil rights, dem fit get small political power later. So, 'deserving' Congolese fit apply for proof of 'civil merit', or if dem fit do better, 'immatriculation' (registration), wey go show say dem don join European way of life. To get this status, applicant gats meet strict rules (like marry one wife, show good behavior, etc.) and dem go dey watch dem well well (wey de include house visits). Dis policy no work at all. For around mid-1950s, no be plenty Congolese wey don fit get di civil merit diploma or dem don get di 'immatriculation'. Di benefits wey dem dey talk say come with am—like equal legal status with di white folks—na mostly just talk, no be real. E dey make di évolués frustrated well well. When Governor-General Pétillon start dey talk say he go fit give di native people more civil rights, even voting, to create wetin he dey call 'Belgo-Congolese community', di people for Brussels no really send am, and some Belgians for Congo dey vex as dem dey fear for demma privilege.<ref>[[Isidore Ndaywel è Nziem|Ndaywel è Nziem]], Isidore (1998), ''Histoire générale du Congo'', Paris-Brussels: De Boeck & Larcier, pp. 456–63.</ref> E clear say Belgian government no get proper long-term plan for Congo matter. 'Colonial wahala' no dey trend for Belgium, as long as di colony dey shine and e dey quiet. But one person wey show concern na di young King Baudouin, wey take over from him papa, King Leopold III, for 1951, when dem force Leopold III to waka. Baudouin dey follow wetin dey happen for Belgian Congo well well. Wen King Baudouin come visit Belgian Congo for de first time for 1955, crowd dey cheer am well-well, both whites and blacks dey dance, like as dem show for André Cauvin documentary, Bwana Kitoko.<ref>{{cite book|last=Raspoet|first=Erik|title=Bwana Kitoko en de koning van de Bakuba|publisher=Meulenhoff/Manteau|year=2005|isbn=90-8542-020-2}}</ref> Foreign people wey dey observe, suc as de international correspondent of ''The Manchester Guardian'' or a ''Time'' journalist,<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|title=Congo: Boom in the Jungle|date=16 May 1955|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=28 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028201856/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=May 16, 1955|title=CONGO: Boom in the Jungle|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=28 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828025115/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> talk say Belgian paddy paddy style dey work well, and dey compare how Belgian people dem loyal pass those French and British colonies wey dey restless. During di visit, King Baudouin carry Governor-General idea of 'Belgo-Congolese community' come front; but for real, dis plan dey move slow. At di same time, dem wahala wey dey divide for Belgium, wey dem fit hide from di colony before, start to enter Congo too. Dem talk say workers dey unite more now, dem dey call make public schools fit break mission schools for education, plus dem wan make both Belgian languages, French and Dutch, sabi equal treatment for colony. Before this, na only French dem dey push as colonial language. Governor-General dey fear say dis kind wahala fit spoil di colonial government image for Congolese, plus e go shift focus from di real need for true emancipation. ===== Political organisation ===== [[File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|right|thumb|[[:en:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu|Joseph Kasa-Vubu]], leader of ABAKO plus de first President dem elect democratically of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] [[File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Patrice_Lumumba|Patrice Lumumba]], first democratically elected Prime Minister of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] Di Congolese people join Second World War and dem hear say tings dey change for other colonies, e make dem start to organize make dem fit get power. Di colonial government no fit bring beta changes wey fit work, so di Congolese elites start to gather demself socially and later politically. For di 1950s, two separate types of nationalism show up among di Congolese elites. Di nationalist movement—wey di Belgian authorities no really watch—promote say di Belgian Congo go become one united state after dem get independence. E get wetin wey de oppose this matter, na di ethno-religious and regional nationalism wey catch for di Bakongo area for di west coast, Kasai plus Katanga.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} Di first political groups na dem one. ABAKO wey dem establish for 1950 as di Association culturelle des Bakongo, and wetin Joseph Kasa-Vubu dey run, start as cultural group wey turn political sharp sharp. From di middle of 1950s, dem don dey shout against Belgian colonial rule well well. Plus, di group still dey serve as di main ethno-religious group for di Bakongo and dem blend well with di Kimbanguist Church wey be popular for lower Congo.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} For 1955, Belgian prof Antoine van Bilsen drop one paper wey dem call Thirty Year Plan for the Political Emancipation of Belgian Africa.<ref>Gerard-Libois, Jules (1989), "Vers l'Indépendance: une accélération imprévue", In ''Congo-Zaïre'', Brussels: GRIP, pp. 43–56.</ref> De plan get timetable wey say make dem gradually free Congo for 30 years—na the time wey Van Bilsen believe say e go take to build educated people wey fit take over from the Belgians for power. But the Belgian government and plenty of the évolués no happy with the plan—government no wan lose Congo, and the évolués sabi say Belgium go still dey rule for another three decades. One group of Catholic évolués yan am positive for the plan with one moderate manifesto for one Congolese journal wey dem dey call Conscience Africaine; dem talk some matter about how Congolese fit take part well well.<ref>Kalulambi Pongo, Martin (2009), "Le manifeste 'Conscience africaine: genèse, influences et réactions", In Tousignant, Nathalie (ed.), ''Le manifeste Conscience africaine, 1956'', Brussels: Facultés Universitaires Saint-Louis, pp. 59–81.</ref> For 1957, as experiment matter, colonial government do organize di first local elections for three cities (Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Jadotville), wey Congolese people fit stand for office and vote. Watin happen for 1957–58 make demand for political freedom burst, no be small. Ghana independence for 1957 and President De Gaulle visit wey happen for August 1958 for Brazzaville, capital of di French Congo, across di Congo river from Léopoldville, wey e promise say France African colonies go fit choose between staying with France or full independence, make people for Congo get big dreams. Di World Exhibition wey dem do for Brussels for 1958 (Expo 58) be another eye-opener for plenty Congolese leaders, wey dem allow make dem travel go Belgium for di first time.<ref>Aziza Etambala, Zana (2008), ''De teloorgang van een modelkolonie, Belgisch Congo 1958–1960'', Leuven: Acco, pp. 105–110.</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|date=23 December 1957|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125731/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=December 23, 1957|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=1 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501001542/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> For 1958, people dey crave for independence sharp sharp and the koko don take off. Na Mouvement National Congolais (MNC) wey dey play big role for di matter. Dem start am for 1956, but dem officially set am up as national political party for October 1958, wey dey support make Congo be one strong nation. Di person wey dey lead dem well well na di charming Patrice Lumumba. For 1959, wahala start after Albert Kalonji and some MNC leaders wey wan dey moderate split from di main group (dem call dem Mouvement National Congolais-Kalonji). Even though di party get different waka, Lumumba faction (now Mouvement National Congolais-Lumumba) and di MNC still be di most important and influential party for Belgian Congo. Belgium vehemently de oppose Lumumba ein leftist views plus get grave concerns about de status of demma financial interests if Lumumba ein MNC come power.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} ===== Independence ===== As Belgium dey debate how to give Congolese people their freedom small-small, wahala just burst everywhere. On 4 January 1959, dem do one political demo for Léopoldville wey ABAKO organise, but e no gree control. Na so, the colonial capital begin catch fire with plenty chaos. E take dem days to bring back order, and if we count am well, hundreds don die. De eruption of violence sent a shockwave through de Congo den Belgium alike.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-01-if-blood-must-run.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: If Blood Must Run|date=19 January 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125735/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-01-if-blood-must-run.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=January 19, 1959|title=BELGIAN CONGO: If Blood Must Run|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,868969,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201082719/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,868969,00.html|archive-date=2011-02-01|magazine=Time}}</ref> On 13 January, King Baudouin use radio talk to the people say Belgium go work for Congo to get full independence fast, but no be to go rush am like mumu.<ref>Koning Boudewijn. 35 jaar dialoog met de natie. Een keuze uit de koninklijke toespraken van 1951 tot 1986. Lannoo Tielt, Inbel, 1986, blz. 124.</ref> Dem no fit talk say independence go happen one particular day, but di government wey Prime Minister Gaston Eyskens dey lead, get plan for multi-year transition period. Dem think say provincial elections go happen for December 1959, national elections for 1960 or 1961, den after, dem go start hand over di admin and political duties small small to di Congolese, as dem dey expect say by mid-1960s e go don finish. But for ground, things dey change fast fast.<ref>Young, Crawford (1965), ''Politics in the Congo" Decolonization and Independence'', Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 140–161.</ref> Di colonial admin dey see different type of resistance, like people wey no wan pay tax. For some places, anarchy threatened.<ref>Ryckmans, Geneviève (1995), ''André Ryckmans, un territorial du Congo belge''. Paris. L'Harmattan, pp. 215–224.</ref> At di same time, plenty Belgians wey dey di Congo no wan independence, dem dey feel say Brussels don betray dem. As di Congolese dem dey demand better change, di government don see say di chance to make am smooth smooth no dey happen again fast fast.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-10-return-of-the-mundele.pdf|title=The Belgian Congo : Return of the Mundele|date=12 October 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125737/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-10-return-of-the-mundele.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=October 12, 1959|title=THE BELGIAN CONGO: Return of the Mundele|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,864032,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101203183837/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,864032,00.html|archive-date=2010-12-03|magazine=Time}}</ref> [[File:Ronde_Tafel_Conferentie_te_Brussel_Congo,_Bestanddeelnr_910-9593.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ronde_Tafel_Conferentie_te_Brussel_Congo,_Bestanddeelnr_910-9593.jpg|thumb|220x220px|Opening meeting of de Belgo-Congolese Round Table Conference insyde Brussels on 20 January 1960]] For 1959, King Baudouin come back to Belgian Congo, and e see say everywhere don change from the last time wey e visit four years ago. When e land for Léopoldville, wahala start as black Belgo-Congolese people dey throw stone for am because dem vex say dem don lock Lumumba up, wey dem convict say im dey incite against colonial government. Even though for other cities dem receive am better, dem dey shout “Vive le roi!” but e follow with “Indépendance immédiate!” The Belgian government no wan enter any gbege wey fit turn bloody like wetin happen to France for Indochina and Algeria, or Netherlands for Indonesia. So, dem dey reason say make dem fit agree for Congolese leaders wey dey shout for immediate independence.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-11-now-now-now.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: Now Now Now|date=16 November 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125729/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-11-now-now-now.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=November 16, 1959|title=BELGIAN CONGO: Now Now Now|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811442,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201085122/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811442,00.html|archive-date=2011-02-01|magazine=Time}}</ref> Although dem no prepare well plus no plenty people wey educate dey (only small Congolese get degree for dat time), Belgian leaders still gree make independence happen. E be true say dem weak local elites fit work for Belgian government and business people, dem dey hope say dis go make am easy for dem to still dey control wetin dey happen for politics and economy. Dis style different from colonial wars and de slow decolonization wey other European countries dey do, dem sabi am as 'Le Pari Congolais'—di Congolese bet.<ref>{{cite book|last=De Witte|first=Ludo|title=Crisis in Kongo. De rol van de Verenigde Naties, de regering-Eyskens en het koningshuis in de omverwerping van Lumumba en de opkomst van Mobutu|date=1996|publisher=Uitgeverij Van Halewyck|isbn=9789056170523|location=Leuven|page=31|author-link=Ludo De Witte}}</ref> For January 1960, dem call Congolese leaders come Brussels make dem fit gather for round-table talk about independence. Dem free Patrice Lumumba from prison just for this matter. Na so the conference quick quick agree give Congolese almost all wetin dem ask: make dem do general election for May 1960 and full independence—'Dipenda'—go land on 30 June 1960. Na because of di strong unity wey Congolese delegation carry come. [[File:Patrice_Lumumba_signs_the_document_granting_independence_to_the_Congo_next_to_Belgian_Prime_Minister_Gaston_Eyskens.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patrice_Lumumba_signs_the_document_granting_independence_to_the_Congo_next_to_Belgian_Prime_Minister_Gaston_Eyskens.jpg|right|thumb|Lumumba den Eyskens sign de document granting independence to de Congo]] Political maneuvering ahead of de elections, Elections dey come, so dem form three political groups for ground: one na the federalist nationalists, wey dey include six separatist parties, like ABAKO and MNC—Kalonji; another one na centralist MNC—Lumumba; and last one be Moïse Tshombe, wey be big man for Katanga, wey wan protect the business wey dey for Union Minière (like Kalonji do for de diamond exploitations matter insyde Kasaï). Di parliamentary elections show say di political scene dey divided, with di regionalist group dem—ABAKO wey dey lead—plus di nationalist parties like MNC too do well. Dem force compromise make Kasa-Vubu be di first president of Republic of di Congo, and Lumumba be di first head of government. Just like dem plan am five months before, di handover ceremony wey di Belgians do happen well on time for 30 June 1960 for di new house of di Governor-General for Belgian Congo wey dey Léopoldville. One week later, wahala begin for Force Publique, dem dey rebel against dem officers wey still dey mostly Belgian. Dis one spark plenty gbege all over Congo, na unhappy soldiers and sharp-sharp youths dey cause am. For plenty places, dem dey focus di violence on European people. In small time, Belgian soldiers and later UN intervention force carry plenty Belgians wey dey work and live for Congo come out, over 80,000 of dem.<ref>{{cite book|last=Verlinden|first=Peter|title=Weg uit Congo, Het drama van de kolonialen|publisher=[[Davidsfonds]]|year=2002|location=Leuven}}</ref> == Congo crisis plus wetin follow am == Di rebellion wey start for Thyssville for Bas-Congo for July 1960 quickly spread go everywhere for de Congo.<ref>For an overview of developments in the Congo after 1960 see: O'Ballance, Edgar (2000), ''The Congo-Zaire Experience, 1960–98'', Houndmills: MacMillan Press.</ref> For September 1960, di leaders split, wey President Kasa-Vubu declare say prime minister Lumumba no dey hold him work again, and di same thing happen back. Dem stop di stalemate when government arrest Lumumba. For January 1961, dem fly am go di rich mining province of Katanga, wey dem don declare say dem no wan join Léopoldville again under di leadership of Moïse Tshombe (wey Belgium dey support well well). Dem hand Lumumba over to Katangan authorities, wey kill am. [[File:Congo_Crisis_dead_hostages.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_Crisis_dead_hostages.jpg|thumb|Belgian soldier dey lie for ground for de front of dead hostages, November 1964, for Stanleyville during [[:en:Operation_Dragon_Rouge|Operation Dragon Rouge]]. Belgian parachutists free over 1,800 European and American hostages wey Congolese rebels hold. ]] For 2002, Belgium don officially say sorry for wetin dem do to Lumumba; people don dey talk say CIA sabi join am, because dem see say Lumumba dey too left. During Cold War, Soviet Union dey push e influence for Africa to gree fight European powers, e use 'anti-colonialism' as reason to increase de power insyde de region.<ref>A first-hand account of the CIA's activities in the Congo in 1960–61 in: Devlin, Larry (2008), ''Chief of Station, Congo: Fighting the Cold War in a Hot Zone'', Cambridge: PublicAffairs</ref> Plenty rebellions and separatist wahala really mash up di dream of one united Congolese state wen dem just born. Even though di country don dey independent, Belgian paratroopers still show face for Congo plenty times to protect and carry Belgian and foreign people comot. United Nations dey do big peace-keeping work for Congo since late 1960. Di whole matter no settle until 1964–65. Katanga province come back inside, and dem so-called Simba Rebellion end for Stanleyville (province Orientale). Small time after dat, army colonel Joseph Désiré Mobutu come clear di political ground by taking power through coup ''d'état''. Mobutu get some backing for de West, especially for America, sekof e dey strong against communist people. At first, him rule dey boost economy well (like when dem build Inga dam wey dem plan since 1950s). To show say e no be like di old regime, him start campaign wey dem call Congolese 'authenticity'. For 1966, di government stop to use colonial place names: Léopoldville change go Kinshasa, Elisabethville turn Lubumbashi, plus Stanleyville become Kisangani. This time, Congo dey maintain good economic den political relationship with Belgium. Some money matta still dey hang after independence (dem dey call am 'contentieux'), like how dem suppose transfer shares for de big mining companies wey colonial state hold.<ref>Willame, Jean-Claude (1989), "Vingt-cinq ans de rélations belgo-zaïroises", In ''Congo-Zaïre'', Brussels: GRIP, pp. 145–58.</ref> For 1970, on top de ten years independence celebration, King Baudouin come pay official state visit to de Congo. Mobutu regime dey turn more radical for the 1970s. Dem Mouvement populaire de la Révolution (MPR) wey Mobutu be di founder, don set up one-party rule well well. Political wahala increase plenty. Mobutu come change di name of Congo to republic of Zaïre. Di so-called 'Zaïrisation' wey happen for mid-1970s make plenty foreign workers run come out and e cause economic wahala. For di 1980s, Mobutu regime dey become big example of mismanagement plus corruption.<ref>Wrong, Michela (2001), ''Living on the Brink of Disaster in Mobutu's Congo, In the Footsteps of Mr Kurtz'', New York: HarperCollins, pp. 195–200.</ref> De relationship with Belgium, di former colonial master, dey chop ups and downs, show say e dey decline for economic, financial and political side. Since no be chance say di country go fall into Soviet hand, di Western powers just dey stay neutral.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bud |first=Guy |date=2013 |title=Imperial Transitions: Belgian-Congolese relations in the post-colonial era |journal=SIR |issue=2 |pages=7–8}}</ref> [[File:Statue_de_Léopold_II_à_Kinshasa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Statue_de_L%C3%A9opold_II_%C3%A0_Kinshasa.jpg|thumb|Equestrian statue of [[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]] insyde Kinshasa]] After Soviet Union fall and Cold War end for late 1980s, Mobutu no get support from West again. For 1990, e decide say make e end the one-party matter and come back to democracy sharp-sharp. But he dey drag feet, dey play his enemies against each other make e fit buy time. That bloody wahala from Zaïrian Army dem give students for Lubumbashi University Campus May 1990 come make Belgium and Zaïre relationship spoil. Not so nice, Mobutu no receive invite for King Baudouin funeral for 1993, wey him see am as big personal insult. For 1997, dem force Mobutu comot power by rebel wey Laurent-Désiré Kabila dey lead. E come declare say e be president and change Zaïre name to Democratic Republic of the Congo. Dem kill Kabila for 2001, plus him son Joseph Kabila take over. For 2006, dem confirm Joseph Kabila as president when dem do di first nationwide free elections for Congo since 1960. From 30 June – 2 July 2010, King Albert II and Yves Leterme, di Belgian Prime Minister, come visit Kinshasa for celebrate di 50th anniversary of Congolese independence. Some practices plus traditions from colonial days still dey happen for independent Congo. Dem get strong central government wey be bureaucratic, and dem still dey follow di same setup for education and court system. Congo don influence Belgium mostly for money matter: with Union Minière (now Umicore) work, nonferrous metal industry dey grow, plus Port of Antwerp plus diamond business too. Till now, Brussels Airlines wey take over from Sabena still dey carry weight for DRC. Dem talk say insyde 2010, over 4,000 Belgian people dey stay for DRC, plus de Congolese community for Belgium atleast strong pass 16,000. De "Matongé" quarter insyde Brussels be de traditional focal point of de Congolese community insyde Belgium.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Swyngedouw |first1=Eva |last2=Swyngedouw |first2=Erik |year=2009 |title=The Congolese Diaspora in Brussels and hybrid identity formation |journal=Urban Research & Practice |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=68–90 |doi=10.1080/17535060902727074 |s2cid=143979364}}</ref> == Culture == === Music === For popular music, Latin music like rumba come from Cuba for 1930s and 1940s when colonial time dey run, plus dem dey play Latin music well plenty for Belgian Congo. For 1950s, American jazz also come enter as African jazz. For 1956, Franco form OK Jazz (later dem change de name to TPOK Jazz).<ref>{{cite web|last=Al Angeloro|date=March 2005|title=World Music Legends: Franco|url=http://www.globalrhythm.net/WorldMusicLegends/Franco.cfm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928055648/http://www.globalrhythm.net/WorldMusicLegends/Franco.cfm|archive-date=28 September 2007|access-date=30 December 2019|work=Global Rhythm|publisher=Zenbu Media}}</ref> Joseph Kabasele, wey dem dey call Le Grand Kallé (The Great Kallé), na him start African Jazz. House bands dey trend now, and rumba congolaise dey show face too. Marlo Mashi na one musician from dat same time. Congo popular music come from all these continental rhythm, church music, Ghana high life, plus traditional Congo music. == Check am too == == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] biamt8jooj0665ysmj767ch0w43633p 69187 69186 2025-07-06T00:50:08Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Check am too */ 69187 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== [[File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Minière_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|right|thumb|Nurses of de [[:en:Union_Minière_du_Haut-Katanga|Union Minière du Haut-Katanga]] plus demma Congolese assistants, [[:en:Lubumbashi|Élisabethville]], 1918]] Health care too dey supported by missions, but colonial state wan show interest small. For 1906, dem start Institute of Tropical Medicine for Brussels. This ITM dey among di top places wey train and do research for tropical medicine and how health care dey work for developing countries. Dem fit clear endemic sickness like sleeping sickness well well with serious campaigns.<ref>A critical assessment of the colonial obsession with sleeping sickness in: Lyons, Maryinez (1992), ''The Colonial Disease, A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> For 1925, medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper be di first person wey carry tryparsamide, di drug from Rockefeller Foundation wey dey cure sleeping sickness, enter Congo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingman |first=Jack |year=1994 |title=Arthur Lewis Piper, M.D.: A Medical Missionary in the Belgian Congo |journal=Journal of Community Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/BF02260364 |pmid=8006209 |s2cid=37502216}}</ref> Di health-care system dey grow well well during colonial time, with plenty hospital beds dey available for di people, plus dem set up dispensaries for far away places. By 1960, di country get beta medical structure wey pass any other African nation for dat time. Belgian Congo get 3,000 health facilities, wey 380 be hospitals. Dem get 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 people (1 for every 187 people). Dem make huge progress for di fight against endemic diseases; dem report sleeping sickness cases drop from 34,000 in 1931 to just 1,100 in 1959, mainly because dem clear tsetse fly for where plenty people dey. All Europeans plus Congolese wey dey for Belgian Congo do dem vaccine for polio, measles and yellow fever. Big big disease prevention programs dem start, wey dem wan make polio, leprosy and tuberculosis no dey again. For primary schools, dem run disease prevention campaigns, and dem include disease prevention class for curriculum too.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319" /> ===== Social inequality den racial discrimination ===== [[File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|thumb|Dem dey pull one woman wey be missionary inside rickshaw by some Congolese guys, around 1920 to 1930.]] Di Belgia Congo get system wey dey separate people based on race an dem dey discriminate too.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Krauzman|first=Marine|date=2025-03-11|title=Belgium's Colonial Past on Trial: What the 2024 Ruling Means for Reparational Justice|url=http://spheresofinfluence.ca/belgiums-colonial-past-on-trial-what-the-2024-ruling-means-for-reparational-justice/|access-date=2025-06-26|website=Spheres of Influence|language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-29|title=Belgian Congo {{!}} History & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgian-Congo|access-date=2025-06-26|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Dem get wetin dem call 'implicit apartheid'. Di colony put curfew for Congolese wey dey live for city, an plenty racial wahala dey happen. Léopoldville get di racist curfew wey e famous for, an dem use am as template for other European colonies like French Equatorial Africa wey dey close by.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Njoh |first1=Ambe J. |date=March 2008 |title=Colonial Philosophies, Urban Space, and Racial Segregation in British and French Colonial Africa |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Black Studies]] |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=579–599 |doi=10.1177/0021934706288447 |s2cid=145775865 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228161615/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref> Even though dem no get proper laws wey dey separate people by race, segregation dey happen plenty for many places. For example, at first, de city centers be only for white people, while black people dey stay for places dem dey call 'cités indigènes' or 'le belge'. Hospitals, shop dem and other places no dey allow both whites and blacks to mix. For Force Publique, black people no fit rise pass non-commissioned officer rank. Plus, black folks for the cities no fit come out from 9 pm to 4 am. Dis kind segregation start dey vanish small-small only for 1950s, but even then, de Congolese dem still dey feel like second-class citizens, especially for politics and law matter. [[File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|right|thumb|King [[:en:Albert_I_of_Belgium|Albert I]] plus Queen [[:en:Elisabeth_of_Bavaria,_Queen_of_the_Belgians|Elisabeth]] inspecting de military camp of Léopoldville for de time of demma visit to de Belgian Congo, 1928]] Sekof dem dey connect ekonomi growth with di 'civilizing mission', plus as state officials, missionaries plus private companies dey always help each other, people don sabi sey Belgian Congo dey ruled by one 'colonial trinity' of King-Church-Capital. Dis one fit mean di colonial state, di Christian missions, plus Société Générale de Belgique too. Di way wey colonial policy take dey work, e get one saying wey Governor-General Pierre Ryckmans (1934–46) use: Dominer pour servir ('Dominate to serve').<ref>Vanderlinden, Jacques (1994), ''Pierre Ryckmans 1891–1959, Coloniser dans l'honneur'', Brussels: De Boeck.</ref> Di colonial government wan make wey see am say dem dey nice plus no wahala for di administration, plus dem wan show Belgian Congo as di perfect colony. But na only for di 1950s e start change. For di 1950s, dem dey gradually draw back dem plenty harsh laws dem use punish di Congolese people (like di chicote wey be whip). From 1953, plus di big visit wey King Baudouin make to di colony for 1955, Governor-General Léon Pétillon (1952–1958) start dey try build one 'Belgian-Congolese community', where black plus white go dey equal.<ref>Pétillon, L. A. M. (1967), ''Témoignage et réflexions'', Brussels: Renaissance du Livre.</ref> But still, di anti-miscegenation laws no clear, and from 1959 to 1962, plenty mixed-race Congolese pikin dem dey carry come out from Congo by Belgian government plus Catholic Church go Belgium.<ref>{{cite web|last=Paravicini|first=Giulia|date=4 April 2019|title=Belgium apologizes for colonial-era abduction of mixed-race children|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711005737/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|archive-date=11 July 2019|access-date=10 July 2019|publisher=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> For 1957, dem do first municipal elections wey black voters fit vote for some big cities — Léopoldville, Élisabethville, plus Jadotville. ===== Abolition of slavery ===== For Congo Free State, plenty men, women, and pikin dem free from Swahili Arab slave owners and traders for Eastern Congo between 1886 and 1892. Dem fit join militai (Force Publique) or dem go give am to local chiefs wey be friends, and dem go use dem as workers. Even though dem ban chattel slavery for 1910 when Belgian Congo start, dem still dey use prisoners as forced laborers for public den private projects.<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 40</ref> == Resistance == Di Congolese dem no gree colonization; dem dey fight am steady, e come take many shapes. As modern ideas and education dey enter ground, e dey spark plenty action.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> Armed wahala show for small-small parts till Second World War finish (like Pende wahala for 1931, and di gbagbe for Luluabourg 1944). After di war till late 1950s, wetin dem dey call 'Pax belgica' go dey. But e no mean say dem no dey resist; passive resistance dey plenty too, like Kimbanguism wey be from di ‘prophet’ Simon Kimbangu wey di Belgians lock up. Aside active and passive wahala wey Congolese dey raise, di colonial government still dey hear plenty internal noise and gbege. Even for di 1920s, some people for Colonial Council wey dey for Brussels (like Octave Louwers) don talk plenty about di harsh way big companies dey recruit people for di mining places. Di slow growth for population for many areas—abi even wey dem dey chop plenty success for fight against sick sick like sleeping sickness—na another wahala wey dey worry dem. Low birth rate for countryside and some places dey empty usually link to di way traditional life don scatter because of forced work migration and compulsory farming. Dem dey talk say na wetin dem plan be dat, and dem dey point out how population dey increase for cities and how health plus lifespan don better thanks to modern medicine and better living condition.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hunt|first1=Nancy Rose|date=2002|title=Rewriting the Soul in Colonial Congo: Flemish Missionaries and Infertility|url=https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040613132330/https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|archive-date=2004-06-13|website=Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|publisher=Antwerp University Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|language=en}}</ref> Plenty missionaries wey dey connect with Congolese villagers dey carry dem wahala for heart plus sometimes dem dey fit intervene for dem matter with di colonial administration (like land property questions). Di missions plus some area administrators dem fit play big role for study and protect Congolese culture and language tradition plus di artifacts wey dey there. One good example na Father Gustaaf Hulstaert (1900–1990), wey insyde 1937 start di periodical Aequatoria wey dem dey use for di linguistic, ethnographic plus historical study of di Mongo people for di central Congo basin.<ref>See: aequatoria.be</ref> Di colonial state dey interested for di cultural and scientific study of Congo, especially after di Second World War, through di setup of di Institut pour la Recherche Scientifique en Afrique Centrale (IRSAC, 1948). == Toward independence == For early 1950s, di political freedom of di Congolese elites, no talk of di masses, e be like far dream. But e clear say Congo no fit dey far from di quick changes wey happen after di Second World War, wey scatter colonialism worldwide. Di independence wey di British, French, plus Dutch colonies for Asia get after 1945 no really change anything for Congo, but di pressure for Belgium from di United Nations don increase (just like all di other colonial powers). Belgium don agree to article 73 of di United Nations Charter wey talk about self-determination, plus di two superpowers dey pressure Belgium make dem change how dem dey run Congo; di Belgian government dey try hold body against wetin dem call 'interference' with dia colonial policy. Colonial government dey talk how dem go make life beta for Congolese pipo. Since 1940s, dem don dey try small-small give some elite wey dem call évolués small civil rights, dem fit get small political power later. So, 'deserving' Congolese fit apply for proof of 'civil merit', or if dem fit do better, 'immatriculation' (registration), wey go show say dem don join European way of life. To get this status, applicant gats meet strict rules (like marry one wife, show good behavior, etc.) and dem go dey watch dem well well (wey de include house visits). Dis policy no work at all. For around mid-1950s, no be plenty Congolese wey don fit get di civil merit diploma or dem don get di 'immatriculation'. Di benefits wey dem dey talk say come with am—like equal legal status with di white folks—na mostly just talk, no be real. E dey make di évolués frustrated well well. When Governor-General Pétillon start dey talk say he go fit give di native people more civil rights, even voting, to create wetin he dey call 'Belgo-Congolese community', di people for Brussels no really send am, and some Belgians for Congo dey vex as dem dey fear for demma privilege.<ref>[[Isidore Ndaywel è Nziem|Ndaywel è Nziem]], Isidore (1998), ''Histoire générale du Congo'', Paris-Brussels: De Boeck & Larcier, pp. 456–63.</ref> E clear say Belgian government no get proper long-term plan for Congo matter. 'Colonial wahala' no dey trend for Belgium, as long as di colony dey shine and e dey quiet. But one person wey show concern na di young King Baudouin, wey take over from him papa, King Leopold III, for 1951, when dem force Leopold III to waka. Baudouin dey follow wetin dey happen for Belgian Congo well well. Wen King Baudouin come visit Belgian Congo for de first time for 1955, crowd dey cheer am well-well, both whites and blacks dey dance, like as dem show for André Cauvin documentary, Bwana Kitoko.<ref>{{cite book|last=Raspoet|first=Erik|title=Bwana Kitoko en de koning van de Bakuba|publisher=Meulenhoff/Manteau|year=2005|isbn=90-8542-020-2}}</ref> Foreign people wey dey observe, suc as de international correspondent of ''The Manchester Guardian'' or a ''Time'' journalist,<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|title=Congo: Boom in the Jungle|date=16 May 1955|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=28 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028201856/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=May 16, 1955|title=CONGO: Boom in the Jungle|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=28 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828025115/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> talk say Belgian paddy paddy style dey work well, and dey compare how Belgian people dem loyal pass those French and British colonies wey dey restless. During di visit, King Baudouin carry Governor-General idea of 'Belgo-Congolese community' come front; but for real, dis plan dey move slow. At di same time, dem wahala wey dey divide for Belgium, wey dem fit hide from di colony before, start to enter Congo too. Dem talk say workers dey unite more now, dem dey call make public schools fit break mission schools for education, plus dem wan make both Belgian languages, French and Dutch, sabi equal treatment for colony. Before this, na only French dem dey push as colonial language. Governor-General dey fear say dis kind wahala fit spoil di colonial government image for Congolese, plus e go shift focus from di real need for true emancipation. ===== Political organisation ===== [[File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|right|thumb|[[:en:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu|Joseph Kasa-Vubu]], leader of ABAKO plus de first President dem elect democratically of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] [[File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Patrice_Lumumba|Patrice Lumumba]], first democratically elected Prime Minister of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] Di Congolese people join Second World War and dem hear say tings dey change for other colonies, e make dem start to organize make dem fit get power. Di colonial government no fit bring beta changes wey fit work, so di Congolese elites start to gather demself socially and later politically. For di 1950s, two separate types of nationalism show up among di Congolese elites. Di nationalist movement—wey di Belgian authorities no really watch—promote say di Belgian Congo go become one united state after dem get independence. E get wetin wey de oppose this matter, na di ethno-religious and regional nationalism wey catch for di Bakongo area for di west coast, Kasai plus Katanga.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} Di first political groups na dem one. ABAKO wey dem establish for 1950 as di Association culturelle des Bakongo, and wetin Joseph Kasa-Vubu dey run, start as cultural group wey turn political sharp sharp. From di middle of 1950s, dem don dey shout against Belgian colonial rule well well. Plus, di group still dey serve as di main ethno-religious group for di Bakongo and dem blend well with di Kimbanguist Church wey be popular for lower Congo.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} For 1955, Belgian prof Antoine van Bilsen drop one paper wey dem call Thirty Year Plan for the Political Emancipation of Belgian Africa.<ref>Gerard-Libois, Jules (1989), "Vers l'Indépendance: une accélération imprévue", In ''Congo-Zaïre'', Brussels: GRIP, pp. 43–56.</ref> De plan get timetable wey say make dem gradually free Congo for 30 years—na the time wey Van Bilsen believe say e go take to build educated people wey fit take over from the Belgians for power. But the Belgian government and plenty of the évolués no happy with the plan—government no wan lose Congo, and the évolués sabi say Belgium go still dey rule for another three decades. One group of Catholic évolués yan am positive for the plan with one moderate manifesto for one Congolese journal wey dem dey call Conscience Africaine; dem talk some matter about how Congolese fit take part well well.<ref>Kalulambi Pongo, Martin (2009), "Le manifeste 'Conscience africaine: genèse, influences et réactions", In Tousignant, Nathalie (ed.), ''Le manifeste Conscience africaine, 1956'', Brussels: Facultés Universitaires Saint-Louis, pp. 59–81.</ref> For 1957, as experiment matter, colonial government do organize di first local elections for three cities (Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Jadotville), wey Congolese people fit stand for office and vote. Watin happen for 1957–58 make demand for political freedom burst, no be small. Ghana independence for 1957 and President De Gaulle visit wey happen for August 1958 for Brazzaville, capital of di French Congo, across di Congo river from Léopoldville, wey e promise say France African colonies go fit choose between staying with France or full independence, make people for Congo get big dreams. Di World Exhibition wey dem do for Brussels for 1958 (Expo 58) be another eye-opener for plenty Congolese leaders, wey dem allow make dem travel go Belgium for di first time.<ref>Aziza Etambala, Zana (2008), ''De teloorgang van een modelkolonie, Belgisch Congo 1958–1960'', Leuven: Acco, pp. 105–110.</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|date=23 December 1957|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125731/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=December 23, 1957|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=1 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501001542/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> For 1958, people dey crave for independence sharp sharp and the koko don take off. Na Mouvement National Congolais (MNC) wey dey play big role for di matter. Dem start am for 1956, but dem officially set am up as national political party for October 1958, wey dey support make Congo be one strong nation. Di person wey dey lead dem well well na di charming Patrice Lumumba. For 1959, wahala start after Albert Kalonji and some MNC leaders wey wan dey moderate split from di main group (dem call dem Mouvement National Congolais-Kalonji). Even though di party get different waka, Lumumba faction (now Mouvement National Congolais-Lumumba) and di MNC still be di most important and influential party for Belgian Congo. Belgium vehemently de oppose Lumumba ein leftist views plus get grave concerns about de status of demma financial interests if Lumumba ein MNC come power.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} ===== Independence ===== As Belgium dey debate how to give Congolese people their freedom small-small, wahala just burst everywhere. On 4 January 1959, dem do one political demo for Léopoldville wey ABAKO organise, but e no gree control. Na so, the colonial capital begin catch fire with plenty chaos. E take dem days to bring back order, and if we count am well, hundreds don die. De eruption of violence sent a shockwave through de Congo den Belgium alike.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-01-if-blood-must-run.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: If Blood Must Run|date=19 January 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125735/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-01-if-blood-must-run.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=January 19, 1959|title=BELGIAN CONGO: If Blood Must Run|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,868969,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201082719/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,868969,00.html|archive-date=2011-02-01|magazine=Time}}</ref> On 13 January, King Baudouin use radio talk to the people say Belgium go work for Congo to get full independence fast, but no be to go rush am like mumu.<ref>Koning Boudewijn. 35 jaar dialoog met de natie. Een keuze uit de koninklijke toespraken van 1951 tot 1986. Lannoo Tielt, Inbel, 1986, blz. 124.</ref> Dem no fit talk say independence go happen one particular day, but di government wey Prime Minister Gaston Eyskens dey lead, get plan for multi-year transition period. Dem think say provincial elections go happen for December 1959, national elections for 1960 or 1961, den after, dem go start hand over di admin and political duties small small to di Congolese, as dem dey expect say by mid-1960s e go don finish. But for ground, things dey change fast fast.<ref>Young, Crawford (1965), ''Politics in the Congo" Decolonization and Independence'', Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 140–161.</ref> Di colonial admin dey see different type of resistance, like people wey no wan pay tax. For some places, anarchy threatened.<ref>Ryckmans, Geneviève (1995), ''André Ryckmans, un territorial du Congo belge''. Paris. L'Harmattan, pp. 215–224.</ref> At di same time, plenty Belgians wey dey di Congo no wan independence, dem dey feel say Brussels don betray dem. As di Congolese dem dey demand better change, di government don see say di chance to make am smooth smooth no dey happen again fast fast.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-10-return-of-the-mundele.pdf|title=The Belgian Congo : Return of the Mundele|date=12 October 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125737/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-10-return-of-the-mundele.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=October 12, 1959|title=THE BELGIAN CONGO: Return of the Mundele|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,864032,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101203183837/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,864032,00.html|archive-date=2010-12-03|magazine=Time}}</ref> [[File:Ronde_Tafel_Conferentie_te_Brussel_Congo,_Bestanddeelnr_910-9593.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ronde_Tafel_Conferentie_te_Brussel_Congo,_Bestanddeelnr_910-9593.jpg|thumb|220x220px|Opening meeting of de Belgo-Congolese Round Table Conference insyde Brussels on 20 January 1960]] For 1959, King Baudouin come back to Belgian Congo, and e see say everywhere don change from the last time wey e visit four years ago. When e land for Léopoldville, wahala start as black Belgo-Congolese people dey throw stone for am because dem vex say dem don lock Lumumba up, wey dem convict say im dey incite against colonial government. Even though for other cities dem receive am better, dem dey shout “Vive le roi!” but e follow with “Indépendance immédiate!” The Belgian government no wan enter any gbege wey fit turn bloody like wetin happen to France for Indochina and Algeria, or Netherlands for Indonesia. So, dem dey reason say make dem fit agree for Congolese leaders wey dey shout for immediate independence.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-11-now-now-now.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: Now Now Now|date=16 November 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125729/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-11-now-now-now.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=November 16, 1959|title=BELGIAN CONGO: Now Now Now|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811442,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201085122/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811442,00.html|archive-date=2011-02-01|magazine=Time}}</ref> Although dem no prepare well plus no plenty people wey educate dey (only small Congolese get degree for dat time), Belgian leaders still gree make independence happen. E be true say dem weak local elites fit work for Belgian government and business people, dem dey hope say dis go make am easy for dem to still dey control wetin dey happen for politics and economy. Dis style different from colonial wars and de slow decolonization wey other European countries dey do, dem sabi am as 'Le Pari Congolais'—di Congolese bet.<ref>{{cite book|last=De Witte|first=Ludo|title=Crisis in Kongo. De rol van de Verenigde Naties, de regering-Eyskens en het koningshuis in de omverwerping van Lumumba en de opkomst van Mobutu|date=1996|publisher=Uitgeverij Van Halewyck|isbn=9789056170523|location=Leuven|page=31|author-link=Ludo De Witte}}</ref> For January 1960, dem call Congolese leaders come Brussels make dem fit gather for round-table talk about independence. Dem free Patrice Lumumba from prison just for this matter. Na so the conference quick quick agree give Congolese almost all wetin dem ask: make dem do general election for May 1960 and full independence—'Dipenda'—go land on 30 June 1960. Na because of di strong unity wey Congolese delegation carry come. [[File:Patrice_Lumumba_signs_the_document_granting_independence_to_the_Congo_next_to_Belgian_Prime_Minister_Gaston_Eyskens.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patrice_Lumumba_signs_the_document_granting_independence_to_the_Congo_next_to_Belgian_Prime_Minister_Gaston_Eyskens.jpg|right|thumb|Lumumba den Eyskens sign de document granting independence to de Congo]] Political maneuvering ahead of de elections, Elections dey come, so dem form three political groups for ground: one na the federalist nationalists, wey dey include six separatist parties, like ABAKO and MNC—Kalonji; another one na centralist MNC—Lumumba; and last one be Moïse Tshombe, wey be big man for Katanga, wey wan protect the business wey dey for Union Minière (like Kalonji do for de diamond exploitations matter insyde Kasaï). Di parliamentary elections show say di political scene dey divided, with di regionalist group dem—ABAKO wey dey lead—plus di nationalist parties like MNC too do well. Dem force compromise make Kasa-Vubu be di first president of Republic of di Congo, and Lumumba be di first head of government. Just like dem plan am five months before, di handover ceremony wey di Belgians do happen well on time for 30 June 1960 for di new house of di Governor-General for Belgian Congo wey dey Léopoldville. One week later, wahala begin for Force Publique, dem dey rebel against dem officers wey still dey mostly Belgian. Dis one spark plenty gbege all over Congo, na unhappy soldiers and sharp-sharp youths dey cause am. For plenty places, dem dey focus di violence on European people. In small time, Belgian soldiers and later UN intervention force carry plenty Belgians wey dey work and live for Congo come out, over 80,000 of dem.<ref>{{cite book|last=Verlinden|first=Peter|title=Weg uit Congo, Het drama van de kolonialen|publisher=[[Davidsfonds]]|year=2002|location=Leuven}}</ref> == Congo crisis plus wetin follow am == Di rebellion wey start for Thyssville for Bas-Congo for July 1960 quickly spread go everywhere for de Congo.<ref>For an overview of developments in the Congo after 1960 see: O'Ballance, Edgar (2000), ''The Congo-Zaire Experience, 1960–98'', Houndmills: MacMillan Press.</ref> For September 1960, di leaders split, wey President Kasa-Vubu declare say prime minister Lumumba no dey hold him work again, and di same thing happen back. Dem stop di stalemate when government arrest Lumumba. For January 1961, dem fly am go di rich mining province of Katanga, wey dem don declare say dem no wan join Léopoldville again under di leadership of Moïse Tshombe (wey Belgium dey support well well). Dem hand Lumumba over to Katangan authorities, wey kill am. [[File:Congo_Crisis_dead_hostages.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_Crisis_dead_hostages.jpg|thumb|Belgian soldier dey lie for ground for de front of dead hostages, November 1964, for Stanleyville during [[:en:Operation_Dragon_Rouge|Operation Dragon Rouge]]. Belgian parachutists free over 1,800 European and American hostages wey Congolese rebels hold. ]] For 2002, Belgium don officially say sorry for wetin dem do to Lumumba; people don dey talk say CIA sabi join am, because dem see say Lumumba dey too left. During Cold War, Soviet Union dey push e influence for Africa to gree fight European powers, e use 'anti-colonialism' as reason to increase de power insyde de region.<ref>A first-hand account of the CIA's activities in the Congo in 1960–61 in: Devlin, Larry (2008), ''Chief of Station, Congo: Fighting the Cold War in a Hot Zone'', Cambridge: PublicAffairs</ref> Plenty rebellions and separatist wahala really mash up di dream of one united Congolese state wen dem just born. Even though di country don dey independent, Belgian paratroopers still show face for Congo plenty times to protect and carry Belgian and foreign people comot. United Nations dey do big peace-keeping work for Congo since late 1960. Di whole matter no settle until 1964–65. Katanga province come back inside, and dem so-called Simba Rebellion end for Stanleyville (province Orientale). Small time after dat, army colonel Joseph Désiré Mobutu come clear di political ground by taking power through coup ''d'état''. Mobutu get some backing for de West, especially for America, sekof e dey strong against communist people. At first, him rule dey boost economy well (like when dem build Inga dam wey dem plan since 1950s). To show say e no be like di old regime, him start campaign wey dem call Congolese 'authenticity'. For 1966, di government stop to use colonial place names: Léopoldville change go Kinshasa, Elisabethville turn Lubumbashi, plus Stanleyville become Kisangani. This time, Congo dey maintain good economic den political relationship with Belgium. Some money matta still dey hang after independence (dem dey call am 'contentieux'), like how dem suppose transfer shares for de big mining companies wey colonial state hold.<ref>Willame, Jean-Claude (1989), "Vingt-cinq ans de rélations belgo-zaïroises", In ''Congo-Zaïre'', Brussels: GRIP, pp. 145–58.</ref> For 1970, on top de ten years independence celebration, King Baudouin come pay official state visit to de Congo. Mobutu regime dey turn more radical for the 1970s. Dem Mouvement populaire de la Révolution (MPR) wey Mobutu be di founder, don set up one-party rule well well. Political wahala increase plenty. Mobutu come change di name of Congo to republic of Zaïre. Di so-called 'Zaïrisation' wey happen for mid-1970s make plenty foreign workers run come out and e cause economic wahala. For di 1980s, Mobutu regime dey become big example of mismanagement plus corruption.<ref>Wrong, Michela (2001), ''Living on the Brink of Disaster in Mobutu's Congo, In the Footsteps of Mr Kurtz'', New York: HarperCollins, pp. 195–200.</ref> De relationship with Belgium, di former colonial master, dey chop ups and downs, show say e dey decline for economic, financial and political side. Since no be chance say di country go fall into Soviet hand, di Western powers just dey stay neutral.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bud |first=Guy |date=2013 |title=Imperial Transitions: Belgian-Congolese relations in the post-colonial era |journal=SIR |issue=2 |pages=7–8}}</ref> [[File:Statue_de_Léopold_II_à_Kinshasa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Statue_de_L%C3%A9opold_II_%C3%A0_Kinshasa.jpg|thumb|Equestrian statue of [[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]] insyde Kinshasa]] After Soviet Union fall and Cold War end for late 1980s, Mobutu no get support from West again. For 1990, e decide say make e end the one-party matter and come back to democracy sharp-sharp. But he dey drag feet, dey play his enemies against each other make e fit buy time. That bloody wahala from Zaïrian Army dem give students for Lubumbashi University Campus May 1990 come make Belgium and Zaïre relationship spoil. Not so nice, Mobutu no receive invite for King Baudouin funeral for 1993, wey him see am as big personal insult. For 1997, dem force Mobutu comot power by rebel wey Laurent-Désiré Kabila dey lead. E come declare say e be president and change Zaïre name to Democratic Republic of the Congo. Dem kill Kabila for 2001, plus him son Joseph Kabila take over. For 2006, dem confirm Joseph Kabila as president when dem do di first nationwide free elections for Congo since 1960. From 30 June – 2 July 2010, King Albert II and Yves Leterme, di Belgian Prime Minister, come visit Kinshasa for celebrate di 50th anniversary of Congolese independence. Some practices plus traditions from colonial days still dey happen for independent Congo. Dem get strong central government wey be bureaucratic, and dem still dey follow di same setup for education and court system. Congo don influence Belgium mostly for money matter: with Union Minière (now Umicore) work, nonferrous metal industry dey grow, plus Port of Antwerp plus diamond business too. Till now, Brussels Airlines wey take over from Sabena still dey carry weight for DRC. Dem talk say insyde 2010, over 4,000 Belgian people dey stay for DRC, plus de Congolese community for Belgium atleast strong pass 16,000. De "Matongé" quarter insyde Brussels be de traditional focal point of de Congolese community insyde Belgium.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Swyngedouw |first1=Eva |last2=Swyngedouw |first2=Erik |year=2009 |title=The Congolese Diaspora in Brussels and hybrid identity formation |journal=Urban Research & Practice |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=68–90 |doi=10.1080/17535060902727074 |s2cid=143979364}}</ref> == Culture == === Music === For popular music, Latin music like rumba come from Cuba for 1930s and 1940s when colonial time dey run, plus dem dey play Latin music well plenty for Belgian Congo. For 1950s, American jazz also come enter as African jazz. For 1956, Franco form OK Jazz (later dem change de name to TPOK Jazz).<ref>{{cite web|last=Al Angeloro|date=March 2005|title=World Music Legends: Franco|url=http://www.globalrhythm.net/WorldMusicLegends/Franco.cfm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928055648/http://www.globalrhythm.net/WorldMusicLegends/Franco.cfm|archive-date=28 September 2007|access-date=30 December 2019|work=Global Rhythm|publisher=Zenbu Media}}</ref> Joseph Kabasele, wey dem dey call Le Grand Kallé (The Great Kallé), na him start African Jazz. House bands dey trend now, and rumba congolaise dey show face too. Marlo Mashi na one musician from dat same time. Congo popular music come from all these continental rhythm, church music, Ghana high life, plus traditional Congo music. == Check am too == * [[:en:Archives_Africaines_(Belgium)|Archives Africaines (Belgium)]], which keeps material related to Belgian Congo * ''[[:en:Les_Belges_dans_l'Afrique_Centrale|Les Belges dans l'Afrique Centrale]]'' * [[:en:Districts_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Districts of the Belgian Congo]] * [[:en:Belgian_Congo_in_World_War_II|Belgian Congo in World War II]] * [[:en:Prime_Minister_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Prime Minister of the Democratic Republic of the Congo]] * ''[[:en:Tintin_in_the_Congo|Tintin in the Congo]]'' == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] 4j4qnx1ty52mx6fvtily754oiguy1e6 69188 69187 2025-07-06T00:51:37Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 I don add de header 'Citations' 69188 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Belgian Congo''' (French: ''Congo belge'', pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: ''Belgisch-Congo'')<ref name=":2">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Kongo-overzee: tijdschrift voor en over Belgisch-Kongo en andere overzeese gewesten]'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20200726183256/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i6UrAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22&dq=%22Belgisch-Kongo%22 Archived] 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 25, De Sikkel, 1959</ref> na e be a Belgian colony insyd Central Africa from 1908 til independence insyd 1960 wey e cam turn de Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). Na de former colony adopt ein present name, de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC), insyd 1964. Na colonial rule insyd de Congo begin insyd de late 19th century. Na King Leopold II of de Belgians attempt make he persuade de Belgian government make dem support colonial expansion around de then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Na dema ambivalence result insyd Leopold establish a colony einself. Plus support from a number of Western countries, na Leopold achieve international recognition of de [[Congo Free State]] insyd 1885.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 253–5.</ref> By de turn of de century, na de violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese den a ruthless system of economic exploitation lead to intense diplomatic pressure for Belgium top make e take official control of de country, wich na e do by creating de Belgian Congo insyd 1908.<ref name=":4">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFPakenham1992|Pakenham 1992]], pp. 588–9.</ref> Na Belgian rule insyd de Congo be based for de "colonial trinity" (''trinité coloniale'') of state, missionary den private-company interests.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFTurner2007|Turner 2007]], p. 28.</ref> Na de privileging of Belgian commercial interests mean say na large amounts of capital flow into de Congo den dat individual regions cam be specialised. For chaw occasions, de interests of de government den of private enterprise cam be closely linked, wey de state help companies make dem break strikes den make dem komot barriers wey be raised by de indigenous population.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem divide de colony into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions wey dey run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (''politique indigène''). Na dis differ from de practice of British den French colonial policy, wich na e generally favour systems of indirect rule, wey dey retain traditional leaders insyd positions of authority under colonial oversight. During de 1940s den 1950s, na de Belgian Congo experience extensive urbanisation wey de colonial administration begin various development programs wey be aimed at make dem make de territory into a "model colony".<ref name=":1">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], pp. 198–9.</ref> Na one result see de development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African "''évolués''" insyd de cities.<ref name=":1" /> By de 1950s, na de Congo get a wage labour force twice as large as dat insyd any oda African colony.<ref name=":5">[[:en:Belgian_Congo#CITEREFFreund1998|Freund 1998]], p. 198.</ref> Insyd 1960, as de result of a widespread den increasingly radical pro-independence movement, na de Belgian Congo achieve independence, wey e cam turn de [[Republic of the Congo]] under Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] den Presido Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Na poor relations between political factions within de Congo, de continued involvement of Belgium insyd Congolese affairs, den de intervention by major parties (mainly de [[United States]] den de Soviet Union) during de Cold War lead to a five-year-long period of war den political instability, dem know as de Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. Na dis end plus de seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu insyd November 1964. == Congo Free State == [[File:Leopold2-.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leopold2-.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]], [[:en:Monarchy_of_Belgium|King of the Belgians]] plus ''de facto'' owner of de Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908]] [[File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MutilatedChildrenFromCongo.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Children mutilated during King Leopold II's rule]] Until late 19th century, few oyibo people don waka inside Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps, plus malaria and other tropical sickness dem, like sleeping sickness, make am tough for oyibo to explore and chop area. For 1876, King Leopold II wey be from Belgium organize International African Association with help from top African explorers and some oyibo governments to promote exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley don explore the area where e end for 1878, Leopold dey try wetin go fit help him interes insyde de region.<ref name=":2" /> Leopold II dey craze to get colony for Belgium even before e become king for 1865. But the Belgian government no dey pay attention to wetin him dey dream for empire. E be ambitious and stubborn, so Leopold decide say him go handle am by himsef. European dem no dey gree for Central Africa, wahala plenty, especially for Congo Basin wey nobody don claim. For November 1884, Otto von Bismarck call 14 nation dem come meet (na di Berlin Conference) to find way wey go fit solve di Congo matter. Although di Berlin Conference no really talk say di European dem fit claim territory for Central Africa, dem agree on some rules to make sure say dem no go fight over di land. Di rules talk say Congo Basin na free-trade zone. But Leopold II collect plenty win for di Berlin Conference,<ref name=":3" /> plus him one-man 'philanthropic' organization carry large area (2,344,000 km2) make dem fit run am as Congo Free State. Congo Free State be like corporate state wey no be government matter, na Leopold II dey control am through some NGO wey dem call International African Association.<ref name=":4" /> Dis state cover everywhere wey we dey call Democratic Republic of the Congo today, e dey run from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium government go hold am tight. Under Leopold II, Congo Free State turn humanitarian wahala. Because dem no fit collect proper records, e dey hard to sabi how many people die from all di exploitation and di new diseases wey European colonists bring come, like di 1889–1890 flu wey carry plenty people go grave for Europe, even Prince Baudouin of Belgium die for 1891.<ref name=":0" /> William Rubinstein talk say: 'E clear say di population figures wey Hochschild talk no correct. Nobody fit sabi di population of Congo before di twentieth century, estimates like 20 million be just guesswork. Most of Congo inside be like wilderness wey nobody don discover, if e no dey hard to reach.'<ref name=":1" /> Leopold's Force Publique be private army wey dey use fear spoil native people to make dem work hard for resource wey dem go take chop. Dem dey scatter local communities, kill and abuse natives anyhow. The Force Publique sef join for Congo–Arab War to fight against African and Arab slavers like that Zanzibari/Swahili strongman, Tippu Tip. After 1904 Casement Report show wetin dey happen for Congo, European press (including British) and American press make everybody sabi di wahala wey dey for Congo Free State for early 1900s. For 1904, dem force Leopold II allow international parliamentary commission enter Congo Free State. By 1908, as people dey push plus di politics dey turn, Leopold II reign come end den dem join Congo as Belgium colony, dem dey call am "Belgian Congo". == Belgian Congo == [[File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Residentie_van_de_gouverneur-generaal.jpg|thumb|Former residence of de [[:en:Governor-General_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Governor-General of the Belgian Congo]] (1908–1923) located insyde [[:en:Boma,_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Boma]]]] For 18 October 1908, Belgian Parliament gree say dem go annex Congo as Belgian colony. Plenty socialist and radicals no gree for dis annexation, but dem dey chop electoral gains from their anti-colonial wahala. Some sabi say dem suppose annex Congo to help the people. In the end, two Catholic MPs and half of Liberal MPs join the socialists to reject Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes no), while nearly all Catholics and di other half of Liberal MPs approve di charter (ninety votes yes and seven no participation).<ref name=":5" /> So, on 15 November 1908, Belgian Congo turn colony for Belgian Kingdom. Dis one happen after King Leopold II don see say e no fit keep big part of Congo outside government control as e dey try hold some of Congo Free State as im own crown property. When Belgium take charge in 1908, some things for Congo begin dey better small. Dem stop some of the wicked things wey some companies dey do, like violence and all dat kind wahala. 'Red rubber' crime come end too. Article 3 for the new Colonial Charter wey drop on 18 October 1908 talk say: 'Nobody fit force you make you work for companies or rich people', but them no follow am. Belgium government still dey put forced labour on the local people, but dem dey do am for back small.<ref>Citations: * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Forced labor in the gold and copper mines: a history of Congo under Belgian rule, 1910–1945|date=1999|publisher=Per Ankh Publishers|others=Translated by Ayi Kwei Armah|edition=reprint|author-link=Jules Marchal}} * {{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001. * {{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Jeremy |date=Spring 2009 |title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghost: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo (review) |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=10 |doi=10.1353/cch.0.0053 |s2cid=161485622 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232433/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/265076 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=17 March 2018}} * {{cite book|last1=Hochschild|first1=Adam|title=King Leopold's Ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa|date=1999|publisher=Mariner Books|location=Boston|chapter=18. Victory?}} * {{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Raymond Leslie|title=The native problem in Africa, Volume II|date=1928|publisher=The Macmillan Company|location=New York|pages=540–544}} * {{cite book|last1=Zoellner|first1=Tom|title=Uranium: war, energy, and the rock that shaped the world|date=2009|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York|pages=4–5|chapter=1 Scalding Fruit}} * {{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Brian|title=So Clean: Lord Leverhulme, Soap and Civilisation|date=2008|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|pages=188–190|chapter=Sunlight for Savages}} * {{cite book|last1=Edmondson|first1=Brad|title=Ice Cream Social: The Struggle for the Soul of Ben & Jerry's|date=2014|publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|location=San Francisco, California|chapter=10: The Sale Agreements}} * {{cite book|last1=Makelele|first1=Albert|title=This is a Good Country: Welcome to the Congo|pages=43–44}} * {{cite web|last1=De Witte|first1=Ludo|date=9 January 2016|title=Congolese oorlogstranen: Deportatie en dwangarbeid voor de geallieerde oorlogsindustrie (1940–1945)|url=http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232213/http://www.dewereldmorgen.be/long-read/2016/01/09/congolese-oorlogstranen-deportatie-en-dwangarbeid-voor-de-geallieerde-oorlogsindustrie-1940-1945|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=DeWereldMorgen.be}} * {{cite web|title=Lord Leverhulme|url=http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317232819/http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/lord-leverhulme|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018|website=History}} * {{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Donald|title=The Politics of Dissent: A Biography of E D Morel|date=2014|publisher=SilverWood Books}} * {{cite web|title=Un autre regard sur l'Histoire Congolaise: Guide alternatif de l'exposition de Tervuren|url=https://www.deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628183815/http://deboutcongolais.info/histoire-du-congo.pdf|archive-date=28 June 2017|access-date=17 March 2018|page=14}}</ref> Di change wey happen from Congo Free State to Belgian Congo na big turn, but e still get plenty things wey remain the same. Di last Governor-General of Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, still dey run tings for Belgian Congo, plus most of Leopold II administration still dey work with am.<ref>Stengers, Jean (2005), ''Congo: Mythes et réalités'', Brussels: Editions Racine.</ref> E true say conditions jom small since dem no get King Leopold anymore, but doctors like Dr. Raingeard talk say di Belgian government no really care about healthcare and basic education for di locals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marchal|first1=Jules|title=Lord Leverhulme's Ghosts: Colonial Exploitation in the Congo|date=2008|publisher=Verso|others=Translated by Martin Thom. Introduced by Adam Hochschild|isbn=978-1-84467-239-4|location=London|pages=121–128|chapter=7: The Compagnie Due Kasai Proves to be Worse Than the HCB (1927–1930)}} First published as Travail forcé pour l'huile de palme de Lord Leverhulme: L'histoire du Congo 1910–1945, tome 3 by Editions Paula Bellings in 2001.</ref> Dem still dey focus on opening Congo and im natural and mineral wealth for di Belgian economy, na dat be di main reason for colonial expansion. ===== Government ===== [[File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_église_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brussels,_straatzicht_Place_Royale_met_%C3%A9glise_Saint-Jacques-sur-Coudenberg_oeg2043-01020_en_standbeeld_van_Godefroid_de_Bouillon_foto3_2015-06-07_13.53.jpg|thumb|On de left hand side, de former Ministry of de Colonies, adjacent to de [[:en:Constitutional_Court_(Belgium)|Constitutional Court]], Brussels]] Di governance for Belgian Congo dey follow di 1908 Colonial Charter.<ref>Senelle, R., and E. Clément (2009), ''Léopold II et la Charte Coloniale'', Brussels: Editions Mols.</ref> Executive power dey for di hands of Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, wey get help from Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Dem dey for Brussels. Di Belgian Parliament dey run di legislative authority over de Belgian Congo. [[File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-belgian-congo.jpg|left|thumb|Map wey dey show Belgian Congo wey dem publish for 1930s]] De top man wey dey run colonial admin for Belgian Congo na di Governor-General. From 1886 reach 1926, di Governor-General and him crew dey live for Boma, near di Congo river mouth. But from 1923, dem shift di colonial capital go Léopoldville, about 300 km further insyde.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Kinshasa – National Capital, Democratic Republic of the Congo|encyclopedia=britannica.com|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021639/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/318863/Kinshasa/9050/History|archive-date=18 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> At first, di Belgian Congo divide into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, wey each get im own Vice-Governor-General. But for 1932, dem change di setup, increase di provinces to six, and dem carry di Vice-Governors-General comot from dia position.<ref>Current Belgium still has [[Provinces of Belgium|provinces]] each with a provincial governor.</ref> {{historical populations|1900|1187|1910|1928|1920|3615|1930|17676|1939|17536|1950|39006|1955|69813|1959|88913|title=Belgians residing in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1959|source=<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe, pp. 353–4.</ref>}}Di territorial service na di true backbone of colonial administration.<ref>A good overview in: Dembour, Marie-Bénédicte (2000), ''Recalling the Belgian Congo, Conversations and Introspection'', New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 17–44.</ref> Di colony divide into four provinces (six after 1933 reforms). Each province get some districts (24 districts for di whole Congo) and each district get small territories (like 130–150 territories total; some territories dey merge or split as time dey go).<ref>de Saint Moulin, Léon (1988), "Histoire de l'organisation administrative du Zaïre", Kinshasa: Zaïre-Afrique, pp. 10–24.</ref> One territorial administrator dey manage one territory, him get one or more assistants wey dey help am. Di territories self dey further divide into plenty 'chiefdoms' (chefferies), and di Belgian admin go appoint 'traditional chiefs' (chefs coutumiers) to lead dem. Di territories wey one administrator and few assistants dey manage go bigger pass some Belgian provinces combined (di whole Belgian Congo dey nearly 80 times bigger than Belgium and e dey about twice di size of Germany and France combined). Di territorial administrator suppose dey inspect him territory and file detailed annual reports to di provincial administration. For legal matter, two system dey run: one na European courts, the other na indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). Dem indigenous courts dey run by traditional chiefs, but dem fit no do plenty things as e dey under colonial control. For 1936, dem talk say 728 administrators dey manage Congo from Belgium.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor|date=October 14, 2014|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1610394598|location=New York, United States|pages=518|language=en}}</ref> Belgians wey dey for Congo no fit talk for government matter and Congolese sef no get voice.{{Clarify|reason=Even district commissioners? What kind of say?|date=November 2019}} No political wahala dey allowed for Congo at all.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere|title=The Fate of Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2005|isbn=9781586482466|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fateofafricafrom00mere/page/6 6]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Public order for colony na by Force Publique, wey be army wey dem recruit locally but na Belgian dey run am. Na only for 1950s, metropolitan troops—be like regular Belgian army—come dey show for Belgian Congo (like for Kamina). Dem colonial people—any white man wey dey control Congo—di Congolese sabi call am bula matari (“break rocks”), na one name wey dem give Stanley first. E use dynamite break rocks as e dey waka for lower-Congo side.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, p. 56.</ref> Di term bula matari come mean di strong and powerful force of di colonial government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndahinda |first1=Felix Mukwiza |date=2016 |title=Collective Victimization and Subjectivity in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Why Do Lasting Peace and Justice Remain Elusive? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=148 |doi=10.1163/15718115-02302004 |jstor=26557813 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412170747/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26557813 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref> ===== International conflicts ===== [[File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_campagne_1918.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|De ''Force Publique'' insyde [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] for de time of World War I]] Belgian Congo dey join fight for two world wars, oh. For World War I, wahala start as Force Publique face German colonial army for German East Africa (Tanganyika). Dem turn am for open war when Anglo-Belgian people invade German land for 1916 and 1917 during East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, gather 15,000 men plus local bearers join am – Reybrouck talk say 260,000 local bearers dey work during de war.<ref name="dvr">{{cite book|author=[[David van Reybrouck]]|title=[[Congo: The Epic History of a People]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2014|page=132ff}}</ref> Dem waka go Kigali (now capital of Rwanda) and capture am by 6 May 1916. Dem continue go take Tabora (now for Tanzania) on 19 September after plenty fighting.<ref name="dvr" /> By 1917, after dem don conquer Mahenge (now in Tanzania), Belgian Congo army, wey don grow to 25,000 men, dey occupy one-third of German East Africa.<ref name="dvr" /> After World War I, dem sign Treaty of Versailles, Germany hand over di western part of di old German East Africa to Belgium. Then Ruanda-Urundi dey become League of Nations area under Belgium control. Dis place no join Belgian Congo at all. Later, Ruanda-Urundi go gree stand as Rwanda and Burundi, and di Belgian side of German East Africa go link up with de nation of Tanganyika, later Tanzania don also follow.<ref>Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. I. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-926191-1}}.</ref> During World War II, Belgian Congo be serious money source for Belgian government wey dey London after dem Nazis occupy Belgium. After Germans take Belgium in May 1940, Belgian Congo show say dem loyal to Belgian government wey dey London. Belgian Congo and Free Belgian forces join the war for Allied side for Battle of Britain with 28 pilots for RAF (squadron 349) and Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) plus insyde Africa too.<ref>Baete, Hubert (ed.) (1994). Belgian Forces in United Kingdom. Ostend: Defence. pp. 165–7.</ref> Force Publique don participate for de Allied campaign insyde Africa. Belgian Congolese soldiers (with some Belgian officers) really fight Italian colonial army for East Africa, and dem win for Asosa, Bortaï and inside Saïo during Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert time for the second East African fight of 1940–1941.<ref name="WP">Compare:{{cite news|last=McCrummen|first=Stephanie|title=Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|agency=Washington Post Foreign Service|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|quote=References to Congo's involvement in World War II are usually limited to Shinkolobwe, the mine that supplied uranium for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014073325/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/03/AR2009080302959.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 July 1941, di Italian soldiers (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrender when Force Publique cut dem off. One Congolese unit sef dey fight for Far East with di British army for di Burma campaign.<ref>Killingray, David (2012). ''Fighting for Britain: African Soldiers in the Second World War''. London: James Currey Ltd. p. 7. {{ISBN|1847010474}}.</ref> == Economic policy == Di way dem dey chop Congo economy no be small matter. One big plan na to build railway make dem fit access di minerals and farm areas well well.<ref>See ''Le Rail au Congo Belge, 1890–1920 (Volume 1).'' (1993, Ediblanchart). {{ISBN|2872020101}}.</ref> ===== World War I ===== [[File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkakasa05.jpg|right|thumb|A steam boat arriving at Boma on de Congo River insyde 1912]] [[File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intocht-tabora-19-september-1916.jpg|right|thumb|Belgo-Congolese troops of de Force Publique after de [[:en:Battle_of_Tabora|Battle of Tabora]], 19 September 1916]] Rubber dey be main export for Belgian Congo, but e start fall for early 20th century from 77% of exports to just 15% as British colonies for Southeast Asia like British Malaya dey begin farm rubber. New resources start show up, especially copper mining for Katanga province. The Belgian company, Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, wey go take over copper mining, use direct rail line go sea for Beira. When World War I start, demand for copper increase, and production fly from 997 tons for 1911 to 27,462 tons for 1917, then drop again to 19,000 tons for 1920. Dem dey smelt copper for Lubumbashi. Before the war, copper go Germany; but the British buy all the copper wey dem produce during the war, and the money go to Belgian government for exile. Diamond an gold mining dey grow during di war. Di British company, Lever Bros., sabi expand di palm oil business well well, an dem produce cocoa, rice, an cotton increase too. New rail and steamship lines open so e fit carry di extra export traffic.<ref>{{cite EB1922|wstitle=Belgian Congo|volume=30|page=429|first=Frank Richardson|last=Cana}}</ref> During di First World War (1914–1918), dem bring dis 'mandatory cultivation' rule, wey dey force Congolese farmers grow some cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) wey dem go export.<ref>Mulambu, M. (1974), "Cultures obligatoires et colonisation dans l'ex-Congo belge", In ''Les Cahiers du CEDAF'', 6/7</ref> Di territorial administrators an state agronomists get di job to supervise an if need be, punish farmers wey no follow di mandatory cultivation wey dem no like.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (1997), ''Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> ===== Interbellum ===== Two different times wey dem invest for Congo economy area clear during Belgian rule be: the 1920s and the 1950s.<ref>Vanthemsche, Guy (2007), ''La Belgique et le Congo'', Brussels: Editions Complexe.{{page needed|date=September 2014}}</ref> [[File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kisanga-mijn_Ruandese_arbeiders_einde-jaren_1920.JPG|right|thumb|[[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruandan]] migrant workers at de Kisanga mine insyde Katanga, ca. 1920]] For 1921, Belgian government bring 300 million francs come loan for Belgian Congo, to support public projects wey go boom private companies for di colony. Dem also sell plenty government-owned companies wey dey work for di colony (like Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..).<ref>Foutry V., op. cit., p. 4</ref> After First World War, dem focus on better investments for transport (like di rail lines wey connect Matadi and Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, dem build 2,450 km of railroads.<ref>Anstey R. (1966), King Leopold's Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908–1960. Londen, Oxford University Press, pp. 103–104.</ref> Di government heavy invest for harbour infrastructure for Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville too.Dem build electricity and water systems for the main cities. Airports dey plenty, and dem bring telephone line wey connect Brussels and Leopoldville. Government dey manage about 50% of the money wey go inside Belgian Congo investments; commercial companies dey take the other 50%. Mining industry, with Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as big player, attract most private investments (copper and cobalt for Katanga, diamonds for Kasai, gold for Ituri).<ref>Massoz M., Le Congo des Belges 1908–1960, Luik, 1994, p. 318</ref> This one help the Belgian Société Générale to build big economic empire for the Belgian Congo. Private companies dey make plenty money, and e dey go for European and other international shareholders as dividends.<ref>Buelens, Frans (2007), ''Congo 1885–1960, Een financiëel-economische geschiedenis'', Berchem: EPO.</ref> [[File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_Congo_Railway_Network_pre-1960.svg|left|thumb|280x280px|Railways and navigable waterways insyde de Belgian Congo]] For that time wey economy dey shine, plenty young boys from Congo waka comot from dem poor village go look work for companies wey dey near city; Kinshasa population nearly double from 1920 to 1940, and Elizabethville grow from like 16,000 for 1923 to 33,000 for 1929.<ref>David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2014.</ref> Dem dey carry people come work by proper recruitment companies (like Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï) plus some governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..).. For Katanga, main work people na seasonal migrants wey dey come from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, some too dey come from Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>De Meulder B., op. cit., p. 37</ref> For many cases, dis big labour migration spoil dem rural communities: plenty farmers don waka comot from dem villages, so na labour shortage dey for di areas. To fix dis wahala, di colonial government dey use maximum quota of 'able-bodied workers' wey dem fit recruit from every area for Belgian Congo. So, tens of thousands workers from plenty populated areas dey work for copper mines for di sparse south (Katanga). Even for agriculture, di colonial state force dem to rearrange production. Dem take over 'vacant lands' (land wey locals no dey use) and share am to European companies, individual white landowners (colons), or to di missions. Na so, dem build plenty plantation economy. Palm-oil production for Congo increase from 2,500 tons for 1914 to 9,000 tons for 1921, and to 230,000 tons for 1957. Cotton production too increase from 23,000 tons for 1932 to 127,000 for 1939.<ref name="a">{{cite book|last=Boahen|first=A. Adu|title=Africa Under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935|year=1990|page=171}}</ref> Di way wey Africans dey work for capitalist colonial economy really help spread money for Belgian Congo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Seibert|first=Julia|title=Policy and Practice of Forced Labor in the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo|date=2024-08-21|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailAKBIGahtbi8Os|access-date=2025-03-09|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846?d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-846&p=emailakbigahtbi8os|doi-broken-date=29 June 2025|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> Dem wan make sure say na Congo people go develop dia own place, no be Belgian taxes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wyatt|first1=Bob|title=Ndekendek: The Man Who Runs Like a Bird|last2=Flasschoen|first2=George|publisher=Xlibris|year=2017|isbn=9781543414301}}</ref> Colonial government need fit collect money taxes from Congo people, so e dey important make dem fit make money by selling wetin dem dey grow or di work dem dey do for di colonial setup. [[File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_belge_Allez-y_propaganda_jaren_1920.JPG|thumb|Na propaganda leaflet wey Ministry of Colonies produce for early 1920s]] De economic shine wey happen for 1920s make Belgian Congo dey shine as one of di top copper-ore producers for di whole world. For 1926 alone, Union Minière carry go export pass 80,000 tons of copper ore, plenty of am go for Hoboken for Belgium to process.<ref>Brion, René and Jean-Louis Moreau (2006), ''De la Mine à Mars: la genèse d'Umicore'', Tielt: Lannoo.</ref> For 1928, King Albert I waka go Congo to open di 'voie national' wey connect di Katanga mining area by rail (reach Port Francqui) and by boat (from Port Francqui go Léopoldville) to di Atlantic port of Matadi. ===== Great Depression ===== Di Great Depression wey happen for 1930s really wahala di Belgian Congo economy wey dey depend on export because international demand for raw materials and food come drop (for example, di price of peanuts fall from 1.25 francs to just 25 centimes). For some areas like Katanga wey dey mine, dem lose employment reach 70%. For di whole country, wage labour force decrease by 72,000 people and plenty of dem come go back to dem villages. For Leopoldville, population drop by 33% because of di labour migration.<ref>Anstey R., op.cit., p. 109</ref> To make wetin dey happen for di countryside better, di colonial government start wetin dem call 'indigenous peasantry programme', wey dey support strong internal market wey no dey too depend on wetin happen for export, plus to fight di bad effects wey soil erosion and exhaustion dey cause because of di mandatory farming scheme. Dis policy start to dey implement well well for Congo after Second World War, by di colonial government. Di plan na to make indigenous agriculture beta by giving land to families and helping dem with government support like seeds, farming advice, fertilizer, den all dat.<ref>Clement, Piet (2014), "Rural development in the Belgian Congo: the late-colonial indigenous peasantry programme and its implementation in the Equateur District", In ''Bulletin des Scéances de l'Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer'', Brussels, 60 (2), pp. 251–286</ref> Di National Institute for Agronomic Study of Belgian Congo, wey start in 1934, with im big experimental fields and laboratories for Yangambe, play big role for crop selection and make agronomic research and know-how popular.<ref>Drachoussoff, V., e.a. (1991), ''Le développement rurale en Afrique Centrale: synthèse et réflexions'', Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin</ref> ===== World War II ===== {{Main|Belgian Congo in World War II}} [[File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinkolobwe.jpg|thumb|The majority of the uranium used in the [[:en:Manhattan_Project|Manhattan Project]] came from the [[:en:Shinkolobwe|Shinkolobwe]] mine.]] Insyde World War II, production for industry plus farm work really jom up. The people for Congo carry the heavy load of the 'war effort' – like, through a reinforcement of de mandatory cultivation policy.<ref>Rubbens, Antoine (1945), ''Dettes de guerre'', Elisabethville: Lovania</ref> After Japan take over Malaya (January 1942), Belgian Congo become big supplier of rubber for the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dumett |first=Raymond |date=1985 |title=Africa's Strategic Minerals During the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181656 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=381–408 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700028802 |issn=0021-8537 |jstor=181656 |s2cid=163040373 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Belgian Congo be one of di main places wey dey export uranium to US during World War II (and Cold War), especially from Shinkolobwe mine. Dis colony give di uranium wey dem use for Manhattan Project, including for di atomic bombs wey fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki for 1945.<ref name="WP" /> ===== After World War II ===== [[File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Students_in_theTeaching_laboratory,_Medical_School,_Yakusu_Wellcome_L0039121.jpg|right|thumb|Students insyde de Teaching laboratory, Medical School, Yakusu, {{circa}} 1930–1950]] After World War II, di colonial state start dey active for di economy and social wahala for Belgian Congo. For 1949, di Belgian government launch one ambitious ten-year plan. E focus on house wey dem go build, energy supply, rural development plus health-care infrastructures. Dis ten-year plan bring strong economic growth for ten years, and for di first time, di Congolese begin see beta life big time.<ref>Jean-Philippe Peemans, "Imperial Hangovers: Belgium – The Economics of Decolonization", Journal of Contemporary History 2, nr., 265–266.</ref><ref>Guy Vanthemsche (2007), Congo. De impact van de kolonie op België. Tielt: Lannoo, pp. 129–131.</ref> At di same time, di economy don expand and di number of Belgian people wey dey di country don double, from 39,000 for 1950 to over 88,000 by 1960.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Overview {{!}} The Post War United States, 1945-1968 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/post-war-united-states-1945-1968/overview/|access-date=2025-06-17|website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> For 1953, Belgium gree make Congolese fit buy plus sell demma own property wey dem name go dey for dem own. For 1950s, Congolese middle class start to show, small small at first, but e dey grow well well for main cities like Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, plus Luluabourg.<ref>[[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja|Nzongola-Ntalaja, G.]] (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History. Londen: Zed Books, pp. 62–63.</ref> E be quick political progress wey African people dey push for di last years of di 1950s, e reach peak for di 1960 Belgian Congo general election. == Civilising mission == [[File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_Léopoldville.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheutiste_dans_le_vicariat_de_L%C3%A9opoldville.jpg|thumb|[[:en:CICM_Missionaries|Scheutist missionary]] on tour insyde de neighbourhood of Léopoldville around 1920]] Dem talk say colonization for Africa get reason, as e be like tribal war, cannibalism, human sacrifice, plus all dem 'primitive' things dey happen plenty.<ref>[[Belgian Congo#hogg1983|Hogg, 1983]], pp. 18–24, 81</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#cunningham1973|Cunningham, 1973]], pp, 106, 114</ref><ref>[[Belgian Congo#arnot1914|Arnot, 1914]], pp. 28, 72, 75–76</ref> Dem fit use dat one as big reason say European culture go fit civilize dem. De wahala wey dem dey call civilizing mission for Congo dey follow economic and education progress like bread and butter. Dem want make people change to Catholic way, get basic Western education, and better healthcare. All dis na important things by dem self, but e also fit help turn wetin Europe people see as primitive society into Western capitalist way wey get workers wey dey strong, healthy, and sabi read and write so dem fit join the labor market. Some of the first big missions wey enter Africa na David Livingstone plus John M. Springer carry am during late 19th century to early 20th century.<ref name="honor8">[[Belgian Congo#honor|Africa missionaries : an honor roll]], p. 8</ref>'''<ref name="essay">[[Belgian Congo#methodist|United Methodist Communications, Essay]]</ref>''' ===== Education ===== [[File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Classe_dans_le_Chimbek.jpg|thumb|Education by de [[:en:Franciscan_Missionaries_of_Mary|Franciscan Missionaries of Mary]] ({{circa}} 1930)]] Di educational system na Catholic Church dey run am—as e be for di whole Belgium dat time—plus small small cases, by Protestant churches too. Di curricula dey show Christian and Western values. Even for 1948, 99.6% of di schools na Christian missions dey operate. Di local schools mostly focus on religion and some vocational skills. Children dey learn basic tings like reading, writing and small mathematics. Di Belgian Congo na one of di few African colonies wey dem dey teach local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) for primary school. But still, di language policies and colonial rule dey work hand in hand, as dem dey prefer Lingala—which na semi-artificial language wey dem dey spread through di Force Publique—pass di more local (plus older) indigenous languages like Lomongo plus others.<ref>Fabian, Johannes (1986), ''Language and Colonial Power, The Appropriation of Swahili in the Former Belgian Congo 1880–1938'', Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref> For 1940, children wey dey 6 to 14 years, na 12% dey go school, but by 1954, e don rise reach 37%, one of the highest for sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for di local people no take happen until later for di colonial time. Small small, black pikin start dey enter European secondary schools from 1950. Di first university for Belgian Congo, di Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, open to black plus white students for 1954. Before Lovanium start, di Catholic University of Louvain don dey run plenty higher education centres for Belgian Congo. Di Fomulac, wey be foundation for medical school, start for 1926 to train Congolese doctors and researchers wey sabi tropical medicine. For 1932, di Catholic University of Louvain don open Cadulac for Kisantu, wey focus on agricultural science plus na im lay foundation for wetin go later become Lovanium University.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanderyst |first1=Hyacinthe |title=La future université catholique au Congo belge occidental |journal=Revue missionnaire |volume=1927 |pages=253–257}}</ref> For 1956, dem establish state university for Elisabethville. But e no dey move fast; till end of 1950s, no Congolese don rise pass non-commissioned officer for Force Publique, plus no one don hold any big position for administration like head of bureau or territorial administrator. For late 1950s, 42% of young pipo wey dey go school fit read and write, wey make Belgian Congo dey shine pass any country for Africa. For 1960, 1,773,340 students dey for school for Belgian Congo, 1,650,117 for primary school, 22,780 for post-primary school, 37,388 for secondary school and 1,445 for university and higher education. From dis 1,773,340 students, most of dem (1,359,118) dey for Catholic mission schools, 322,289 dey for Protestant mission schools and 68,729 dey for educational institutions wey government organize.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319">A. de Maere d'Aertrycke, A. Schorochoff, P. Vercauteren, A. Vleurinck, ''Le Congo au temps des Belges'', Bruxelles, Masoin, 2011. p. 319. ({{ISBN|9782872020232}})</ref> ===== Health care ===== [[File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Minière_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_nurses_of_the_Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga_April_1918.JPG|right|thumb|Nurses of de [[:en:Union_Minière_du_Haut-Katanga|Union Minière du Haut-Katanga]] plus demma Congolese assistants, [[:en:Lubumbashi|Élisabethville]], 1918]] Health care too dey supported by missions, but colonial state wan show interest small. For 1906, dem start Institute of Tropical Medicine for Brussels. This ITM dey among di top places wey train and do research for tropical medicine and how health care dey work for developing countries. Dem fit clear endemic sickness like sleeping sickness well well with serious campaigns.<ref>A critical assessment of the colonial obsession with sleeping sickness in: Lyons, Maryinez (1992), ''The Colonial Disease, A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire, 1900–1940'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> For 1925, medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper be di first person wey carry tryparsamide, di drug from Rockefeller Foundation wey dey cure sleeping sickness, enter Congo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klingman |first=Jack |year=1994 |title=Arthur Lewis Piper, M.D.: A Medical Missionary in the Belgian Congo |journal=Journal of Community Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=125–146 |doi=10.1007/BF02260364 |pmid=8006209 |s2cid=37502216}}</ref> Di health-care system dey grow well well during colonial time, with plenty hospital beds dey available for di people, plus dem set up dispensaries for far away places. By 1960, di country get beta medical structure wey pass any other African nation for dat time. Belgian Congo get 3,000 health facilities, wey 380 be hospitals. Dem get 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 people (1 for every 187 people). Dem make huge progress for di fight against endemic diseases; dem report sleeping sickness cases drop from 34,000 in 1931 to just 1,100 in 1959, mainly because dem clear tsetse fly for where plenty people dey. All Europeans plus Congolese wey dey for Belgian Congo do dem vaccine for polio, measles and yellow fever. Big big disease prevention programs dem start, wey dem wan make polio, leprosy and tuberculosis no dey again. For primary schools, dem run disease prevention campaigns, and dem include disease prevention class for curriculum too.<ref name="Maere d 2011. p.319" /> ===== Social inequality den racial discrimination ===== [[File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Female_missionary_in_rickshaw_Congo_circa_1920-1930.jpg|thumb|Dem dey pull one woman wey be missionary inside rickshaw by some Congolese guys, around 1920 to 1930.]] Di Belgia Congo get system wey dey separate people based on race an dem dey discriminate too.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Krauzman|first=Marine|date=2025-03-11|title=Belgium's Colonial Past on Trial: What the 2024 Ruling Means for Reparational Justice|url=http://spheresofinfluence.ca/belgiums-colonial-past-on-trial-what-the-2024-ruling-means-for-reparational-justice/|access-date=2025-06-26|website=Spheres of Influence|language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-29|title=Belgian Congo {{!}} History & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgian-Congo|access-date=2025-06-26|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Dem get wetin dem call 'implicit apartheid'. Di colony put curfew for Congolese wey dey live for city, an plenty racial wahala dey happen. Léopoldville get di racist curfew wey e famous for, an dem use am as template for other European colonies like French Equatorial Africa wey dey close by.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Njoh |first1=Ambe J. |date=March 2008 |title=Colonial Philosophies, Urban Space, and Racial Segregation in British and French Colonial Africa |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Black Studies]] |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=579–599 |doi=10.1177/0021934706288447 |s2cid=145775865 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228161615/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934706288447 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref> Even though dem no get proper laws wey dey separate people by race, segregation dey happen plenty for many places. For example, at first, de city centers be only for white people, while black people dey stay for places dem dey call 'cités indigènes' or 'le belge'. Hospitals, shop dem and other places no dey allow both whites and blacks to mix. For Force Publique, black people no fit rise pass non-commissioned officer rank. Plus, black folks for the cities no fit come out from 9 pm to 4 am. Dis kind segregation start dey vanish small-small only for 1950s, but even then, de Congolese dem still dey feel like second-class citizens, especially for politics and law matter. [[File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Militair_Kamp_Leopoldstad.JPG|right|thumb|King [[:en:Albert_I_of_Belgium|Albert I]] plus Queen [[:en:Elisabeth_of_Bavaria,_Queen_of_the_Belgians|Elisabeth]] inspecting de military camp of Léopoldville for de time of demma visit to de Belgian Congo, 1928]] Sekof dem dey connect ekonomi growth with di 'civilizing mission', plus as state officials, missionaries plus private companies dey always help each other, people don sabi sey Belgian Congo dey ruled by one 'colonial trinity' of King-Church-Capital. Dis one fit mean di colonial state, di Christian missions, plus Société Générale de Belgique too. Di way wey colonial policy take dey work, e get one saying wey Governor-General Pierre Ryckmans (1934–46) use: Dominer pour servir ('Dominate to serve').<ref>Vanderlinden, Jacques (1994), ''Pierre Ryckmans 1891–1959, Coloniser dans l'honneur'', Brussels: De Boeck.</ref> Di colonial government wan make wey see am say dem dey nice plus no wahala for di administration, plus dem wan show Belgian Congo as di perfect colony. But na only for di 1950s e start change. For di 1950s, dem dey gradually draw back dem plenty harsh laws dem use punish di Congolese people (like di chicote wey be whip). From 1953, plus di big visit wey King Baudouin make to di colony for 1955, Governor-General Léon Pétillon (1952–1958) start dey try build one 'Belgian-Congolese community', where black plus white go dey equal.<ref>Pétillon, L. A. M. (1967), ''Témoignage et réflexions'', Brussels: Renaissance du Livre.</ref> But still, di anti-miscegenation laws no clear, and from 1959 to 1962, plenty mixed-race Congolese pikin dem dey carry come out from Congo by Belgian government plus Catholic Church go Belgium.<ref>{{cite web|last=Paravicini|first=Giulia|date=4 April 2019|title=Belgium apologizes for colonial-era abduction of mixed-race children|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711005737/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-congo/belgium-apologizes-for-colonial-era-abduction-of-mixed-race-children-idUSKCN1RG2NF|archive-date=11 July 2019|access-date=10 July 2019|publisher=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> For 1957, dem do first municipal elections wey black voters fit vote for some big cities — Léopoldville, Élisabethville, plus Jadotville. ===== Abolition of slavery ===== For Congo Free State, plenty men, women, and pikin dem free from Swahili Arab slave owners and traders for Eastern Congo between 1886 and 1892. Dem fit join militai (Force Publique) or dem go give am to local chiefs wey be friends, and dem go use dem as workers. Even though dem ban chattel slavery for 1910 when Belgian Congo start, dem still dey use prisoners as forced laborers for public den private projects.<ref>Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 40</ref> == Resistance == Di Congolese dem no gree colonization; dem dey fight am steady, e come take many shapes. As modern ideas and education dey enter ground, e dey spark plenty action.<ref>Likaka, Osumaka (2009), ''Naming Colonialism, History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960'', Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> Armed wahala show for small-small parts till Second World War finish (like Pende wahala for 1931, and di gbagbe for Luluabourg 1944). After di war till late 1950s, wetin dem dey call 'Pax belgica' go dey. But e no mean say dem no dey resist; passive resistance dey plenty too, like Kimbanguism wey be from di ‘prophet’ Simon Kimbangu wey di Belgians lock up. Aside active and passive wahala wey Congolese dey raise, di colonial government still dey hear plenty internal noise and gbege. Even for di 1920s, some people for Colonial Council wey dey for Brussels (like Octave Louwers) don talk plenty about di harsh way big companies dey recruit people for di mining places. Di slow growth for population for many areas—abi even wey dem dey chop plenty success for fight against sick sick like sleeping sickness—na another wahala wey dey worry dem. Low birth rate for countryside and some places dey empty usually link to di way traditional life don scatter because of forced work migration and compulsory farming. Dem dey talk say na wetin dem plan be dat, and dem dey point out how population dey increase for cities and how health plus lifespan don better thanks to modern medicine and better living condition.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hunt|first1=Nancy Rose|date=2002|title=Rewriting the Soul in Colonial Congo: Flemish Missionaries and Infertility|url=https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040613132330/https://nias.knaw.nl/Ortelius2002.pdf|archive-date=2004-06-13|website=Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|publisher=Antwerp University Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences|language=en}}</ref> Plenty missionaries wey dey connect with Congolese villagers dey carry dem wahala for heart plus sometimes dem dey fit intervene for dem matter with di colonial administration (like land property questions). Di missions plus some area administrators dem fit play big role for study and protect Congolese culture and language tradition plus di artifacts wey dey there. One good example na Father Gustaaf Hulstaert (1900–1990), wey insyde 1937 start di periodical Aequatoria wey dem dey use for di linguistic, ethnographic plus historical study of di Mongo people for di central Congo basin.<ref>See: aequatoria.be</ref> Di colonial state dey interested for di cultural and scientific study of Congo, especially after di Second World War, through di setup of di Institut pour la Recherche Scientifique en Afrique Centrale (IRSAC, 1948). == Toward independence == For early 1950s, di political freedom of di Congolese elites, no talk of di masses, e be like far dream. But e clear say Congo no fit dey far from di quick changes wey happen after di Second World War, wey scatter colonialism worldwide. Di independence wey di British, French, plus Dutch colonies for Asia get after 1945 no really change anything for Congo, but di pressure for Belgium from di United Nations don increase (just like all di other colonial powers). Belgium don agree to article 73 of di United Nations Charter wey talk about self-determination, plus di two superpowers dey pressure Belgium make dem change how dem dey run Congo; di Belgian government dey try hold body against wetin dem call 'interference' with dia colonial policy. Colonial government dey talk how dem go make life beta for Congolese pipo. Since 1940s, dem don dey try small-small give some elite wey dem call évolués small civil rights, dem fit get small political power later. So, 'deserving' Congolese fit apply for proof of 'civil merit', or if dem fit do better, 'immatriculation' (registration), wey go show say dem don join European way of life. To get this status, applicant gats meet strict rules (like marry one wife, show good behavior, etc.) and dem go dey watch dem well well (wey de include house visits). Dis policy no work at all. For around mid-1950s, no be plenty Congolese wey don fit get di civil merit diploma or dem don get di 'immatriculation'. Di benefits wey dem dey talk say come with am—like equal legal status with di white folks—na mostly just talk, no be real. E dey make di évolués frustrated well well. When Governor-General Pétillon start dey talk say he go fit give di native people more civil rights, even voting, to create wetin he dey call 'Belgo-Congolese community', di people for Brussels no really send am, and some Belgians for Congo dey vex as dem dey fear for demma privilege.<ref>[[Isidore Ndaywel è Nziem|Ndaywel è Nziem]], Isidore (1998), ''Histoire générale du Congo'', Paris-Brussels: De Boeck & Larcier, pp. 456–63.</ref> E clear say Belgian government no get proper long-term plan for Congo matter. 'Colonial wahala' no dey trend for Belgium, as long as di colony dey shine and e dey quiet. But one person wey show concern na di young King Baudouin, wey take over from him papa, King Leopold III, for 1951, when dem force Leopold III to waka. Baudouin dey follow wetin dey happen for Belgian Congo well well. Wen King Baudouin come visit Belgian Congo for de first time for 1955, crowd dey cheer am well-well, both whites and blacks dey dance, like as dem show for André Cauvin documentary, Bwana Kitoko.<ref>{{cite book|last=Raspoet|first=Erik|title=Bwana Kitoko en de koning van de Bakuba|publisher=Meulenhoff/Manteau|year=2005|isbn=90-8542-020-2}}</ref> Foreign people wey dey observe, suc as de international correspondent of ''The Manchester Guardian'' or a ''Time'' journalist,<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|title=Congo: Boom in the Jungle|date=16 May 1955|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=28 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028201856/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1955-05-boom-in-the-jungle.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=May 16, 1955|title=CONGO: Boom in the Jungle|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=28 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828025115/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,866343,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> talk say Belgian paddy paddy style dey work well, and dey compare how Belgian people dem loyal pass those French and British colonies wey dey restless. During di visit, King Baudouin carry Governor-General idea of 'Belgo-Congolese community' come front; but for real, dis plan dey move slow. At di same time, dem wahala wey dey divide for Belgium, wey dem fit hide from di colony before, start to enter Congo too. Dem talk say workers dey unite more now, dem dey call make public schools fit break mission schools for education, plus dem wan make both Belgian languages, French and Dutch, sabi equal treatment for colony. Before this, na only French dem dey push as colonial language. Governor-General dey fear say dis kind wahala fit spoil di colonial government image for Congolese, plus e go shift focus from di real need for true emancipation. ===== Political organisation ===== [[File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu_at_the_Belgo-Congolese_Round_Table_Conference.jpg|right|thumb|[[:en:Joseph_Kasa-Vubu|Joseph Kasa-Vubu]], leader of ABAKO plus de first President dem elect democratically of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] [[File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patrice_Lumumba,_1960.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Patrice_Lumumba|Patrice Lumumba]], first democratically elected Prime Minister of de [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo_(Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]]]] Di Congolese people join Second World War and dem hear say tings dey change for other colonies, e make dem start to organize make dem fit get power. Di colonial government no fit bring beta changes wey fit work, so di Congolese elites start to gather demself socially and later politically. For di 1950s, two separate types of nationalism show up among di Congolese elites. Di nationalist movement—wey di Belgian authorities no really watch—promote say di Belgian Congo go become one united state after dem get independence. E get wetin wey de oppose this matter, na di ethno-religious and regional nationalism wey catch for di Bakongo area for di west coast, Kasai plus Katanga.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} Di first political groups na dem one. ABAKO wey dem establish for 1950 as di Association culturelle des Bakongo, and wetin Joseph Kasa-Vubu dey run, start as cultural group wey turn political sharp sharp. From di middle of 1950s, dem don dey shout against Belgian colonial rule well well. Plus, di group still dey serve as di main ethno-religious group for di Bakongo and dem blend well with di Kimbanguist Church wey be popular for lower Congo.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} For 1955, Belgian prof Antoine van Bilsen drop one paper wey dem call Thirty Year Plan for the Political Emancipation of Belgian Africa.<ref>Gerard-Libois, Jules (1989), "Vers l'Indépendance: une accélération imprévue", In ''Congo-Zaïre'', Brussels: GRIP, pp. 43–56.</ref> De plan get timetable wey say make dem gradually free Congo for 30 years—na the time wey Van Bilsen believe say e go take to build educated people wey fit take over from the Belgians for power. But the Belgian government and plenty of the évolués no happy with the plan—government no wan lose Congo, and the évolués sabi say Belgium go still dey rule for another three decades. One group of Catholic évolués yan am positive for the plan with one moderate manifesto for one Congolese journal wey dem dey call Conscience Africaine; dem talk some matter about how Congolese fit take part well well.<ref>Kalulambi Pongo, Martin (2009), "Le manifeste 'Conscience africaine: genèse, influences et réactions", In Tousignant, Nathalie (ed.), ''Le manifeste Conscience africaine, 1956'', Brussels: Facultés Universitaires Saint-Louis, pp. 59–81.</ref> For 1957, as experiment matter, colonial government do organize di first local elections for three cities (Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Jadotville), wey Congolese people fit stand for office and vote. Watin happen for 1957–58 make demand for political freedom burst, no be small. Ghana independence for 1957 and President De Gaulle visit wey happen for August 1958 for Brazzaville, capital of di French Congo, across di Congo river from Léopoldville, wey e promise say France African colonies go fit choose between staying with France or full independence, make people for Congo get big dreams. Di World Exhibition wey dem do for Brussels for 1958 (Expo 58) be another eye-opener for plenty Congolese leaders, wey dem allow make dem travel go Belgium for di first time.<ref>Aziza Etambala, Zana (2008), ''De teloorgang van een modelkolonie, Belgisch Congo 1958–1960'', Leuven: Acco, pp. 105–110.</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|date=23 December 1957|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125731/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1957-12-too-late-too-little.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=December 23, 1957|title=Belgian Congo: Too Late, Too Little?|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-date=1 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501001542/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936763,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> For 1958, people dey crave for independence sharp sharp and the koko don take off. Na Mouvement National Congolais (MNC) wey dey play big role for di matter. Dem start am for 1956, but dem officially set am up as national political party for October 1958, wey dey support make Congo be one strong nation. Di person wey dey lead dem well well na di charming Patrice Lumumba. For 1959, wahala start after Albert Kalonji and some MNC leaders wey wan dey moderate split from di main group (dem call dem Mouvement National Congolais-Kalonji). Even though di party get different waka, Lumumba faction (now Mouvement National Congolais-Lumumba) and di MNC still be di most important and influential party for Belgian Congo. Belgium vehemently de oppose Lumumba ein leftist views plus get grave concerns about de status of demma financial interests if Lumumba ein MNC come power.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} ===== Independence ===== As Belgium dey debate how to give Congolese people their freedom small-small, wahala just burst everywhere. On 4 January 1959, dem do one political demo for Léopoldville wey ABAKO organise, but e no gree control. Na so, the colonial capital begin catch fire with plenty chaos. E take dem days to bring back order, and if we count am well, hundreds don die. De eruption of violence sent a shockwave through de Congo den Belgium alike.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-01-if-blood-must-run.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: If Blood Must Run|date=19 January 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125735/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-01-if-blood-must-run.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=January 19, 1959|title=BELGIAN CONGO: If Blood Must Run|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,868969,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201082719/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,868969,00.html|archive-date=2011-02-01|magazine=Time}}</ref> On 13 January, King Baudouin use radio talk to the people say Belgium go work for Congo to get full independence fast, but no be to go rush am like mumu.<ref>Koning Boudewijn. 35 jaar dialoog met de natie. Een keuze uit de koninklijke toespraken van 1951 tot 1986. Lannoo Tielt, Inbel, 1986, blz. 124.</ref> Dem no fit talk say independence go happen one particular day, but di government wey Prime Minister Gaston Eyskens dey lead, get plan for multi-year transition period. Dem think say provincial elections go happen for December 1959, national elections for 1960 or 1961, den after, dem go start hand over di admin and political duties small small to di Congolese, as dem dey expect say by mid-1960s e go don finish. But for ground, things dey change fast fast.<ref>Young, Crawford (1965), ''Politics in the Congo" Decolonization and Independence'', Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 140–161.</ref> Di colonial admin dey see different type of resistance, like people wey no wan pay tax. For some places, anarchy threatened.<ref>Ryckmans, Geneviève (1995), ''André Ryckmans, un territorial du Congo belge''. Paris. L'Harmattan, pp. 215–224.</ref> At di same time, plenty Belgians wey dey di Congo no wan independence, dem dey feel say Brussels don betray dem. As di Congolese dem dey demand better change, di government don see say di chance to make am smooth smooth no dey happen again fast fast.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-10-return-of-the-mundele.pdf|title=The Belgian Congo : Return of the Mundele|date=12 October 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125737/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-10-return-of-the-mundele.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=October 12, 1959|title=THE BELGIAN CONGO: Return of the Mundele|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,864032,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101203183837/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,864032,00.html|archive-date=2010-12-03|magazine=Time}}</ref> [[File:Ronde_Tafel_Conferentie_te_Brussel_Congo,_Bestanddeelnr_910-9593.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ronde_Tafel_Conferentie_te_Brussel_Congo,_Bestanddeelnr_910-9593.jpg|thumb|220x220px|Opening meeting of de Belgo-Congolese Round Table Conference insyde Brussels on 20 January 1960]] For 1959, King Baudouin come back to Belgian Congo, and e see say everywhere don change from the last time wey e visit four years ago. When e land for Léopoldville, wahala start as black Belgo-Congolese people dey throw stone for am because dem vex say dem don lock Lumumba up, wey dem convict say im dey incite against colonial government. Even though for other cities dem receive am better, dem dey shout “Vive le roi!” but e follow with “Indépendance immédiate!” The Belgian government no wan enter any gbege wey fit turn bloody like wetin happen to France for Indochina and Algeria, or Netherlands for Indonesia. So, dem dey reason say make dem fit agree for Congolese leaders wey dey shout for immediate independence.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-11-now-now-now.pdf|title=Belgian Congo: Now Now Now|date=16 November 1959|magazine=Time|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|via=Radishmag|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216125729/https://radishmag.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/1959-11-now-now-now.pdf|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|date=November 16, 1959|title=BELGIAN CONGO: Now Now Now|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811442,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201085122/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811442,00.html|archive-date=2011-02-01|magazine=Time}}</ref> Although dem no prepare well plus no plenty people wey educate dey (only small Congolese get degree for dat time), Belgian leaders still gree make independence happen. E be true say dem weak local elites fit work for Belgian government and business people, dem dey hope say dis go make am easy for dem to still dey control wetin dey happen for politics and economy. Dis style different from colonial wars and de slow decolonization wey other European countries dey do, dem sabi am as 'Le Pari Congolais'—di Congolese bet.<ref>{{cite book|last=De Witte|first=Ludo|title=Crisis in Kongo. De rol van de Verenigde Naties, de regering-Eyskens en het koningshuis in de omverwerping van Lumumba en de opkomst van Mobutu|date=1996|publisher=Uitgeverij Van Halewyck|isbn=9789056170523|location=Leuven|page=31|author-link=Ludo De Witte}}</ref> For January 1960, dem call Congolese leaders come Brussels make dem fit gather for round-table talk about independence. Dem free Patrice Lumumba from prison just for this matter. Na so the conference quick quick agree give Congolese almost all wetin dem ask: make dem do general election for May 1960 and full independence—'Dipenda'—go land on 30 June 1960. Na because of di strong unity wey Congolese delegation carry come. [[File:Patrice_Lumumba_signs_the_document_granting_independence_to_the_Congo_next_to_Belgian_Prime_Minister_Gaston_Eyskens.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patrice_Lumumba_signs_the_document_granting_independence_to_the_Congo_next_to_Belgian_Prime_Minister_Gaston_Eyskens.jpg|right|thumb|Lumumba den Eyskens sign de document granting independence to de Congo]] Political maneuvering ahead of de elections, Elections dey come, so dem form three political groups for ground: one na the federalist nationalists, wey dey include six separatist parties, like ABAKO and MNC—Kalonji; another one na centralist MNC—Lumumba; and last one be Moïse Tshombe, wey be big man for Katanga, wey wan protect the business wey dey for Union Minière (like Kalonji do for de diamond exploitations matter insyde Kasaï). Di parliamentary elections show say di political scene dey divided, with di regionalist group dem—ABAKO wey dey lead—plus di nationalist parties like MNC too do well. Dem force compromise make Kasa-Vubu be di first president of Republic of di Congo, and Lumumba be di first head of government. Just like dem plan am five months before, di handover ceremony wey di Belgians do happen well on time for 30 June 1960 for di new house of di Governor-General for Belgian Congo wey dey Léopoldville. One week later, wahala begin for Force Publique, dem dey rebel against dem officers wey still dey mostly Belgian. Dis one spark plenty gbege all over Congo, na unhappy soldiers and sharp-sharp youths dey cause am. For plenty places, dem dey focus di violence on European people. In small time, Belgian soldiers and later UN intervention force carry plenty Belgians wey dey work and live for Congo come out, over 80,000 of dem.<ref>{{cite book|last=Verlinden|first=Peter|title=Weg uit Congo, Het drama van de kolonialen|publisher=[[Davidsfonds]]|year=2002|location=Leuven}}</ref> == Congo crisis plus wetin follow am == Di rebellion wey start for Thyssville for Bas-Congo for July 1960 quickly spread go everywhere for de Congo.<ref>For an overview of developments in the Congo after 1960 see: O'Ballance, Edgar (2000), ''The Congo-Zaire Experience, 1960–98'', Houndmills: MacMillan Press.</ref> For September 1960, di leaders split, wey President Kasa-Vubu declare say prime minister Lumumba no dey hold him work again, and di same thing happen back. Dem stop di stalemate when government arrest Lumumba. For January 1961, dem fly am go di rich mining province of Katanga, wey dem don declare say dem no wan join Léopoldville again under di leadership of Moïse Tshombe (wey Belgium dey support well well). Dem hand Lumumba over to Katangan authorities, wey kill am. [[File:Congo_Crisis_dead_hostages.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Congo_Crisis_dead_hostages.jpg|thumb|Belgian soldier dey lie for ground for de front of dead hostages, November 1964, for Stanleyville during [[:en:Operation_Dragon_Rouge|Operation Dragon Rouge]]. Belgian parachutists free over 1,800 European and American hostages wey Congolese rebels hold. ]] For 2002, Belgium don officially say sorry for wetin dem do to Lumumba; people don dey talk say CIA sabi join am, because dem see say Lumumba dey too left. During Cold War, Soviet Union dey push e influence for Africa to gree fight European powers, e use 'anti-colonialism' as reason to increase de power insyde de region.<ref>A first-hand account of the CIA's activities in the Congo in 1960–61 in: Devlin, Larry (2008), ''Chief of Station, Congo: Fighting the Cold War in a Hot Zone'', Cambridge: PublicAffairs</ref> Plenty rebellions and separatist wahala really mash up di dream of one united Congolese state wen dem just born. Even though di country don dey independent, Belgian paratroopers still show face for Congo plenty times to protect and carry Belgian and foreign people comot. United Nations dey do big peace-keeping work for Congo since late 1960. Di whole matter no settle until 1964–65. Katanga province come back inside, and dem so-called Simba Rebellion end for Stanleyville (province Orientale). Small time after dat, army colonel Joseph Désiré Mobutu come clear di political ground by taking power through coup ''d'état''. Mobutu get some backing for de West, especially for America, sekof e dey strong against communist people. At first, him rule dey boost economy well (like when dem build Inga dam wey dem plan since 1950s). To show say e no be like di old regime, him start campaign wey dem call Congolese 'authenticity'. For 1966, di government stop to use colonial place names: Léopoldville change go Kinshasa, Elisabethville turn Lubumbashi, plus Stanleyville become Kisangani. This time, Congo dey maintain good economic den political relationship with Belgium. Some money matta still dey hang after independence (dem dey call am 'contentieux'), like how dem suppose transfer shares for de big mining companies wey colonial state hold.<ref>Willame, Jean-Claude (1989), "Vingt-cinq ans de rélations belgo-zaïroises", In ''Congo-Zaïre'', Brussels: GRIP, pp. 145–58.</ref> For 1970, on top de ten years independence celebration, King Baudouin come pay official state visit to de Congo. Mobutu regime dey turn more radical for the 1970s. Dem Mouvement populaire de la Révolution (MPR) wey Mobutu be di founder, don set up one-party rule well well. Political wahala increase plenty. Mobutu come change di name of Congo to republic of Zaïre. Di so-called 'Zaïrisation' wey happen for mid-1970s make plenty foreign workers run come out and e cause economic wahala. For di 1980s, Mobutu regime dey become big example of mismanagement plus corruption.<ref>Wrong, Michela (2001), ''Living on the Brink of Disaster in Mobutu's Congo, In the Footsteps of Mr Kurtz'', New York: HarperCollins, pp. 195–200.</ref> De relationship with Belgium, di former colonial master, dey chop ups and downs, show say e dey decline for economic, financial and political side. Since no be chance say di country go fall into Soviet hand, di Western powers just dey stay neutral.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bud |first=Guy |date=2013 |title=Imperial Transitions: Belgian-Congolese relations in the post-colonial era |journal=SIR |issue=2 |pages=7–8}}</ref> [[File:Statue_de_Léopold_II_à_Kinshasa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Statue_de_L%C3%A9opold_II_%C3%A0_Kinshasa.jpg|thumb|Equestrian statue of [[:en:Leopold_II_of_Belgium|Leopold II]] insyde Kinshasa]] After Soviet Union fall and Cold War end for late 1980s, Mobutu no get support from West again. For 1990, e decide say make e end the one-party matter and come back to democracy sharp-sharp. But he dey drag feet, dey play his enemies against each other make e fit buy time. That bloody wahala from Zaïrian Army dem give students for Lubumbashi University Campus May 1990 come make Belgium and Zaïre relationship spoil. Not so nice, Mobutu no receive invite for King Baudouin funeral for 1993, wey him see am as big personal insult. For 1997, dem force Mobutu comot power by rebel wey Laurent-Désiré Kabila dey lead. E come declare say e be president and change Zaïre name to Democratic Republic of the Congo. Dem kill Kabila for 2001, plus him son Joseph Kabila take over. For 2006, dem confirm Joseph Kabila as president when dem do di first nationwide free elections for Congo since 1960. From 30 June – 2 July 2010, King Albert II and Yves Leterme, di Belgian Prime Minister, come visit Kinshasa for celebrate di 50th anniversary of Congolese independence. Some practices plus traditions from colonial days still dey happen for independent Congo. Dem get strong central government wey be bureaucratic, and dem still dey follow di same setup for education and court system. Congo don influence Belgium mostly for money matter: with Union Minière (now Umicore) work, nonferrous metal industry dey grow, plus Port of Antwerp plus diamond business too. Till now, Brussels Airlines wey take over from Sabena still dey carry weight for DRC. Dem talk say insyde 2010, over 4,000 Belgian people dey stay for DRC, plus de Congolese community for Belgium atleast strong pass 16,000. De "Matongé" quarter insyde Brussels be de traditional focal point of de Congolese community insyde Belgium.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Swyngedouw |first1=Eva |last2=Swyngedouw |first2=Erik |year=2009 |title=The Congolese Diaspora in Brussels and hybrid identity formation |journal=Urban Research & Practice |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=68–90 |doi=10.1080/17535060902727074 |s2cid=143979364}}</ref> == Culture == === Music === For popular music, Latin music like rumba come from Cuba for 1930s and 1940s when colonial time dey run, plus dem dey play Latin music well plenty for Belgian Congo. For 1950s, American jazz also come enter as African jazz. For 1956, Franco form OK Jazz (later dem change de name to TPOK Jazz).<ref>{{cite web|last=Al Angeloro|date=March 2005|title=World Music Legends: Franco|url=http://www.globalrhythm.net/WorldMusicLegends/Franco.cfm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928055648/http://www.globalrhythm.net/WorldMusicLegends/Franco.cfm|archive-date=28 September 2007|access-date=30 December 2019|work=Global Rhythm|publisher=Zenbu Media}}</ref> Joseph Kabasele, wey dem dey call Le Grand Kallé (The Great Kallé), na him start African Jazz. House bands dey trend now, and rumba congolaise dey show face too. Marlo Mashi na one musician from dat same time. Congo popular music come from all these continental rhythm, church music, Ghana high life, plus traditional Congo music. == Check am too == * [[:en:Archives_Africaines_(Belgium)|Archives Africaines (Belgium)]], which keeps material related to Belgian Congo * ''[[:en:Les_Belges_dans_l'Afrique_Centrale|Les Belges dans l'Afrique Centrale]]'' * [[:en:Districts_of_the_Belgian_Congo|Districts of the Belgian Congo]] * [[:en:Belgian_Congo_in_World_War_II|Belgian Congo in World War II]] * [[:en:Prime_Minister_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Prime Minister of the Democratic Republic of the Congo]] * ''[[:en:Tintin_in_the_Congo|Tintin in the Congo]]'' == Citations == == References == [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] <references /> ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Arnot |first=Frederick Stanley |title=Missionary travels in central Africa |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Bath : Office of Echoes of Service |location= |year=1914 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/missionarytravel00arno_0/page/n7/mode/2up?q=cannibal |ref=arnot1914}} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Richard |title=The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Sheed and Ward |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-83620-5435 |url=https://archive.org/details/placewhereworlde0000cunn |ref=cunningham1973}} * {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Gary |title=Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice |volume= |authorlink= |publisher=Coles publishing |location= |year=1983 |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/cannibalismhuman0000gary |pages=18–24, 81 |ref=hogg1983}} * {{cite book |last1=Freund |first1=Bill |title=The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 |date=1998 |publisher=Palgrave-Macmillan |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-0-333-69872-3 |edition=2nd |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofcontempo0002freu_n4u0}} * {{cite book |last=Pakenham |first=Thomas|author-link= |title=The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 |year=1992 |publisher=Abacus |location=London |isbn=978-0-349-10449-2 |edition=13th}} * {{cite book|last=Renders|first=Luc|title=The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s–1990s|publisher=Leuven University Press|year=2020|isbn=978-9462702172|location=Leuven}} * {{cite book|last1=Turner|first1=Thomas|title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality|date=2007|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-688-9|edition=2nd|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0299236441|location=Madison}} * {{cite book|last=Vanthemsche|first=Guy|title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-521-19421-1|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=|first=|url=https://archive.org/details/africamissionari00unse|title=Africa Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]|publisher=Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church|year=1945|isbn=|volume=|location=New York, NY|ref=honor|authorlink=}} * {{cite web|last=|first=|year=2024|title=Bishop John McKendree Springer|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/springer-bishop-john-mckendree-1873-1963|accessdate=March 2, 2024|publisher=United Methodist Communications|ref=methodist}} === Historiography === * Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,"''French Colonial History'' (2014) vol 15 -109. * Vanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo" in C Levai ed., ''Europe and the World in European Historiography'' (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp.&nbsp;89–119. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191021014923/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e36/51468d36b7328a48df7d933651ca0278325f.pdf online] === Insyd French anaa Dutch === * {{cite journal |author=Victor Prévot |year=1961 |title=L'œuvre belge au Congo |journal=L'Information géographique |language=fr |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 |via=Persee.fr}} * {{Cite book|last=Ndaywel è Nziem|first=Isidore|title=Histoire générale du Congo|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1998|place=Paris and Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Stengers|first=Jean|title=Congo, Mythes et réalités|publisher=Editions Racines|year=2005|place=Brussels}} * {{Cite book|last=Van Reybrouck|first=David|title=Congo, Een geschiedenis|publisher=De Bezige Bij|year=2010|place=Amsterdam}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q213510|c=Category:Belgian Congo|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Belgian Congo|wikt=no|species=no}} * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Congo_Free_State|"Congo Free State"]]. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1922). [[wikisource:1922_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Belgian_Congo|"Belgian Congo"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Belgian Congo| ]] [[Category:Former colonies insyd Africa]] [[Category:Former Belgian colonies|Congo]] [[Category:Belgian colonisation insyd Africa|Congo]] [[Category:History of de Democratic Republic of the Congo by period]] [[Category:Political history of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1908]] [[Category:States den territories dem disestablish insyd 1960]] [[Category:1908 establishments insyd de Belgian Congo]] 4qahigs0p773e66mijmcn8jw2lw4bed Benin Bronzes 0 16171 69211 60030 2025-07-06T01:48:06Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 I don add de header 'History' 69211 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Benin_brass_plaque_03_(cropped).jpg|thumb|A Benin Bronze plaque on display insyd de [[British Museum]]]] [[File:Ancestral_shrine_Royal_Palace,_Benin_City,_1891_(cropped).jpg|thumb|Ancestral shrine insyd Royal Palace, Benin City, 1891: de earliest-known photograph of de Oba ein compound. Note 'bronze' heads at both ends of de shrine.]] De '''Benin Bronzes''' be a group of chaw thousand metal plaques den sculptures wey decorate de royal palace of de Kingdom of Benin, insyd wat now be Edo State, [[Nigeria]]. Na dem produce de metal plaques by de Guild of Benin Bronze Casters, now dey locate insyd Igun Street, dem sanso know as Igun-Eronmwon Quarters. Collectively, de objects form de best examples of Benin art wey na dem create from de fourteenth century by artists of de Edo people.<ref>{{Cite web|title=British Museum, "Curator's comments"|url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/E_Af1898-0115-23|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028163529/https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/E_Af1898-0115-23|archive-date=28 October 2021|access-date=17 May 2021}}</ref><ref>[https://archive.artic.edu/benin/artwork/190110 "Court Dwarfs | The Art Institute of Chicago"]. ''archive.artic.edu''. Retrieved 29 May 2025.</ref><ref name=":0">[[:en:Benin_Bronzes#CITEREFHuera1988|Huera 1988]], p. 36.</ref><ref name=":1">[[:en:Benin_Bronzes#CITEREFHuera1988|Huera 1988]], p. 37.</ref><ref name=":2">Meyerowitz, Eva L. R. (1943). "Ancient Bronzes in the Royal Palace at Benin". ''The Burlington Magazine''. '''83''' (487). The Burlington Magazine Publications, Ltd.: 248–253. [[JSTOR (identifier)|JSTOR]] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/868735 868735].</ref> De plaques, wich insyd de Edo language dem be called ''Ama'',<ref>{{Cite web|title=Digital Benin|url=https://digitalbenin.org/eyo-oto/1|access-date=2023-11-26|website=digitalbenin.org}}</ref> dey depict scenes anaa represent themes insyd de history of de kingdom.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hicks|first=Dan|title=The Brutish Museums: The Benin Bronzes, Colonial Violence and Cultural Restitution|publisher=Pluto Press|year=2020|location=London|pages=138–139}}</ref> Apart from de plaques, oda sculptures insyd brass anaa bronze dey include portrait heads, jewellery, den smaller pieces. [[File:Benin,_portoghese,_XVI-XVII_sec.JPG|thumb|A 16th-century Benin Bronze wey dey depict a Portuguese soldier, plus manillas insyd de background (Leipzig Museum of Ethnography)]] Na sam of de dramatic sculptures date to de fourteenth century, buh de bulk of de collection dey date to de fifteenth den sixteenth centuries. Dem dey believe dat na two "Golden Ages" insyd Benin metal workmanship occurred during de reigns of Esigie (fl. 1550) den of Eresoyen (1735–1750), wen na dema workmanship achieve ein highest quality.<ref>[[:en:Benin_Bronzes#CITEREFGreenfield2007|Greenfield 2007]], p. 122.</ref> Na British forces take chaw of de plaques den oda objects during de Benin Expedition of 1897 as na de British Empire ein control be consolidated insyd Southern Nigeria.<ref name="British">{{cite web|last=Lusher|first=Adam|date=24 June 2018|title=British museums may loan Nigeria bronzes that were taken from Nigeria by the British|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/benin-bronzes-british-museum-nigeria-stolen-imperialist-treasures-return-loan-elgin-marbles-looted-a8414661.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211030042646/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/benin-bronzes-british-museum-nigeria-stolen-imperialist-treasures-return-loan-elgin-marbles-looted-a8414661.html|archive-date=30 October 2021|access-date=14 December 2018|website=The Independent}}</ref> Na dis expedition be positioned by British sources as retaliation for a massacre of an unarmed party of British envoys den a large number of dema African bearers insyd January 1897. Sam contemporary scholars, such as Dan Hicks, dey argue dat na de expedition be part of a broader series of premeditated attacks, dem frame as retaliatory anaa punitive, make dem further European imperialistic den economic interests insyd Africa.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|last=Hicks|first=Dan|title=The Brutish Museums: the Benin Bronzes, colonial violence and cultural restitution|publisher=Pluto Press|year=2020|isbn=978-0-7453 4176-7|pages=3, 40–42, 67–69, 84}}</ref> Dey follow de expedition, na dem take two hundred pieces to de [[British Museum]] insyd London, while na dem take de rest to oda European museums.<ref>[[:en:Benin_Bronzes#CITEREFGreenfield2007|Greenfield 2007]], p. 124.</ref> De British Museum<ref>Lusher, Adam (24 June 2018). [https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/benin-bronzes-british-museum-nigeria-stolen-imperialist-treasures-return-loan-elgin-marbles-looted-a8414661.html "British museums may loan Nigeria bronzes that were taken from Nigeria by the British"]. ''The Independent''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20211030042646/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/benin-bronzes-british-museum-nigeria-stolen-imperialist-treasures-return-loan-elgin-marbles-looted-a8414661.html Archived] from the original on 30 October 2021. Retrieved 14 December 2018.</ref> hold large number plus oda notable collections insyd [[Germany]] den de [[United States]].<ref name="USA232">''Benin Diplomatic Handbook'', p. 23.</ref> Na late 19th-century scholars O. M. Dalton den Charles Hercules Read erroneously conclude dat na Benin knowledge of metallurgy cam from de Portuguese traders, wey na dem dey in contact plus Benin insyd de early modern period.<ref name=":2" /> Na de Kingdom of Benin be a hub of African civilization long before na Portuguese traders visit,<ref>{{cite web|title=Benin and the Portuguese|url=https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-africa/west-africa/nigeria/a/benin-and-the-portuguese|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180703051030/https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-africa/west-africa/nigeria/a/benin-and-the-portuguese|archive-date=3 July 2018|access-date=26 November 2018|website=Khan Academy}}</ref><ref name="BBCBen">{{cite news|title=The kingdom of Benin|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/topics/zpvckqt/articles/z3n7mp3|access-date=8 July 2021|archive-date=29 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210629031139/https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/topics/zpvckqt/articles/z3n7mp3|url-status=live}}</ref> wey na dem make bronzes insyd Benin prior to de arrival of de Portuguese.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mihăilescu|first1=Plutarh-Antoniu|title=Întâlnire cu arta africană|date=1968|publisher=Editura Meridiane|page=48|language=ro}}</ref> Dem dey think dem derive de Benin bronze sculpture tradition from anaa e be influenced by dat of de older nearby Kingdom of Ife insyd southwest Nigeria.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> While de collection be known as de Benin Bronzes,<ref>{{cite news|last1=Gregg|first1=Emma|title=The story of Nigeria's stolen Benin Bronzes, and the London museum returning them|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/article/nigeria-stolen-benin-bronzes-london-museum|work=National Geographic|date=2022-09-07}}</ref> like chaw West African "bronzes" na dem mostly make de pieces of brass of variable composition. Der sanso be pieces dem make of mixtures of bronze den brass, of wood, of ceramic, den of ivory, among oda materials.<ref>[[:en:Benin_Bronzes#CITEREFDohlvik2006|Dohlvik 2006]], p. 21.</ref> Na dem make de metal pieces by dem dey use lost-wax casting wey na dem be considered among de best African sculptures dem make dey use dis technique.<ref>[[:en:Benin_Bronzes#CITEREFNevadomsky2004|Nevadomsky 2004]], pp. 1, 4, 86–8, 95–6.</ref> Na Benin begin dey trade ivory, pepper, den [[Atlantic slave trade|slaves]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Santos |first1=Talita Teixeira dos |date=July 2010 |title=Com a cruz e sem a espada: aspectos da relação comercial entre Portugal e o reino do Benim ao longo dos séculos XV e XVI. |url=http://www.encontro2010.rj.anpuh.org/resources/anais/8/1276639759_ARQUIVO_Trabalho_benim.pdf |journal=Associação Nacional de História |volume=XIV}}</ref> plus de Portuguese insyd de late 15th century wey na dem incorporate de use of manillas (brass ingots insyd de form of bracelets, dem buy from de Portuguese) as a metal source insyd dema sculpture. De manillas dema brass, dem previously suggest dem cam from The Netherlands, dem now dey think say dem cam from de Rhineland region of Germany.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Skowronek |first1=Tobias B. |last2=Decorse |first2=Christopher R. |last3=Denk |first3=Rolf |last4=Birr |first4=Stefan D. |last5=Kingsley |first5=Sean |last6=Cook |first6=Gregory D. |last7=Benito Dominguez |first7=Ana María |last8=Clifford |first8=Brandon |last9=Barker |first9=Andrew |last10=Otero |first10=José Suárez |last11=Moreira |first11=Vicente Caramés |last12=Bode |first12=Michael |last13=Jansen |first13=Moritz |last14=Scholes |first14=Daniel |date=2023 |title=German brass for Benin Bronzes: Geochemical analysis insights into the early Atlantic trade |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=e0283415 |bibcode=2023PLoSO..1883415S |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0283415 |pmc=10075414 |pmid=37018227 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Alberge|first1=Dalya|date=5 April 2023|title=Benin bronzes made from metal mined in west Germany, study finds|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/apr/05/benin-bronzes-made-from-brass-mined-in-west-germany-study-finds|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408050236/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/apr/05/benin-bronzes-made-from-brass-mined-in-west-germany-study-finds|archive-date=8 April 2023|access-date=8 April 2023|website=The Guardian}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Famous Benin Bronzes from West Africa used metal sourced in Germany|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2368057-famous-benin-bronzes-from-west-africa-used-metal-sourced-in-germany/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407104457/https://www.newscientist.com/article/2368057-famous-benin-bronzes-from-west-africa-used-metal-sourced-in-germany/|archive-date=7 April 2023|access-date=8 April 2023|website=New Scientist}}</ref> == ''Pre-1897 Significance'' == De time before 1897, insyd de period of de kingdom of Benin, na ebe identified as de relative independence den power, dem sanso know as de Edo Empire. De pre-1897 significance of de Benin Kingdom, wey be governed by de obas, dem sanso include control over trade den territory den dey nurture de production of bronze den ivory art. Na de kingdom sanso encounter challenges from de British secof na dem dey try make dem gain access to Benin resources. == History == == References == <references /> == Bibliography == * {{cite book |last1=Beretta |first1=Alcides |last2=Rodenas |first2=María Dolores |title=Historia del Arte: La escultura del África negra |year=1983 |publisher=Carroggio |location=Barcelona |isbn=978-84-7254-313-3 |volume=II|language=es|ref={{harvid|Beretta|1983}}}} * {{Cite book |last= Docherty |first= Paddy |year= 2021 |title= Blood and Bronze: The British Empire and the Sack of Benin |location= London |publisher= Hurst |isbn= 978-1-787-38456-9 }} * {{cite book |last=Dohlvik |first=Charlotta |title=Museums and Their Voices: A Contemporary Study of the Benin Bronzes |url=http://www.museion.gu.se/digitalAssets/805/805960_Dissertation_Charlotta_Dohlvik.pdf |date=May 2006 |publisher=International Museum Studies |access-date=18 October 2013 |archive-date=19 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019105247/http://www.museion.gu.se/digitalAssets/805/805960_Dissertation_Charlotta_Dohlvik.pdf |url-status=dead }} * {{cite book |editor-first= Lawrence |editor-last=Gowing|title=Historia Universal del Arte |year=1984 |publisher=SARPE |location=Madrid |isbn=978-84-7291-592-3 |volume=IV |language=es }} * {{cite book|last=Greenfield|first=Janette|title=The Return of Cultural Treasures|year=2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-80216-1}} * {{Cite book|last=Hicks|first=Dan|title=The Brutish Museums. The Benin Bronzes, Colonial Violence and Cultural Restitution|publisher=Pluto Press|year=2020|isbn=9780745341767}} * {{cite book|author=Huera, Carmen|title=Historia Universal del Arte: África, América y Asia, Arte Primitivo|publisher=Barcelona: Planeta.|year=1988|isbn=978-8432066900|ref={{harvid|Huera|1988}}}} * {{cite book|author=Leuzinger, Elsy|title=Arte del África negra|publisher=Ediciones Polígrafa|year=1976|isbn=978-84-343-0176-4|location=Barcelona|language=es|ref={{harvid|Leuzinger|1976}}}} * Lundén, Staffan (2016). ''[https://gupea.ub.gu.se/handle/2077/45847 Displaying Loot. The Benin objects and the British Museum]''. Gotark Series B, Göteborgs Universitet. * {{cite journal |last1=Nevadomsky |first1=Joseph |date=Spring 2004 |title=Art and Science in Benin Bronzes |journal=African Arts |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=1, 4, 86–88, 95–96 |doi=10.1162/afar.2004.37.1.1 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |jstor=3338001}} * {{cite journal |last=Nevadomsky |first=Joseph |year=2005 |title=Casting in Contemporary Benin Art |journal=African Arts |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=66–96 |doi=10.1162/afar.2005.38.2.66 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024}} * {{cite book|last=Phillips|first=Barnaby|title=LOOT: Britain and the Benin Bronzes|publisher=Oneworld Publications|year=2022|isbn=9780861543137|location=}} * {{cite book|last=Pijoan|title=Pijoan-Historia del Arte|publisher=Salvat Editores|year=1966|volume=I|location=Barcelona}} * {{cite book|last1=Titi|first1=Catharine|title=The Parthenon Marbles and International Law|date=2023|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-031-26356-9|edition=|location=|author-link=}} * {{cite book|last1=Willett|first1=Frank|title=African Art: An Introduction|date=1985|publisher=Thames and Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-20103-9|edition=Reprint.|location=New York}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PPxh5hcqB3wC|title=Benin Diplomatic Handbook|publisher=International Business Publications|year=2005|isbn=978-0-7397-5745-1}} == External links == {{Commons}} * [https://digitalbenin.org/ ''Digital Benin'' online platform] * [https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=610486&partId=1 Benin Plaques, Museum number Af1898,0115.23, Collection Online, British Museum] * [https://www.artoftheancestors.com/blog/royal-art-of-benin-perls-collection Royal Art of Benin: The Perls Collection in the Metropolitan Museum of Art (1992 catalog)] {{DEFAULTSORT:Benin Bronzes}} [[Category:African sculptures insyd de British Museum]] [[Category:Benin City]] [[Category:Bronze sculptures]] [[Category:Art den cultural repatriation]] [[Category:Nigeria–United Kingdom relations]] [[Category:Nigeria–United States relations]] [[Category:Germany–Nigeria relations]] [[Category:Benin Court Art]] [[Category:Edo people]] [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] 3xir5cjr6jje6du5ft22jxx0woyt7r9 69212 69211 2025-07-06T01:49:11Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* History */ I don add de sub-header 'Social context den creation' 69212 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Benin_brass_plaque_03_(cropped).jpg|thumb|A Benin Bronze plaque on display insyd de [[British Museum]]]] [[File:Ancestral_shrine_Royal_Palace,_Benin_City,_1891_(cropped).jpg|thumb|Ancestral shrine insyd Royal Palace, Benin City, 1891: de earliest-known photograph of de Oba ein compound. Note 'bronze' heads at both ends of de shrine.]] De '''Benin Bronzes''' be a group of chaw thousand metal plaques den sculptures wey decorate de royal palace of de Kingdom of Benin, insyd wat now be Edo State, [[Nigeria]]. Na dem produce de metal plaques by de Guild of Benin Bronze Casters, now dey locate insyd Igun Street, dem sanso know as Igun-Eronmwon Quarters. Collectively, de objects form de best examples of Benin art wey na dem create from de fourteenth century by artists of de Edo people.<ref>{{Cite web|title=British Museum, "Curator's comments"|url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/E_Af1898-0115-23|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028163529/https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/E_Af1898-0115-23|archive-date=28 October 2021|access-date=17 May 2021}}</ref><ref>[https://archive.artic.edu/benin/artwork/190110 "Court Dwarfs | The Art Institute of Chicago"]. ''archive.artic.edu''. Retrieved 29 May 2025.</ref><ref name=":0">[[:en:Benin_Bronzes#CITEREFHuera1988|Huera 1988]], p. 36.</ref><ref name=":1">[[:en:Benin_Bronzes#CITEREFHuera1988|Huera 1988]], p. 37.</ref><ref name=":2">Meyerowitz, Eva L. R. (1943). "Ancient Bronzes in the Royal Palace at Benin". ''The Burlington Magazine''. '''83''' (487). The Burlington Magazine Publications, Ltd.: 248–253. [[JSTOR (identifier)|JSTOR]] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/868735 868735].</ref> De plaques, wich insyd de Edo language dem be called ''Ama'',<ref>{{Cite web|title=Digital Benin|url=https://digitalbenin.org/eyo-oto/1|access-date=2023-11-26|website=digitalbenin.org}}</ref> dey depict scenes anaa represent themes insyd de history of de kingdom.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hicks|first=Dan|title=The Brutish Museums: The Benin Bronzes, Colonial Violence and Cultural Restitution|publisher=Pluto Press|year=2020|location=London|pages=138–139}}</ref> Apart from de plaques, oda sculptures insyd brass anaa bronze dey include portrait heads, jewellery, den smaller pieces. [[File:Benin,_portoghese,_XVI-XVII_sec.JPG|thumb|A 16th-century Benin Bronze wey dey depict a Portuguese soldier, plus manillas insyd de background (Leipzig Museum of Ethnography)]] Na sam of de dramatic sculptures date to de fourteenth century, buh de bulk of de collection dey date to de fifteenth den sixteenth centuries. Dem dey believe dat na two "Golden Ages" insyd Benin metal workmanship occurred during de reigns of Esigie (fl. 1550) den of Eresoyen (1735–1750), wen na dema workmanship achieve ein highest quality.<ref>[[:en:Benin_Bronzes#CITEREFGreenfield2007|Greenfield 2007]], p. 122.</ref> Na British forces take chaw of de plaques den oda objects during de Benin Expedition of 1897 as na de British Empire ein control be consolidated insyd Southern Nigeria.<ref name="British">{{cite web|last=Lusher|first=Adam|date=24 June 2018|title=British museums may loan Nigeria bronzes that were taken from Nigeria by the British|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/benin-bronzes-british-museum-nigeria-stolen-imperialist-treasures-return-loan-elgin-marbles-looted-a8414661.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211030042646/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/benin-bronzes-british-museum-nigeria-stolen-imperialist-treasures-return-loan-elgin-marbles-looted-a8414661.html|archive-date=30 October 2021|access-date=14 December 2018|website=The Independent}}</ref> Na dis expedition be positioned by British sources as retaliation for a massacre of an unarmed party of British envoys den a large number of dema African bearers insyd January 1897. Sam contemporary scholars, such as Dan Hicks, dey argue dat na de expedition be part of a broader series of premeditated attacks, dem frame as retaliatory anaa punitive, make dem further European imperialistic den economic interests insyd Africa.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|last=Hicks|first=Dan|title=The Brutish Museums: the Benin Bronzes, colonial violence and cultural restitution|publisher=Pluto Press|year=2020|isbn=978-0-7453 4176-7|pages=3, 40–42, 67–69, 84}}</ref> Dey follow de expedition, na dem take two hundred pieces to de [[British Museum]] insyd London, while na dem take de rest to oda European museums.<ref>[[:en:Benin_Bronzes#CITEREFGreenfield2007|Greenfield 2007]], p. 124.</ref> De British Museum<ref>Lusher, Adam (24 June 2018). [https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/benin-bronzes-british-museum-nigeria-stolen-imperialist-treasures-return-loan-elgin-marbles-looted-a8414661.html "British museums may loan Nigeria bronzes that were taken from Nigeria by the British"]. ''The Independent''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20211030042646/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/benin-bronzes-british-museum-nigeria-stolen-imperialist-treasures-return-loan-elgin-marbles-looted-a8414661.html Archived] from the original on 30 October 2021. Retrieved 14 December 2018.</ref> hold large number plus oda notable collections insyd [[Germany]] den de [[United States]].<ref name="USA232">''Benin Diplomatic Handbook'', p. 23.</ref> Na late 19th-century scholars O. M. Dalton den Charles Hercules Read erroneously conclude dat na Benin knowledge of metallurgy cam from de Portuguese traders, wey na dem dey in contact plus Benin insyd de early modern period.<ref name=":2" /> Na de Kingdom of Benin be a hub of African civilization long before na Portuguese traders visit,<ref>{{cite web|title=Benin and the Portuguese|url=https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-africa/west-africa/nigeria/a/benin-and-the-portuguese|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180703051030/https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-africa/west-africa/nigeria/a/benin-and-the-portuguese|archive-date=3 July 2018|access-date=26 November 2018|website=Khan Academy}}</ref><ref name="BBCBen">{{cite news|title=The kingdom of Benin|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/topics/zpvckqt/articles/z3n7mp3|access-date=8 July 2021|archive-date=29 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210629031139/https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/topics/zpvckqt/articles/z3n7mp3|url-status=live}}</ref> wey na dem make bronzes insyd Benin prior to de arrival of de Portuguese.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mihăilescu|first1=Plutarh-Antoniu|title=Întâlnire cu arta africană|date=1968|publisher=Editura Meridiane|page=48|language=ro}}</ref> Dem dey think dem derive de Benin bronze sculpture tradition from anaa e be influenced by dat of de older nearby Kingdom of Ife insyd southwest Nigeria.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> While de collection be known as de Benin Bronzes,<ref>{{cite news|last1=Gregg|first1=Emma|title=The story of Nigeria's stolen Benin Bronzes, and the London museum returning them|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/article/nigeria-stolen-benin-bronzes-london-museum|work=National Geographic|date=2022-09-07}}</ref> like chaw West African "bronzes" na dem mostly make de pieces of brass of variable composition. Der sanso be pieces dem make of mixtures of bronze den brass, of wood, of ceramic, den of ivory, among oda materials.<ref>[[:en:Benin_Bronzes#CITEREFDohlvik2006|Dohlvik 2006]], p. 21.</ref> Na dem make de metal pieces by dem dey use lost-wax casting wey na dem be considered among de best African sculptures dem make dey use dis technique.<ref>[[:en:Benin_Bronzes#CITEREFNevadomsky2004|Nevadomsky 2004]], pp. 1, 4, 86–8, 95–6.</ref> Na Benin begin dey trade ivory, pepper, den [[Atlantic slave trade|slaves]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Santos |first1=Talita Teixeira dos |date=July 2010 |title=Com a cruz e sem a espada: aspectos da relação comercial entre Portugal e o reino do Benim ao longo dos séculos XV e XVI. |url=http://www.encontro2010.rj.anpuh.org/resources/anais/8/1276639759_ARQUIVO_Trabalho_benim.pdf |journal=Associação Nacional de História |volume=XIV}}</ref> plus de Portuguese insyd de late 15th century wey na dem incorporate de use of manillas (brass ingots insyd de form of bracelets, dem buy from de Portuguese) as a metal source insyd dema sculpture. De manillas dema brass, dem previously suggest dem cam from The Netherlands, dem now dey think say dem cam from de Rhineland region of Germany.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Skowronek |first1=Tobias B. |last2=Decorse |first2=Christopher R. |last3=Denk |first3=Rolf |last4=Birr |first4=Stefan D. |last5=Kingsley |first5=Sean |last6=Cook |first6=Gregory D. |last7=Benito Dominguez |first7=Ana María |last8=Clifford |first8=Brandon |last9=Barker |first9=Andrew |last10=Otero |first10=José Suárez |last11=Moreira |first11=Vicente Caramés |last12=Bode |first12=Michael |last13=Jansen |first13=Moritz |last14=Scholes |first14=Daniel |date=2023 |title=German brass for Benin Bronzes: Geochemical analysis insights into the early Atlantic trade |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=e0283415 |bibcode=2023PLoSO..1883415S |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0283415 |pmc=10075414 |pmid=37018227 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Alberge|first1=Dalya|date=5 April 2023|title=Benin bronzes made from metal mined in west Germany, study finds|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/apr/05/benin-bronzes-made-from-brass-mined-in-west-germany-study-finds|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408050236/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/apr/05/benin-bronzes-made-from-brass-mined-in-west-germany-study-finds|archive-date=8 April 2023|access-date=8 April 2023|website=The Guardian}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Famous Benin Bronzes from West Africa used metal sourced in Germany|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2368057-famous-benin-bronzes-from-west-africa-used-metal-sourced-in-germany/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407104457/https://www.newscientist.com/article/2368057-famous-benin-bronzes-from-west-africa-used-metal-sourced-in-germany/|archive-date=7 April 2023|access-date=8 April 2023|website=New Scientist}}</ref> == ''Pre-1897 Significance'' == De time before 1897, insyd de period of de kingdom of Benin, na ebe identified as de relative independence den power, dem sanso know as de Edo Empire. De pre-1897 significance of de Benin Kingdom, wey be governed by de obas, dem sanso include control over trade den territory den dey nurture de production of bronze den ivory art. Na de kingdom sanso encounter challenges from de British secof na dem dey try make dem gain access to Benin resources. == History == === Social context den creation === == References == <references /> == Bibliography == * {{cite book |last1=Beretta |first1=Alcides |last2=Rodenas |first2=María Dolores |title=Historia del Arte: La escultura del África negra |year=1983 |publisher=Carroggio |location=Barcelona |isbn=978-84-7254-313-3 |volume=II|language=es|ref={{harvid|Beretta|1983}}}} * {{Cite book |last= Docherty |first= Paddy |year= 2021 |title= Blood and Bronze: The British Empire and the Sack of Benin |location= London |publisher= Hurst |isbn= 978-1-787-38456-9 }} * {{cite book |last=Dohlvik |first=Charlotta |title=Museums and Their Voices: A Contemporary Study of the Benin Bronzes |url=http://www.museion.gu.se/digitalAssets/805/805960_Dissertation_Charlotta_Dohlvik.pdf |date=May 2006 |publisher=International Museum Studies |access-date=18 October 2013 |archive-date=19 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019105247/http://www.museion.gu.se/digitalAssets/805/805960_Dissertation_Charlotta_Dohlvik.pdf |url-status=dead }} * {{cite book |editor-first= Lawrence |editor-last=Gowing|title=Historia Universal del Arte |year=1984 |publisher=SARPE |location=Madrid |isbn=978-84-7291-592-3 |volume=IV |language=es }} * {{cite book|last=Greenfield|first=Janette|title=The Return of Cultural Treasures|year=2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-80216-1}} * {{Cite book|last=Hicks|first=Dan|title=The Brutish Museums. The Benin Bronzes, Colonial Violence and Cultural Restitution|publisher=Pluto Press|year=2020|isbn=9780745341767}} * {{cite book|author=Huera, Carmen|title=Historia Universal del Arte: África, América y Asia, Arte Primitivo|publisher=Barcelona: Planeta.|year=1988|isbn=978-8432066900|ref={{harvid|Huera|1988}}}} * {{cite book|author=Leuzinger, Elsy|title=Arte del África negra|publisher=Ediciones Polígrafa|year=1976|isbn=978-84-343-0176-4|location=Barcelona|language=es|ref={{harvid|Leuzinger|1976}}}} * Lundén, Staffan (2016). ''[https://gupea.ub.gu.se/handle/2077/45847 Displaying Loot. The Benin objects and the British Museum]''. Gotark Series B, Göteborgs Universitet. * {{cite journal |last1=Nevadomsky |first1=Joseph |date=Spring 2004 |title=Art and Science in Benin Bronzes |journal=African Arts |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=1, 4, 86–88, 95–96 |doi=10.1162/afar.2004.37.1.1 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |jstor=3338001}} * {{cite journal |last=Nevadomsky |first=Joseph |year=2005 |title=Casting in Contemporary Benin Art |journal=African Arts |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=66–96 |doi=10.1162/afar.2005.38.2.66 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024}} * {{cite book|last=Phillips|first=Barnaby|title=LOOT: Britain and the Benin Bronzes|publisher=Oneworld Publications|year=2022|isbn=9780861543137|location=}} * {{cite book|last=Pijoan|title=Pijoan-Historia del Arte|publisher=Salvat Editores|year=1966|volume=I|location=Barcelona}} * {{cite book|last1=Titi|first1=Catharine|title=The Parthenon Marbles and International Law|date=2023|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-031-26356-9|edition=|location=|author-link=}} * {{cite book|last1=Willett|first1=Frank|title=African Art: An Introduction|date=1985|publisher=Thames and Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-20103-9|edition=Reprint.|location=New York}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PPxh5hcqB3wC|title=Benin Diplomatic Handbook|publisher=International Business Publications|year=2005|isbn=978-0-7397-5745-1}} == External links == {{Commons}} * [https://digitalbenin.org/ ''Digital Benin'' online platform] * [https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=610486&partId=1 Benin Plaques, Museum number Af1898,0115.23, Collection Online, British Museum] * [https://www.artoftheancestors.com/blog/royal-art-of-benin-perls-collection Royal Art of Benin: The Perls Collection in the Metropolitan Museum of Art (1992 catalog)] {{DEFAULTSORT:Benin Bronzes}} [[Category:African sculptures insyd de British Museum]] [[Category:Benin City]] [[Category:Bronze sculptures]] [[Category:Art den cultural repatriation]] [[Category:Nigeria–United Kingdom relations]] [[Category:Nigeria–United States relations]] [[Category:Germany–Nigeria relations]] [[Category:Benin Court Art]] [[Category:Edo people]] [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] 68tp1ksf8u86w7spno6wwn1zyj963ji 69213 69212 2025-07-06T01:53:16Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Social context den creation */ 69213 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Benin_brass_plaque_03_(cropped).jpg|thumb|A Benin Bronze plaque on display insyd de [[British Museum]]]] [[File:Ancestral_shrine_Royal_Palace,_Benin_City,_1891_(cropped).jpg|thumb|Ancestral shrine insyd Royal Palace, Benin City, 1891: de earliest-known photograph of de Oba ein compound. Note 'bronze' heads at both ends of de shrine.]] De '''Benin Bronzes''' be a group of chaw thousand metal plaques den sculptures wey decorate de royal palace of de Kingdom of Benin, insyd wat now be Edo State, [[Nigeria]]. Na dem produce de metal plaques by de Guild of Benin Bronze Casters, now dey locate insyd Igun Street, dem sanso know as Igun-Eronmwon Quarters. Collectively, de objects form de best examples of Benin art wey na dem create from de fourteenth century by artists of de Edo people.<ref>{{Cite web|title=British Museum, "Curator's comments"|url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/E_Af1898-0115-23|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028163529/https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/E_Af1898-0115-23|archive-date=28 October 2021|access-date=17 May 2021}}</ref><ref>[https://archive.artic.edu/benin/artwork/190110 "Court Dwarfs | The Art Institute of Chicago"]. ''archive.artic.edu''. Retrieved 29 May 2025.</ref><ref name=":0">[[:en:Benin_Bronzes#CITEREFHuera1988|Huera 1988]], p. 36.</ref><ref name=":1">[[:en:Benin_Bronzes#CITEREFHuera1988|Huera 1988]], p. 37.</ref><ref name=":2">Meyerowitz, Eva L. R. (1943). "Ancient Bronzes in the Royal Palace at Benin". ''The Burlington Magazine''. '''83''' (487). The Burlington Magazine Publications, Ltd.: 248–253. [[JSTOR (identifier)|JSTOR]] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/868735 868735].</ref> De plaques, wich insyd de Edo language dem be called ''Ama'',<ref>{{Cite web|title=Digital Benin|url=https://digitalbenin.org/eyo-oto/1|access-date=2023-11-26|website=digitalbenin.org}}</ref> dey depict scenes anaa represent themes insyd de history of de kingdom.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hicks|first=Dan|title=The Brutish Museums: The Benin Bronzes, Colonial Violence and Cultural Restitution|publisher=Pluto Press|year=2020|location=London|pages=138–139}}</ref> Apart from de plaques, oda sculptures insyd brass anaa bronze dey include portrait heads, jewellery, den smaller pieces. [[File:Benin,_portoghese,_XVI-XVII_sec.JPG|thumb|A 16th-century Benin Bronze wey dey depict a Portuguese soldier, plus manillas insyd de background (Leipzig Museum of Ethnography)]] Na sam of de dramatic sculptures date to de fourteenth century, buh de bulk of de collection dey date to de fifteenth den sixteenth centuries. Dem dey believe dat na two "Golden Ages" insyd Benin metal workmanship occurred during de reigns of Esigie (fl. 1550) den of Eresoyen (1735–1750), wen na dema workmanship achieve ein highest quality.<ref>[[:en:Benin_Bronzes#CITEREFGreenfield2007|Greenfield 2007]], p. 122.</ref> Na British forces take chaw of de plaques den oda objects during de Benin Expedition of 1897 as na de British Empire ein control be consolidated insyd Southern Nigeria.<ref name="British">{{cite web|last=Lusher|first=Adam|date=24 June 2018|title=British museums may loan Nigeria bronzes that were taken from Nigeria by the British|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/benin-bronzes-british-museum-nigeria-stolen-imperialist-treasures-return-loan-elgin-marbles-looted-a8414661.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211030042646/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/benin-bronzes-british-museum-nigeria-stolen-imperialist-treasures-return-loan-elgin-marbles-looted-a8414661.html|archive-date=30 October 2021|access-date=14 December 2018|website=The Independent}}</ref> Na dis expedition be positioned by British sources as retaliation for a massacre of an unarmed party of British envoys den a large number of dema African bearers insyd January 1897. Sam contemporary scholars, such as Dan Hicks, dey argue dat na de expedition be part of a broader series of premeditated attacks, dem frame as retaliatory anaa punitive, make dem further European imperialistic den economic interests insyd Africa.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|last=Hicks|first=Dan|title=The Brutish Museums: the Benin Bronzes, colonial violence and cultural restitution|publisher=Pluto Press|year=2020|isbn=978-0-7453 4176-7|pages=3, 40–42, 67–69, 84}}</ref> Dey follow de expedition, na dem take two hundred pieces to de [[British Museum]] insyd London, while na dem take de rest to oda European museums.<ref>[[:en:Benin_Bronzes#CITEREFGreenfield2007|Greenfield 2007]], p. 124.</ref> De British Museum<ref>Lusher, Adam (24 June 2018). [https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/benin-bronzes-british-museum-nigeria-stolen-imperialist-treasures-return-loan-elgin-marbles-looted-a8414661.html "British museums may loan Nigeria bronzes that were taken from Nigeria by the British"]. ''The Independent''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20211030042646/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/benin-bronzes-british-museum-nigeria-stolen-imperialist-treasures-return-loan-elgin-marbles-looted-a8414661.html Archived] from the original on 30 October 2021. Retrieved 14 December 2018.</ref> hold large number plus oda notable collections insyd [[Germany]] den de [[United States]].<ref name="USA232">''Benin Diplomatic Handbook'', p. 23.</ref> Na late 19th-century scholars O. M. Dalton den Charles Hercules Read erroneously conclude dat na Benin knowledge of metallurgy cam from de Portuguese traders, wey na dem dey in contact plus Benin insyd de early modern period.<ref name=":2" /> Na de Kingdom of Benin be a hub of African civilization long before na Portuguese traders visit,<ref>{{cite web|title=Benin and the Portuguese|url=https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-africa/west-africa/nigeria/a/benin-and-the-portuguese|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180703051030/https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-africa/west-africa/nigeria/a/benin-and-the-portuguese|archive-date=3 July 2018|access-date=26 November 2018|website=Khan Academy}}</ref><ref name="BBCBen">{{cite news|title=The kingdom of Benin|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/topics/zpvckqt/articles/z3n7mp3|access-date=8 July 2021|archive-date=29 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210629031139/https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/topics/zpvckqt/articles/z3n7mp3|url-status=live}}</ref> wey na dem make bronzes insyd Benin prior to de arrival of de Portuguese.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mihăilescu|first1=Plutarh-Antoniu|title=Întâlnire cu arta africană|date=1968|publisher=Editura Meridiane|page=48|language=ro}}</ref> Dem dey think dem derive de Benin bronze sculpture tradition from anaa e be influenced by dat of de older nearby Kingdom of Ife insyd southwest Nigeria.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> While de collection be known as de Benin Bronzes,<ref>{{cite news|last1=Gregg|first1=Emma|title=The story of Nigeria's stolen Benin Bronzes, and the London museum returning them|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/article/nigeria-stolen-benin-bronzes-london-museum|work=National Geographic|date=2022-09-07}}</ref> like chaw West African "bronzes" na dem mostly make de pieces of brass of variable composition. Der sanso be pieces dem make of mixtures of bronze den brass, of wood, of ceramic, den of ivory, among oda materials.<ref>[[:en:Benin_Bronzes#CITEREFDohlvik2006|Dohlvik 2006]], p. 21.</ref> Na dem make de metal pieces by dem dey use lost-wax casting wey na dem be considered among de best African sculptures dem make dey use dis technique.<ref>[[:en:Benin_Bronzes#CITEREFNevadomsky2004|Nevadomsky 2004]], pp. 1, 4, 86–8, 95–6.</ref> Na Benin begin dey trade ivory, pepper, den [[Atlantic slave trade|slaves]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Santos |first1=Talita Teixeira dos |date=July 2010 |title=Com a cruz e sem a espada: aspectos da relação comercial entre Portugal e o reino do Benim ao longo dos séculos XV e XVI. |url=http://www.encontro2010.rj.anpuh.org/resources/anais/8/1276639759_ARQUIVO_Trabalho_benim.pdf |journal=Associação Nacional de História |volume=XIV}}</ref> plus de Portuguese insyd de late 15th century wey na dem incorporate de use of manillas (brass ingots insyd de form of bracelets, dem buy from de Portuguese) as a metal source insyd dema sculpture. De manillas dema brass, dem previously suggest dem cam from The Netherlands, dem now dey think say dem cam from de Rhineland region of Germany.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Skowronek |first1=Tobias B. |last2=Decorse |first2=Christopher R. |last3=Denk |first3=Rolf |last4=Birr |first4=Stefan D. |last5=Kingsley |first5=Sean |last6=Cook |first6=Gregory D. |last7=Benito Dominguez |first7=Ana María |last8=Clifford |first8=Brandon |last9=Barker |first9=Andrew |last10=Otero |first10=José Suárez |last11=Moreira |first11=Vicente Caramés |last12=Bode |first12=Michael |last13=Jansen |first13=Moritz |last14=Scholes |first14=Daniel |date=2023 |title=German brass for Benin Bronzes: Geochemical analysis insights into the early Atlantic trade |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=e0283415 |bibcode=2023PLoSO..1883415S |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0283415 |pmc=10075414 |pmid=37018227 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Alberge|first1=Dalya|date=5 April 2023|title=Benin bronzes made from metal mined in west Germany, study finds|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/apr/05/benin-bronzes-made-from-brass-mined-in-west-germany-study-finds|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408050236/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/apr/05/benin-bronzes-made-from-brass-mined-in-west-germany-study-finds|archive-date=8 April 2023|access-date=8 April 2023|website=The Guardian}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Famous Benin Bronzes from West Africa used metal sourced in Germany|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2368057-famous-benin-bronzes-from-west-africa-used-metal-sourced-in-germany/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407104457/https://www.newscientist.com/article/2368057-famous-benin-bronzes-from-west-africa-used-metal-sourced-in-germany/|archive-date=7 April 2023|access-date=8 April 2023|website=New Scientist}}</ref> == ''Pre-1897 Significance'' == De time before 1897, insyd de period of de kingdom of Benin, na ebe identified as de relative independence den power, dem sanso know as de Edo Empire. De pre-1897 significance of de Benin Kingdom, wey be governed by de obas, dem sanso include control over trade den territory den dey nurture de production of bronze den ivory art. Na de kingdom sanso encounter challenges from de British secof na dem dey try make dem gain access to Benin resources. == History == === Social context den creation === Plenty dramatic sculptures wey dey here na from thirteen century, and big part of di collection sef dey from fifteen and sixteen century. Dem believe say two 'Golden Ages' for Benin metal work happen during Esigie reign (around 1550) and Eresoyen reign (1735-1750), when demma workmanship work reach im highest quality.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Igbafe |first1=Phillip |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |url-status=live |journal=The Journal of African History |edition=3 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230301190351/https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |archive-date=1 March 2023 |access-date=24 October 2022}}</ref> == References == <references /> == Bibliography == * {{cite book |last1=Beretta |first1=Alcides |last2=Rodenas |first2=María Dolores |title=Historia del Arte: La escultura del África negra |year=1983 |publisher=Carroggio |location=Barcelona |isbn=978-84-7254-313-3 |volume=II|language=es|ref={{harvid|Beretta|1983}}}} * {{Cite book |last= Docherty |first= Paddy |year= 2021 |title= Blood and Bronze: The British Empire and the Sack of Benin |location= London |publisher= Hurst |isbn= 978-1-787-38456-9 }} * {{cite book |last=Dohlvik |first=Charlotta |title=Museums and Their Voices: A Contemporary Study of the Benin Bronzes |url=http://www.museion.gu.se/digitalAssets/805/805960_Dissertation_Charlotta_Dohlvik.pdf |date=May 2006 |publisher=International Museum Studies |access-date=18 October 2013 |archive-date=19 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019105247/http://www.museion.gu.se/digitalAssets/805/805960_Dissertation_Charlotta_Dohlvik.pdf |url-status=dead }} * {{cite book |editor-first= Lawrence |editor-last=Gowing|title=Historia Universal del Arte |year=1984 |publisher=SARPE |location=Madrid |isbn=978-84-7291-592-3 |volume=IV |language=es }} * {{cite book|last=Greenfield|first=Janette|title=The Return of Cultural Treasures|year=2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-80216-1}} * {{Cite book|last=Hicks|first=Dan|title=The Brutish Museums. The Benin Bronzes, Colonial Violence and Cultural Restitution|publisher=Pluto Press|year=2020|isbn=9780745341767}} * {{cite book|author=Huera, Carmen|title=Historia Universal del Arte: África, América y Asia, Arte Primitivo|publisher=Barcelona: Planeta.|year=1988|isbn=978-8432066900|ref={{harvid|Huera|1988}}}} * {{cite book|author=Leuzinger, Elsy|title=Arte del África negra|publisher=Ediciones Polígrafa|year=1976|isbn=978-84-343-0176-4|location=Barcelona|language=es|ref={{harvid|Leuzinger|1976}}}} * Lundén, Staffan (2016). ''[https://gupea.ub.gu.se/handle/2077/45847 Displaying Loot. The Benin objects and the British Museum]''. Gotark Series B, Göteborgs Universitet. * {{cite journal |last1=Nevadomsky |first1=Joseph |date=Spring 2004 |title=Art and Science in Benin Bronzes |journal=African Arts |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=1, 4, 86–88, 95–96 |doi=10.1162/afar.2004.37.1.1 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |jstor=3338001}} * {{cite journal |last=Nevadomsky |first=Joseph |year=2005 |title=Casting in Contemporary Benin Art |journal=African Arts |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=66–96 |doi=10.1162/afar.2005.38.2.66 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024}} * {{cite book|last=Phillips|first=Barnaby|title=LOOT: Britain and the Benin Bronzes|publisher=Oneworld Publications|year=2022|isbn=9780861543137|location=}} * {{cite book|last=Pijoan|title=Pijoan-Historia del Arte|publisher=Salvat Editores|year=1966|volume=I|location=Barcelona}} * {{cite book|last1=Titi|first1=Catharine|title=The Parthenon Marbles and International Law|date=2023|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-031-26356-9|edition=|location=|author-link=}} * {{cite book|last1=Willett|first1=Frank|title=African Art: An Introduction|date=1985|publisher=Thames and Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-20103-9|edition=Reprint.|location=New York}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PPxh5hcqB3wC|title=Benin Diplomatic Handbook|publisher=International Business Publications|year=2005|isbn=978-0-7397-5745-1}} == External links == {{Commons}} * [https://digitalbenin.org/ ''Digital Benin'' online platform] * [https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=610486&partId=1 Benin Plaques, Museum number Af1898,0115.23, Collection Online, British Museum] * [https://www.artoftheancestors.com/blog/royal-art-of-benin-perls-collection Royal Art of Benin: The Perls Collection in the Metropolitan Museum of Art (1992 catalog)] {{DEFAULTSORT:Benin Bronzes}} [[Category:African sculptures insyd de British Museum]] [[Category:Benin City]] [[Category:Bronze sculptures]] [[Category:Art den cultural repatriation]] [[Category:Nigeria–United Kingdom relations]] [[Category:Nigeria–United States relations]] [[Category:Germany–Nigeria relations]] [[Category:Benin Court Art]] [[Category:Edo people]] [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] qo4lnxwfq9e42luc82cr1qrwmcetl12 69214 69213 2025-07-06T01:56:36Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Social context den creation */ 69214 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Benin_brass_plaque_03_(cropped).jpg|thumb|A Benin Bronze plaque on display insyd de [[British Museum]]]] [[File:Ancestral_shrine_Royal_Palace,_Benin_City,_1891_(cropped).jpg|thumb|Ancestral shrine insyd Royal Palace, Benin City, 1891: de earliest-known photograph of de Oba ein compound. Note 'bronze' heads at both ends of de shrine.]] De '''Benin Bronzes''' be a group of chaw thousand metal plaques den sculptures wey decorate de royal palace of de Kingdom of Benin, insyd wat now be Edo State, [[Nigeria]]. Na dem produce de metal plaques by de Guild of Benin Bronze Casters, now dey locate insyd Igun Street, dem sanso know as Igun-Eronmwon Quarters. Collectively, de objects form de best examples of Benin art wey na dem create from de fourteenth century by artists of de Edo people.<ref>{{Cite web|title=British Museum, "Curator's comments"|url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/E_Af1898-0115-23|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028163529/https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/E_Af1898-0115-23|archive-date=28 October 2021|access-date=17 May 2021}}</ref><ref>[https://archive.artic.edu/benin/artwork/190110 "Court Dwarfs | The Art Institute of Chicago"]. ''archive.artic.edu''. Retrieved 29 May 2025.</ref><ref name=":0">[[:en:Benin_Bronzes#CITEREFHuera1988|Huera 1988]], p. 36.</ref><ref name=":1">[[:en:Benin_Bronzes#CITEREFHuera1988|Huera 1988]], p. 37.</ref><ref name=":2">Meyerowitz, Eva L. R. (1943). "Ancient Bronzes in the Royal Palace at Benin". ''The Burlington Magazine''. '''83''' (487). The Burlington Magazine Publications, Ltd.: 248–253. [[JSTOR (identifier)|JSTOR]] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/868735 868735].</ref> De plaques, wich insyd de Edo language dem be called ''Ama'',<ref>{{Cite web|title=Digital Benin|url=https://digitalbenin.org/eyo-oto/1|access-date=2023-11-26|website=digitalbenin.org}}</ref> dey depict scenes anaa represent themes insyd de history of de kingdom.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hicks|first=Dan|title=The Brutish Museums: The Benin Bronzes, Colonial Violence and Cultural Restitution|publisher=Pluto Press|year=2020|location=London|pages=138–139}}</ref> Apart from de plaques, oda sculptures insyd brass anaa bronze dey include portrait heads, jewellery, den smaller pieces. [[File:Benin,_portoghese,_XVI-XVII_sec.JPG|thumb|A 16th-century Benin Bronze wey dey depict a Portuguese soldier, plus manillas insyd de background (Leipzig Museum of Ethnography)]] Na sam of de dramatic sculptures date to de fourteenth century, buh de bulk of de collection dey date to de fifteenth den sixteenth centuries. Dem dey believe dat na two "Golden Ages" insyd Benin metal workmanship occurred during de reigns of Esigie (fl. 1550) den of Eresoyen (1735–1750), wen na dema workmanship achieve ein highest quality.<ref>[[:en:Benin_Bronzes#CITEREFGreenfield2007|Greenfield 2007]], p. 122.</ref> Na British forces take chaw of de plaques den oda objects during de Benin Expedition of 1897 as na de British Empire ein control be consolidated insyd Southern Nigeria.<ref name="British">{{cite web|last=Lusher|first=Adam|date=24 June 2018|title=British museums may loan Nigeria bronzes that were taken from Nigeria by the British|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/benin-bronzes-british-museum-nigeria-stolen-imperialist-treasures-return-loan-elgin-marbles-looted-a8414661.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211030042646/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/benin-bronzes-british-museum-nigeria-stolen-imperialist-treasures-return-loan-elgin-marbles-looted-a8414661.html|archive-date=30 October 2021|access-date=14 December 2018|website=The Independent}}</ref> Na dis expedition be positioned by British sources as retaliation for a massacre of an unarmed party of British envoys den a large number of dema African bearers insyd January 1897. Sam contemporary scholars, such as Dan Hicks, dey argue dat na de expedition be part of a broader series of premeditated attacks, dem frame as retaliatory anaa punitive, make dem further European imperialistic den economic interests insyd Africa.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|last=Hicks|first=Dan|title=The Brutish Museums: the Benin Bronzes, colonial violence and cultural restitution|publisher=Pluto Press|year=2020|isbn=978-0-7453 4176-7|pages=3, 40–42, 67–69, 84}}</ref> Dey follow de expedition, na dem take two hundred pieces to de [[British Museum]] insyd London, while na dem take de rest to oda European museums.<ref>[[:en:Benin_Bronzes#CITEREFGreenfield2007|Greenfield 2007]], p. 124.</ref> De British Museum<ref>Lusher, Adam (24 June 2018). [https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/benin-bronzes-british-museum-nigeria-stolen-imperialist-treasures-return-loan-elgin-marbles-looted-a8414661.html "British museums may loan Nigeria bronzes that were taken from Nigeria by the British"]. ''The Independent''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20211030042646/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/benin-bronzes-british-museum-nigeria-stolen-imperialist-treasures-return-loan-elgin-marbles-looted-a8414661.html Archived] from the original on 30 October 2021. Retrieved 14 December 2018.</ref> hold large number plus oda notable collections insyd [[Germany]] den de [[United States]].<ref name="USA232">''Benin Diplomatic Handbook'', p. 23.</ref> Na late 19th-century scholars O. M. Dalton den Charles Hercules Read erroneously conclude dat na Benin knowledge of metallurgy cam from de Portuguese traders, wey na dem dey in contact plus Benin insyd de early modern period.<ref name=":2" /> Na de Kingdom of Benin be a hub of African civilization long before na Portuguese traders visit,<ref>{{cite web|title=Benin and the Portuguese|url=https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-africa/west-africa/nigeria/a/benin-and-the-portuguese|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180703051030/https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-africa/west-africa/nigeria/a/benin-and-the-portuguese|archive-date=3 July 2018|access-date=26 November 2018|website=Khan Academy}}</ref><ref name="BBCBen">{{cite news|title=The kingdom of Benin|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/topics/zpvckqt/articles/z3n7mp3|access-date=8 July 2021|archive-date=29 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210629031139/https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/topics/zpvckqt/articles/z3n7mp3|url-status=live}}</ref> wey na dem make bronzes insyd Benin prior to de arrival of de Portuguese.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mihăilescu|first1=Plutarh-Antoniu|title=Întâlnire cu arta africană|date=1968|publisher=Editura Meridiane|page=48|language=ro}}</ref> Dem dey think dem derive de Benin bronze sculpture tradition from anaa e be influenced by dat of de older nearby Kingdom of Ife insyd southwest Nigeria.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> While de collection be known as de Benin Bronzes,<ref>{{cite news|last1=Gregg|first1=Emma|title=The story of Nigeria's stolen Benin Bronzes, and the London museum returning them|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/article/nigeria-stolen-benin-bronzes-london-museum|work=National Geographic|date=2022-09-07}}</ref> like chaw West African "bronzes" na dem mostly make de pieces of brass of variable composition. Der sanso be pieces dem make of mixtures of bronze den brass, of wood, of ceramic, den of ivory, among oda materials.<ref>[[:en:Benin_Bronzes#CITEREFDohlvik2006|Dohlvik 2006]], p. 21.</ref> Na dem make de metal pieces by dem dey use lost-wax casting wey na dem be considered among de best African sculptures dem make dey use dis technique.<ref>[[:en:Benin_Bronzes#CITEREFNevadomsky2004|Nevadomsky 2004]], pp. 1, 4, 86–8, 95–6.</ref> Na Benin begin dey trade ivory, pepper, den [[Atlantic slave trade|slaves]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Santos |first1=Talita Teixeira dos |date=July 2010 |title=Com a cruz e sem a espada: aspectos da relação comercial entre Portugal e o reino do Benim ao longo dos séculos XV e XVI. |url=http://www.encontro2010.rj.anpuh.org/resources/anais/8/1276639759_ARQUIVO_Trabalho_benim.pdf |journal=Associação Nacional de História |volume=XIV}}</ref> plus de Portuguese insyd de late 15th century wey na dem incorporate de use of manillas (brass ingots insyd de form of bracelets, dem buy from de Portuguese) as a metal source insyd dema sculpture. De manillas dema brass, dem previously suggest dem cam from The Netherlands, dem now dey think say dem cam from de Rhineland region of Germany.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Skowronek |first1=Tobias B. |last2=Decorse |first2=Christopher R. |last3=Denk |first3=Rolf |last4=Birr |first4=Stefan D. |last5=Kingsley |first5=Sean |last6=Cook |first6=Gregory D. |last7=Benito Dominguez |first7=Ana María |last8=Clifford |first8=Brandon |last9=Barker |first9=Andrew |last10=Otero |first10=José Suárez |last11=Moreira |first11=Vicente Caramés |last12=Bode |first12=Michael |last13=Jansen |first13=Moritz |last14=Scholes |first14=Daniel |date=2023 |title=German brass for Benin Bronzes: Geochemical analysis insights into the early Atlantic trade |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=e0283415 |bibcode=2023PLoSO..1883415S |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0283415 |pmc=10075414 |pmid=37018227 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Alberge|first1=Dalya|date=5 April 2023|title=Benin bronzes made from metal mined in west Germany, study finds|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/apr/05/benin-bronzes-made-from-brass-mined-in-west-germany-study-finds|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408050236/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/apr/05/benin-bronzes-made-from-brass-mined-in-west-germany-study-finds|archive-date=8 April 2023|access-date=8 April 2023|website=The Guardian}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Famous Benin Bronzes from West Africa used metal sourced in Germany|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2368057-famous-benin-bronzes-from-west-africa-used-metal-sourced-in-germany/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407104457/https://www.newscientist.com/article/2368057-famous-benin-bronzes-from-west-africa-used-metal-sourced-in-germany/|archive-date=7 April 2023|access-date=8 April 2023|website=New Scientist}}</ref> == ''Pre-1897 Significance'' == De time before 1897, insyd de period of de kingdom of Benin, na ebe identified as de relative independence den power, dem sanso know as de Edo Empire. De pre-1897 significance of de Benin Kingdom, wey be governed by de obas, dem sanso include control over trade den territory den dey nurture de production of bronze den ivory art. Na de kingdom sanso encounter challenges from de British secof na dem dey try make dem gain access to Benin resources. == History == === Social context den creation === Plenty dramatic sculptures wey dey here na from thirteen century, and big part of di collection sef dey from fifteen and sixteen century. Dem believe say two 'Golden Ages' for Benin metal work happen during Esigie reign (around 1550) and Eresoyen reign (1735-1750), when demma workmanship work reach im highest quality.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Igbafe |first1=Phillip |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |url-status=live |journal=The Journal of African History |edition=3 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230301190351/https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |archive-date=1 March 2023 |access-date=24 October 2022}}</ref> {{Quote box|width=246px|bgcolor=#c6dbf7|align=right|quote=Di king palace wey dem dey call court, e be square, and e big pass di town of Haarlem. E dey surrounded by special wall like di one wey dey round di town. Di place dey divided into plenty fine palaces, houses, and apartments for di courtiers, plus fine long square galleries...dem dey sit on wooden pillars, from top to bottom dem don cover am with cast copper wey dem engrave pictures of dia war exploits and battles on top, and dem dey keep am very clean.|source=[[Olfert Dapper]], a Dutch writer, describing Benin in his book ''[[Description of Africa (Olfert Dapper)|Description of Africa]]'' (1668){{sfn|Willett|1985|p=102}}}}Kingdom of Benin wey dey for south Nigeria from fourteen to nineteen century, dey rich full with sculptures wey get plenty materials like iron, bronze, wood, ivory and terra cotta. De Oba palace for Benin City, where dem dey make royal ancestral altars, be also where dem dey do plenty court ceremonies plus Oba, him warriors, chiefs, titleholders, priests, palace society members, foreign merchants, mercenaries, and plenty other people dey participate. De palace, wey big well well with plenty buildings and courtyards, be where you go see hundreds of brass plaques wey get images wey show people and events wey dey happen for court.<ref name="Ezra">{{cite book|last=Ezra|first=Kate|url=https://archive.org/details/royalartofbeninp0000ezra|title=Royal art of Benin: the Perls collection in the Metropolitan Museum of Art|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|year=1992|isbn=978-0-8109-6414-3|location=New York|url-access=registration}}</ref> == References == <references /> == Bibliography == * {{cite book |last1=Beretta |first1=Alcides |last2=Rodenas |first2=María Dolores |title=Historia del Arte: La escultura del África negra |year=1983 |publisher=Carroggio |location=Barcelona |isbn=978-84-7254-313-3 |volume=II|language=es|ref={{harvid|Beretta|1983}}}} * {{Cite book |last= Docherty |first= Paddy |year= 2021 |title= Blood and Bronze: The British Empire and the Sack of Benin |location= London |publisher= Hurst |isbn= 978-1-787-38456-9 }} * {{cite book |last=Dohlvik |first=Charlotta |title=Museums and Their Voices: A Contemporary Study of the Benin Bronzes |url=http://www.museion.gu.se/digitalAssets/805/805960_Dissertation_Charlotta_Dohlvik.pdf |date=May 2006 |publisher=International Museum Studies |access-date=18 October 2013 |archive-date=19 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019105247/http://www.museion.gu.se/digitalAssets/805/805960_Dissertation_Charlotta_Dohlvik.pdf |url-status=dead }} * {{cite book |editor-first= Lawrence |editor-last=Gowing|title=Historia Universal del Arte |year=1984 |publisher=SARPE |location=Madrid |isbn=978-84-7291-592-3 |volume=IV |language=es }} * {{cite book|last=Greenfield|first=Janette|title=The Return of Cultural Treasures|year=2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-80216-1}} * {{Cite book|last=Hicks|first=Dan|title=The Brutish Museums. The Benin Bronzes, Colonial Violence and Cultural Restitution|publisher=Pluto Press|year=2020|isbn=9780745341767}} * {{cite book|author=Huera, Carmen|title=Historia Universal del Arte: África, América y Asia, Arte Primitivo|publisher=Barcelona: Planeta.|year=1988|isbn=978-8432066900|ref={{harvid|Huera|1988}}}} * {{cite book|author=Leuzinger, Elsy|title=Arte del África negra|publisher=Ediciones Polígrafa|year=1976|isbn=978-84-343-0176-4|location=Barcelona|language=es|ref={{harvid|Leuzinger|1976}}}} * Lundén, Staffan (2016). ''[https://gupea.ub.gu.se/handle/2077/45847 Displaying Loot. The Benin objects and the British Museum]''. Gotark Series B, Göteborgs Universitet. * {{cite journal |last1=Nevadomsky |first1=Joseph |date=Spring 2004 |title=Art and Science in Benin Bronzes |journal=African Arts |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=1, 4, 86–88, 95–96 |doi=10.1162/afar.2004.37.1.1 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |jstor=3338001}} * {{cite journal |last=Nevadomsky |first=Joseph |year=2005 |title=Casting in Contemporary Benin Art |journal=African Arts |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=66–96 |doi=10.1162/afar.2005.38.2.66 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024}} * {{cite book|last=Phillips|first=Barnaby|title=LOOT: Britain and the Benin Bronzes|publisher=Oneworld Publications|year=2022|isbn=9780861543137|location=}} * {{cite book|last=Pijoan|title=Pijoan-Historia del Arte|publisher=Salvat Editores|year=1966|volume=I|location=Barcelona}} * {{cite book|last1=Titi|first1=Catharine|title=The Parthenon Marbles and International Law|date=2023|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-031-26356-9|edition=|location=|author-link=}} * {{cite book|last1=Willett|first1=Frank|title=African Art: An Introduction|date=1985|publisher=Thames and Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-20103-9|edition=Reprint.|location=New York}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PPxh5hcqB3wC|title=Benin Diplomatic Handbook|publisher=International Business Publications|year=2005|isbn=978-0-7397-5745-1}} == External links == {{Commons}} * [https://digitalbenin.org/ ''Digital Benin'' online platform] * [https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=610486&partId=1 Benin Plaques, Museum number Af1898,0115.23, Collection Online, British Museum] * [https://www.artoftheancestors.com/blog/royal-art-of-benin-perls-collection Royal Art of Benin: The Perls Collection in the Metropolitan Museum of Art (1992 catalog)] {{DEFAULTSORT:Benin Bronzes}} [[Category:African sculptures insyd de British Museum]] [[Category:Benin City]] [[Category:Bronze sculptures]] [[Category:Art den cultural repatriation]] [[Category:Nigeria–United Kingdom relations]] [[Category:Nigeria–United States relations]] [[Category:Germany–Nigeria relations]] [[Category:Benin Court Art]] [[Category:Edo people]] [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] pglcx55btnkkpcbqvr4gtejhor02cdm 69215 69214 2025-07-06T01:58:52Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Social context den creation */ 69215 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Benin_brass_plaque_03_(cropped).jpg|thumb|A Benin Bronze plaque on display insyd de [[British Museum]]]] [[File:Ancestral_shrine_Royal_Palace,_Benin_City,_1891_(cropped).jpg|thumb|Ancestral shrine insyd Royal Palace, Benin City, 1891: de earliest-known photograph of de Oba ein compound. Note 'bronze' heads at both ends of de shrine.]] De '''Benin Bronzes''' be a group of chaw thousand metal plaques den sculptures wey decorate de royal palace of de Kingdom of Benin, insyd wat now be Edo State, [[Nigeria]]. Na dem produce de metal plaques by de Guild of Benin Bronze Casters, now dey locate insyd Igun Street, dem sanso know as Igun-Eronmwon Quarters. Collectively, de objects form de best examples of Benin art wey na dem create from de fourteenth century by artists of de Edo people.<ref>{{Cite web|title=British Museum, "Curator's comments"|url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/E_Af1898-0115-23|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028163529/https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/E_Af1898-0115-23|archive-date=28 October 2021|access-date=17 May 2021}}</ref><ref>[https://archive.artic.edu/benin/artwork/190110 "Court Dwarfs | The Art Institute of Chicago"]. ''archive.artic.edu''. Retrieved 29 May 2025.</ref><ref name=":0">[[:en:Benin_Bronzes#CITEREFHuera1988|Huera 1988]], p. 36.</ref><ref name=":1">[[:en:Benin_Bronzes#CITEREFHuera1988|Huera 1988]], p. 37.</ref><ref name=":2">Meyerowitz, Eva L. R. (1943). "Ancient Bronzes in the Royal Palace at Benin". ''The Burlington Magazine''. '''83''' (487). The Burlington Magazine Publications, Ltd.: 248–253. [[JSTOR (identifier)|JSTOR]] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/868735 868735].</ref> De plaques, wich insyd de Edo language dem be called ''Ama'',<ref>{{Cite web|title=Digital Benin|url=https://digitalbenin.org/eyo-oto/1|access-date=2023-11-26|website=digitalbenin.org}}</ref> dey depict scenes anaa represent themes insyd de history of de kingdom.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hicks|first=Dan|title=The Brutish Museums: The Benin Bronzes, Colonial Violence and Cultural Restitution|publisher=Pluto Press|year=2020|location=London|pages=138–139}}</ref> Apart from de plaques, oda sculptures insyd brass anaa bronze dey include portrait heads, jewellery, den smaller pieces. [[File:Benin,_portoghese,_XVI-XVII_sec.JPG|thumb|A 16th-century Benin Bronze wey dey depict a Portuguese soldier, plus manillas insyd de background (Leipzig Museum of Ethnography)]] Na sam of de dramatic sculptures date to de fourteenth century, buh de bulk of de collection dey date to de fifteenth den sixteenth centuries. Dem dey believe dat na two "Golden Ages" insyd Benin metal workmanship occurred during de reigns of Esigie (fl. 1550) den of Eresoyen (1735–1750), wen na dema workmanship achieve ein highest quality.<ref>[[:en:Benin_Bronzes#CITEREFGreenfield2007|Greenfield 2007]], p. 122.</ref> Na British forces take chaw of de plaques den oda objects during de Benin Expedition of 1897 as na de British Empire ein control be consolidated insyd Southern Nigeria.<ref name="British">{{cite web|last=Lusher|first=Adam|date=24 June 2018|title=British museums may loan Nigeria bronzes that were taken from Nigeria by the British|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/benin-bronzes-british-museum-nigeria-stolen-imperialist-treasures-return-loan-elgin-marbles-looted-a8414661.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211030042646/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/benin-bronzes-british-museum-nigeria-stolen-imperialist-treasures-return-loan-elgin-marbles-looted-a8414661.html|archive-date=30 October 2021|access-date=14 December 2018|website=The Independent}}</ref> Na dis expedition be positioned by British sources as retaliation for a massacre of an unarmed party of British envoys den a large number of dema African bearers insyd January 1897. Sam contemporary scholars, such as Dan Hicks, dey argue dat na de expedition be part of a broader series of premeditated attacks, dem frame as retaliatory anaa punitive, make dem further European imperialistic den economic interests insyd Africa.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|last=Hicks|first=Dan|title=The Brutish Museums: the Benin Bronzes, colonial violence and cultural restitution|publisher=Pluto Press|year=2020|isbn=978-0-7453 4176-7|pages=3, 40–42, 67–69, 84}}</ref> Dey follow de expedition, na dem take two hundred pieces to de [[British Museum]] insyd London, while na dem take de rest to oda European museums.<ref>[[:en:Benin_Bronzes#CITEREFGreenfield2007|Greenfield 2007]], p. 124.</ref> De British Museum<ref>Lusher, Adam (24 June 2018). [https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/benin-bronzes-british-museum-nigeria-stolen-imperialist-treasures-return-loan-elgin-marbles-looted-a8414661.html "British museums may loan Nigeria bronzes that were taken from Nigeria by the British"]. ''The Independent''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20211030042646/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/benin-bronzes-british-museum-nigeria-stolen-imperialist-treasures-return-loan-elgin-marbles-looted-a8414661.html Archived] from the original on 30 October 2021. Retrieved 14 December 2018.</ref> hold large number plus oda notable collections insyd [[Germany]] den de [[United States]].<ref name="USA232">''Benin Diplomatic Handbook'', p. 23.</ref> Na late 19th-century scholars O. M. Dalton den Charles Hercules Read erroneously conclude dat na Benin knowledge of metallurgy cam from de Portuguese traders, wey na dem dey in contact plus Benin insyd de early modern period.<ref name=":2" /> Na de Kingdom of Benin be a hub of African civilization long before na Portuguese traders visit,<ref>{{cite web|title=Benin and the Portuguese|url=https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-africa/west-africa/nigeria/a/benin-and-the-portuguese|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180703051030/https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-africa/west-africa/nigeria/a/benin-and-the-portuguese|archive-date=3 July 2018|access-date=26 November 2018|website=Khan Academy}}</ref><ref name="BBCBen">{{cite news|title=The kingdom of Benin|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/topics/zpvckqt/articles/z3n7mp3|access-date=8 July 2021|archive-date=29 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210629031139/https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/topics/zpvckqt/articles/z3n7mp3|url-status=live}}</ref> wey na dem make bronzes insyd Benin prior to de arrival of de Portuguese.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mihăilescu|first1=Plutarh-Antoniu|title=Întâlnire cu arta africană|date=1968|publisher=Editura Meridiane|page=48|language=ro}}</ref> Dem dey think dem derive de Benin bronze sculpture tradition from anaa e be influenced by dat of de older nearby Kingdom of Ife insyd southwest Nigeria.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> While de collection be known as de Benin Bronzes,<ref>{{cite news|last1=Gregg|first1=Emma|title=The story of Nigeria's stolen Benin Bronzes, and the London museum returning them|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/article/nigeria-stolen-benin-bronzes-london-museum|work=National Geographic|date=2022-09-07}}</ref> like chaw West African "bronzes" na dem mostly make de pieces of brass of variable composition. Der sanso be pieces dem make of mixtures of bronze den brass, of wood, of ceramic, den of ivory, among oda materials.<ref>[[:en:Benin_Bronzes#CITEREFDohlvik2006|Dohlvik 2006]], p. 21.</ref> Na dem make de metal pieces by dem dey use lost-wax casting wey na dem be considered among de best African sculptures dem make dey use dis technique.<ref>[[:en:Benin_Bronzes#CITEREFNevadomsky2004|Nevadomsky 2004]], pp. 1, 4, 86–8, 95–6.</ref> Na Benin begin dey trade ivory, pepper, den [[Atlantic slave trade|slaves]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Santos |first1=Talita Teixeira dos |date=July 2010 |title=Com a cruz e sem a espada: aspectos da relação comercial entre Portugal e o reino do Benim ao longo dos séculos XV e XVI. |url=http://www.encontro2010.rj.anpuh.org/resources/anais/8/1276639759_ARQUIVO_Trabalho_benim.pdf |journal=Associação Nacional de História |volume=XIV}}</ref> plus de Portuguese insyd de late 15th century wey na dem incorporate de use of manillas (brass ingots insyd de form of bracelets, dem buy from de Portuguese) as a metal source insyd dema sculpture. De manillas dema brass, dem previously suggest dem cam from The Netherlands, dem now dey think say dem cam from de Rhineland region of Germany.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Skowronek |first1=Tobias B. |last2=Decorse |first2=Christopher R. |last3=Denk |first3=Rolf |last4=Birr |first4=Stefan D. |last5=Kingsley |first5=Sean |last6=Cook |first6=Gregory D. |last7=Benito Dominguez |first7=Ana María |last8=Clifford |first8=Brandon |last9=Barker |first9=Andrew |last10=Otero |first10=José Suárez |last11=Moreira |first11=Vicente Caramés |last12=Bode |first12=Michael |last13=Jansen |first13=Moritz |last14=Scholes |first14=Daniel |date=2023 |title=German brass for Benin Bronzes: Geochemical analysis insights into the early Atlantic trade |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=e0283415 |bibcode=2023PLoSO..1883415S |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0283415 |pmc=10075414 |pmid=37018227 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Alberge|first1=Dalya|date=5 April 2023|title=Benin bronzes made from metal mined in west Germany, study finds|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/apr/05/benin-bronzes-made-from-brass-mined-in-west-germany-study-finds|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408050236/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/apr/05/benin-bronzes-made-from-brass-mined-in-west-germany-study-finds|archive-date=8 April 2023|access-date=8 April 2023|website=The Guardian}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Famous Benin Bronzes from West Africa used metal sourced in Germany|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2368057-famous-benin-bronzes-from-west-africa-used-metal-sourced-in-germany/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407104457/https://www.newscientist.com/article/2368057-famous-benin-bronzes-from-west-africa-used-metal-sourced-in-germany/|archive-date=7 April 2023|access-date=8 April 2023|website=New Scientist}}</ref> == ''Pre-1897 Significance'' == De time before 1897, insyd de period of de kingdom of Benin, na ebe identified as de relative independence den power, dem sanso know as de Edo Empire. De pre-1897 significance of de Benin Kingdom, wey be governed by de obas, dem sanso include control over trade den territory den dey nurture de production of bronze den ivory art. Na de kingdom sanso encounter challenges from de British secof na dem dey try make dem gain access to Benin resources. == History == === Social context den creation === Plenty dramatic sculptures wey dey here na from thirteen century, and big part of di collection sef dey from fifteen and sixteen century. Dem believe say two 'Golden Ages' for Benin metal work happen during Esigie reign (around 1550) and Eresoyen reign (1735-1750), when demma workmanship work reach im highest quality.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Igbafe |first1=Phillip |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |url-status=live |journal=The Journal of African History |edition=3 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230301190351/https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |archive-date=1 March 2023 |access-date=24 October 2022}}</ref> {{Quote box|width=246px|bgcolor=#c6dbf7|align=right|quote=Di king palace wey dem dey call court, e be square, and e big pass di town of Haarlem. E dey surrounded by special wall like di one wey dey round di town. Di place dey divided into plenty fine palaces, houses, and apartments for di courtiers, plus fine long square galleries...dem dey sit on wooden pillars, from top to bottom dem don cover am with cast copper wey dem engrave pictures of dia war exploits and battles on top, and dem dey keep am very clean.|source=[[Olfert Dapper]], a Dutch writer, describing Benin in his book ''[[Description of Africa (Olfert Dapper)|Description of Africa]]'' (1668){{sfn|Willett|1985|p=102}}}}Kingdom of Benin wey dey for south Nigeria from fourteen to nineteen century, dey rich full with sculptures wey get plenty materials like iron, bronze, wood, ivory and terra cotta. De Oba palace for Benin City, where dem dey make royal ancestral altars, be also where dem dey do plenty court ceremonies plus Oba, him warriors, chiefs, titleholders, priests, palace society members, foreign merchants, mercenaries, and plenty other people dey participate. De palace, wey big well well with plenty buildings and courtyards, be where you go see hundreds of brass plaques wey get images wey show people and events wey dey happen for court.<ref name="Ezra">{{cite book|last=Ezra|first=Kate|url=https://archive.org/details/royalartofbeninp0000ezra|title=Royal art of Benin: the Perls collection in the Metropolitan Museum of Art|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|year=1992|isbn=978-0-8109-6414-3|location=New York|url-access=registration}}</ref> Bronze plus ivory things get plenty roles for dem rituals and court life for Benin Kingdom. Dem dey use am mainly to decorate di royal palace wey get plenty bronze works insyde.{{sfn|Pijoan|1966|p=12}} Dem dey hang am for di pillars of di palace with nails wey dem punch through.<ref name="Ezra2">{{cite book|last=Ezra|first=Kate|url=https://archive.org/details/royalartofbeninp0000ezra|title=Royal art of Benin: the Perls collection in the Metropolitan Museum of Art|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|year=1992|isbn=978-0-8109-6414-3|location=New York|url-access=registration}}</ref> As court art, di main goal na to show off di Oba, di divine king, and him imperial power history or to pay respect to di Iyoba of Benin (di queen mother).<ref name="Kings">{{cite journal |last=Plankensteiner |first=Barbara |date=22 December 2007 |title=Benin--Kings and Rituals: court arts from Nigeria. |url=http://www.thefreelibrary.com/_/print/PrintArticle.aspx?id=171138749 |journal=African Arts |publisher=University of California |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=74–87 |doi=10.1162/afar.2007.40.4.74 |issn=0001-9933 |s2cid=57571805 |url-access=subscription |access-date=20 July 2010}}</ref> Art for Benin Kingdom come in different styles, with bronze and brass reliefs and di heads of kings and queen mothers be di most popular ones. Bronze containers, bells, ornaments, jewelry, and ritual things too get fine qualities and originality, show di skills of di people wey make dem, but sometimes dem dey overshadow by di figurative works for bronze plus ivory carvings.<ref name="Kings2">{{cite journal |last=Plankensteiner |first=Barbara |date=22 December 2007 |title=Benin--Kings and Rituals: court arts from Nigeria. |url=http://www.thefreelibrary.com/_/print/PrintArticle.aspx?id=171138749 |journal=African Arts |publisher=University of California |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=74–87 |doi=10.1162/afar.2007.40.4.74 |issn=0001-9933 |s2cid=57571805 |url-access=subscription |access-date=20 July 2010}}</ref> == References == <references /> == Bibliography == * {{cite book |last1=Beretta |first1=Alcides |last2=Rodenas |first2=María Dolores |title=Historia del Arte: La escultura del África negra |year=1983 |publisher=Carroggio |location=Barcelona |isbn=978-84-7254-313-3 |volume=II|language=es|ref={{harvid|Beretta|1983}}}} * {{Cite book |last= Docherty |first= Paddy |year= 2021 |title= Blood and Bronze: The British Empire and the Sack of Benin |location= London |publisher= Hurst |isbn= 978-1-787-38456-9 }} * {{cite book |last=Dohlvik |first=Charlotta |title=Museums and Their Voices: A Contemporary Study of the Benin Bronzes |url=http://www.museion.gu.se/digitalAssets/805/805960_Dissertation_Charlotta_Dohlvik.pdf |date=May 2006 |publisher=International Museum Studies |access-date=18 October 2013 |archive-date=19 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019105247/http://www.museion.gu.se/digitalAssets/805/805960_Dissertation_Charlotta_Dohlvik.pdf |url-status=dead }} * {{cite book |editor-first= Lawrence |editor-last=Gowing|title=Historia Universal del Arte |year=1984 |publisher=SARPE |location=Madrid |isbn=978-84-7291-592-3 |volume=IV |language=es }} * {{cite book|last=Greenfield|first=Janette|title=The Return of Cultural Treasures|year=2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-80216-1}} * {{Cite book|last=Hicks|first=Dan|title=The Brutish Museums. The Benin Bronzes, Colonial Violence and Cultural Restitution|publisher=Pluto Press|year=2020|isbn=9780745341767}} * {{cite book|author=Huera, Carmen|title=Historia Universal del Arte: África, América y Asia, Arte Primitivo|publisher=Barcelona: Planeta.|year=1988|isbn=978-8432066900|ref={{harvid|Huera|1988}}}} * {{cite book|author=Leuzinger, Elsy|title=Arte del África negra|publisher=Ediciones Polígrafa|year=1976|isbn=978-84-343-0176-4|location=Barcelona|language=es|ref={{harvid|Leuzinger|1976}}}} * Lundén, Staffan (2016). ''[https://gupea.ub.gu.se/handle/2077/45847 Displaying Loot. The Benin objects and the British Museum]''. Gotark Series B, Göteborgs Universitet. * {{cite journal |last1=Nevadomsky |first1=Joseph |date=Spring 2004 |title=Art and Science in Benin Bronzes |journal=African Arts |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=1, 4, 86–88, 95–96 |doi=10.1162/afar.2004.37.1.1 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |jstor=3338001}} * {{cite journal |last=Nevadomsky |first=Joseph |year=2005 |title=Casting in Contemporary Benin Art |journal=African Arts |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=66–96 |doi=10.1162/afar.2005.38.2.66 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024}} * {{cite book|last=Phillips|first=Barnaby|title=LOOT: Britain and the Benin Bronzes|publisher=Oneworld Publications|year=2022|isbn=9780861543137|location=}} * {{cite book|last=Pijoan|title=Pijoan-Historia del Arte|publisher=Salvat Editores|year=1966|volume=I|location=Barcelona}} * {{cite book|last1=Titi|first1=Catharine|title=The Parthenon Marbles and International Law|date=2023|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-031-26356-9|edition=|location=|author-link=}} * {{cite book|last1=Willett|first1=Frank|title=African Art: An Introduction|date=1985|publisher=Thames and Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-20103-9|edition=Reprint.|location=New York}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PPxh5hcqB3wC|title=Benin Diplomatic Handbook|publisher=International Business Publications|year=2005|isbn=978-0-7397-5745-1}} == External links == {{Commons}} * [https://digitalbenin.org/ ''Digital Benin'' online platform] * [https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=610486&partId=1 Benin Plaques, Museum number Af1898,0115.23, Collection Online, British Museum] * [https://www.artoftheancestors.com/blog/royal-art-of-benin-perls-collection Royal Art of Benin: The Perls Collection in the Metropolitan Museum of Art (1992 catalog)] {{DEFAULTSORT:Benin Bronzes}} [[Category:African sculptures insyd de British Museum]] [[Category:Benin City]] [[Category:Bronze sculptures]] [[Category:Art den cultural repatriation]] [[Category:Nigeria–United Kingdom relations]] [[Category:Nigeria–United States relations]] [[Category:Germany–Nigeria relations]] [[Category:Benin Court Art]] [[Category:Edo people]] [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] jytn6n3rvdzemudrt5ccm92ew2gd6zq 69216 69215 2025-07-06T02:01:24Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Social context den creation */ 69216 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Benin_brass_plaque_03_(cropped).jpg|thumb|A Benin Bronze plaque on display insyd de [[British Museum]]]] [[File:Ancestral_shrine_Royal_Palace,_Benin_City,_1891_(cropped).jpg|thumb|Ancestral shrine insyd Royal Palace, Benin City, 1891: de earliest-known photograph of de Oba ein compound. Note 'bronze' heads at both ends of de shrine.]] De '''Benin Bronzes''' be a group of chaw thousand metal plaques den sculptures wey decorate de royal palace of de Kingdom of Benin, insyd wat now be Edo State, [[Nigeria]]. Na dem produce de metal plaques by de Guild of Benin Bronze Casters, now dey locate insyd Igun Street, dem sanso know as Igun-Eronmwon Quarters. Collectively, de objects form de best examples of Benin art wey na dem create from de fourteenth century by artists of de Edo people.<ref>{{Cite web|title=British Museum, "Curator's comments"|url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/E_Af1898-0115-23|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028163529/https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/E_Af1898-0115-23|archive-date=28 October 2021|access-date=17 May 2021}}</ref><ref>[https://archive.artic.edu/benin/artwork/190110 "Court Dwarfs | The Art Institute of Chicago"]. ''archive.artic.edu''. Retrieved 29 May 2025.</ref><ref name=":0">[[:en:Benin_Bronzes#CITEREFHuera1988|Huera 1988]], p. 36.</ref><ref name=":1">[[:en:Benin_Bronzes#CITEREFHuera1988|Huera 1988]], p. 37.</ref><ref name=":2">Meyerowitz, Eva L. R. (1943). "Ancient Bronzes in the Royal Palace at Benin". ''The Burlington Magazine''. '''83''' (487). The Burlington Magazine Publications, Ltd.: 248–253. [[JSTOR (identifier)|JSTOR]] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/868735 868735].</ref> De plaques, wich insyd de Edo language dem be called ''Ama'',<ref>{{Cite web|title=Digital Benin|url=https://digitalbenin.org/eyo-oto/1|access-date=2023-11-26|website=digitalbenin.org}}</ref> dey depict scenes anaa represent themes insyd de history of de kingdom.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hicks|first=Dan|title=The Brutish Museums: The Benin Bronzes, Colonial Violence and Cultural Restitution|publisher=Pluto Press|year=2020|location=London|pages=138–139}}</ref> Apart from de plaques, oda sculptures insyd brass anaa bronze dey include portrait heads, jewellery, den smaller pieces. [[File:Benin,_portoghese,_XVI-XVII_sec.JPG|thumb|A 16th-century Benin Bronze wey dey depict a Portuguese soldier, plus manillas insyd de background (Leipzig Museum of Ethnography)]] Na sam of de dramatic sculptures date to de fourteenth century, buh de bulk of de collection dey date to de fifteenth den sixteenth centuries. Dem dey believe dat na two "Golden Ages" insyd Benin metal workmanship occurred during de reigns of Esigie (fl. 1550) den of Eresoyen (1735–1750), wen na dema workmanship achieve ein highest quality.<ref>[[:en:Benin_Bronzes#CITEREFGreenfield2007|Greenfield 2007]], p. 122.</ref> Na British forces take chaw of de plaques den oda objects during de Benin Expedition of 1897 as na de British Empire ein control be consolidated insyd Southern Nigeria.<ref name="British">{{cite web|last=Lusher|first=Adam|date=24 June 2018|title=British museums may loan Nigeria bronzes that were taken from Nigeria by the British|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/benin-bronzes-british-museum-nigeria-stolen-imperialist-treasures-return-loan-elgin-marbles-looted-a8414661.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211030042646/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/benin-bronzes-british-museum-nigeria-stolen-imperialist-treasures-return-loan-elgin-marbles-looted-a8414661.html|archive-date=30 October 2021|access-date=14 December 2018|website=The Independent}}</ref> Na dis expedition be positioned by British sources as retaliation for a massacre of an unarmed party of British envoys den a large number of dema African bearers insyd January 1897. Sam contemporary scholars, such as Dan Hicks, dey argue dat na de expedition be part of a broader series of premeditated attacks, dem frame as retaliatory anaa punitive, make dem further European imperialistic den economic interests insyd Africa.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|last=Hicks|first=Dan|title=The Brutish Museums: the Benin Bronzes, colonial violence and cultural restitution|publisher=Pluto Press|year=2020|isbn=978-0-7453 4176-7|pages=3, 40–42, 67–69, 84}}</ref> Dey follow de expedition, na dem take two hundred pieces to de [[British Museum]] insyd London, while na dem take de rest to oda European museums.<ref>[[:en:Benin_Bronzes#CITEREFGreenfield2007|Greenfield 2007]], p. 124.</ref> De British Museum<ref>Lusher, Adam (24 June 2018). [https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/benin-bronzes-british-museum-nigeria-stolen-imperialist-treasures-return-loan-elgin-marbles-looted-a8414661.html "British museums may loan Nigeria bronzes that were taken from Nigeria by the British"]. ''The Independent''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20211030042646/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/benin-bronzes-british-museum-nigeria-stolen-imperialist-treasures-return-loan-elgin-marbles-looted-a8414661.html Archived] from the original on 30 October 2021. Retrieved 14 December 2018.</ref> hold large number plus oda notable collections insyd [[Germany]] den de [[United States]].<ref name="USA232">''Benin Diplomatic Handbook'', p. 23.</ref> Na late 19th-century scholars O. M. Dalton den Charles Hercules Read erroneously conclude dat na Benin knowledge of metallurgy cam from de Portuguese traders, wey na dem dey in contact plus Benin insyd de early modern period.<ref name=":2" /> Na de Kingdom of Benin be a hub of African civilization long before na Portuguese traders visit,<ref>{{cite web|title=Benin and the Portuguese|url=https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-africa/west-africa/nigeria/a/benin-and-the-portuguese|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180703051030/https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-africa/west-africa/nigeria/a/benin-and-the-portuguese|archive-date=3 July 2018|access-date=26 November 2018|website=Khan Academy}}</ref><ref name="BBCBen">{{cite news|title=The kingdom of Benin|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/topics/zpvckqt/articles/z3n7mp3|access-date=8 July 2021|archive-date=29 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210629031139/https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/topics/zpvckqt/articles/z3n7mp3|url-status=live}}</ref> wey na dem make bronzes insyd Benin prior to de arrival of de Portuguese.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mihăilescu|first1=Plutarh-Antoniu|title=Întâlnire cu arta africană|date=1968|publisher=Editura Meridiane|page=48|language=ro}}</ref> Dem dey think dem derive de Benin bronze sculpture tradition from anaa e be influenced by dat of de older nearby Kingdom of Ife insyd southwest Nigeria.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> While de collection be known as de Benin Bronzes,<ref>{{cite news|last1=Gregg|first1=Emma|title=The story of Nigeria's stolen Benin Bronzes, and the London museum returning them|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/article/nigeria-stolen-benin-bronzes-london-museum|work=National Geographic|date=2022-09-07}}</ref> like chaw West African "bronzes" na dem mostly make de pieces of brass of variable composition. Der sanso be pieces dem make of mixtures of bronze den brass, of wood, of ceramic, den of ivory, among oda materials.<ref>[[:en:Benin_Bronzes#CITEREFDohlvik2006|Dohlvik 2006]], p. 21.</ref> Na dem make de metal pieces by dem dey use lost-wax casting wey na dem be considered among de best African sculptures dem make dey use dis technique.<ref>[[:en:Benin_Bronzes#CITEREFNevadomsky2004|Nevadomsky 2004]], pp. 1, 4, 86–8, 95–6.</ref> Na Benin begin dey trade ivory, pepper, den [[Atlantic slave trade|slaves]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Santos |first1=Talita Teixeira dos |date=July 2010 |title=Com a cruz e sem a espada: aspectos da relação comercial entre Portugal e o reino do Benim ao longo dos séculos XV e XVI. |url=http://www.encontro2010.rj.anpuh.org/resources/anais/8/1276639759_ARQUIVO_Trabalho_benim.pdf |journal=Associação Nacional de História |volume=XIV}}</ref> plus de Portuguese insyd de late 15th century wey na dem incorporate de use of manillas (brass ingots insyd de form of bracelets, dem buy from de Portuguese) as a metal source insyd dema sculpture. De manillas dema brass, dem previously suggest dem cam from The Netherlands, dem now dey think say dem cam from de Rhineland region of Germany.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Skowronek |first1=Tobias B. |last2=Decorse |first2=Christopher R. |last3=Denk |first3=Rolf |last4=Birr |first4=Stefan D. |last5=Kingsley |first5=Sean |last6=Cook |first6=Gregory D. |last7=Benito Dominguez |first7=Ana María |last8=Clifford |first8=Brandon |last9=Barker |first9=Andrew |last10=Otero |first10=José Suárez |last11=Moreira |first11=Vicente Caramés |last12=Bode |first12=Michael |last13=Jansen |first13=Moritz |last14=Scholes |first14=Daniel |date=2023 |title=German brass for Benin Bronzes: Geochemical analysis insights into the early Atlantic trade |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=e0283415 |bibcode=2023PLoSO..1883415S |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0283415 |pmc=10075414 |pmid=37018227 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Alberge|first1=Dalya|date=5 April 2023|title=Benin bronzes made from metal mined in west Germany, study finds|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/apr/05/benin-bronzes-made-from-brass-mined-in-west-germany-study-finds|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408050236/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/apr/05/benin-bronzes-made-from-brass-mined-in-west-germany-study-finds|archive-date=8 April 2023|access-date=8 April 2023|website=The Guardian}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Famous Benin Bronzes from West Africa used metal sourced in Germany|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2368057-famous-benin-bronzes-from-west-africa-used-metal-sourced-in-germany/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407104457/https://www.newscientist.com/article/2368057-famous-benin-bronzes-from-west-africa-used-metal-sourced-in-germany/|archive-date=7 April 2023|access-date=8 April 2023|website=New Scientist}}</ref> == ''Pre-1897 Significance'' == De time before 1897, insyd de period of de kingdom of Benin, na ebe identified as de relative independence den power, dem sanso know as de Edo Empire. De pre-1897 significance of de Benin Kingdom, wey be governed by de obas, dem sanso include control over trade den territory den dey nurture de production of bronze den ivory art. Na de kingdom sanso encounter challenges from de British secof na dem dey try make dem gain access to Benin resources. == History == === Social context den creation === Plenty dramatic sculptures wey dey here na from thirteen century, and big part of di collection sef dey from fifteen and sixteen century. Dem believe say two 'Golden Ages' for Benin metal work happen during Esigie reign (around 1550) and Eresoyen reign (1735-1750), when demma workmanship work reach im highest quality.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Igbafe |first1=Phillip |date=1975 |title=Slavery and Emancipation in Benin, 1897-1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |url-status=live |journal=The Journal of African History |edition=3 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=409–429 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001433X |jstor=180474 |s2cid=161431780 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230301190351/https://www.jstor.org/stable/180474 |archive-date=1 March 2023 |access-date=24 October 2022}}</ref> {{Quote box|width=246px|bgcolor=#c6dbf7|align=right|quote=Di king palace wey dem dey call court, e be square, and e big pass di town of Haarlem. E dey surrounded by special wall like di one wey dey round di town. Di place dey divided into plenty fine palaces, houses, and apartments for di courtiers, plus fine long square galleries...dem dey sit on wooden pillars, from top to bottom dem don cover am with cast copper wey dem engrave pictures of dia war exploits and battles on top, and dem dey keep am very clean.|source=[[Olfert Dapper]], a Dutch writer, describing Benin in his book ''[[Description of Africa (Olfert Dapper)|Description of Africa]]'' (1668){{sfn|Willett|1985|p=102}}}}Kingdom of Benin wey dey for south Nigeria from fourteen to nineteen century, dey rich full with sculptures wey get plenty materials like iron, bronze, wood, ivory and terra cotta. De Oba palace for Benin City, where dem dey make royal ancestral altars, be also where dem dey do plenty court ceremonies plus Oba, him warriors, chiefs, titleholders, priests, palace society members, foreign merchants, mercenaries, and plenty other people dey participate. De palace, wey big well well with plenty buildings and courtyards, be where you go see hundreds of brass plaques wey get images wey show people and events wey dey happen for court.<ref name="Ezra">{{cite book|last=Ezra|first=Kate|url=https://archive.org/details/royalartofbeninp0000ezra|title=Royal art of Benin: the Perls collection in the Metropolitan Museum of Art|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|year=1992|isbn=978-0-8109-6414-3|location=New York|url-access=registration}}</ref> Bronze plus ivory things get plenty roles for dem rituals and court life for Benin Kingdom. Dem dey use am mainly to decorate di royal palace wey get plenty bronze works insyde.{{sfn|Pijoan|1966|p=12}} Dem dey hang am for di pillars of di palace with nails wey dem punch through.<ref name="Ezra2">{{cite book|last=Ezra|first=Kate|url=https://archive.org/details/royalartofbeninp0000ezra|title=Royal art of Benin: the Perls collection in the Metropolitan Museum of Art|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|year=1992|isbn=978-0-8109-6414-3|location=New York|url-access=registration}}</ref> As court art, di main goal na to show off di Oba, di divine king, and him imperial power history or to pay respect to di Iyoba of Benin (di queen mother).<ref name="Kings">{{cite journal |last=Plankensteiner |first=Barbara |date=22 December 2007 |title=Benin--Kings and Rituals: court arts from Nigeria. |url=http://www.thefreelibrary.com/_/print/PrintArticle.aspx?id=171138749 |journal=African Arts |publisher=University of California |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=74–87 |doi=10.1162/afar.2007.40.4.74 |issn=0001-9933 |s2cid=57571805 |url-access=subscription |access-date=20 July 2010}}</ref> Art for Benin Kingdom come in different styles, with bronze and brass reliefs and di heads of kings and queen mothers be di most popular ones. Bronze containers, bells, ornaments, jewelry, and ritual things too get fine qualities and originality, show di skills of di people wey make dem, but sometimes dem dey overshadow by di figurative works for bronze plus ivory carvings.<ref name="Kings2">{{cite journal |last=Plankensteiner |first=Barbara |date=22 December 2007 |title=Benin--Kings and Rituals: court arts from Nigeria. |url=http://www.thefreelibrary.com/_/print/PrintArticle.aspx?id=171138749 |journal=African Arts |publisher=University of California |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=74–87 |doi=10.1162/afar.2007.40.4.74 |issn=0001-9933 |s2cid=57571805 |url-access=subscription |access-date=20 July 2010}}</ref> For tropical Africa, dem don sabi the lost-wax casting tori early, as dem works wey come from Benin show. When king waka comot, him successor go fit dey order say make dem create bronze head of him former. About 170 of this sculptures dey, and di oldest ones fit waka back to di twelfth century.{{sfn|Gowing|1984|p=578}} Di Oba, or king, dey hold onto di materials wey hard to get like gold, elephant tusks, and bronze. Na dis kings make di fine Benin bronzes fit happen; so, di royal courts help plenty for di growth of sub-Saharan art.{{sfn|Leuzinger|1976|p=24}} For 1939, dem find some heads wey be like the ones wey dey Kingdom of Benin for Ife, wey be the holy city of the Yoruba, and dem date am back to fourteenth plus fifteenth century. Dis finding kpeme say e support wetin dem dey talk say na artists from Ife teach Benin how to do bronze metalwork.{{sfn|Huera|1988|p=36}} Dem start to recognize de old technology for Benin well well when dem fit date dem sculptures to that time.{{sfn|Huera|1988|p=37}} == References == <references /> == Bibliography == * {{cite book |last1=Beretta |first1=Alcides |last2=Rodenas |first2=María Dolores |title=Historia del Arte: La escultura del África negra |year=1983 |publisher=Carroggio |location=Barcelona |isbn=978-84-7254-313-3 |volume=II|language=es|ref={{harvid|Beretta|1983}}}} * {{Cite book |last= Docherty |first= Paddy |year= 2021 |title= Blood and Bronze: The British Empire and the Sack of Benin |location= London |publisher= Hurst |isbn= 978-1-787-38456-9 }} * {{cite book |last=Dohlvik |first=Charlotta |title=Museums and Their Voices: A Contemporary Study of the Benin Bronzes |url=http://www.museion.gu.se/digitalAssets/805/805960_Dissertation_Charlotta_Dohlvik.pdf |date=May 2006 |publisher=International Museum Studies |access-date=18 October 2013 |archive-date=19 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019105247/http://www.museion.gu.se/digitalAssets/805/805960_Dissertation_Charlotta_Dohlvik.pdf |url-status=dead }} * {{cite book |editor-first= Lawrence |editor-last=Gowing|title=Historia Universal del Arte |year=1984 |publisher=SARPE |location=Madrid |isbn=978-84-7291-592-3 |volume=IV |language=es }} * {{cite book|last=Greenfield|first=Janette|title=The Return of Cultural Treasures|year=2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-80216-1}} * {{Cite book|last=Hicks|first=Dan|title=The Brutish Museums. The Benin Bronzes, Colonial Violence and Cultural Restitution|publisher=Pluto Press|year=2020|isbn=9780745341767}} * {{cite book|author=Huera, Carmen|title=Historia Universal del Arte: África, América y Asia, Arte Primitivo|publisher=Barcelona: Planeta.|year=1988|isbn=978-8432066900|ref={{harvid|Huera|1988}}}} * {{cite book|author=Leuzinger, Elsy|title=Arte del África negra|publisher=Ediciones Polígrafa|year=1976|isbn=978-84-343-0176-4|location=Barcelona|language=es|ref={{harvid|Leuzinger|1976}}}} * Lundén, Staffan (2016). ''[https://gupea.ub.gu.se/handle/2077/45847 Displaying Loot. The Benin objects and the British Museum]''. Gotark Series B, Göteborgs Universitet. * {{cite journal |last1=Nevadomsky |first1=Joseph |date=Spring 2004 |title=Art and Science in Benin Bronzes |journal=African Arts |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=1, 4, 86–88, 95–96 |doi=10.1162/afar.2004.37.1.1 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |jstor=3338001}} * {{cite journal |last=Nevadomsky |first=Joseph |year=2005 |title=Casting in Contemporary Benin Art |journal=African Arts |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=66–96 |doi=10.1162/afar.2005.38.2.66 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024}} * {{cite book|last=Phillips|first=Barnaby|title=LOOT: Britain and the Benin Bronzes|publisher=Oneworld Publications|year=2022|isbn=9780861543137|location=}} * {{cite book|last=Pijoan|title=Pijoan-Historia del Arte|publisher=Salvat Editores|year=1966|volume=I|location=Barcelona}} * {{cite book|last1=Titi|first1=Catharine|title=The Parthenon Marbles and International Law|date=2023|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-031-26356-9|edition=|location=|author-link=}} * {{cite book|last1=Willett|first1=Frank|title=African Art: An Introduction|date=1985|publisher=Thames and Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-20103-9|edition=Reprint.|location=New York}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PPxh5hcqB3wC|title=Benin Diplomatic Handbook|publisher=International Business Publications|year=2005|isbn=978-0-7397-5745-1}} == External links == {{Commons}} * [https://digitalbenin.org/ ''Digital Benin'' online platform] * [https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=610486&partId=1 Benin Plaques, Museum number Af1898,0115.23, Collection Online, British Museum] * [https://www.artoftheancestors.com/blog/royal-art-of-benin-perls-collection Royal Art of Benin: The Perls Collection in the Metropolitan Museum of Art (1992 catalog)] {{DEFAULTSORT:Benin Bronzes}} [[Category:African sculptures insyd de British Museum]] [[Category:Benin City]] [[Category:Bronze sculptures]] [[Category:Art den cultural repatriation]] [[Category:Nigeria–United Kingdom relations]] [[Category:Nigeria–United States relations]] [[Category:Germany–Nigeria relations]] [[Category:Benin Court Art]] [[Category:Edo people]] [[Category:Webarchive template wayback links]] 6v3ymzcxndzwlmofttc2moniodnt8h0 Afro-Anguillians 0 17330 69135 63446 2025-07-05T23:22:13Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 69135 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Afro-Anguillians''' anaa '''Black Anguillians''' be Anguillian whose ancestry dey lie within de continent of [[Africa]], most notably [[West Africa]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TMZMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA213&dq=africana+encyclopedia+%22anguilla%22&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=africana%20encyclopedia%20%22anguilla%22&f=false|title=Africana}}</ref> As of 2013, people of solely African descent be de majority ethnic group insyd Anguilla, wey dey account for 90.1% of de country ein population. An additional 4.6% of de country be mulatto.<ref name=cia>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/anguilla/ |title=CIA - The World Factbook -- Cayman Islands |access-date=2013-06-09 |publisher=CIA }}</ref> == References == 0nyxf36s3oa5jdiw57afyjxkp5hap0u 69136 69135 2025-07-05T23:23:10Z DaSupremo 9 Add categories 69136 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Afro-Anguillians''' anaa '''Black Anguillians''' be Anguillian whose ancestry dey lie within de continent of [[Africa]], most notably [[West Africa]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TMZMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA213&dq=africana+encyclopedia+%22anguilla%22&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=africana%20encyclopedia%20%22anguilla%22&f=false|title=Africana}}</ref> As of 2013, people of solely African descent be de majority ethnic group insyd Anguilla, wey dey account for 90.1% of de country ein population. An additional 4.6% of de country be mulatto.<ref name=cia>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/anguilla/ |title=CIA - The World Factbook -- Cayman Islands |access-date=2013-06-09 |publisher=CIA }}</ref> == References == [[Category:African diaspora insyd de Caribbean|Anguilla]] [[Category:Anguillan people of African descent| ]] [[Category:Ethnic groups insyd Anguilla]] 8uaqwm50gv0bvech5rdb2ce1am1lajh Malabo Convention 0 17928 69042 66282 2025-07-05T18:09:14Z Abdul-Rauf Moshie 1580 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1297022769|Malabo Convention]]" 69042 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox treaty|name=The Malabo Convention|long_name=African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection|image=File:Flag of the African Union.svg|image_size=100|type=Regional|date_drafted=2011|date_signed={{Start date|2014}}|location_signed=Malabo|date_sealed=May, 2023|date_ratified=May, 2023|date_effective=June 2023|parties=* {{flag|Algeria}} * {{flag|Angola}} * {{flag|Benin}} * {{flag|Botswana}} * {{flag|Burkina Faso}} * {{flag|Burundi}} * {{flag|Cameroon}} * {{flag|Central African Republic}} * {{flag|Cape Verde}} * {{flag|Chad}} * {{flag|Côte d’Ivoire}} * {{flag|Comoros}} * {{flag|Congo}} * {{flag|Djibouti}} * {{flag|Democratic Republic of the Congo}} * {{flag|Egypt}} * {{flag|Equatorial Guinea}} * {{flag|Eritrea}} * {{flag|Ethiopia}} * {{flag|Gabon}} * {{flag|Gambia}} * {{flag|Ghana}} * {{flag|Guinea-Bissau}} * {{flag|Guinea}} * {{flag|Kenya}} * {{flag|Libya}} * {{flag|Lesotho}} * {{flag|Liberia}} * {{flag|Madagascar}} * {{flag|Mali}} * {{flag|Malawi}} * {{flag|Morocco}} * {{flag|Mozambique}} * {{flag|Mauritania}} * {{flag|Mauritius}} * {{flag|Namibia}} * {{flag|Nigeria}} * {{flag|Niger}} * {{flag|Rwanda}} * {{flag|South Africa}} * {{flag|Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic}} * {{flag|Senegal}} * {{flag|Seychelles}} * {{flag|Sierra Leone}} * {{flag|Somalia}} * {{flag|South Sudan}} * {{flag|Sao Tome and Principe}} * {{flag|Sudan}} * {{flag|Eswatini}} * {{flag|Tanzania}} * {{flag|Togo}} * {{flag|Tunisia}} * {{flag|Uganda}} * {{flag|Zambia}} * {{flag|Zimbabwe}}|ratifiers=* {{flag|Angola}} * {{flag|Cape Verde}} * {{flag|Congo}} * {{flag|Ghana}} * {{flag|Guinea}} * {{flag|Mauritania}} * {{flag|Mozambique}} * {{flag|Namibia}} * {{flag|Niger}} * {{flag|Rwanda}} * {{flag|Senegal}} * {{flag|Sao Tome and Principe}} * {{flag|Togo}} * {{flag|Zambia}} * {{flag|Côte d’Ivoire}} * {{flag|Mauritius}}|languages=* [[English language|English]] * [[Arabic language|Arabic]] * [[French language|French]] * [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]|footnotes=* Total countries: 55 – Signatures: 21, Ratifications: 16, Deposits: 16}} Di African Union Convention wey dem dey call Malabo Convention na 2014 law wey di African Union (AU) take adopt to tackle cybercrime and protect data for Africa.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=Sheik|first=Shamaa|date=2023-04-24|title=AU Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection {{!}} Malabo Convention|url=https://www.michalsons.com/blog/au-convention-on-cyber-security-and-personal-data-protection-malabo-convention/65281|access-date=2025-06-22|website=Michalsons|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> qw49eensy235vfmfle9kqgjhvp7q40k 69044 69042 2025-07-05T18:13:56Z Abdul-Rauf Moshie 1580 adey add content 69044 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox treaty|name=The Malabo Convention|long_name=African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection|image=File:Flag of the African Union.svg|image_size=100|type=Regional|date_drafted=2011|date_signed={{Start date|2014}}|location_signed=Malabo|date_sealed=May, 2023|date_ratified=May, 2023|date_effective=June 2023|parties=* {{flag|Algeria}} * {{flag|Angola}} * {{flag|Benin}} * {{flag|Botswana}} * {{flag|Burkina Faso}} * {{flag|Burundi}} * {{flag|Cameroon}} * {{flag|Central African Republic}} * {{flag|Cape Verde}} * {{flag|Chad}} * {{flag|Côte d’Ivoire}} * {{flag|Comoros}} * {{flag|Congo}} * {{flag|Djibouti}} * {{flag|Democratic Republic of the Congo}} * {{flag|Egypt}} * {{flag|Equatorial Guinea}} * {{flag|Eritrea}} * {{flag|Ethiopia}} * {{flag|Gabon}} * {{flag|Gambia}} * {{flag|Ghana}} * {{flag|Guinea-Bissau}} * {{flag|Guinea}} * {{flag|Kenya}} * {{flag|Libya}} * {{flag|Lesotho}} * {{flag|Liberia}} * {{flag|Madagascar}} * {{flag|Mali}} * {{flag|Malawi}} * {{flag|Morocco}} * {{flag|Mozambique}} * {{flag|Mauritania}} * {{flag|Mauritius}} * {{flag|Namibia}} * {{flag|Nigeria}} * {{flag|Niger}} * {{flag|Rwanda}} * {{flag|South Africa}} * {{flag|Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic}} * {{flag|Senegal}} * {{flag|Seychelles}} * {{flag|Sierra Leone}} * {{flag|Somalia}} * {{flag|South Sudan}} * {{flag|Sao Tome and Principe}} * {{flag|Sudan}} * {{flag|Eswatini}} * {{flag|Tanzania}} * {{flag|Togo}} * {{flag|Tunisia}} * {{flag|Uganda}} * {{flag|Zambia}} * {{flag|Zimbabwe}}|ratifiers=* {{flag|Angola}} * {{flag|Cape Verde}} * {{flag|Congo}} * {{flag|Ghana}} * {{flag|Guinea}} * {{flag|Mauritania}} * {{flag|Mozambique}} * {{flag|Namibia}} * {{flag|Niger}} * {{flag|Rwanda}} * {{flag|Senegal}} * {{flag|Sao Tome and Principe}} * {{flag|Togo}} * {{flag|Zambia}} * {{flag|Côte d’Ivoire}} * {{flag|Mauritius}}|languages=* [[English language|English]] * [[Arabic language|Arabic]] * [[French language|French]] * [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]|footnotes=* Total countries: 55 – Signatures: 21, Ratifications: 16, Deposits: 16}} Di African Union Convention wey dem dey call Malabo Convention na 2014 law wey di African Union (AU) take adopt to tackle cybercrime and protect data for Africa.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=Sheik|first=Shamaa|date=2023-04-24|title=AU Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection {{!}} Malabo Convention|url=https://www.michalsons.com/blog/au-convention-on-cyber-security-and-personal-data-protection-malabo-convention/65281|access-date=2025-06-22|website=Michalsons|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> == Di Content == Malabo Convention get three main chapters wey e divided into:<ref name=":22">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> ii2y3enxt6hphmmjam7c2l3g2u52pwd 69045 69044 2025-07-05T18:15:02Z Abdul-Rauf Moshie 1580 /* Di Content */ 69045 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox treaty|name=The Malabo Convention|long_name=African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection|image=File:Flag of the African Union.svg|image_size=100|type=Regional|date_drafted=2011|date_signed={{Start date|2014}}|location_signed=Malabo|date_sealed=May, 2023|date_ratified=May, 2023|date_effective=June 2023|parties=* {{flag|Algeria}} * {{flag|Angola}} * {{flag|Benin}} * {{flag|Botswana}} * {{flag|Burkina Faso}} * {{flag|Burundi}} * {{flag|Cameroon}} * {{flag|Central African Republic}} * {{flag|Cape Verde}} * {{flag|Chad}} * {{flag|Côte d’Ivoire}} * {{flag|Comoros}} * {{flag|Congo}} * {{flag|Djibouti}} * {{flag|Democratic Republic of the Congo}} * {{flag|Egypt}} * {{flag|Equatorial Guinea}} * {{flag|Eritrea}} * {{flag|Ethiopia}} * {{flag|Gabon}} * {{flag|Gambia}} * {{flag|Ghana}} * {{flag|Guinea-Bissau}} * {{flag|Guinea}} * {{flag|Kenya}} * {{flag|Libya}} * {{flag|Lesotho}} * {{flag|Liberia}} * {{flag|Madagascar}} * {{flag|Mali}} * {{flag|Malawi}} * {{flag|Morocco}} * {{flag|Mozambique}} * {{flag|Mauritania}} * {{flag|Mauritius}} * {{flag|Namibia}} * {{flag|Nigeria}} * {{flag|Niger}} * {{flag|Rwanda}} * {{flag|South Africa}} * {{flag|Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic}} * {{flag|Senegal}} * {{flag|Seychelles}} * {{flag|Sierra Leone}} * {{flag|Somalia}} * {{flag|South Sudan}} * {{flag|Sao Tome and Principe}} * {{flag|Sudan}} * {{flag|Eswatini}} * {{flag|Tanzania}} * {{flag|Togo}} * {{flag|Tunisia}} * {{flag|Uganda}} * {{flag|Zambia}} * {{flag|Zimbabwe}}|ratifiers=* {{flag|Angola}} * {{flag|Cape Verde}} * {{flag|Congo}} * {{flag|Ghana}} * {{flag|Guinea}} * {{flag|Mauritania}} * {{flag|Mozambique}} * {{flag|Namibia}} * {{flag|Niger}} * {{flag|Rwanda}} * {{flag|Senegal}} * {{flag|Sao Tome and Principe}} * {{flag|Togo}} * {{flag|Zambia}} * {{flag|Côte d’Ivoire}} * {{flag|Mauritius}}|languages=* [[English language|English]] * [[Arabic language|Arabic]] * [[French language|French]] * [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]|footnotes=* Total countries: 55 – Signatures: 21, Ratifications: 16, Deposits: 16}} Di African Union Convention wey dem dey call Malabo Convention na 2014 law wey di African Union (AU) take adopt to tackle cybercrime and protect data for Africa.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=Sheik|first=Shamaa|date=2023-04-24|title=AU Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection {{!}} Malabo Convention|url=https://www.michalsons.com/blog/au-convention-on-cyber-security-and-personal-data-protection-malabo-convention/65281|access-date=2025-06-22|website=Michalsons|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> == Di Content == Malabo Convention get three main chapters wey e divided into:<ref name=":22">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> === Electronic transactions matter dey here. === Di Convention talk say e get standard rules wey go cover plenty sides of e-commerce, like online ad, how dem go sabi electronic contracts, and how to secure electronic payment system.<ref name=":23">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> tu97sdnsfhp66i7jjxmr76updd3pqvm 69047 69045 2025-07-05T18:16:12Z Abdul-Rauf Moshie 1580 /* Di Content */ 69047 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox treaty|name=The Malabo Convention|long_name=African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection|image=File:Flag of the African Union.svg|image_size=100|type=Regional|date_drafted=2011|date_signed={{Start date|2014}}|location_signed=Malabo|date_sealed=May, 2023|date_ratified=May, 2023|date_effective=June 2023|parties=* {{flag|Algeria}} * {{flag|Angola}} * {{flag|Benin}} * {{flag|Botswana}} * {{flag|Burkina Faso}} * {{flag|Burundi}} * {{flag|Cameroon}} * {{flag|Central African Republic}} * {{flag|Cape Verde}} * {{flag|Chad}} * {{flag|Côte d’Ivoire}} * {{flag|Comoros}} * {{flag|Congo}} * {{flag|Djibouti}} * {{flag|Democratic Republic of the Congo}} * {{flag|Egypt}} * {{flag|Equatorial Guinea}} * {{flag|Eritrea}} * {{flag|Ethiopia}} * {{flag|Gabon}} * {{flag|Gambia}} * {{flag|Ghana}} * {{flag|Guinea-Bissau}} * {{flag|Guinea}} * {{flag|Kenya}} * {{flag|Libya}} * {{flag|Lesotho}} * {{flag|Liberia}} * {{flag|Madagascar}} * {{flag|Mali}} * {{flag|Malawi}} * {{flag|Morocco}} * {{flag|Mozambique}} * {{flag|Mauritania}} * {{flag|Mauritius}} * {{flag|Namibia}} * {{flag|Nigeria}} * {{flag|Niger}} * {{flag|Rwanda}} * {{flag|South Africa}} * {{flag|Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic}} * {{flag|Senegal}} * {{flag|Seychelles}} * {{flag|Sierra Leone}} * {{flag|Somalia}} * {{flag|South Sudan}} * {{flag|Sao Tome and Principe}} * {{flag|Sudan}} * {{flag|Eswatini}} * {{flag|Tanzania}} * {{flag|Togo}} * {{flag|Tunisia}} * {{flag|Uganda}} * {{flag|Zambia}} * {{flag|Zimbabwe}}|ratifiers=* {{flag|Angola}} * {{flag|Cape Verde}} * {{flag|Congo}} * {{flag|Ghana}} * {{flag|Guinea}} * {{flag|Mauritania}} * {{flag|Mozambique}} * {{flag|Namibia}} * {{flag|Niger}} * {{flag|Rwanda}} * {{flag|Senegal}} * {{flag|Sao Tome and Principe}} * {{flag|Togo}} * {{flag|Zambia}} * {{flag|Côte d’Ivoire}} * {{flag|Mauritius}}|languages=* [[English language|English]] * [[Arabic language|Arabic]] * [[French language|French]] * [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]|footnotes=* Total countries: 55 – Signatures: 21, Ratifications: 16, Deposits: 16}} Di African Union Convention wey dem dey call Malabo Convention na 2014 law wey di African Union (AU) take adopt to tackle cybercrime and protect data for Africa.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=Sheik|first=Shamaa|date=2023-04-24|title=AU Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection {{!}} Malabo Convention|url=https://www.michalsons.com/blog/au-convention-on-cyber-security-and-personal-data-protection-malabo-convention/65281|access-date=2025-06-22|website=Michalsons|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> == Di Content == Malabo Convention get three main chapters wey e divided into:<ref name=":22">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> === Electronic transactions matter dey here. === Di Convention talk say e get standard rules wey go cover plenty sides of e-commerce, like online ad, how dem go sabi electronic contracts, and how to secure electronic payment system.<ref name=":23">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> Data protection chapter Malabo Convention dey require all member states make dem build strong data protection framework. As Article 8(1) talk, e dey aim to make sure sey fundamental rights and public freedoms strong, especially the way we fit protect our physical data, and to punish any privacy wahala without touching the way information suppose flow free. — The African Union, African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection, Article 8(1) Also, Articles 11, 13, and 16 to 19 dey specify sey this framework go get national data protection authority (DPA) wey go dey operate independently and make sure sey personal data processing dey regulated well. The national framework go get essential data protection standards – like getting consent, making sure sey e dey legal, keeping confidentiality, and promoting transparency – while e dey guarantee people specific rights over their personal information. Cybersecurity and cybercrime chapter Malabo Convention dey criminalize various cyber activities and dey push each member state to create national cybersecurity policy and strategy. E dey call for formation of important institutions and mechanisms wey go fit detect and handle cybersecurity threats, uphold key cybersecurity values, and promote international cooperation. About cybercrime, the Convention dey urge states to set national laws and regulations wey go criminalize “acts wey fit affect the confidentiality, integrity, availability and survival of information and communication technology systems, the data dem dey process, and the network infrastructure wey dey under am. 7wkhxxmp24n4tg7770w0kpse0e8djhj 69049 69047 2025-07-05T18:17:13Z Abdul-Rauf Moshie 1580 /* Electronic transactions matter dey here. */ 69049 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox treaty|name=The Malabo Convention|long_name=African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection|image=File:Flag of the African Union.svg|image_size=100|type=Regional|date_drafted=2011|date_signed={{Start date|2014}}|location_signed=Malabo|date_sealed=May, 2023|date_ratified=May, 2023|date_effective=June 2023|parties=* {{flag|Algeria}} * {{flag|Angola}} * {{flag|Benin}} * {{flag|Botswana}} * {{flag|Burkina Faso}} * {{flag|Burundi}} * {{flag|Cameroon}} * {{flag|Central African Republic}} * {{flag|Cape Verde}} * {{flag|Chad}} * {{flag|Côte d’Ivoire}} * {{flag|Comoros}} * {{flag|Congo}} * {{flag|Djibouti}} * {{flag|Democratic Republic of the Congo}} * {{flag|Egypt}} * {{flag|Equatorial Guinea}} * {{flag|Eritrea}} * {{flag|Ethiopia}} * {{flag|Gabon}} * {{flag|Gambia}} * {{flag|Ghana}} * {{flag|Guinea-Bissau}} * {{flag|Guinea}} * {{flag|Kenya}} * {{flag|Libya}} * {{flag|Lesotho}} * {{flag|Liberia}} * {{flag|Madagascar}} * {{flag|Mali}} * {{flag|Malawi}} * {{flag|Morocco}} * {{flag|Mozambique}} * {{flag|Mauritania}} * {{flag|Mauritius}} * {{flag|Namibia}} * {{flag|Nigeria}} * {{flag|Niger}} * {{flag|Rwanda}} * {{flag|South Africa}} * {{flag|Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic}} * {{flag|Senegal}} * {{flag|Seychelles}} * {{flag|Sierra Leone}} * {{flag|Somalia}} * {{flag|South Sudan}} * {{flag|Sao Tome and Principe}} * {{flag|Sudan}} * {{flag|Eswatini}} * {{flag|Tanzania}} * {{flag|Togo}} * {{flag|Tunisia}} * {{flag|Uganda}} * {{flag|Zambia}} * {{flag|Zimbabwe}}|ratifiers=* {{flag|Angola}} * {{flag|Cape Verde}} * {{flag|Congo}} * {{flag|Ghana}} * {{flag|Guinea}} * {{flag|Mauritania}} * {{flag|Mozambique}} * {{flag|Namibia}} * {{flag|Niger}} * {{flag|Rwanda}} * {{flag|Senegal}} * {{flag|Sao Tome and Principe}} * {{flag|Togo}} * {{flag|Zambia}} * {{flag|Côte d’Ivoire}} * {{flag|Mauritius}}|languages=* [[English language|English]] * [[Arabic language|Arabic]] * [[French language|French]] * [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]|footnotes=* Total countries: 55 – Signatures: 21, Ratifications: 16, Deposits: 16}} Di African Union Convention wey dem dey call Malabo Convention na 2014 law wey di African Union (AU) take adopt to tackle cybercrime and protect data for Africa.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=Sheik|first=Shamaa|date=2023-04-24|title=AU Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection {{!}} Malabo Convention|url=https://www.michalsons.com/blog/au-convention-on-cyber-security-and-personal-data-protection-malabo-convention/65281|access-date=2025-06-22|website=Michalsons|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> == Di Content == Malabo Convention get three main chapters wey e divided into:<ref name=":22">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> === Electronic transactions matter dey here. === Di Convention talk say e get standard rules wey go cover plenty sides of e-commerce, like online ad, how dem go sabi electronic contracts, and how to secure electronic payment system.<ref name=":23">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> Data protection chapter Malabo Convention dey require all member states make dem build strong data protection framework. As Article 8(1) talk, e dey aim to make sure sey fundamental rights and public freedoms strong, especially the way we fit protect our physical data, and to punish any privacy wahala without touching the way information suppose flow free. — The African Union, African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection, Article 8(1) Also, Articles 11, 13, and 16 to 19 dey specify sey this framework go get national data protection authority (DPA) wey go dey operate independently and make sure sey personal data processing dey regulated well. The national framework go get essential data protection standards – like getting consent, making sure sey e dey legal, keeping confidentiality, and promoting transparency – while e dey guarantee people specific rights over their personal information. Cybersecurity and cybercrime chapter Malabo Convention dey criminalize various cyber activities and dey push each member state to create national cybersecurity policy and strategy. E dey call for formation of important institutions and mechanisms wey go fit detect and handle cybersecurity threats, uphold key cybersecurity values, and promote international cooperation. About cybercrime, the Convention dey urge states to set national laws and regulations wey go criminalize “acts wey fit affect the confidentiality, integrity, availability and survival of information and communication technology systems, the data dem dey process, and the network infrastructure wey dey under am. History Di African Union bring dis convention come for 2011, wey dem wan make cybersecurity strong for di whole continent. Di things dem dey target na to manage electronic transactions, protect personal info, boost cybersecurity, promote e-governance, and fight cybercrime. Di take wey dem go fit adopt di convention enter ground dey delay several times till 2014, when dem finally accept am for 23 Ordinary Session for Malabo wey dey Equatorial Guinea. But e no fit start work because Article 36 talk say di treaty go start when at least 15 member nations ratify am. Implementation For 8 June 2023, di Malabo Convention start to work 30 days after Mauritania sign as di 15th member nation wey fit complete di Article 36 of di Malabo Convention. For Sudan Sudan sign di Malabo Convention for 15 March 2023 when African Union Summit dey happen for Addis Ababa. Di convention sign by di Acting Minister of Telecommunications and Digital Transformation, Adel Hassan Mohamed Al-Hussein, while officials from AU Commission and Sudan regulatory body dey there. But di country never ratify di convention yet. 51lro0w0bzym2vorhvxpv9tu9ysoxwm 69050 69049 2025-07-05T18:18:35Z Abdul-Rauf Moshie 1580 /* Electronic transactions matter dey here. */ 69050 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox treaty|name=The Malabo Convention|long_name=African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection|image=File:Flag of the African Union.svg|image_size=100|type=Regional|date_drafted=2011|date_signed={{Start date|2014}}|location_signed=Malabo|date_sealed=May, 2023|date_ratified=May, 2023|date_effective=June 2023|parties=* {{flag|Algeria}} * {{flag|Angola}} * {{flag|Benin}} * {{flag|Botswana}} * {{flag|Burkina Faso}} * {{flag|Burundi}} * {{flag|Cameroon}} * {{flag|Central African Republic}} * {{flag|Cape Verde}} * {{flag|Chad}} * {{flag|Côte d’Ivoire}} * {{flag|Comoros}} * {{flag|Congo}} * {{flag|Djibouti}} * {{flag|Democratic Republic of the Congo}} * {{flag|Egypt}} * {{flag|Equatorial Guinea}} * {{flag|Eritrea}} * {{flag|Ethiopia}} * {{flag|Gabon}} * {{flag|Gambia}} * {{flag|Ghana}} * {{flag|Guinea-Bissau}} * {{flag|Guinea}} * {{flag|Kenya}} * {{flag|Libya}} * {{flag|Lesotho}} * {{flag|Liberia}} * {{flag|Madagascar}} * {{flag|Mali}} * {{flag|Malawi}} * {{flag|Morocco}} * {{flag|Mozambique}} * {{flag|Mauritania}} * {{flag|Mauritius}} * {{flag|Namibia}} * {{flag|Nigeria}} * {{flag|Niger}} * {{flag|Rwanda}} * {{flag|South Africa}} * {{flag|Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic}} * {{flag|Senegal}} * {{flag|Seychelles}} * {{flag|Sierra Leone}} * {{flag|Somalia}} * {{flag|South Sudan}} * {{flag|Sao Tome and Principe}} * {{flag|Sudan}} * {{flag|Eswatini}} * {{flag|Tanzania}} * {{flag|Togo}} * {{flag|Tunisia}} * {{flag|Uganda}} * {{flag|Zambia}} * {{flag|Zimbabwe}}|ratifiers=* {{flag|Angola}} * {{flag|Cape Verde}} * {{flag|Congo}} * {{flag|Ghana}} * {{flag|Guinea}} * {{flag|Mauritania}} * {{flag|Mozambique}} * {{flag|Namibia}} * {{flag|Niger}} * {{flag|Rwanda}} * {{flag|Senegal}} * {{flag|Sao Tome and Principe}} * {{flag|Togo}} * {{flag|Zambia}} * {{flag|Côte d’Ivoire}} * {{flag|Mauritius}}|languages=* [[English language|English]] * [[Arabic language|Arabic]] * [[French language|French]] * [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]|footnotes=* Total countries: 55 – Signatures: 21, Ratifications: 16, Deposits: 16}} Di African Union Convention wey dem dey call Malabo Convention na 2014 law wey di African Union (AU) take adopt to tackle cybercrime and protect data for Africa.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=Sheik|first=Shamaa|date=2023-04-24|title=AU Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection {{!}} Malabo Convention|url=https://www.michalsons.com/blog/au-convention-on-cyber-security-and-personal-data-protection-malabo-convention/65281|access-date=2025-06-22|website=Michalsons|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> == Di Content == Malabo Convention get three main chapters wey e divided into:<ref name=":22">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> === Electronic transactions matter dey here. === Di Convention talk say e get standard rules wey go cover plenty sides of e-commerce, like online ad, how dem go sabi electronic contracts, and how to secure electronic payment system.<ref name=":23">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> Data protection chapter Malabo Convention dey require all member states make dem build strong data protection framework. As Article 8(1) talk, e dey aim to make sure sey fundamental rights and public freedoms strong, especially the way we fit protect our physical data, and to punish any privacy wahala without touching the way information suppose flow free. — The African Union, African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection, Article 8(1) Also, Articles 11, 13, and 16 to 19 dey specify sey this framework go get national data protection authority (DPA) wey go dey operate independently and make sure sey personal data processing dey regulated well. The national framework go get essential data protection standards – like getting consent, making sure sey e dey legal, keeping confidentiality, and promoting transparency – while e dey guarantee people specific rights over their personal information. Cybersecurity and cybercrime chapter Malabo Convention dey criminalize various cyber activities and dey push each member state to create national cybersecurity policy and strategy. E dey call for formation of important institutions and mechanisms wey go fit detect and handle cybersecurity threats, uphold key cybersecurity values, and promote international cooperation. About cybercrime, the Convention dey urge states to set national laws and regulations wey go criminalize “acts wey fit affect the confidentiality, integrity, availability and survival of information and communication technology systems, the data dem dey process, and the network infrastructure wey dey under am. History Di African Union bring dis convention come for 2011, wey dem wan make cybersecurity strong for di whole continent. Di things dem dey target na to manage electronic transactions, protect personal info, boost cybersecurity, promote e-governance, and fight cybercrime. Di take wey dem go fit adopt di convention enter ground dey delay several times till 2014, when dem finally accept am for 23 Ordinary Session for Malabo wey dey Equatorial Guinea. But e no fit start work because Article 36 talk say di treaty go start when at least 15 member nations ratify am. Implementation For 8 June 2023, di Malabo Convention start to work 30 days after Mauritania sign as di 15th member nation wey fit complete di Article 36 of di Malabo Convention. For Sudan Sudan sign di Malabo Convention for 15 March 2023 when African Union Summit dey happen for Addis Ababa. Di convention sign by di Acting Minister of Telecommunications and Digital Transformation, Adel Hassan Mohamed Al-Hussein, while officials from AU Commission and Sudan regulatory body dey there. But di country never ratify di convention yet. == List of signatories and ratified countries == Below are the list of countries who have signed and ratified the African Union (AU) Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection<ref>{{Cite web|title=LIST OF COUNTRIES WHICH HAVE SIGNED, RATIFIED/ACCEDED TO THE AFRICAN UNION CONVENTION ON CYBER SECURITY AND PERSONAL DATA PROTECTION|url=https://au.int/sites/default/files/treaties/29560-sl-AFRICAN_UNION_CONVENTION_ON_CYBER_SECURITY_AND_PERSONAL_DATA_PROTECTION.pdf|website=African Union}}</ref> {| class="wikitable sortable" |+'''African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection – Status by Country (as of 8 July 2024)''' !No. !Country !Date of Signature !Date of Ratification/Accession !Date Deposited |- |1 |{{flag|Algeria}} |– |– |– |- |2 |{{flag|Angola}} |– |21/02/2020 |11/05/2020 |- |3 |{{flag|Benin}} |28/01/2015 |– |– |- |4 |{{flag|Botswana}} |– |– |– |- |5 |{{flag|Burkina Faso}} |– |– |– |- |6 |{{flag|Burundi}} |– |– |– |- |7 |{{flag|Cameroon}} |12/08/2021 |– |– |- |8 |{{flag|Central African Republic}} |– |– |– |- |9 |{{flag|Cape Verde}} |– |13/11/2020 |05/02/2022 |- |10 |{{flag|Chad}} |14/06/2015 |– |– |- |11 |{{flag|Côte d’Ivoire}} |– |08/03/2023 |03/04/2023 |- |12 |{{flag|Comoros}} |29/01/2018 |– |– |- |13 |{{flag|Republic of the Congo}} |12/06/2015 |24/09/2020 |23/10/2020 |- |14 |{{flag|Djibouti}} |12/05/2023 |– |– |- |15 |{{flag|Democratic Republic of the Congo}} |– |– |– |- |16 |{{flag|Egypt}} |– |– |– |- |17 |{{flag|Equatorial Guinea}} |– |– |– |- |18 |{{flag|Eritrea}} |– |– |– |- |19 |{{flag|Ethiopia}} |– |– |– |- |20 |{{flag|Gabon}} |– |– |– |- |21 |{{flag|Gambia}} |02/12/2022 |– |– |- |22 |{{flag|Ghana}} |04/07/2017 |13/05/2019 |03/06/2019 |- |23 |{{flag|Guinea-Bissau}} |31/01/2015 |– |– |- |24 |{{flag|Guinea}} |– |31/07/2018 |16/10/2018 |- |25 |{{flag|Kenya}} |– |– |– |- |26 |{{flag|Libya}} |– |– |– |- |27 |{{flag|Lesotho}} |30/11/2023 |– |– |- |28 |{{flag|Liberia}} |– |– |– |- |29 |{{flag|Madagascar}} |– |– |– |- |30 |{{flag|Mali}} |– |– |– |- |31 |{{flag|Malawi}} |– |– |– |- |32 |{{flag|Morocco}} |– |– |– |- |33 |{{flag|Mozambique}} |29/06/2018 |02/12/2019 |21/01/2020 |- |34 |{{flag|Mauritania}} |26/02/2015 |19/04/2023 |09/05/2023 |- |35 |{{flag|Mauritius}} |– |06/03/2018 |14/03/2018 |- |36 |{{flag|Namibia}} |– |25/01/2019 |01/02/2019 |- |37 |{{flag|Nigeria}} |23/01/2024 |– |– |- |38 |{{flag|Niger}} |– |22/02/2022 |16/03/2022 |- |39 |{{flag|Rwanda}} |16/04/2019 |14/11/2019 |21/11/2019 |- |40 |{{flag|South Africa}} |16/02/2023 |– |– |- |41 |{{flag|Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic}} |– |– |– |- |42 |{{flag|Senegal}} |– |03/08/2016 |16/08/2016 |- |43 |{{flag|Seychelles}} |– |– |– |- |44 |{{flag|Sierra Leone}} |29/01/2016 |– |– |- |45 |{{flag|Somalia}} |– |– |– |- |46 |{{flag|South Sudan}} |– |– |– |- |47 |{{flag|Sao Tome and Principe}} |29/01/2016 |25/09/2023 |15/02/2024 |- |48 |{{flag|Sudan}} |15/03/2023 |– |– |- |49 |{{flag|Eswatini}} |– |– |– |- |50 |{{flag|Tanzania}} |– |– |– |- |51 |{{flag|Togo}} |02/04/2019 |30/09/2021 |19/10/2021 |- |52 |{{flag|Tunisia}} |23/04/2019 |– |– |- |53 |{{flag|Uganda}} |– |– |– |- |54 |{{flag|Zambia}} |29/01/2016 |15/12/2020 |24/03/2021 |- |55 |{{flag|Zimbabwe}} |– |– |– |} sts0iaznjzf8rrtrc8sskmhhauojdoc 69051 69050 2025-07-05T18:19:28Z Abdul-Rauf Moshie 1580 /* Electronic transactions matter dey here. */ 69051 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox treaty|name=The Malabo Convention|long_name=African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection|image=File:Flag of the African Union.svg|image_size=100|type=Regional|date_drafted=2011|date_signed={{Start date|2014}}|location_signed=Malabo|date_sealed=May, 2023|date_ratified=May, 2023|date_effective=June 2023|parties=* {{flag|Algeria}} * {{flag|Angola}} * {{flag|Benin}} * {{flag|Botswana}} * {{flag|Burkina Faso}} * {{flag|Burundi}} * {{flag|Cameroon}} * {{flag|Central African Republic}} * {{flag|Cape Verde}} * {{flag|Chad}} * {{flag|Côte d’Ivoire}} * {{flag|Comoros}} * {{flag|Congo}} * {{flag|Djibouti}} * {{flag|Democratic Republic of the Congo}} * {{flag|Egypt}} * {{flag|Equatorial Guinea}} * {{flag|Eritrea}} * {{flag|Ethiopia}} * {{flag|Gabon}} * {{flag|Gambia}} * {{flag|Ghana}} * {{flag|Guinea-Bissau}} * {{flag|Guinea}} * {{flag|Kenya}} * {{flag|Libya}} * {{flag|Lesotho}} * {{flag|Liberia}} * {{flag|Madagascar}} * {{flag|Mali}} * {{flag|Malawi}} * {{flag|Morocco}} * {{flag|Mozambique}} * {{flag|Mauritania}} * {{flag|Mauritius}} * {{flag|Namibia}} * {{flag|Nigeria}} * {{flag|Niger}} * {{flag|Rwanda}} * {{flag|South Africa}} * {{flag|Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic}} * {{flag|Senegal}} * {{flag|Seychelles}} * {{flag|Sierra Leone}} * {{flag|Somalia}} * {{flag|South Sudan}} * {{flag|Sao Tome and Principe}} * {{flag|Sudan}} * {{flag|Eswatini}} * {{flag|Tanzania}} * {{flag|Togo}} * {{flag|Tunisia}} * {{flag|Uganda}} * {{flag|Zambia}} * {{flag|Zimbabwe}}|ratifiers=* {{flag|Angola}} * {{flag|Cape Verde}} * {{flag|Congo}} * {{flag|Ghana}} * {{flag|Guinea}} * {{flag|Mauritania}} * {{flag|Mozambique}} * {{flag|Namibia}} * {{flag|Niger}} * {{flag|Rwanda}} * {{flag|Senegal}} * {{flag|Sao Tome and Principe}} * {{flag|Togo}} * {{flag|Zambia}} * {{flag|Côte d’Ivoire}} * {{flag|Mauritius}}|languages=* [[English language|English]] * [[Arabic language|Arabic]] * [[French language|French]] * [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]|footnotes=* Total countries: 55 – Signatures: 21, Ratifications: 16, Deposits: 16}} Di African Union Convention wey dem dey call Malabo Convention na 2014 law wey di African Union (AU) take adopt to tackle cybercrime and protect data for Africa.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=Sheik|first=Shamaa|date=2023-04-24|title=AU Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection {{!}} Malabo Convention|url=https://www.michalsons.com/blog/au-convention-on-cyber-security-and-personal-data-protection-malabo-convention/65281|access-date=2025-06-22|website=Michalsons|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> == Di Content == Malabo Convention get three main chapters wey e divided into:<ref name=":22">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> === Electronic transactions matter dey here. === Di Convention talk say e get standard rules wey go cover plenty sides of e-commerce, like online ad, how dem go sabi electronic contracts, and how to secure electronic payment system.<ref name=":23">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> Data protection chapter Malabo Convention dey require all member states make dem build strong data protection framework. As Article 8(1) talk, e dey aim to make sure sey fundamental rights and public freedoms strong, especially the way we fit protect our physical data, and to punish any privacy wahala without touching the way information suppose flow free. — The African Union, African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection, Article 8(1) Also, Articles 11, 13, and 16 to 19 dey specify sey this framework go get national data protection authority (DPA) wey go dey operate independently and make sure sey personal data processing dey regulated well. The national framework go get essential data protection standards – like getting consent, making sure sey e dey legal, keeping confidentiality, and promoting transparency – while e dey guarantee people specific rights over their personal information. Cybersecurity and cybercrime chapter Malabo Convention dey criminalize various cyber activities and dey push each member state to create national cybersecurity policy and strategy. E dey call for formation of important institutions and mechanisms wey go fit detect and handle cybersecurity threats, uphold key cybersecurity values, and promote international cooperation. About cybercrime, the Convention dey urge states to set national laws and regulations wey go criminalize “acts wey fit affect the confidentiality, integrity, availability and survival of information and communication technology systems, the data dem dey process, and the network infrastructure wey dey under am. History Di African Union bring dis convention come for 2011, wey dem wan make cybersecurity strong for di whole continent. Di things dem dey target na to manage electronic transactions, protect personal info, boost cybersecurity, promote e-governance, and fight cybercrime. Di take wey dem go fit adopt di convention enter ground dey delay several times till 2014, when dem finally accept am for 23 Ordinary Session for Malabo wey dey Equatorial Guinea. But e no fit start work because Article 36 talk say di treaty go start when at least 15 member nations ratify am. Implementation For 8 June 2023, di Malabo Convention start to work 30 days after Mauritania sign as di 15th member nation wey fit complete di Article 36 of di Malabo Convention. For Sudan Sudan sign di Malabo Convention for 15 March 2023 when African Union Summit dey happen for Addis Ababa. Di convention sign by di Acting Minister of Telecommunications and Digital Transformation, Adel Hassan Mohamed Al-Hussein, while officials from AU Commission and Sudan regulatory body dey there. But di country never ratify di convention yet. == List of signatories and ratified countries == Dis na di list of countries wey don sign and ratify di African Union (AU) Convention for Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection.<ref>{{Cite web|title=LIST OF COUNTRIES WHICH HAVE SIGNED, RATIFIED/ACCEDED TO THE AFRICAN UNION CONVENTION ON CYBER SECURITY AND PERSONAL DATA PROTECTION|url=https://au.int/sites/default/files/treaties/29560-sl-AFRICAN_UNION_CONVENTION_ON_CYBER_SECURITY_AND_PERSONAL_DATA_PROTECTION.pdf|website=African Union}}</ref> {| class="wikitable sortable" |+'''African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection – Status by Country (as of 8 July 2024)''' !No. !Country !Date of Signature !Date of Ratification/Accession !Date Deposited |- |1 |{{flag|Algeria}} |– |– |– |- |2 |{{flag|Angola}} |– |21/02/2020 |11/05/2020 |- |3 |{{flag|Benin}} |28/01/2015 |– |– |- |4 |{{flag|Botswana}} |– |– |– |- |5 |{{flag|Burkina Faso}} |– |– |– |- |6 |{{flag|Burundi}} |– |– |– |- |7 |{{flag|Cameroon}} |12/08/2021 |– |– |- |8 |{{flag|Central African Republic}} |– |– |– |- |9 |{{flag|Cape Verde}} |– |13/11/2020 |05/02/2022 |- |10 |{{flag|Chad}} |14/06/2015 |– |– |- |11 |{{flag|Côte d’Ivoire}} |– |08/03/2023 |03/04/2023 |- |12 |{{flag|Comoros}} |29/01/2018 |– |– |- |13 |{{flag|Republic of the Congo}} |12/06/2015 |24/09/2020 |23/10/2020 |- |14 |{{flag|Djibouti}} |12/05/2023 |– |– |- |15 |{{flag|Democratic Republic of the Congo}} |– |– |– |- |16 |{{flag|Egypt}} |– |– |– |- |17 |{{flag|Equatorial Guinea}} |– |– |– |- |18 |{{flag|Eritrea}} |– |– |– |- |19 |{{flag|Ethiopia}} |– |– |– |- |20 |{{flag|Gabon}} |– |– |– |- |21 |{{flag|Gambia}} |02/12/2022 |– |– |- |22 |{{flag|Ghana}} |04/07/2017 |13/05/2019 |03/06/2019 |- |23 |{{flag|Guinea-Bissau}} |31/01/2015 |– |– |- |24 |{{flag|Guinea}} |– |31/07/2018 |16/10/2018 |- |25 |{{flag|Kenya}} |– |– |– |- |26 |{{flag|Libya}} |– |– |– |- |27 |{{flag|Lesotho}} |30/11/2023 |– |– |- |28 |{{flag|Liberia}} |– |– |– |- |29 |{{flag|Madagascar}} |– |– |– |- |30 |{{flag|Mali}} |– |– |– |- |31 |{{flag|Malawi}} |– |– |– |- |32 |{{flag|Morocco}} |– |– |– |- |33 |{{flag|Mozambique}} |29/06/2018 |02/12/2019 |21/01/2020 |- |34 |{{flag|Mauritania}} |26/02/2015 |19/04/2023 |09/05/2023 |- |35 |{{flag|Mauritius}} |– |06/03/2018 |14/03/2018 |- |36 |{{flag|Namibia}} |– |25/01/2019 |01/02/2019 |- |37 |{{flag|Nigeria}} |23/01/2024 |– |– |- |38 |{{flag|Niger}} |– |22/02/2022 |16/03/2022 |- |39 |{{flag|Rwanda}} |16/04/2019 |14/11/2019 |21/11/2019 |- |40 |{{flag|South Africa}} |16/02/2023 |– |– |- |41 |{{flag|Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic}} |– |– |– |- |42 |{{flag|Senegal}} |– |03/08/2016 |16/08/2016 |- |43 |{{flag|Seychelles}} |– |– |– |- |44 |{{flag|Sierra Leone}} |29/01/2016 |– |– |- |45 |{{flag|Somalia}} |– |– |– |- |46 |{{flag|South Sudan}} |– |– |– |- |47 |{{flag|Sao Tome and Principe}} |29/01/2016 |25/09/2023 |15/02/2024 |- |48 |{{flag|Sudan}} |15/03/2023 |– |– |- |49 |{{flag|Eswatini}} |– |– |– |- |50 |{{flag|Tanzania}} |– |– |– |- |51 |{{flag|Togo}} |02/04/2019 |30/09/2021 |19/10/2021 |- |52 |{{flag|Tunisia}} |23/04/2019 |– |– |- |53 |{{flag|Uganda}} |– |– |– |- |54 |{{flag|Zambia}} |29/01/2016 |15/12/2020 |24/03/2021 |- |55 |{{flag|Zimbabwe}} |– |– |– |} sw5kpfe2sxdheinx8her251cupshjjn 69053 69051 2025-07-05T18:21:49Z Abdul-Rauf Moshie 1580 /* Electronic transactions matter dey here. */ 69053 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox treaty|name=The Malabo Convention|long_name=African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection|image=File:Flag of the African Union.svg|image_size=100|type=Regional|date_drafted=2011|date_signed={{Start date|2014}}|location_signed=Malabo|date_sealed=May, 2023|date_ratified=May, 2023|date_effective=June 2023|parties=* {{flag|Algeria}} * {{flag|Angola}} * {{flag|Benin}} * {{flag|Botswana}} * {{flag|Burkina Faso}} * {{flag|Burundi}} * {{flag|Cameroon}} * {{flag|Central African Republic}} * {{flag|Cape Verde}} * {{flag|Chad}} * {{flag|Côte d’Ivoire}} * {{flag|Comoros}} * {{flag|Congo}} * {{flag|Djibouti}} * {{flag|Democratic Republic of the Congo}} * {{flag|Egypt}} * {{flag|Equatorial Guinea}} * {{flag|Eritrea}} * {{flag|Ethiopia}} * {{flag|Gabon}} * {{flag|Gambia}} * {{flag|Ghana}} * {{flag|Guinea-Bissau}} * {{flag|Guinea}} * {{flag|Kenya}} * {{flag|Libya}} * {{flag|Lesotho}} * {{flag|Liberia}} * {{flag|Madagascar}} * {{flag|Mali}} * {{flag|Malawi}} * {{flag|Morocco}} * {{flag|Mozambique}} * {{flag|Mauritania}} * {{flag|Mauritius}} * {{flag|Namibia}} * {{flag|Nigeria}} * {{flag|Niger}} * {{flag|Rwanda}} * {{flag|South Africa}} * {{flag|Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic}} * {{flag|Senegal}} * {{flag|Seychelles}} * {{flag|Sierra Leone}} * {{flag|Somalia}} * {{flag|South Sudan}} * {{flag|Sao Tome and Principe}} * {{flag|Sudan}} * {{flag|Eswatini}} * {{flag|Tanzania}} * {{flag|Togo}} * {{flag|Tunisia}} * {{flag|Uganda}} * {{flag|Zambia}} * {{flag|Zimbabwe}}|ratifiers=* {{flag|Angola}} * {{flag|Cape Verde}} * {{flag|Congo}} * {{flag|Ghana}} * {{flag|Guinea}} * {{flag|Mauritania}} * {{flag|Mozambique}} * {{flag|Namibia}} * {{flag|Niger}} * {{flag|Rwanda}} * {{flag|Senegal}} * {{flag|Sao Tome and Principe}} * {{flag|Togo}} * {{flag|Zambia}} * {{flag|Côte d’Ivoire}} * {{flag|Mauritius}}|languages=* [[English language|English]] * [[Arabic language|Arabic]] * [[French language|French]] * [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]|footnotes=* Total countries: 55 – Signatures: 21, Ratifications: 16, Deposits: 16}} Di African Union Convention wey dem dey call Malabo Convention na 2014 law wey di African Union (AU) take adopt to tackle cybercrime and protect data for Africa.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=Sheik|first=Shamaa|date=2023-04-24|title=AU Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection {{!}} Malabo Convention|url=https://www.michalsons.com/blog/au-convention-on-cyber-security-and-personal-data-protection-malabo-convention/65281|access-date=2025-06-22|website=Michalsons|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> == Di Content == Malabo Convention get three main chapters wey e divided into:<ref name=":22">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> === Electronic transactions matter dey here. === Di Convention talk say e get standard rules wey go cover plenty sides of e-commerce, like online ad, how dem go sabi electronic contracts, and how to secure electronic payment system.<ref name=":23">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> === Data protection chapter === Malabo Convention dey require all member states make dem build strong data protection framework. As Article 8(1) talk, e dey aim to make sure sey fundamental rights and public freedoms strong, especially the way we fit protect our physical data, and to punish any privacy wahala without touching the way information suppose flow free. — The African Union, African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection, Article 8(1) Also, Articles 11, 13, and 16 to 19 dey specify sey this framework go get national data protection authority (DPA) wey go dey operate independently and make sure sey personal data processing dey regulated well. The national framework go get essential data protection standards – like getting consent, making sure sey e dey legal, keeping confidentiality, and promoting transparency – while e dey guarantee people specific rights over their personal information.<ref name=":24">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> Cybersecurity and cybercrime chapter Malabo Convention dey criminalize various cyber activities and dey push each member state to create national cybersecurity policy and strategy. E dey call for formation of important institutions and mechanisms wey go fit detect and handle cybersecurity threats, uphold key cybersecurity values, and promote international cooperation. About cybercrime, the Convention dey urge states to set national laws and regulations wey go criminalize “acts wey fit affect the confidentiality, integrity, availability and survival of information and communication technology systems, the data dem dey process, and the network infrastructure wey dey under am. History Di African Union bring dis convention come for 2011, wey dem wan make cybersecurity strong for di whole continent. Di things dem dey target na to manage electronic transactions, protect personal info, boost cybersecurity, promote e-governance, and fight cybercrime. Di take wey dem go fit adopt di convention enter ground dey delay several times till 2014, when dem finally accept am for 23 Ordinary Session for Malabo wey dey Equatorial Guinea. But e no fit start work because Article 36 talk say di treaty go start when at least 15 member nations ratify am. Implementation For 8 June 2023, di Malabo Convention start to work 30 days after Mauritania sign as di 15th member nation wey fit complete di Article 36 of di Malabo Convention. For Sudan Sudan sign di Malabo Convention for 15 March 2023 when African Union Summit dey happen for Addis Ababa. Di convention sign by di Acting Minister of Telecommunications and Digital Transformation, Adel Hassan Mohamed Al-Hussein, while officials from AU Commission and Sudan regulatory body dey there. But di country never ratify di convention yet. == List of signatories and ratified countries == Dis na di list of countries wey don sign and ratify di African Union (AU) Convention for Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection.<ref>{{Cite web|title=LIST OF COUNTRIES WHICH HAVE SIGNED, RATIFIED/ACCEDED TO THE AFRICAN UNION CONVENTION ON CYBER SECURITY AND PERSONAL DATA PROTECTION|url=https://au.int/sites/default/files/treaties/29560-sl-AFRICAN_UNION_CONVENTION_ON_CYBER_SECURITY_AND_PERSONAL_DATA_PROTECTION.pdf|website=African Union}}</ref> {| class="wikitable sortable" |+'''African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection – Status by Country (as of 8 July 2024)''' !No. !Country !Date of Signature !Date of Ratification/Accession !Date Deposited |- |1 |{{flag|Algeria}} |– |– |– |- |2 |{{flag|Angola}} |– |21/02/2020 |11/05/2020 |- |3 |{{flag|Benin}} |28/01/2015 |– |– |- |4 |{{flag|Botswana}} |– |– |– |- |5 |{{flag|Burkina Faso}} |– |– |– |- |6 |{{flag|Burundi}} |– |– |– |- |7 |{{flag|Cameroon}} |12/08/2021 |– |– |- |8 |{{flag|Central African Republic}} |– |– |– |- |9 |{{flag|Cape Verde}} |– |13/11/2020 |05/02/2022 |- |10 |{{flag|Chad}} |14/06/2015 |– |– |- |11 |{{flag|Côte d’Ivoire}} |– |08/03/2023 |03/04/2023 |- |12 |{{flag|Comoros}} |29/01/2018 |– |– |- |13 |{{flag|Republic of the Congo}} |12/06/2015 |24/09/2020 |23/10/2020 |- |14 |{{flag|Djibouti}} |12/05/2023 |– |– |- |15 |{{flag|Democratic Republic of the Congo}} |– |– |– |- |16 |{{flag|Egypt}} |– |– |– |- |17 |{{flag|Equatorial Guinea}} |– |– |– |- |18 |{{flag|Eritrea}} |– |– |– |- |19 |{{flag|Ethiopia}} |– |– |– |- |20 |{{flag|Gabon}} |– |– |– |- |21 |{{flag|Gambia}} |02/12/2022 |– |– |- |22 |{{flag|Ghana}} |04/07/2017 |13/05/2019 |03/06/2019 |- |23 |{{flag|Guinea-Bissau}} |31/01/2015 |– |– |- |24 |{{flag|Guinea}} |– |31/07/2018 |16/10/2018 |- |25 |{{flag|Kenya}} |– |– |– |- |26 |{{flag|Libya}} |– |– |– |- |27 |{{flag|Lesotho}} |30/11/2023 |– |– |- |28 |{{flag|Liberia}} |– |– |– |- |29 |{{flag|Madagascar}} |– |– |– |- |30 |{{flag|Mali}} |– |– |– |- |31 |{{flag|Malawi}} |– |– |– |- |32 |{{flag|Morocco}} |– |– |– |- |33 |{{flag|Mozambique}} |29/06/2018 |02/12/2019 |21/01/2020 |- |34 |{{flag|Mauritania}} |26/02/2015 |19/04/2023 |09/05/2023 |- |35 |{{flag|Mauritius}} |– |06/03/2018 |14/03/2018 |- |36 |{{flag|Namibia}} |– |25/01/2019 |01/02/2019 |- |37 |{{flag|Nigeria}} |23/01/2024 |– |– |- |38 |{{flag|Niger}} |– |22/02/2022 |16/03/2022 |- |39 |{{flag|Rwanda}} |16/04/2019 |14/11/2019 |21/11/2019 |- |40 |{{flag|South Africa}} |16/02/2023 |– |– |- |41 |{{flag|Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic}} |– |– |– |- |42 |{{flag|Senegal}} |– |03/08/2016 |16/08/2016 |- |43 |{{flag|Seychelles}} |– |– |– |- |44 |{{flag|Sierra Leone}} |29/01/2016 |– |– |- |45 |{{flag|Somalia}} |– |– |– |- |46 |{{flag|South Sudan}} |– |– |– |- |47 |{{flag|Sao Tome and Principe}} |29/01/2016 |25/09/2023 |15/02/2024 |- |48 |{{flag|Sudan}} |15/03/2023 |– |– |- |49 |{{flag|Eswatini}} |– |– |– |- |50 |{{flag|Tanzania}} |– |– |– |- |51 |{{flag|Togo}} |02/04/2019 |30/09/2021 |19/10/2021 |- |52 |{{flag|Tunisia}} |23/04/2019 |– |– |- |53 |{{flag|Uganda}} |– |– |– |- |54 |{{flag|Zambia}} |29/01/2016 |15/12/2020 |24/03/2021 |- |55 |{{flag|Zimbabwe}} |– |– |– |} 2ele7s02wn6jhmpfhq1g1mhdrjct3g5 69055 69053 2025-07-05T18:22:22Z Abdul-Rauf Moshie 1580 /* Data protection chapter */ 69055 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox treaty|name=The Malabo Convention|long_name=African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection|image=File:Flag of the African Union.svg|image_size=100|type=Regional|date_drafted=2011|date_signed={{Start date|2014}}|location_signed=Malabo|date_sealed=May, 2023|date_ratified=May, 2023|date_effective=June 2023|parties=* {{flag|Algeria}} * {{flag|Angola}} * {{flag|Benin}} * {{flag|Botswana}} * {{flag|Burkina Faso}} * {{flag|Burundi}} * {{flag|Cameroon}} * {{flag|Central African Republic}} * {{flag|Cape Verde}} * {{flag|Chad}} * {{flag|Côte d’Ivoire}} * {{flag|Comoros}} * {{flag|Congo}} * {{flag|Djibouti}} * {{flag|Democratic Republic of the Congo}} * {{flag|Egypt}} * {{flag|Equatorial Guinea}} * {{flag|Eritrea}} * {{flag|Ethiopia}} * {{flag|Gabon}} * {{flag|Gambia}} * {{flag|Ghana}} * {{flag|Guinea-Bissau}} * {{flag|Guinea}} * {{flag|Kenya}} * {{flag|Libya}} * {{flag|Lesotho}} * {{flag|Liberia}} * {{flag|Madagascar}} * {{flag|Mali}} * {{flag|Malawi}} * {{flag|Morocco}} * {{flag|Mozambique}} * {{flag|Mauritania}} * {{flag|Mauritius}} * {{flag|Namibia}} * {{flag|Nigeria}} * {{flag|Niger}} * {{flag|Rwanda}} * {{flag|South Africa}} * {{flag|Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic}} * {{flag|Senegal}} * {{flag|Seychelles}} * {{flag|Sierra Leone}} * {{flag|Somalia}} * {{flag|South Sudan}} * {{flag|Sao Tome and Principe}} * {{flag|Sudan}} * {{flag|Eswatini}} * {{flag|Tanzania}} * {{flag|Togo}} * {{flag|Tunisia}} * {{flag|Uganda}} * {{flag|Zambia}} * {{flag|Zimbabwe}}|ratifiers=* {{flag|Angola}} * {{flag|Cape Verde}} * {{flag|Congo}} * {{flag|Ghana}} * {{flag|Guinea}} * {{flag|Mauritania}} * {{flag|Mozambique}} * {{flag|Namibia}} * {{flag|Niger}} * {{flag|Rwanda}} * {{flag|Senegal}} * {{flag|Sao Tome and Principe}} * {{flag|Togo}} * {{flag|Zambia}} * {{flag|Côte d’Ivoire}} * {{flag|Mauritius}}|languages=* [[English language|English]] * [[Arabic language|Arabic]] * [[French language|French]] * [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]|footnotes=* Total countries: 55 – Signatures: 21, Ratifications: 16, Deposits: 16}} Di African Union Convention wey dem dey call Malabo Convention na 2014 law wey di African Union (AU) take adopt to tackle cybercrime and protect data for Africa.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=Sheik|first=Shamaa|date=2023-04-24|title=AU Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection {{!}} Malabo Convention|url=https://www.michalsons.com/blog/au-convention-on-cyber-security-and-personal-data-protection-malabo-convention/65281|access-date=2025-06-22|website=Michalsons|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> == Di Content == Malabo Convention get three main chapters wey e divided into:<ref name=":22">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> === Electronic transactions matter dey here. === Di Convention talk say e get standard rules wey go cover plenty sides of e-commerce, like online ad, how dem go sabi electronic contracts, and how to secure electronic payment system.<ref name=":23">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> === Data protection chapter === Malabo Convention dey require all member states make dem build strong data protection framework. As Article 8(1) talk, e dey aim to make sure sey fundamental rights and public freedoms strong, especially the way we fit protect our physical data, and to punish any privacy wahala without touching the way information suppose flow free. — The African Union, African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection, Article 8(1) Also, Articles 11, 13, and 16 to 19 dey specify sey this framework go get national data protection authority (DPA) wey go dey operate independently and make sure sey personal data processing dey regulated well. The national framework go get essential data protection standards – like getting consent, making sure sey e dey legal, keeping confidentiality, and promoting transparency – while e dey guarantee people specific rights over their personal information.<ref name=":24">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> Cybersecurity and cybercrime chapter Malabo Convention dey criminalize various cyber activities and dey push each member state to create national cybersecurity policy and strategy. E dey call for formation of important institutions and mechanisms wey go fit detect and handle cybersecurity threats, uphold key cybersecurity values, and promote international cooperation. About cybercrime, the Convention dey urge states to set national laws and regulations wey go criminalize “acts wey fit affect the confidentiality, integrity, availability and survival of information and communication technology systems, the data dem dey process, and the network infrastructure wey dey under am..<ref name=":25">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite web|last=Sheik|first=Shamaa|date=2023-04-24|title=AU Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection {{!}} Malabo Convention|url=https://www.michalsons.com/blog/au-convention-on-cyber-security-and-personal-data-protection-malabo-convention/65281|access-date=2025-06-22|website=Michalsons|language=en-GB}}</ref> History Di African Union bring dis convention come for 2011, wey dem wan make cybersecurity strong for di whole continent. Di things dem dey target na to manage electronic transactions, protect personal info, boost cybersecurity, promote e-governance, and fight cybercrime. Di take wey dem go fit adopt di convention enter ground dey delay several times till 2014, when dem finally accept am for 23 Ordinary Session for Malabo wey dey Equatorial Guinea. But e no fit start work because Article 36 talk say di treaty go start when at least 15 member nations ratify am. Implementation For 8 June 2023, di Malabo Convention start to work 30 days after Mauritania sign as di 15th member nation wey fit complete di Article 36 of di Malabo Convention. For Sudan Sudan sign di Malabo Convention for 15 March 2023 when African Union Summit dey happen for Addis Ababa. Di convention sign by di Acting Minister of Telecommunications and Digital Transformation, Adel Hassan Mohamed Al-Hussein, while officials from AU Commission and Sudan regulatory body dey there. But di country never ratify di convention yet. == List of signatories and ratified countries == Dis na di list of countries wey don sign and ratify di African Union (AU) Convention for Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection.<ref>{{Cite web|title=LIST OF COUNTRIES WHICH HAVE SIGNED, RATIFIED/ACCEDED TO THE AFRICAN UNION CONVENTION ON CYBER SECURITY AND PERSONAL DATA PROTECTION|url=https://au.int/sites/default/files/treaties/29560-sl-AFRICAN_UNION_CONVENTION_ON_CYBER_SECURITY_AND_PERSONAL_DATA_PROTECTION.pdf|website=African Union}}</ref> {| class="wikitable sortable" |+'''African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection – Status by Country (as of 8 July 2024)''' !No. !Country !Date of Signature !Date of Ratification/Accession !Date Deposited |- |1 |{{flag|Algeria}} |– |– |– |- |2 |{{flag|Angola}} |– |21/02/2020 |11/05/2020 |- |3 |{{flag|Benin}} |28/01/2015 |– |– |- |4 |{{flag|Botswana}} |– |– |– |- |5 |{{flag|Burkina Faso}} |– |– |– |- |6 |{{flag|Burundi}} |– |– |– |- |7 |{{flag|Cameroon}} |12/08/2021 |– |– |- |8 |{{flag|Central African Republic}} |– |– |– |- |9 |{{flag|Cape Verde}} |– |13/11/2020 |05/02/2022 |- |10 |{{flag|Chad}} |14/06/2015 |– |– |- |11 |{{flag|Côte d’Ivoire}} |– |08/03/2023 |03/04/2023 |- |12 |{{flag|Comoros}} |29/01/2018 |– |– |- |13 |{{flag|Republic of the Congo}} |12/06/2015 |24/09/2020 |23/10/2020 |- |14 |{{flag|Djibouti}} |12/05/2023 |– |– |- |15 |{{flag|Democratic Republic of the Congo}} |– |– |– |- |16 |{{flag|Egypt}} |– |– |– |- |17 |{{flag|Equatorial Guinea}} |– |– |– |- |18 |{{flag|Eritrea}} |– |– |– |- |19 |{{flag|Ethiopia}} |– |– |– |- |20 |{{flag|Gabon}} |– |– |– |- |21 |{{flag|Gambia}} |02/12/2022 |– |– |- |22 |{{flag|Ghana}} |04/07/2017 |13/05/2019 |03/06/2019 |- |23 |{{flag|Guinea-Bissau}} |31/01/2015 |– |– |- |24 |{{flag|Guinea}} |– |31/07/2018 |16/10/2018 |- |25 |{{flag|Kenya}} |– |– |– |- |26 |{{flag|Libya}} |– |– |– |- |27 |{{flag|Lesotho}} |30/11/2023 |– |– |- |28 |{{flag|Liberia}} |– |– |– |- |29 |{{flag|Madagascar}} |– |– |– |- |30 |{{flag|Mali}} |– |– |– |- |31 |{{flag|Malawi}} |– |– |– |- |32 |{{flag|Morocco}} |– |– |– |- |33 |{{flag|Mozambique}} |29/06/2018 |02/12/2019 |21/01/2020 |- |34 |{{flag|Mauritania}} |26/02/2015 |19/04/2023 |09/05/2023 |- |35 |{{flag|Mauritius}} |– |06/03/2018 |14/03/2018 |- |36 |{{flag|Namibia}} |– |25/01/2019 |01/02/2019 |- |37 |{{flag|Nigeria}} |23/01/2024 |– |– |- |38 |{{flag|Niger}} |– |22/02/2022 |16/03/2022 |- |39 |{{flag|Rwanda}} |16/04/2019 |14/11/2019 |21/11/2019 |- |40 |{{flag|South Africa}} |16/02/2023 |– |– |- |41 |{{flag|Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic}} |– |– |– |- |42 |{{flag|Senegal}} |– |03/08/2016 |16/08/2016 |- |43 |{{flag|Seychelles}} |– |– |– |- |44 |{{flag|Sierra Leone}} |29/01/2016 |– |– |- |45 |{{flag|Somalia}} |– |– |– |- |46 |{{flag|South Sudan}} |– |– |– |- |47 |{{flag|Sao Tome and Principe}} |29/01/2016 |25/09/2023 |15/02/2024 |- |48 |{{flag|Sudan}} |15/03/2023 |– |– |- |49 |{{flag|Eswatini}} |– |– |– |- |50 |{{flag|Tanzania}} |– |– |– |- |51 |{{flag|Togo}} |02/04/2019 |30/09/2021 |19/10/2021 |- |52 |{{flag|Tunisia}} |23/04/2019 |– |– |- |53 |{{flag|Uganda}} |– |– |– |- |54 |{{flag|Zambia}} |29/01/2016 |15/12/2020 |24/03/2021 |- |55 |{{flag|Zimbabwe}} |– |– |– |} 9f1pxedpcw1dyijc9qbzsgv4z0pqp9j 69056 69055 2025-07-05T18:23:03Z Abdul-Rauf Moshie 1580 /* Data protection chapter */ 69056 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox treaty|name=The Malabo Convention|long_name=African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection|image=File:Flag of the African Union.svg|image_size=100|type=Regional|date_drafted=2011|date_signed={{Start date|2014}}|location_signed=Malabo|date_sealed=May, 2023|date_ratified=May, 2023|date_effective=June 2023|parties=* {{flag|Algeria}} * {{flag|Angola}} * {{flag|Benin}} * {{flag|Botswana}} * {{flag|Burkina Faso}} * {{flag|Burundi}} * {{flag|Cameroon}} * {{flag|Central African Republic}} * {{flag|Cape Verde}} * {{flag|Chad}} * {{flag|Côte d’Ivoire}} * {{flag|Comoros}} * {{flag|Congo}} * {{flag|Djibouti}} * {{flag|Democratic Republic of the Congo}} * {{flag|Egypt}} * {{flag|Equatorial Guinea}} * {{flag|Eritrea}} * {{flag|Ethiopia}} * {{flag|Gabon}} * {{flag|Gambia}} * {{flag|Ghana}} * {{flag|Guinea-Bissau}} * {{flag|Guinea}} * {{flag|Kenya}} * {{flag|Libya}} * {{flag|Lesotho}} * {{flag|Liberia}} * {{flag|Madagascar}} * {{flag|Mali}} * {{flag|Malawi}} * {{flag|Morocco}} * {{flag|Mozambique}} * {{flag|Mauritania}} * {{flag|Mauritius}} * {{flag|Namibia}} * {{flag|Nigeria}} * {{flag|Niger}} * {{flag|Rwanda}} * {{flag|South Africa}} * {{flag|Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic}} * {{flag|Senegal}} * {{flag|Seychelles}} * {{flag|Sierra Leone}} * {{flag|Somalia}} * {{flag|South Sudan}} * {{flag|Sao Tome and Principe}} * {{flag|Sudan}} * {{flag|Eswatini}} * {{flag|Tanzania}} * {{flag|Togo}} * {{flag|Tunisia}} * {{flag|Uganda}} * {{flag|Zambia}} * {{flag|Zimbabwe}}|ratifiers=* {{flag|Angola}} * {{flag|Cape Verde}} * {{flag|Congo}} * {{flag|Ghana}} * {{flag|Guinea}} * {{flag|Mauritania}} * {{flag|Mozambique}} * {{flag|Namibia}} * {{flag|Niger}} * {{flag|Rwanda}} * {{flag|Senegal}} * {{flag|Sao Tome and Principe}} * {{flag|Togo}} * {{flag|Zambia}} * {{flag|Côte d’Ivoire}} * {{flag|Mauritius}}|languages=* [[English language|English]] * [[Arabic language|Arabic]] * [[French language|French]] * [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]|footnotes=* Total countries: 55 – Signatures: 21, Ratifications: 16, Deposits: 16}} Di African Union Convention wey dem dey call Malabo Convention na 2014 law wey di African Union (AU) take adopt to tackle cybercrime and protect data for Africa.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=Sheik|first=Shamaa|date=2023-04-24|title=AU Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection {{!}} Malabo Convention|url=https://www.michalsons.com/blog/au-convention-on-cyber-security-and-personal-data-protection-malabo-convention/65281|access-date=2025-06-22|website=Michalsons|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> == Di Content == Malabo Convention get three main chapters wey e divided into:<ref name=":22">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> === Electronic transactions matter dey here. === Di Convention talk say e get standard rules wey go cover plenty sides of e-commerce, like online ad, how dem go sabi electronic contracts, and how to secure electronic payment system.<ref name=":23">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> === Data protection chapter === Malabo Convention dey require all member states make dem build strong data protection framework. As Article 8(1) talk, e dey aim to make sure sey fundamental rights and public freedoms strong, especially the way we fit protect our physical data, and to punish any privacy wahala without touching the way information suppose flow free. — The African Union, African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection, Article 8(1) Also, Articles 11, 13, and 16 to 19 dey specify sey this framework go get national data protection authority (DPA) wey go dey operate independently and make sure sey personal data processing dey regulated well. The national framework go get essential data protection standards – like getting consent, making sure sey e dey legal, keeping confidentiality, and promoting transparency – while e dey guarantee people specific rights over their personal information.<ref name=":24">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> Cybersecurity and cybercrime chapter Malabo Convention dey criminalize various cyber activities and dey push each member state to create national cybersecurity policy and strategy. E dey call for formation of important institutions and mechanisms wey go fit detect and handle cybersecurity threats, uphold key cybersecurity values, and promote international cooperation. About cybercrime, the Convention dey urge states to set national laws and regulations wey go criminalize “acts wey fit affect the confidentiality, integrity, availability and survival of information and communication technology systems, the data dem dey process, and the network infrastructure wey dey under am..<ref name=":25">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite web|last=Sheik|first=Shamaa|date=2023-04-24|title=AU Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection {{!}} Malabo Convention|url=https://www.michalsons.com/blog/au-convention-on-cyber-security-and-personal-data-protection-malabo-convention/65281|access-date=2025-06-22|website=Michalsons|language=en-GB}}</ref> History Di African Union bring dis convention come for 2011, wey dem wan make cybersecurity strong for di whole continent. Di things dem dey target na to manage electronic transactions, protect personal info, boost cybersecurity, promote e-governance, and fight cybercrime. Di take wey dem go fit adopt di convention enter ground dey delay several times till 2014, when dem finally accept am for 23 Ordinary Session for Malabo wey dey Equatorial Guinea. But e no fit start work because Article 36 talk say di treaty go start when at least 15 member nations ratify am..<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|date=2025-01-29|title=What is the Malabo convention? - Diplo|url=https://www.diplomacy.edu/blog/what-is-the-malabo-convention/|access-date=2025-06-22|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection {{!}} African Union|url=https://au.int/en/treaties/african-union-convention-cyber-security-and-personal-data-protection|access-date=2025-06-22|website=au.int}}</ref> Implementation For 8 June 2023, di Malabo Convention start to work 30 days after Mauritania sign as di 15th member nation wey fit complete di Article 36 of di Malabo Convention. For Sudan Sudan sign di Malabo Convention for 15 March 2023 when African Union Summit dey happen for Addis Ababa. Di convention sign by di Acting Minister of Telecommunications and Digital Transformation, Adel Hassan Mohamed Al-Hussein, while officials from AU Commission and Sudan regulatory body dey there. But di country never ratify di convention yet. == List of signatories and ratified countries == Dis na di list of countries wey don sign and ratify di African Union (AU) Convention for Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection.<ref>{{Cite web|title=LIST OF COUNTRIES WHICH HAVE SIGNED, RATIFIED/ACCEDED TO THE AFRICAN UNION CONVENTION ON CYBER SECURITY AND PERSONAL DATA PROTECTION|url=https://au.int/sites/default/files/treaties/29560-sl-AFRICAN_UNION_CONVENTION_ON_CYBER_SECURITY_AND_PERSONAL_DATA_PROTECTION.pdf|website=African Union}}</ref> {| class="wikitable sortable" |+'''African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection – Status by Country (as of 8 July 2024)''' !No. !Country !Date of Signature !Date of Ratification/Accession !Date Deposited |- |1 |{{flag|Algeria}} |– |– |– |- |2 |{{flag|Angola}} |– |21/02/2020 |11/05/2020 |- |3 |{{flag|Benin}} |28/01/2015 |– |– |- |4 |{{flag|Botswana}} |– |– |– |- |5 |{{flag|Burkina Faso}} |– |– |– |- |6 |{{flag|Burundi}} |– |– |– |- |7 |{{flag|Cameroon}} |12/08/2021 |– |– |- |8 |{{flag|Central African Republic}} |– |– |– |- |9 |{{flag|Cape Verde}} |– |13/11/2020 |05/02/2022 |- |10 |{{flag|Chad}} |14/06/2015 |– |– |- |11 |{{flag|Côte d’Ivoire}} |– |08/03/2023 |03/04/2023 |- |12 |{{flag|Comoros}} |29/01/2018 |– |– |- |13 |{{flag|Republic of the Congo}} |12/06/2015 |24/09/2020 |23/10/2020 |- |14 |{{flag|Djibouti}} |12/05/2023 |– |– |- |15 |{{flag|Democratic Republic of the Congo}} |– |– |– |- |16 |{{flag|Egypt}} |– |– |– |- |17 |{{flag|Equatorial Guinea}} |– |– |– |- |18 |{{flag|Eritrea}} |– |– |– |- |19 |{{flag|Ethiopia}} |– |– |– |- |20 |{{flag|Gabon}} |– |– |– |- |21 |{{flag|Gambia}} |02/12/2022 |– |– |- |22 |{{flag|Ghana}} |04/07/2017 |13/05/2019 |03/06/2019 |- |23 |{{flag|Guinea-Bissau}} |31/01/2015 |– |– |- |24 |{{flag|Guinea}} |– |31/07/2018 |16/10/2018 |- |25 |{{flag|Kenya}} |– |– |– |- |26 |{{flag|Libya}} |– |– |– |- |27 |{{flag|Lesotho}} |30/11/2023 |– |– |- |28 |{{flag|Liberia}} |– |– |– |- |29 |{{flag|Madagascar}} |– |– |– |- |30 |{{flag|Mali}} |– |– |– |- |31 |{{flag|Malawi}} |– |– |– |- |32 |{{flag|Morocco}} |– |– |– |- |33 |{{flag|Mozambique}} |29/06/2018 |02/12/2019 |21/01/2020 |- |34 |{{flag|Mauritania}} |26/02/2015 |19/04/2023 |09/05/2023 |- |35 |{{flag|Mauritius}} |– |06/03/2018 |14/03/2018 |- |36 |{{flag|Namibia}} |– |25/01/2019 |01/02/2019 |- |37 |{{flag|Nigeria}} |23/01/2024 |– |– |- |38 |{{flag|Niger}} |– |22/02/2022 |16/03/2022 |- |39 |{{flag|Rwanda}} |16/04/2019 |14/11/2019 |21/11/2019 |- |40 |{{flag|South Africa}} |16/02/2023 |– |– |- |41 |{{flag|Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic}} |– |– |– |- |42 |{{flag|Senegal}} |– |03/08/2016 |16/08/2016 |- |43 |{{flag|Seychelles}} |– |– |– |- |44 |{{flag|Sierra Leone}} |29/01/2016 |– |– |- |45 |{{flag|Somalia}} |– |– |– |- |46 |{{flag|South Sudan}} |– |– |– |- |47 |{{flag|Sao Tome and Principe}} |29/01/2016 |25/09/2023 |15/02/2024 |- |48 |{{flag|Sudan}} |15/03/2023 |– |– |- |49 |{{flag|Eswatini}} |– |– |– |- |50 |{{flag|Tanzania}} |– |– |– |- |51 |{{flag|Togo}} |02/04/2019 |30/09/2021 |19/10/2021 |- |52 |{{flag|Tunisia}} |23/04/2019 |– |– |- |53 |{{flag|Uganda}} |– |– |– |- |54 |{{flag|Zambia}} |29/01/2016 |15/12/2020 |24/03/2021 |- |55 |{{flag|Zimbabwe}} |– |– |– |} eouc4q32ig6yey0b7jqcjsblx34bh1x 69057 69056 2025-07-05T18:24:04Z Abdul-Rauf Moshie 1580 /* Data protection chapter */ 69057 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox treaty|name=The Malabo Convention|long_name=African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection|image=File:Flag of the African Union.svg|image_size=100|type=Regional|date_drafted=2011|date_signed={{Start date|2014}}|location_signed=Malabo|date_sealed=May, 2023|date_ratified=May, 2023|date_effective=June 2023|parties=* {{flag|Algeria}} * {{flag|Angola}} * {{flag|Benin}} * {{flag|Botswana}} * {{flag|Burkina Faso}} * {{flag|Burundi}} * {{flag|Cameroon}} * {{flag|Central African Republic}} * {{flag|Cape Verde}} * {{flag|Chad}} * {{flag|Côte d’Ivoire}} * {{flag|Comoros}} * {{flag|Congo}} * {{flag|Djibouti}} * {{flag|Democratic Republic of the Congo}} * {{flag|Egypt}} * {{flag|Equatorial Guinea}} * {{flag|Eritrea}} * {{flag|Ethiopia}} * {{flag|Gabon}} * {{flag|Gambia}} * {{flag|Ghana}} * {{flag|Guinea-Bissau}} * {{flag|Guinea}} * {{flag|Kenya}} * {{flag|Libya}} * {{flag|Lesotho}} * {{flag|Liberia}} * {{flag|Madagascar}} * {{flag|Mali}} * {{flag|Malawi}} * {{flag|Morocco}} * {{flag|Mozambique}} * {{flag|Mauritania}} * {{flag|Mauritius}} * {{flag|Namibia}} * {{flag|Nigeria}} * {{flag|Niger}} * {{flag|Rwanda}} * {{flag|South Africa}} * {{flag|Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic}} * {{flag|Senegal}} * {{flag|Seychelles}} * {{flag|Sierra Leone}} * {{flag|Somalia}} * {{flag|South Sudan}} * {{flag|Sao Tome and Principe}} * {{flag|Sudan}} * {{flag|Eswatini}} * {{flag|Tanzania}} * {{flag|Togo}} * {{flag|Tunisia}} * {{flag|Uganda}} * {{flag|Zambia}} * {{flag|Zimbabwe}}|ratifiers=* {{flag|Angola}} * {{flag|Cape Verde}} * {{flag|Congo}} * {{flag|Ghana}} * {{flag|Guinea}} * {{flag|Mauritania}} * {{flag|Mozambique}} * {{flag|Namibia}} * {{flag|Niger}} * {{flag|Rwanda}} * {{flag|Senegal}} * {{flag|Sao Tome and Principe}} * {{flag|Togo}} * {{flag|Zambia}} * {{flag|Côte d’Ivoire}} * {{flag|Mauritius}}|languages=* [[English language|English]] * [[Arabic language|Arabic]] * [[French language|French]] * [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]|footnotes=* Total countries: 55 – Signatures: 21, Ratifications: 16, Deposits: 16}} Di African Union Convention wey dem dey call Malabo Convention na 2014 law wey di African Union (AU) take adopt to tackle cybercrime and protect data for Africa.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=Sheik|first=Shamaa|date=2023-04-24|title=AU Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection {{!}} Malabo Convention|url=https://www.michalsons.com/blog/au-convention-on-cyber-security-and-personal-data-protection-malabo-convention/65281|access-date=2025-06-22|website=Michalsons|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> == Di Content == Malabo Convention get three main chapters wey e divided into:<ref name=":22">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> === Electronic transactions matter dey here. === Di Convention talk say e get standard rules wey go cover plenty sides of e-commerce, like online ad, how dem go sabi electronic contracts, and how to secure electronic payment system.<ref name=":23">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> === Data protection chapter === Malabo Convention dey require all member states make dem build strong data protection framework. As Article 8(1) talk, e dey aim to make sure sey fundamental rights and public freedoms strong, especially the way we fit protect our physical data, and to punish any privacy wahala without touching the way information suppose flow free. — The African Union, African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection, Article 8(1) Also, Articles 11, 13, and 16 to 19 dey specify sey this framework go get national data protection authority (DPA) wey go dey operate independently and make sure sey personal data processing dey regulated well. The national framework go get essential data protection standards – like getting consent, making sure sey e dey legal, keeping confidentiality, and promoting transparency – while e dey guarantee people specific rights over their personal information.<ref name=":24">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> Cybersecurity and cybercrime chapter Malabo Convention dey criminalize various cyber activities and dey push each member state to create national cybersecurity policy and strategy. E dey call for formation of important institutions and mechanisms wey go fit detect and handle cybersecurity threats, uphold key cybersecurity values, and promote international cooperation. About cybercrime, the Convention dey urge states to set national laws and regulations wey go criminalize “acts wey fit affect the confidentiality, integrity, availability and survival of information and communication technology systems, the data dem dey process, and the network infrastructure wey dey under am..<ref name=":25">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite web|last=Sheik|first=Shamaa|date=2023-04-24|title=AU Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection {{!}} Malabo Convention|url=https://www.michalsons.com/blog/au-convention-on-cyber-security-and-personal-data-protection-malabo-convention/65281|access-date=2025-06-22|website=Michalsons|language=en-GB}}</ref> == History == Di African Union bring dis convention come for 2011, wey dem wan make cybersecurity strong for di whole continent. Di things dem dey target na to manage electronic transactions, protect personal info, boost cybersecurity, promote e-governance, and fight cybercrime<ref>{{Cite web|title=CCDCOE|url=https://ccdcoe.org/organisations/au/|access-date=2025-06-22|website=ccdcoe.org}}</ref>. Di take wey dem go fit adopt di convention enter ground dey delay several times till 2014, when dem finally accept am for 23 Ordinary Session for Malabo wey dey Equatorial Guinea. But e no fit start work because Article 36 talk say di treaty go start when at least 15 member nations ratify am..<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|date=2025-01-29|title=What is the Malabo convention? - Diplo|url=https://www.diplomacy.edu/blog/what-is-the-malabo-convention/|access-date=2025-06-22|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection {{!}} African Union|url=https://au.int/en/treaties/african-union-convention-cyber-security-and-personal-data-protection|access-date=2025-06-22|website=au.int}}</ref> Implementation For 8 June 2023, di Malabo Convention start to work 30 days after Mauritania sign as di 15th member nation wey fit complete di Article 36 of di Malabo Convention. For Sudan Sudan sign di Malabo Convention for 15 March 2023 when African Union Summit dey happen for Addis Ababa. Di convention sign by di Acting Minister of Telecommunications and Digital Transformation, Adel Hassan Mohamed Al-Hussein, while officials from AU Commission and Sudan regulatory body dey there. But di country never ratify di convention yet. == List of signatories and ratified countries == Dis na di list of countries wey don sign and ratify di African Union (AU) Convention for Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection.<ref>{{Cite web|title=LIST OF COUNTRIES WHICH HAVE SIGNED, RATIFIED/ACCEDED TO THE AFRICAN UNION CONVENTION ON CYBER SECURITY AND PERSONAL DATA PROTECTION|url=https://au.int/sites/default/files/treaties/29560-sl-AFRICAN_UNION_CONVENTION_ON_CYBER_SECURITY_AND_PERSONAL_DATA_PROTECTION.pdf|website=African Union}}</ref> {| class="wikitable sortable" |+'''African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection – Status by Country (as of 8 July 2024)''' !No. !Country !Date of Signature !Date of Ratification/Accession !Date Deposited |- |1 |{{flag|Algeria}} |– |– |– |- |2 |{{flag|Angola}} |– |21/02/2020 |11/05/2020 |- |3 |{{flag|Benin}} |28/01/2015 |– |– |- |4 |{{flag|Botswana}} |– |– |– |- |5 |{{flag|Burkina Faso}} |– |– |– |- |6 |{{flag|Burundi}} |– |– |– |- |7 |{{flag|Cameroon}} |12/08/2021 |– |– |- |8 |{{flag|Central African Republic}} |– |– |– |- |9 |{{flag|Cape Verde}} |– |13/11/2020 |05/02/2022 |- |10 |{{flag|Chad}} |14/06/2015 |– |– |- |11 |{{flag|Côte d’Ivoire}} |– |08/03/2023 |03/04/2023 |- |12 |{{flag|Comoros}} |29/01/2018 |– |– |- |13 |{{flag|Republic of the Congo}} |12/06/2015 |24/09/2020 |23/10/2020 |- |14 |{{flag|Djibouti}} |12/05/2023 |– |– |- |15 |{{flag|Democratic Republic of the Congo}} |– |– |– |- |16 |{{flag|Egypt}} |– |– |– |- |17 |{{flag|Equatorial Guinea}} |– |– |– |- |18 |{{flag|Eritrea}} |– |– |– |- |19 |{{flag|Ethiopia}} |– |– |– |- |20 |{{flag|Gabon}} |– |– |– |- |21 |{{flag|Gambia}} |02/12/2022 |– |– |- |22 |{{flag|Ghana}} |04/07/2017 |13/05/2019 |03/06/2019 |- |23 |{{flag|Guinea-Bissau}} |31/01/2015 |– |– |- |24 |{{flag|Guinea}} |– |31/07/2018 |16/10/2018 |- |25 |{{flag|Kenya}} |– |– |– |- |26 |{{flag|Libya}} |– |– |– |- |27 |{{flag|Lesotho}} |30/11/2023 |– |– |- |28 |{{flag|Liberia}} |– |– |– |- |29 |{{flag|Madagascar}} |– |– |– |- |30 |{{flag|Mali}} |– |– |– |- |31 |{{flag|Malawi}} |– |– |– |- |32 |{{flag|Morocco}} |– |– |– |- |33 |{{flag|Mozambique}} |29/06/2018 |02/12/2019 |21/01/2020 |- |34 |{{flag|Mauritania}} |26/02/2015 |19/04/2023 |09/05/2023 |- |35 |{{flag|Mauritius}} |– |06/03/2018 |14/03/2018 |- |36 |{{flag|Namibia}} |– |25/01/2019 |01/02/2019 |- |37 |{{flag|Nigeria}} |23/01/2024 |– |– |- |38 |{{flag|Niger}} |– |22/02/2022 |16/03/2022 |- |39 |{{flag|Rwanda}} |16/04/2019 |14/11/2019 |21/11/2019 |- |40 |{{flag|South Africa}} |16/02/2023 |– |– |- |41 |{{flag|Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic}} |– |– |– |- |42 |{{flag|Senegal}} |– |03/08/2016 |16/08/2016 |- |43 |{{flag|Seychelles}} |– |– |– |- |44 |{{flag|Sierra Leone}} |29/01/2016 |– |– |- |45 |{{flag|Somalia}} |– |– |– |- |46 |{{flag|South Sudan}} |– |– |– |- |47 |{{flag|Sao Tome and Principe}} |29/01/2016 |25/09/2023 |15/02/2024 |- |48 |{{flag|Sudan}} |15/03/2023 |– |– |- |49 |{{flag|Eswatini}} |– |– |– |- |50 |{{flag|Tanzania}} |– |– |– |- |51 |{{flag|Togo}} |02/04/2019 |30/09/2021 |19/10/2021 |- |52 |{{flag|Tunisia}} |23/04/2019 |– |– |- |53 |{{flag|Uganda}} |– |– |– |- |54 |{{flag|Zambia}} |29/01/2016 |15/12/2020 |24/03/2021 |- |55 |{{flag|Zimbabwe}} |– |– |– |} 0zkamjowcoks2k420rx0gfm5ib2yezx 69059 69057 2025-07-05T18:26:32Z Abdul-Rauf Moshie 1580 /* History */ 69059 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox treaty|name=The Malabo Convention|long_name=African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection|image=File:Flag of the African Union.svg|image_size=100|type=Regional|date_drafted=2011|date_signed={{Start date|2014}}|location_signed=Malabo|date_sealed=May, 2023|date_ratified=May, 2023|date_effective=June 2023|parties=* {{flag|Algeria}} * {{flag|Angola}} * {{flag|Benin}} * {{flag|Botswana}} * {{flag|Burkina Faso}} * {{flag|Burundi}} * {{flag|Cameroon}} * {{flag|Central African Republic}} * {{flag|Cape Verde}} * {{flag|Chad}} * {{flag|Côte d’Ivoire}} * {{flag|Comoros}} * {{flag|Congo}} * {{flag|Djibouti}} * {{flag|Democratic Republic of the Congo}} * {{flag|Egypt}} * {{flag|Equatorial Guinea}} * {{flag|Eritrea}} * {{flag|Ethiopia}} * {{flag|Gabon}} * {{flag|Gambia}} * {{flag|Ghana}} * {{flag|Guinea-Bissau}} * {{flag|Guinea}} * {{flag|Kenya}} * {{flag|Libya}} * {{flag|Lesotho}} * {{flag|Liberia}} * {{flag|Madagascar}} * {{flag|Mali}} * {{flag|Malawi}} * {{flag|Morocco}} * {{flag|Mozambique}} * {{flag|Mauritania}} * {{flag|Mauritius}} * {{flag|Namibia}} * {{flag|Nigeria}} * {{flag|Niger}} * {{flag|Rwanda}} * {{flag|South Africa}} * {{flag|Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic}} * {{flag|Senegal}} * {{flag|Seychelles}} * {{flag|Sierra Leone}} * {{flag|Somalia}} * {{flag|South Sudan}} * {{flag|Sao Tome and Principe}} * {{flag|Sudan}} * {{flag|Eswatini}} * {{flag|Tanzania}} * {{flag|Togo}} * {{flag|Tunisia}} * {{flag|Uganda}} * {{flag|Zambia}} * {{flag|Zimbabwe}}|ratifiers=* {{flag|Angola}} * {{flag|Cape Verde}} * {{flag|Congo}} * {{flag|Ghana}} * {{flag|Guinea}} * {{flag|Mauritania}} * {{flag|Mozambique}} * {{flag|Namibia}} * {{flag|Niger}} * {{flag|Rwanda}} * {{flag|Senegal}} * {{flag|Sao Tome and Principe}} * {{flag|Togo}} * {{flag|Zambia}} * {{flag|Côte d’Ivoire}} * {{flag|Mauritius}}|languages=* [[English language|English]] * [[Arabic language|Arabic]] * [[French language|French]] * [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]|footnotes=* Total countries: 55 – Signatures: 21, Ratifications: 16, Deposits: 16}} Di African Union Convention wey dem dey call Malabo Convention na 2014 law wey di African Union (AU) take adopt to tackle cybercrime and protect data for Africa.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=Sheik|first=Shamaa|date=2023-04-24|title=AU Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection {{!}} Malabo Convention|url=https://www.michalsons.com/blog/au-convention-on-cyber-security-and-personal-data-protection-malabo-convention/65281|access-date=2025-06-22|website=Michalsons|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> == Di Content == Malabo Convention get three main chapters wey e divided into:<ref name=":22">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> === Electronic transactions matter dey here. === Di Convention talk say e get standard rules wey go cover plenty sides of e-commerce, like online ad, how dem go sabi electronic contracts, and how to secure electronic payment system.<ref name=":23">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> === Data protection chapter === Malabo Convention dey require all member states make dem build strong data protection framework. As Article 8(1) talk, e dey aim to make sure sey fundamental rights and public freedoms strong, especially the way we fit protect our physical data, and to punish any privacy wahala without touching the way information suppose flow free. — The African Union, African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection, Article 8(1) Also, Articles 11, 13, and 16 to 19 dey specify sey this framework go get national data protection authority (DPA) wey go dey operate independently and make sure sey personal data processing dey regulated well. The national framework go get essential data protection standards – like getting consent, making sure sey e dey legal, keeping confidentiality, and promoting transparency – while e dey guarantee people specific rights over their personal information.<ref name=":24">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> Cybersecurity and cybercrime chapter Malabo Convention dey criminalize various cyber activities and dey push each member state to create national cybersecurity policy and strategy. E dey call for formation of important institutions and mechanisms wey go fit detect and handle cybersecurity threats, uphold key cybersecurity values, and promote international cooperation. About cybercrime, the Convention dey urge states to set national laws and regulations wey go criminalize “acts wey fit affect the confidentiality, integrity, availability and survival of information and communication technology systems, the data dem dey process, and the network infrastructure wey dey under am..<ref name=":25">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite web|last=Sheik|first=Shamaa|date=2023-04-24|title=AU Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection {{!}} Malabo Convention|url=https://www.michalsons.com/blog/au-convention-on-cyber-security-and-personal-data-protection-malabo-convention/65281|access-date=2025-06-22|website=Michalsons|language=en-GB}}</ref> == History == Di African Union bring dis convention come for 2011, wey dem wan make cybersecurity strong for di whole continent. Di things dem dey target na to manage electronic transactions, protect personal info, boost cybersecurity, promote e-governance, and fight cybercrime<ref>{{Cite web|title=CCDCOE|url=https://ccdcoe.org/organisations/au/|access-date=2025-06-22|website=ccdcoe.org}}</ref>. Di take wey dem go fit adopt di convention enter ground dey delay several times till 2014, when dem finally accept am for 23 Ordinary Session for Malabo wey dey Equatorial Guinea<ref>{{Cite web|title=CCDCOE|url=https://ccdcoe.org/incyder-articles/african-union-adopts-convention-on-cyber-security/#footnote_0_2659|access-date=2025-06-22|website=ccdcoe.org}}</ref>. But e no fit start work because Article 36 talk say di treaty go start when at least 15 member nations ratify am..<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|date=2025-01-29|title=What is the Malabo convention? - Diplo|url=https://www.diplomacy.edu/blog/what-is-the-malabo-convention/|access-date=2025-06-22|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection {{!}} African Union|url=https://au.int/en/treaties/african-union-convention-cyber-security-and-personal-data-protection|access-date=2025-06-22|website=au.int}}</ref> Implementation For 8 June 2023, di Malabo Convention start to work 30 days after Mauritania sign as di 15th member nation wey fit complete di Article 36 of di Malabo Convention. For Sudan Sudan sign di Malabo Convention for 15 March 2023 when African Union Summit dey happen for Addis Ababa. Di convention sign by di Acting Minister of Telecommunications and Digital Transformation, Adel Hassan Mohamed Al-Hussein, while officials from AU Commission and Sudan regulatory body dey there. But di country never ratify di convention yet. == List of signatories and ratified countries == Dis na di list of countries wey don sign and ratify di African Union (AU) Convention for Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection.<ref>{{Cite web|title=LIST OF COUNTRIES WHICH HAVE SIGNED, RATIFIED/ACCEDED TO THE AFRICAN UNION CONVENTION ON CYBER SECURITY AND PERSONAL DATA PROTECTION|url=https://au.int/sites/default/files/treaties/29560-sl-AFRICAN_UNION_CONVENTION_ON_CYBER_SECURITY_AND_PERSONAL_DATA_PROTECTION.pdf|website=African Union}}</ref> {| class="wikitable sortable" |+'''African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection – Status by Country (as of 8 July 2024)''' !No. !Country !Date of Signature !Date of Ratification/Accession !Date Deposited |- |1 |{{flag|Algeria}} |– |– |– |- |2 |{{flag|Angola}} |– |21/02/2020 |11/05/2020 |- |3 |{{flag|Benin}} |28/01/2015 |– |– |- |4 |{{flag|Botswana}} |– |– |– |- |5 |{{flag|Burkina Faso}} |– |– |– |- |6 |{{flag|Burundi}} |– |– |– |- |7 |{{flag|Cameroon}} |12/08/2021 |– |– |- |8 |{{flag|Central African Republic}} |– |– |– |- |9 |{{flag|Cape Verde}} |– |13/11/2020 |05/02/2022 |- |10 |{{flag|Chad}} |14/06/2015 |– |– |- |11 |{{flag|Côte d’Ivoire}} |– |08/03/2023 |03/04/2023 |- |12 |{{flag|Comoros}} |29/01/2018 |– |– |- |13 |{{flag|Republic of the Congo}} |12/06/2015 |24/09/2020 |23/10/2020 |- |14 |{{flag|Djibouti}} |12/05/2023 |– |– |- |15 |{{flag|Democratic Republic of the Congo}} |– |– |– |- |16 |{{flag|Egypt}} |– |– |– |- |17 |{{flag|Equatorial Guinea}} |– |– |– |- |18 |{{flag|Eritrea}} |– |– |– |- |19 |{{flag|Ethiopia}} |– |– |– |- |20 |{{flag|Gabon}} |– |– |– |- |21 |{{flag|Gambia}} |02/12/2022 |– |– |- |22 |{{flag|Ghana}} |04/07/2017 |13/05/2019 |03/06/2019 |- |23 |{{flag|Guinea-Bissau}} |31/01/2015 |– |– |- |24 |{{flag|Guinea}} |– |31/07/2018 |16/10/2018 |- |25 |{{flag|Kenya}} |– |– |– |- |26 |{{flag|Libya}} |– |– |– |- |27 |{{flag|Lesotho}} |30/11/2023 |– |– |- |28 |{{flag|Liberia}} |– |– |– |- |29 |{{flag|Madagascar}} |– |– |– |- |30 |{{flag|Mali}} |– |– |– |- |31 |{{flag|Malawi}} |– |– |– |- |32 |{{flag|Morocco}} |– |– |– |- |33 |{{flag|Mozambique}} |29/06/2018 |02/12/2019 |21/01/2020 |- |34 |{{flag|Mauritania}} |26/02/2015 |19/04/2023 |09/05/2023 |- |35 |{{flag|Mauritius}} |– |06/03/2018 |14/03/2018 |- |36 |{{flag|Namibia}} |– |25/01/2019 |01/02/2019 |- |37 |{{flag|Nigeria}} |23/01/2024 |– |– |- |38 |{{flag|Niger}} |– |22/02/2022 |16/03/2022 |- |39 |{{flag|Rwanda}} |16/04/2019 |14/11/2019 |21/11/2019 |- |40 |{{flag|South Africa}} |16/02/2023 |– |– |- |41 |{{flag|Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic}} |– |– |– |- |42 |{{flag|Senegal}} |– |03/08/2016 |16/08/2016 |- |43 |{{flag|Seychelles}} |– |– |– |- |44 |{{flag|Sierra Leone}} |29/01/2016 |– |– |- |45 |{{flag|Somalia}} |– |– |– |- |46 |{{flag|South Sudan}} |– |– |– |- |47 |{{flag|Sao Tome and Principe}} |29/01/2016 |25/09/2023 |15/02/2024 |- |48 |{{flag|Sudan}} |15/03/2023 |– |– |- |49 |{{flag|Eswatini}} |– |– |– |- |50 |{{flag|Tanzania}} |– |– |– |- |51 |{{flag|Togo}} |02/04/2019 |30/09/2021 |19/10/2021 |- |52 |{{flag|Tunisia}} |23/04/2019 |– |– |- |53 |{{flag|Uganda}} |– |– |– |- |54 |{{flag|Zambia}} |29/01/2016 |15/12/2020 |24/03/2021 |- |55 |{{flag|Zimbabwe}} |– |– |– |} s15nav2tkntmmyf467i6vm1a10wse7b 69061 69059 2025-07-05T18:27:11Z Abdul-Rauf Moshie 1580 /* History */ 69061 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox treaty|name=The Malabo Convention|long_name=African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection|image=File:Flag of the African Union.svg|image_size=100|type=Regional|date_drafted=2011|date_signed={{Start date|2014}}|location_signed=Malabo|date_sealed=May, 2023|date_ratified=May, 2023|date_effective=June 2023|parties=* {{flag|Algeria}} * {{flag|Angola}} * {{flag|Benin}} * {{flag|Botswana}} * {{flag|Burkina Faso}} * {{flag|Burundi}} * {{flag|Cameroon}} * {{flag|Central African Republic}} * {{flag|Cape Verde}} * {{flag|Chad}} * {{flag|Côte d’Ivoire}} * {{flag|Comoros}} * {{flag|Congo}} * {{flag|Djibouti}} * {{flag|Democratic Republic of the Congo}} * {{flag|Egypt}} * {{flag|Equatorial Guinea}} * {{flag|Eritrea}} * {{flag|Ethiopia}} * {{flag|Gabon}} * {{flag|Gambia}} * {{flag|Ghana}} * {{flag|Guinea-Bissau}} * {{flag|Guinea}} * {{flag|Kenya}} * {{flag|Libya}} * {{flag|Lesotho}} * {{flag|Liberia}} * {{flag|Madagascar}} * {{flag|Mali}} * {{flag|Malawi}} * {{flag|Morocco}} * {{flag|Mozambique}} * {{flag|Mauritania}} * {{flag|Mauritius}} * {{flag|Namibia}} * {{flag|Nigeria}} * {{flag|Niger}} * {{flag|Rwanda}} * {{flag|South Africa}} * {{flag|Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic}} * {{flag|Senegal}} * {{flag|Seychelles}} * {{flag|Sierra Leone}} * {{flag|Somalia}} * {{flag|South Sudan}} * {{flag|Sao Tome and Principe}} * {{flag|Sudan}} * {{flag|Eswatini}} * {{flag|Tanzania}} * {{flag|Togo}} * {{flag|Tunisia}} * {{flag|Uganda}} * {{flag|Zambia}} * {{flag|Zimbabwe}}|ratifiers=* {{flag|Angola}} * {{flag|Cape Verde}} * {{flag|Congo}} * {{flag|Ghana}} * {{flag|Guinea}} * {{flag|Mauritania}} * {{flag|Mozambique}} * {{flag|Namibia}} * {{flag|Niger}} * {{flag|Rwanda}} * {{flag|Senegal}} * {{flag|Sao Tome and Principe}} * {{flag|Togo}} * {{flag|Zambia}} * {{flag|Côte d’Ivoire}} * {{flag|Mauritius}}|languages=* [[English language|English]] * [[Arabic language|Arabic]] * [[French language|French]] * [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]|footnotes=* Total countries: 55 – Signatures: 21, Ratifications: 16, Deposits: 16}} Di African Union Convention wey dem dey call Malabo Convention na 2014 law wey di African Union (AU) take adopt to tackle cybercrime and protect data for Africa.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=Sheik|first=Shamaa|date=2023-04-24|title=AU Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection {{!}} Malabo Convention|url=https://www.michalsons.com/blog/au-convention-on-cyber-security-and-personal-data-protection-malabo-convention/65281|access-date=2025-06-22|website=Michalsons|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> == Di Content == Malabo Convention get three main chapters wey e divided into:<ref name=":22">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> === Electronic transactions matter dey here. === Di Convention talk say e get standard rules wey go cover plenty sides of e-commerce, like online ad, how dem go sabi electronic contracts, and how to secure electronic payment system.<ref name=":23">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> === Data protection chapter === Malabo Convention dey require all member states make dem build strong data protection framework. As Article 8(1) talk, e dey aim to make sure sey fundamental rights and public freedoms strong, especially the way we fit protect our physical data, and to punish any privacy wahala without touching the way information suppose flow free. — The African Union, African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection, Article 8(1) Also, Articles 11, 13, and 16 to 19 dey specify sey this framework go get national data protection authority (DPA) wey go dey operate independently and make sure sey personal data processing dey regulated well. The national framework go get essential data protection standards – like getting consent, making sure sey e dey legal, keeping confidentiality, and promoting transparency – while e dey guarantee people specific rights over their personal information.<ref name=":24">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> Cybersecurity and cybercrime chapter Malabo Convention dey criminalize various cyber activities and dey push each member state to create national cybersecurity policy and strategy. E dey call for formation of important institutions and mechanisms wey go fit detect and handle cybersecurity threats, uphold key cybersecurity values, and promote international cooperation. About cybercrime, the Convention dey urge states to set national laws and regulations wey go criminalize “acts wey fit affect the confidentiality, integrity, availability and survival of information and communication technology systems, the data dem dey process, and the network infrastructure wey dey under am..<ref name=":25">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite web|last=Sheik|first=Shamaa|date=2023-04-24|title=AU Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection {{!}} Malabo Convention|url=https://www.michalsons.com/blog/au-convention-on-cyber-security-and-personal-data-protection-malabo-convention/65281|access-date=2025-06-22|website=Michalsons|language=en-GB}}</ref> == History == Di African Union bring dis convention come for 2011, wey dem wan make cybersecurity strong for di whole continent. Di things dem dey target na to manage electronic transactions, protect personal info, boost cybersecurity, promote e-governance, and fight cybercrime<ref>{{Cite web|title=CCDCOE|url=https://ccdcoe.org/organisations/au/|access-date=2025-06-22|website=ccdcoe.org}}</ref>. Di take wey dem go fit adopt di convention enter ground dey delay several times till 2014, when dem finally accept am for 23 Ordinary Session for Malabo wey dey Equatorial Guinea<ref>{{Cite web|title=CCDCOE|url=https://ccdcoe.org/incyder-articles/african-union-adopts-convention-on-cyber-security/#footnote_0_2659|access-date=2025-06-22|website=ccdcoe.org}}</ref>. But e no fit start work because Article 36 talk say di treaty go start when at least 15 member nations ratify am..<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|date=2025-01-29|title=What is the Malabo convention? - Diplo|url=https://www.diplomacy.edu/blog/what-is-the-malabo-convention/|access-date=2025-06-22|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection {{!}} African Union|url=https://au.int/en/treaties/african-union-convention-cyber-security-and-personal-data-protection|access-date=2025-06-22|website=au.int}}</ref> == Implementation == For 8 June 2023, di Malabo Convention start to work 30 days after Mauritania sign as di 15th member nation wey fit complete di Article 36 of di Malabo Convention. For Sudan Sudan sign di Malabo Convention for 15 March 2023 when African Union Summit dey happen for Addis Ababa. Di convention sign by di Acting Minister of Telecommunications and Digital Transformation, Adel Hassan Mohamed Al-Hussein, while officials from AU Commission and Sudan regulatory body dey there. But di country never ratify di convention yet. == List of signatories and ratified countries == Dis na di list of countries wey don sign and ratify di African Union (AU) Convention for Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection.<ref>{{Cite web|title=LIST OF COUNTRIES WHICH HAVE SIGNED, RATIFIED/ACCEDED TO THE AFRICAN UNION CONVENTION ON CYBER SECURITY AND PERSONAL DATA PROTECTION|url=https://au.int/sites/default/files/treaties/29560-sl-AFRICAN_UNION_CONVENTION_ON_CYBER_SECURITY_AND_PERSONAL_DATA_PROTECTION.pdf|website=African Union}}</ref> {| class="wikitable sortable" |+'''African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection – Status by Country (as of 8 July 2024)''' !No. !Country !Date of Signature !Date of Ratification/Accession !Date Deposited |- |1 |{{flag|Algeria}} |– |– |– |- |2 |{{flag|Angola}} |– |21/02/2020 |11/05/2020 |- |3 |{{flag|Benin}} |28/01/2015 |– |– |- |4 |{{flag|Botswana}} |– |– |– |- |5 |{{flag|Burkina Faso}} |– |– |– |- |6 |{{flag|Burundi}} |– |– |– |- |7 |{{flag|Cameroon}} |12/08/2021 |– |– |- |8 |{{flag|Central African Republic}} |– |– |– |- |9 |{{flag|Cape Verde}} |– |13/11/2020 |05/02/2022 |- |10 |{{flag|Chad}} |14/06/2015 |– |– |- |11 |{{flag|Côte d’Ivoire}} |– |08/03/2023 |03/04/2023 |- |12 |{{flag|Comoros}} |29/01/2018 |– |– |- |13 |{{flag|Republic of the Congo}} |12/06/2015 |24/09/2020 |23/10/2020 |- |14 |{{flag|Djibouti}} |12/05/2023 |– |– |- |15 |{{flag|Democratic Republic of the Congo}} |– |– |– |- |16 |{{flag|Egypt}} |– |– |– |- |17 |{{flag|Equatorial Guinea}} |– |– |– |- |18 |{{flag|Eritrea}} |– |– |– |- |19 |{{flag|Ethiopia}} |– |– |– |- |20 |{{flag|Gabon}} |– |– |– |- |21 |{{flag|Gambia}} |02/12/2022 |– |– |- |22 |{{flag|Ghana}} |04/07/2017 |13/05/2019 |03/06/2019 |- |23 |{{flag|Guinea-Bissau}} |31/01/2015 |– |– |- |24 |{{flag|Guinea}} |– |31/07/2018 |16/10/2018 |- |25 |{{flag|Kenya}} |– |– |– |- |26 |{{flag|Libya}} |– |– |– |- |27 |{{flag|Lesotho}} |30/11/2023 |– |– |- |28 |{{flag|Liberia}} |– |– |– |- |29 |{{flag|Madagascar}} |– |– |– |- |30 |{{flag|Mali}} |– |– |– |- |31 |{{flag|Malawi}} |– |– |– |- |32 |{{flag|Morocco}} |– |– |– |- |33 |{{flag|Mozambique}} |29/06/2018 |02/12/2019 |21/01/2020 |- |34 |{{flag|Mauritania}} |26/02/2015 |19/04/2023 |09/05/2023 |- |35 |{{flag|Mauritius}} |– |06/03/2018 |14/03/2018 |- |36 |{{flag|Namibia}} |– |25/01/2019 |01/02/2019 |- |37 |{{flag|Nigeria}} |23/01/2024 |– |– |- |38 |{{flag|Niger}} |– |22/02/2022 |16/03/2022 |- |39 |{{flag|Rwanda}} |16/04/2019 |14/11/2019 |21/11/2019 |- |40 |{{flag|South Africa}} |16/02/2023 |– |– |- |41 |{{flag|Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic}} |– |– |– |- |42 |{{flag|Senegal}} |– |03/08/2016 |16/08/2016 |- |43 |{{flag|Seychelles}} |– |– |– |- |44 |{{flag|Sierra Leone}} |29/01/2016 |– |– |- |45 |{{flag|Somalia}} |– |– |– |- |46 |{{flag|South Sudan}} |– |– |– |- |47 |{{flag|Sao Tome and Principe}} |29/01/2016 |25/09/2023 |15/02/2024 |- |48 |{{flag|Sudan}} |15/03/2023 |– |– |- |49 |{{flag|Eswatini}} |– |– |– |- |50 |{{flag|Tanzania}} |– |– |– |- |51 |{{flag|Togo}} |02/04/2019 |30/09/2021 |19/10/2021 |- |52 |{{flag|Tunisia}} |23/04/2019 |– |– |- |53 |{{flag|Uganda}} |– |– |– |- |54 |{{flag|Zambia}} |29/01/2016 |15/12/2020 |24/03/2021 |- |55 |{{flag|Zimbabwe}} |– |– |– |} oqcjabvkjognnuoutpss01rqnzaptbc 69062 69061 2025-07-05T18:27:42Z Abdul-Rauf Moshie 1580 /* Implementation */ 69062 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox treaty|name=The Malabo Convention|long_name=African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection|image=File:Flag of the African Union.svg|image_size=100|type=Regional|date_drafted=2011|date_signed={{Start date|2014}}|location_signed=Malabo|date_sealed=May, 2023|date_ratified=May, 2023|date_effective=June 2023|parties=* {{flag|Algeria}} * {{flag|Angola}} * {{flag|Benin}} * {{flag|Botswana}} * {{flag|Burkina Faso}} * {{flag|Burundi}} * {{flag|Cameroon}} * {{flag|Central African Republic}} * {{flag|Cape Verde}} * {{flag|Chad}} * {{flag|Côte d’Ivoire}} * {{flag|Comoros}} * {{flag|Congo}} * {{flag|Djibouti}} * {{flag|Democratic Republic of the Congo}} * {{flag|Egypt}} * {{flag|Equatorial Guinea}} * {{flag|Eritrea}} * {{flag|Ethiopia}} * {{flag|Gabon}} * {{flag|Gambia}} * {{flag|Ghana}} * {{flag|Guinea-Bissau}} * {{flag|Guinea}} * {{flag|Kenya}} * {{flag|Libya}} * {{flag|Lesotho}} * {{flag|Liberia}} * {{flag|Madagascar}} * {{flag|Mali}} * {{flag|Malawi}} * {{flag|Morocco}} * {{flag|Mozambique}} * {{flag|Mauritania}} * {{flag|Mauritius}} * {{flag|Namibia}} * {{flag|Nigeria}} * {{flag|Niger}} * {{flag|Rwanda}} * {{flag|South Africa}} * {{flag|Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic}} * {{flag|Senegal}} * {{flag|Seychelles}} * {{flag|Sierra Leone}} * {{flag|Somalia}} * {{flag|South Sudan}} * {{flag|Sao Tome and Principe}} * {{flag|Sudan}} * {{flag|Eswatini}} * {{flag|Tanzania}} * {{flag|Togo}} * {{flag|Tunisia}} * {{flag|Uganda}} * {{flag|Zambia}} * {{flag|Zimbabwe}}|ratifiers=* {{flag|Angola}} * {{flag|Cape Verde}} * {{flag|Congo}} * {{flag|Ghana}} * {{flag|Guinea}} * {{flag|Mauritania}} * {{flag|Mozambique}} * {{flag|Namibia}} * {{flag|Niger}} * {{flag|Rwanda}} * {{flag|Senegal}} * {{flag|Sao Tome and Principe}} * {{flag|Togo}} * {{flag|Zambia}} * {{flag|Côte d’Ivoire}} * {{flag|Mauritius}}|languages=* [[English language|English]] * [[Arabic language|Arabic]] * [[French language|French]] * [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]|footnotes=* Total countries: 55 – Signatures: 21, Ratifications: 16, Deposits: 16}} Di African Union Convention wey dem dey call Malabo Convention na 2014 law wey di African Union (AU) take adopt to tackle cybercrime and protect data for Africa.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=Sheik|first=Shamaa|date=2023-04-24|title=AU Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection {{!}} Malabo Convention|url=https://www.michalsons.com/blog/au-convention-on-cyber-security-and-personal-data-protection-malabo-convention/65281|access-date=2025-06-22|website=Michalsons|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> == Di Content == Malabo Convention get three main chapters wey e divided into:<ref name=":22">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> === Electronic transactions matter dey here. === Di Convention talk say e get standard rules wey go cover plenty sides of e-commerce, like online ad, how dem go sabi electronic contracts, and how to secure electronic payment system.<ref name=":23">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> === Data protection chapter === Malabo Convention dey require all member states make dem build strong data protection framework. As Article 8(1) talk, e dey aim to make sure sey fundamental rights and public freedoms strong, especially the way we fit protect our physical data, and to punish any privacy wahala without touching the way information suppose flow free. — The African Union, African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection, Article 8(1) Also, Articles 11, 13, and 16 to 19 dey specify sey this framework go get national data protection authority (DPA) wey go dey operate independently and make sure sey personal data processing dey regulated well. The national framework go get essential data protection standards – like getting consent, making sure sey e dey legal, keeping confidentiality, and promoting transparency – while e dey guarantee people specific rights over their personal information.<ref name=":24">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> Cybersecurity and cybercrime chapter Malabo Convention dey criminalize various cyber activities and dey push each member state to create national cybersecurity policy and strategy. E dey call for formation of important institutions and mechanisms wey go fit detect and handle cybersecurity threats, uphold key cybersecurity values, and promote international cooperation. About cybercrime, the Convention dey urge states to set national laws and regulations wey go criminalize “acts wey fit affect the confidentiality, integrity, availability and survival of information and communication technology systems, the data dem dey process, and the network infrastructure wey dey under am..<ref name=":25">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite web|last=Sheik|first=Shamaa|date=2023-04-24|title=AU Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection {{!}} Malabo Convention|url=https://www.michalsons.com/blog/au-convention-on-cyber-security-and-personal-data-protection-malabo-convention/65281|access-date=2025-06-22|website=Michalsons|language=en-GB}}</ref> == History == Di African Union bring dis convention come for 2011, wey dem wan make cybersecurity strong for di whole continent. Di things dem dey target na to manage electronic transactions, protect personal info, boost cybersecurity, promote e-governance, and fight cybercrime<ref>{{Cite web|title=CCDCOE|url=https://ccdcoe.org/organisations/au/|access-date=2025-06-22|website=ccdcoe.org}}</ref>. Di take wey dem go fit adopt di convention enter ground dey delay several times till 2014, when dem finally accept am for 23 Ordinary Session for Malabo wey dey Equatorial Guinea<ref>{{Cite web|title=CCDCOE|url=https://ccdcoe.org/incyder-articles/african-union-adopts-convention-on-cyber-security/#footnote_0_2659|access-date=2025-06-22|website=ccdcoe.org}}</ref>. But e no fit start work because Article 36 talk say di treaty go start when at least 15 member nations ratify am..<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|date=2025-01-29|title=What is the Malabo convention? - Diplo|url=https://www.diplomacy.edu/blog/what-is-the-malabo-convention/|access-date=2025-06-22|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection {{!}} African Union|url=https://au.int/en/treaties/african-union-convention-cyber-security-and-personal-data-protection|access-date=2025-06-22|website=au.int}}</ref> == Implementation == For 8 June 2023, di Malabo Convention start to work 30 days after Mauritania sign as di 15th member nation wey fit complete di Article 36 of di Malabo Convention. For Sudan Sudan sign di Malabo Convention for 15 March 2023 when African Union Summit dey happen for Addis Ababa. Di convention sign by di Acting Minister of Telecommunications and Digital Transformation, Adel Hassan Mohamed Al-Hussein, while officials from AU Commission and Sudan regulatory body dey there. But di country never ratify di convention yet.<ref>{{Cite web|title=وكالة السودان للأنباء - سونا {{!}} السودان يوقع على اتفاقية الاتحاد الافريقي للأمن السيبراني وحماية البيانات الشخصية|url=https://nabd.com/s/116794572-650371/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%86-%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%82%D8%B9-%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%89-%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%81%D8%A7%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AF-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%82%D9%8A-%D9%84%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%85%D9%86-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A-%D9%88%D8%AD%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AA-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D8%AE%D8%B5%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%88|access-date=2025-06-21|website=موقع نبض}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection {{!}} Digital Watch Observatory|url=https://dig.watch/resource/african-union-convention-on-cyber-security-and-personal-data-protection-african-union|access-date=2025-06-21|language=en-US}}</ref> == List of signatories and ratified countries == Dis na di list of countries wey don sign and ratify di African Union (AU) Convention for Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection.<ref>{{Cite web|title=LIST OF COUNTRIES WHICH HAVE SIGNED, RATIFIED/ACCEDED TO THE AFRICAN UNION CONVENTION ON CYBER SECURITY AND PERSONAL DATA PROTECTION|url=https://au.int/sites/default/files/treaties/29560-sl-AFRICAN_UNION_CONVENTION_ON_CYBER_SECURITY_AND_PERSONAL_DATA_PROTECTION.pdf|website=African Union}}</ref> {| class="wikitable sortable" |+'''African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection – Status by Country (as of 8 July 2024)''' !No. !Country !Date of Signature !Date of Ratification/Accession !Date Deposited |- |1 |{{flag|Algeria}} |– |– |– |- |2 |{{flag|Angola}} |– |21/02/2020 |11/05/2020 |- |3 |{{flag|Benin}} |28/01/2015 |– |– |- |4 |{{flag|Botswana}} |– |– |– |- |5 |{{flag|Burkina Faso}} |– |– |– |- |6 |{{flag|Burundi}} |– |– |– |- |7 |{{flag|Cameroon}} |12/08/2021 |– |– |- |8 |{{flag|Central African Republic}} |– |– |– |- |9 |{{flag|Cape Verde}} |– |13/11/2020 |05/02/2022 |- |10 |{{flag|Chad}} |14/06/2015 |– |– |- |11 |{{flag|Côte d’Ivoire}} |– |08/03/2023 |03/04/2023 |- |12 |{{flag|Comoros}} |29/01/2018 |– |– |- |13 |{{flag|Republic of the Congo}} |12/06/2015 |24/09/2020 |23/10/2020 |- |14 |{{flag|Djibouti}} |12/05/2023 |– |– |- |15 |{{flag|Democratic Republic of the Congo}} |– |– |– |- |16 |{{flag|Egypt}} |– |– |– |- |17 |{{flag|Equatorial Guinea}} |– |– |– |- |18 |{{flag|Eritrea}} |– |– |– |- |19 |{{flag|Ethiopia}} |– |– |– |- |20 |{{flag|Gabon}} |– |– |– |- |21 |{{flag|Gambia}} |02/12/2022 |– |– |- |22 |{{flag|Ghana}} |04/07/2017 |13/05/2019 |03/06/2019 |- |23 |{{flag|Guinea-Bissau}} |31/01/2015 |– |– |- |24 |{{flag|Guinea}} |– |31/07/2018 |16/10/2018 |- |25 |{{flag|Kenya}} |– |– |– |- |26 |{{flag|Libya}} |– |– |– |- |27 |{{flag|Lesotho}} |30/11/2023 |– |– |- |28 |{{flag|Liberia}} |– |– |– |- |29 |{{flag|Madagascar}} |– |– |– |- |30 |{{flag|Mali}} |– |– |– |- |31 |{{flag|Malawi}} |– |– |– |- |32 |{{flag|Morocco}} |– |– |– |- |33 |{{flag|Mozambique}} |29/06/2018 |02/12/2019 |21/01/2020 |- |34 |{{flag|Mauritania}} |26/02/2015 |19/04/2023 |09/05/2023 |- |35 |{{flag|Mauritius}} |– |06/03/2018 |14/03/2018 |- |36 |{{flag|Namibia}} |– |25/01/2019 |01/02/2019 |- |37 |{{flag|Nigeria}} |23/01/2024 |– |– |- |38 |{{flag|Niger}} |– |22/02/2022 |16/03/2022 |- |39 |{{flag|Rwanda}} |16/04/2019 |14/11/2019 |21/11/2019 |- |40 |{{flag|South Africa}} |16/02/2023 |– |– |- |41 |{{flag|Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic}} |– |– |– |- |42 |{{flag|Senegal}} |– |03/08/2016 |16/08/2016 |- |43 |{{flag|Seychelles}} |– |– |– |- |44 |{{flag|Sierra Leone}} |29/01/2016 |– |– |- |45 |{{flag|Somalia}} |– |– |– |- |46 |{{flag|South Sudan}} |– |– |– |- |47 |{{flag|Sao Tome and Principe}} |29/01/2016 |25/09/2023 |15/02/2024 |- |48 |{{flag|Sudan}} |15/03/2023 |– |– |- |49 |{{flag|Eswatini}} |– |– |– |- |50 |{{flag|Tanzania}} |– |– |– |- |51 |{{flag|Togo}} |02/04/2019 |30/09/2021 |19/10/2021 |- |52 |{{flag|Tunisia}} |23/04/2019 |– |– |- |53 |{{flag|Uganda}} |– |– |– |- |54 |{{flag|Zambia}} |29/01/2016 |15/12/2020 |24/03/2021 |- |55 |{{flag|Zimbabwe}} |– |– |– |} qbfce921ug6gcckld7aylfpqu3l31vh 69063 69062 2025-07-05T18:28:15Z Abdul-Rauf Moshie 1580 /* Implementation */ 69063 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox treaty|name=The Malabo Convention|long_name=African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection|image=File:Flag of the African Union.svg|image_size=100|type=Regional|date_drafted=2011|date_signed={{Start date|2014}}|location_signed=Malabo|date_sealed=May, 2023|date_ratified=May, 2023|date_effective=June 2023|parties=* {{flag|Algeria}} * {{flag|Angola}} * {{flag|Benin}} * {{flag|Botswana}} * {{flag|Burkina Faso}} * {{flag|Burundi}} * {{flag|Cameroon}} * {{flag|Central African Republic}} * {{flag|Cape Verde}} * {{flag|Chad}} * {{flag|Côte d’Ivoire}} * {{flag|Comoros}} * {{flag|Congo}} * {{flag|Djibouti}} * {{flag|Democratic Republic of the Congo}} * {{flag|Egypt}} * {{flag|Equatorial Guinea}} * {{flag|Eritrea}} * {{flag|Ethiopia}} * {{flag|Gabon}} * {{flag|Gambia}} * {{flag|Ghana}} * {{flag|Guinea-Bissau}} * {{flag|Guinea}} * {{flag|Kenya}} * {{flag|Libya}} * {{flag|Lesotho}} * {{flag|Liberia}} * {{flag|Madagascar}} * {{flag|Mali}} * {{flag|Malawi}} * {{flag|Morocco}} * {{flag|Mozambique}} * {{flag|Mauritania}} * {{flag|Mauritius}} * {{flag|Namibia}} * {{flag|Nigeria}} * {{flag|Niger}} * {{flag|Rwanda}} * {{flag|South Africa}} * {{flag|Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic}} * {{flag|Senegal}} * {{flag|Seychelles}} * {{flag|Sierra Leone}} * {{flag|Somalia}} * {{flag|South Sudan}} * {{flag|Sao Tome and Principe}} * {{flag|Sudan}} * {{flag|Eswatini}} * {{flag|Tanzania}} * {{flag|Togo}} * {{flag|Tunisia}} * {{flag|Uganda}} * {{flag|Zambia}} * {{flag|Zimbabwe}}|ratifiers=* {{flag|Angola}} * {{flag|Cape Verde}} * {{flag|Congo}} * {{flag|Ghana}} * {{flag|Guinea}} * {{flag|Mauritania}} * {{flag|Mozambique}} * {{flag|Namibia}} * {{flag|Niger}} * {{flag|Rwanda}} * {{flag|Senegal}} * {{flag|Sao Tome and Principe}} * {{flag|Togo}} * {{flag|Zambia}} * {{flag|Côte d’Ivoire}} * {{flag|Mauritius}}|languages=* [[English language|English]] * [[Arabic language|Arabic]] * [[French language|French]] * [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]|footnotes=* Total countries: 55 – Signatures: 21, Ratifications: 16, Deposits: 16}} Di African Union Convention wey dem dey call Malabo Convention na 2014 law wey di African Union (AU) take adopt to tackle cybercrime and protect data for Africa.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=Sheik|first=Shamaa|date=2023-04-24|title=AU Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection {{!}} Malabo Convention|url=https://www.michalsons.com/blog/au-convention-on-cyber-security-and-personal-data-protection-malabo-convention/65281|access-date=2025-06-22|website=Michalsons|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> == Di Content == Malabo Convention get three main chapters wey e divided into:<ref name=":22">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> === Electronic transactions matter dey here. === Di Convention talk say e get standard rules wey go cover plenty sides of e-commerce, like online ad, how dem go sabi electronic contracts, and how to secure electronic payment system.<ref name=":23">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> === Data protection chapter === Malabo Convention dey require all member states make dem build strong data protection framework. As Article 8(1) talk, e dey aim to make sure sey fundamental rights and public freedoms strong, especially the way we fit protect our physical data, and to punish any privacy wahala without touching the way information suppose flow free. — The African Union, African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection, Article 8(1) Also, Articles 11, 13, and 16 to 19 dey specify sey this framework go get national data protection authority (DPA) wey go dey operate independently and make sure sey personal data processing dey regulated well. The national framework go get essential data protection standards – like getting consent, making sure sey e dey legal, keeping confidentiality, and promoting transparency – while e dey guarantee people specific rights over their personal information.<ref name=":24">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> Cybersecurity and cybercrime chapter Malabo Convention dey criminalize various cyber activities and dey push each member state to create national cybersecurity policy and strategy. E dey call for formation of important institutions and mechanisms wey go fit detect and handle cybersecurity threats, uphold key cybersecurity values, and promote international cooperation. About cybercrime, the Convention dey urge states to set national laws and regulations wey go criminalize “acts wey fit affect the confidentiality, integrity, availability and survival of information and communication technology systems, the data dem dey process, and the network infrastructure wey dey under am..<ref name=":25">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite web|last=Sheik|first=Shamaa|date=2023-04-24|title=AU Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection {{!}} Malabo Convention|url=https://www.michalsons.com/blog/au-convention-on-cyber-security-and-personal-data-protection-malabo-convention/65281|access-date=2025-06-22|website=Michalsons|language=en-GB}}</ref> == History == Di African Union bring dis convention come for 2011, wey dem wan make cybersecurity strong for di whole continent. Di things dem dey target na to manage electronic transactions, protect personal info, boost cybersecurity, promote e-governance, and fight cybercrime<ref>{{Cite web|title=CCDCOE|url=https://ccdcoe.org/organisations/au/|access-date=2025-06-22|website=ccdcoe.org}}</ref>. Di take wey dem go fit adopt di convention enter ground dey delay several times till 2014, when dem finally accept am for 23 Ordinary Session for Malabo wey dey Equatorial Guinea<ref>{{Cite web|title=CCDCOE|url=https://ccdcoe.org/incyder-articles/african-union-adopts-convention-on-cyber-security/#footnote_0_2659|access-date=2025-06-22|website=ccdcoe.org}}</ref>. But e no fit start work because Article 36 talk say di treaty go start when at least 15 member nations ratify am..<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|date=2025-01-29|title=What is the Malabo convention? - Diplo|url=https://www.diplomacy.edu/blog/what-is-the-malabo-convention/|access-date=2025-06-22|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection {{!}} African Union|url=https://au.int/en/treaties/african-union-convention-cyber-security-and-personal-data-protection|access-date=2025-06-22|website=au.int}}</ref> == Implementation == For 8 June 2023, di Malabo Convention start to work 30 days after Mauritania sign as di 15th member nation wey fit complete di Article 36 of di Malabo Convention. == For Sudan == Sudan sign di Malabo Convention for 15 March 2023 when African Union Summit dey happen for Addis Ababa. Di convention sign by di Acting Minister of Telecommunications and Digital Transformation, Adel Hassan Mohamed Al-Hussein, while officials from AU Commission and Sudan regulatory body dey there. But di country never ratify di convention yet.<ref>{{Cite web|title=وكالة السودان للأنباء - سونا {{!}} السودان يوقع على اتفاقية الاتحاد الافريقي للأمن السيبراني وحماية البيانات الشخصية|url=https://nabd.com/s/116794572-650371/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%86-%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%82%D8%B9-%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%89-%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%81%D8%A7%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AF-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%82%D9%8A-%D9%84%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%85%D9%86-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A-%D9%88%D8%AD%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AA-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D8%AE%D8%B5%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%88|access-date=2025-06-21|website=موقع نبض}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection {{!}} Digital Watch Observatory|url=https://dig.watch/resource/african-union-convention-on-cyber-security-and-personal-data-protection-african-union|access-date=2025-06-21|language=en-US}}</ref> == List of signatories and ratified countries == Dis na di list of countries wey don sign and ratify di African Union (AU) Convention for Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection.<ref>{{Cite web|title=LIST OF COUNTRIES WHICH HAVE SIGNED, RATIFIED/ACCEDED TO THE AFRICAN UNION CONVENTION ON CYBER SECURITY AND PERSONAL DATA PROTECTION|url=https://au.int/sites/default/files/treaties/29560-sl-AFRICAN_UNION_CONVENTION_ON_CYBER_SECURITY_AND_PERSONAL_DATA_PROTECTION.pdf|website=African Union}}</ref> {| class="wikitable sortable" |+'''African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection – Status by Country (as of 8 July 2024)''' !No. !Country !Date of Signature !Date of Ratification/Accession !Date Deposited |- |1 |{{flag|Algeria}} |– |– |– |- |2 |{{flag|Angola}} |– |21/02/2020 |11/05/2020 |- |3 |{{flag|Benin}} |28/01/2015 |– |– |- |4 |{{flag|Botswana}} |– |– |– |- |5 |{{flag|Burkina Faso}} |– |– |– |- |6 |{{flag|Burundi}} |– |– |– |- |7 |{{flag|Cameroon}} |12/08/2021 |– |– |- |8 |{{flag|Central African Republic}} |– |– |– |- |9 |{{flag|Cape Verde}} |– |13/11/2020 |05/02/2022 |- |10 |{{flag|Chad}} |14/06/2015 |– |– |- |11 |{{flag|Côte d’Ivoire}} |– |08/03/2023 |03/04/2023 |- |12 |{{flag|Comoros}} |29/01/2018 |– |– |- |13 |{{flag|Republic of the Congo}} |12/06/2015 |24/09/2020 |23/10/2020 |- |14 |{{flag|Djibouti}} |12/05/2023 |– |– |- |15 |{{flag|Democratic Republic of the Congo}} |– |– |– |- |16 |{{flag|Egypt}} |– |– |– |- |17 |{{flag|Equatorial Guinea}} |– |– |– |- |18 |{{flag|Eritrea}} |– |– |– |- |19 |{{flag|Ethiopia}} |– |– |– |- |20 |{{flag|Gabon}} |– |– |– |- |21 |{{flag|Gambia}} |02/12/2022 |– |– |- |22 |{{flag|Ghana}} |04/07/2017 |13/05/2019 |03/06/2019 |- |23 |{{flag|Guinea-Bissau}} |31/01/2015 |– |– |- |24 |{{flag|Guinea}} |– |31/07/2018 |16/10/2018 |- |25 |{{flag|Kenya}} |– |– |– |- |26 |{{flag|Libya}} |– |– |– |- |27 |{{flag|Lesotho}} |30/11/2023 |– |– |- |28 |{{flag|Liberia}} |– |– |– |- |29 |{{flag|Madagascar}} |– |– |– |- |30 |{{flag|Mali}} |– |– |– |- |31 |{{flag|Malawi}} |– |– |– |- |32 |{{flag|Morocco}} |– |– |– |- |33 |{{flag|Mozambique}} |29/06/2018 |02/12/2019 |21/01/2020 |- |34 |{{flag|Mauritania}} |26/02/2015 |19/04/2023 |09/05/2023 |- |35 |{{flag|Mauritius}} |– |06/03/2018 |14/03/2018 |- |36 |{{flag|Namibia}} |– |25/01/2019 |01/02/2019 |- |37 |{{flag|Nigeria}} |23/01/2024 |– |– |- |38 |{{flag|Niger}} |– |22/02/2022 |16/03/2022 |- |39 |{{flag|Rwanda}} |16/04/2019 |14/11/2019 |21/11/2019 |- |40 |{{flag|South Africa}} |16/02/2023 |– |– |- |41 |{{flag|Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic}} |– |– |– |- |42 |{{flag|Senegal}} |– |03/08/2016 |16/08/2016 |- |43 |{{flag|Seychelles}} |– |– |– |- |44 |{{flag|Sierra Leone}} |29/01/2016 |– |– |- |45 |{{flag|Somalia}} |– |– |– |- |46 |{{flag|South Sudan}} |– |– |– |- |47 |{{flag|Sao Tome and Principe}} |29/01/2016 |25/09/2023 |15/02/2024 |- |48 |{{flag|Sudan}} |15/03/2023 |– |– |- |49 |{{flag|Eswatini}} |– |– |– |- |50 |{{flag|Tanzania}} |– |– |– |- |51 |{{flag|Togo}} |02/04/2019 |30/09/2021 |19/10/2021 |- |52 |{{flag|Tunisia}} |23/04/2019 |– |– |- |53 |{{flag|Uganda}} |– |– |– |- |54 |{{flag|Zambia}} |29/01/2016 |15/12/2020 |24/03/2021 |- |55 |{{flag|Zimbabwe}} |– |– |– |} 0k2gv5xmpn8g6mvjvs1ihkv2q2pj627 69064 69063 2025-07-05T18:28:38Z Abdul-Rauf Moshie 1580 /* Implementation */ 69064 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox treaty|name=The Malabo Convention|long_name=African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection|image=File:Flag of the African Union.svg|image_size=100|type=Regional|date_drafted=2011|date_signed={{Start date|2014}}|location_signed=Malabo|date_sealed=May, 2023|date_ratified=May, 2023|date_effective=June 2023|parties=* {{flag|Algeria}} * {{flag|Angola}} * {{flag|Benin}} * {{flag|Botswana}} * {{flag|Burkina Faso}} * {{flag|Burundi}} * {{flag|Cameroon}} * {{flag|Central African Republic}} * {{flag|Cape Verde}} * {{flag|Chad}} * {{flag|Côte d’Ivoire}} * {{flag|Comoros}} * {{flag|Congo}} * {{flag|Djibouti}} * {{flag|Democratic Republic of the Congo}} * {{flag|Egypt}} * {{flag|Equatorial Guinea}} * {{flag|Eritrea}} * {{flag|Ethiopia}} * {{flag|Gabon}} * {{flag|Gambia}} * {{flag|Ghana}} * {{flag|Guinea-Bissau}} * {{flag|Guinea}} * {{flag|Kenya}} * {{flag|Libya}} * {{flag|Lesotho}} * {{flag|Liberia}} * {{flag|Madagascar}} * {{flag|Mali}} * {{flag|Malawi}} * {{flag|Morocco}} * {{flag|Mozambique}} * {{flag|Mauritania}} * {{flag|Mauritius}} * {{flag|Namibia}} * {{flag|Nigeria}} * {{flag|Niger}} * {{flag|Rwanda}} * {{flag|South Africa}} * {{flag|Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic}} * {{flag|Senegal}} * {{flag|Seychelles}} * {{flag|Sierra Leone}} * {{flag|Somalia}} * {{flag|South Sudan}} * {{flag|Sao Tome and Principe}} * {{flag|Sudan}} * {{flag|Eswatini}} * {{flag|Tanzania}} * {{flag|Togo}} * {{flag|Tunisia}} * {{flag|Uganda}} * {{flag|Zambia}} * {{flag|Zimbabwe}}|ratifiers=* {{flag|Angola}} * {{flag|Cape Verde}} * {{flag|Congo}} * {{flag|Ghana}} * {{flag|Guinea}} * {{flag|Mauritania}} * {{flag|Mozambique}} * {{flag|Namibia}} * {{flag|Niger}} * {{flag|Rwanda}} * {{flag|Senegal}} * {{flag|Sao Tome and Principe}} * {{flag|Togo}} * {{flag|Zambia}} * {{flag|Côte d’Ivoire}} * {{flag|Mauritius}}|languages=* [[English language|English]] * [[Arabic language|Arabic]] * [[French language|French]] * [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]|footnotes=* Total countries: 55 – Signatures: 21, Ratifications: 16, Deposits: 16}} Di African Union Convention wey dem dey call Malabo Convention na 2014 law wey di African Union (AU) take adopt to tackle cybercrime and protect data for Africa.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=Sheik|first=Shamaa|date=2023-04-24|title=AU Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection {{!}} Malabo Convention|url=https://www.michalsons.com/blog/au-convention-on-cyber-security-and-personal-data-protection-malabo-convention/65281|access-date=2025-06-22|website=Michalsons|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> == Di Content == Malabo Convention get three main chapters wey e divided into:<ref name=":22">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> === Electronic transactions matter dey here. === Di Convention talk say e get standard rules wey go cover plenty sides of e-commerce, like online ad, how dem go sabi electronic contracts, and how to secure electronic payment system.<ref name=":23">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> === Data protection chapter === Malabo Convention dey require all member states make dem build strong data protection framework. As Article 8(1) talk, e dey aim to make sure sey fundamental rights and public freedoms strong, especially the way we fit protect our physical data, and to punish any privacy wahala without touching the way information suppose flow free. — The African Union, African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection, Article 8(1) Also, Articles 11, 13, and 16 to 19 dey specify sey this framework go get national data protection authority (DPA) wey go dey operate independently and make sure sey personal data processing dey regulated well. The national framework go get essential data protection standards – like getting consent, making sure sey e dey legal, keeping confidentiality, and promoting transparency – while e dey guarantee people specific rights over their personal information.<ref name=":24">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> Cybersecurity and cybercrime chapter Malabo Convention dey criminalize various cyber activities and dey push each member state to create national cybersecurity policy and strategy. E dey call for formation of important institutions and mechanisms wey go fit detect and handle cybersecurity threats, uphold key cybersecurity values, and promote international cooperation. About cybercrime, the Convention dey urge states to set national laws and regulations wey go criminalize “acts wey fit affect the confidentiality, integrity, availability and survival of information and communication technology systems, the data dem dey process, and the network infrastructure wey dey under am..<ref name=":25">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite web|last=Sheik|first=Shamaa|date=2023-04-24|title=AU Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection {{!}} Malabo Convention|url=https://www.michalsons.com/blog/au-convention-on-cyber-security-and-personal-data-protection-malabo-convention/65281|access-date=2025-06-22|website=Michalsons|language=en-GB}}</ref> == History == Di African Union bring dis convention come for 2011, wey dem wan make cybersecurity strong for di whole continent. Di things dem dey target na to manage electronic transactions, protect personal info, boost cybersecurity, promote e-governance, and fight cybercrime<ref>{{Cite web|title=CCDCOE|url=https://ccdcoe.org/organisations/au/|access-date=2025-06-22|website=ccdcoe.org}}</ref>. Di take wey dem go fit adopt di convention enter ground dey delay several times till 2014, when dem finally accept am for 23 Ordinary Session for Malabo wey dey Equatorial Guinea<ref>{{Cite web|title=CCDCOE|url=https://ccdcoe.org/incyder-articles/african-union-adopts-convention-on-cyber-security/#footnote_0_2659|access-date=2025-06-22|website=ccdcoe.org}}</ref>. But e no fit start work because Article 36 talk say di treaty go start when at least 15 member nations ratify am..<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|date=2025-01-29|title=What is the Malabo convention? - Diplo|url=https://www.diplomacy.edu/blog/what-is-the-malabo-convention/|access-date=2025-06-22|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection {{!}} African Union|url=https://au.int/en/treaties/african-union-convention-cyber-security-and-personal-data-protection|access-date=2025-06-22|website=au.int}}</ref> == Implementation == For 8 June 2023, di Malabo Convention start to work 30 days after Mauritania sign as di 15th member nation wey fit complete di Article 36 of di Malabo Convention.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web|date=2025-01-29|title=What is the Malabo convention? - Diplo|url=https://www.diplomacy.edu/blog/what-is-the-malabo-convention/|access-date=2025-06-22|language=en-GB}}</ref> == For Sudan == Sudan sign di Malabo Convention for 15 March 2023 when African Union Summit dey happen for Addis Ababa. Di convention sign by di Acting Minister of Telecommunications and Digital Transformation, Adel Hassan Mohamed Al-Hussein, while officials from AU Commission and Sudan regulatory body dey there. But di country never ratify di convention yet.<ref>{{Cite web|title=وكالة السودان للأنباء - سونا {{!}} السودان يوقع على اتفاقية الاتحاد الافريقي للأمن السيبراني وحماية البيانات الشخصية|url=https://nabd.com/s/116794572-650371/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%86-%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%82%D8%B9-%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%89-%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%81%D8%A7%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AF-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%82%D9%8A-%D9%84%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%85%D9%86-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A-%D9%88%D8%AD%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AA-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D8%AE%D8%B5%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%88|access-date=2025-06-21|website=موقع نبض}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection {{!}} Digital Watch Observatory|url=https://dig.watch/resource/african-union-convention-on-cyber-security-and-personal-data-protection-african-union|access-date=2025-06-21|language=en-US}}</ref> == List of signatories and ratified countries == Dis na di list of countries wey don sign and ratify di African Union (AU) Convention for Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection.<ref>{{Cite web|title=LIST OF COUNTRIES WHICH HAVE SIGNED, RATIFIED/ACCEDED TO THE AFRICAN UNION CONVENTION ON CYBER SECURITY AND PERSONAL DATA PROTECTION|url=https://au.int/sites/default/files/treaties/29560-sl-AFRICAN_UNION_CONVENTION_ON_CYBER_SECURITY_AND_PERSONAL_DATA_PROTECTION.pdf|website=African Union}}</ref> {| class="wikitable sortable" |+'''African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection – Status by Country (as of 8 July 2024)''' !No. !Country !Date of Signature !Date of Ratification/Accession !Date Deposited |- |1 |{{flag|Algeria}} |– |– |– |- |2 |{{flag|Angola}} |– |21/02/2020 |11/05/2020 |- |3 |{{flag|Benin}} |28/01/2015 |– |– |- |4 |{{flag|Botswana}} |– |– |– |- |5 |{{flag|Burkina Faso}} |– |– |– |- |6 |{{flag|Burundi}} |– |– |– |- |7 |{{flag|Cameroon}} |12/08/2021 |– |– |- |8 |{{flag|Central African Republic}} |– |– |– |- |9 |{{flag|Cape Verde}} |– |13/11/2020 |05/02/2022 |- |10 |{{flag|Chad}} |14/06/2015 |– |– |- |11 |{{flag|Côte d’Ivoire}} |– |08/03/2023 |03/04/2023 |- |12 |{{flag|Comoros}} |29/01/2018 |– |– |- |13 |{{flag|Republic of the Congo}} |12/06/2015 |24/09/2020 |23/10/2020 |- |14 |{{flag|Djibouti}} |12/05/2023 |– |– |- |15 |{{flag|Democratic Republic of the Congo}} |– |– |– |- |16 |{{flag|Egypt}} |– |– |– |- |17 |{{flag|Equatorial Guinea}} |– |– |– |- |18 |{{flag|Eritrea}} |– |– |– |- |19 |{{flag|Ethiopia}} |– |– |– |- |20 |{{flag|Gabon}} |– |– |– |- |21 |{{flag|Gambia}} |02/12/2022 |– |– |- |22 |{{flag|Ghana}} |04/07/2017 |13/05/2019 |03/06/2019 |- |23 |{{flag|Guinea-Bissau}} |31/01/2015 |– |– |- |24 |{{flag|Guinea}} |– |31/07/2018 |16/10/2018 |- |25 |{{flag|Kenya}} |– |– |– |- |26 |{{flag|Libya}} |– |– |– |- |27 |{{flag|Lesotho}} |30/11/2023 |– |– |- |28 |{{flag|Liberia}} |– |– |– |- |29 |{{flag|Madagascar}} |– |– |– |- |30 |{{flag|Mali}} |– |– |– |- |31 |{{flag|Malawi}} |– |– |– |- |32 |{{flag|Morocco}} |– |– |– |- |33 |{{flag|Mozambique}} |29/06/2018 |02/12/2019 |21/01/2020 |- |34 |{{flag|Mauritania}} |26/02/2015 |19/04/2023 |09/05/2023 |- |35 |{{flag|Mauritius}} |– |06/03/2018 |14/03/2018 |- |36 |{{flag|Namibia}} |– |25/01/2019 |01/02/2019 |- |37 |{{flag|Nigeria}} |23/01/2024 |– |– |- |38 |{{flag|Niger}} |– |22/02/2022 |16/03/2022 |- |39 |{{flag|Rwanda}} |16/04/2019 |14/11/2019 |21/11/2019 |- |40 |{{flag|South Africa}} |16/02/2023 |– |– |- |41 |{{flag|Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic}} |– |– |– |- |42 |{{flag|Senegal}} |– |03/08/2016 |16/08/2016 |- |43 |{{flag|Seychelles}} |– |– |– |- |44 |{{flag|Sierra Leone}} |29/01/2016 |– |– |- |45 |{{flag|Somalia}} |– |– |– |- |46 |{{flag|South Sudan}} |– |– |– |- |47 |{{flag|Sao Tome and Principe}} |29/01/2016 |25/09/2023 |15/02/2024 |- |48 |{{flag|Sudan}} |15/03/2023 |– |– |- |49 |{{flag|Eswatini}} |– |– |– |- |50 |{{flag|Tanzania}} |– |– |– |- |51 |{{flag|Togo}} |02/04/2019 |30/09/2021 |19/10/2021 |- |52 |{{flag|Tunisia}} |23/04/2019 |– |– |- |53 |{{flag|Uganda}} |– |– |– |- |54 |{{flag|Zambia}} |29/01/2016 |15/12/2020 |24/03/2021 |- |55 |{{flag|Zimbabwe}} |– |– |– |} 81aj8hx23nzo7lvux65rsobnou06z7q 69065 69064 2025-07-05T18:32:03Z Abdul-Rauf Moshie 1580 adey add content 69065 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox treaty|name=The Malabo Convention|long_name=African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection|image=File:Flag of the African Union.svg|image_size=100|type=Regional|date_drafted=2011|date_signed={{Start date|2014}}|location_signed=Malabo|date_sealed=May, 2023|date_ratified=May, 2023|date_effective=June 2023|parties=* {{flag|Algeria}} * {{flag|Angola}} * {{flag|Benin}} * {{flag|Botswana}} * {{flag|Burkina Faso}} * {{flag|Burundi}} * {{flag|Cameroon}} * {{flag|Central African Republic}} * {{flag|Cape Verde}} * {{flag|Chad}} * {{flag|Côte d’Ivoire}} * {{flag|Comoros}} * {{flag|Congo}} * {{flag|Djibouti}} * {{flag|Democratic Republic of the Congo}} * {{flag|Egypt}} * {{flag|Equatorial Guinea}} * {{flag|Eritrea}} * {{flag|Ethiopia}} * {{flag|Gabon}} * {{flag|Gambia}} * {{flag|Ghana}} * {{flag|Guinea-Bissau}} * {{flag|Guinea}} * {{flag|Kenya}} * {{flag|Libya}} * {{flag|Lesotho}} * {{flag|Liberia}} * {{flag|Madagascar}} * {{flag|Mali}} * {{flag|Malawi}} * {{flag|Morocco}} * {{flag|Mozambique}} * {{flag|Mauritania}} * {{flag|Mauritius}} * {{flag|Namibia}} * {{flag|Nigeria}} * {{flag|Niger}} * {{flag|Rwanda}} * {{flag|South Africa}} * {{flag|Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic}} * {{flag|Senegal}} * {{flag|Seychelles}} * {{flag|Sierra Leone}} * {{flag|Somalia}} * {{flag|South Sudan}} * {{flag|Sao Tome and Principe}} * {{flag|Sudan}} * {{flag|Eswatini}} * {{flag|Tanzania}} * {{flag|Togo}} * {{flag|Tunisia}} * {{flag|Uganda}} * {{flag|Zambia}} * {{flag|Zimbabwe}}|ratifiers=* {{flag|Angola}} * {{flag|Cape Verde}} * {{flag|Congo}} * {{flag|Ghana}} * {{flag|Guinea}} * {{flag|Mauritania}} * {{flag|Mozambique}} * {{flag|Namibia}} * {{flag|Niger}} * {{flag|Rwanda}} * {{flag|Senegal}} * {{flag|Sao Tome and Principe}} * {{flag|Togo}} * {{flag|Zambia}} * {{flag|Côte d’Ivoire}} * {{flag|Mauritius}}|languages=* [[English language|English]] * [[Arabic language|Arabic]] * [[French language|French]] * [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]|footnotes=* Total countries: 55 – Signatures: 21, Ratifications: 16, Deposits: 16}} Di African Union Convention wey dem dey call Malabo Convention na 2014 law wey di African Union (AU) take adopt to tackle cybercrime and protect data for Africa.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=Sheik|first=Shamaa|date=2023-04-24|title=AU Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection {{!}} Malabo Convention|url=https://www.michalsons.com/blog/au-convention-on-cyber-security-and-personal-data-protection-malabo-convention/65281|access-date=2025-06-22|website=Michalsons|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=THE MALABO ROADMAP: Approaches to promote data protection and data governance in Africa|url=https://dataprotection.africa/wp-content/uploads/malabo_roadmap_Sept_2022.pdf|website=Mozilla Africa Mradi}}</ref> == Di Content == Malabo Convention get three main chapters wey e divided into:<ref name=":2" /> === Electronic transactions matter dey here. === Di Convention talk say e get standard rules wey go cover plenty sides of e-commerce, like online ad, how dem go sabi electronic contracts, and how to secure electronic payment system.<ref name=":2" /> === Data protection chapter === Malabo Convention dey require all member states make dem build strong data protection framework. As Article 8(1) talk, e dey aim to make sure sey fundamental rights and public freedoms strong, especially the way we fit protect our physical data, and to punish any privacy wahala without touching the way information suppose flow free. — The African Union, African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection, Article 8(1) Also, Articles 11, 13, and 16 to 19 dey specify sey this framework go get national data protection authority (DPA) wey go dey operate independently and make sure sey personal data processing dey regulated well. The national framework go get essential data protection standards – like getting consent, making sure sey e dey legal, keeping confidentiality, and promoting transparency – while e dey guarantee people specific rights over their personal information.<ref name=":2" /> === Cybersecurity and cybercrime chapter === Malabo Convention dey criminalize various cyber activities and dey push each member state to create national cybersecurity policy and strategy. E dey call for formation of important institutions and mechanisms wey go fit detect and handle cybersecurity threats, uphold key cybersecurity values, and promote international cooperation. About cybercrime, the Convention dey urge states to set national laws and regulations wey go criminalize “acts wey fit affect the confidentiality, integrity, availability and survival of information and communication technology systems, the data dem dey process, and the network infrastructure wey dey under am..<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" /> == History == Di African Union bring dis convention come for 2011, wey dem wan make cybersecurity strong for di whole continent. Di things dem dey target na to manage electronic transactions, protect personal info, boost cybersecurity, promote e-governance, and fight cybercrime<ref>{{Cite web|title=CCDCOE|url=https://ccdcoe.org/organisations/au/|access-date=2025-06-22|website=ccdcoe.org}}</ref>. Di take wey dem go fit adopt di convention enter ground dey delay several times till 2014, when dem finally accept am for 23 Ordinary Session for Malabo wey dey Equatorial Guinea<ref>{{Cite web|title=CCDCOE|url=https://ccdcoe.org/incyder-articles/african-union-adopts-convention-on-cyber-security/#footnote_0_2659|access-date=2025-06-22|website=ccdcoe.org}}</ref>. But e no fit start work because Article 36 talk say di treaty go start when at least 15 member nations ratify am..<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|date=2025-01-29|title=What is the Malabo convention? - Diplo|url=https://www.diplomacy.edu/blog/what-is-the-malabo-convention/|access-date=2025-06-22|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection {{!}} African Union|url=https://au.int/en/treaties/african-union-convention-cyber-security-and-personal-data-protection|access-date=2025-06-22|website=au.int}}</ref> == Implementation == For 8 June 2023, di Malabo Convention start to work 30 days after Mauritania sign as di 15th member nation wey fit complete di Article 36 of di Malabo Convention.<ref name=":0" /> == For Sudan == Sudan sign di Malabo Convention for 15 March 2023 when African Union Summit dey happen for Addis Ababa. Di convention sign by di Acting Minister of Telecommunications and Digital Transformation, Adel Hassan Mohamed Al-Hussein, while officials from AU Commission and Sudan regulatory body dey there. But di country never ratify di convention yet.<ref>{{Cite web|title=وكالة السودان للأنباء - سونا {{!}} السودان يوقع على اتفاقية الاتحاد الافريقي للأمن السيبراني وحماية البيانات الشخصية|url=https://nabd.com/s/116794572-650371/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%86-%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%82%D8%B9-%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%89-%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%81%D8%A7%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AF-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%82%D9%8A-%D9%84%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%85%D9%86-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A-%D9%88%D8%AD%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AA-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D8%AE%D8%B5%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%88|access-date=2025-06-21|website=موقع نبض}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection {{!}} Digital Watch Observatory|url=https://dig.watch/resource/african-union-convention-on-cyber-security-and-personal-data-protection-african-union|access-date=2025-06-21|language=en-US}}</ref> == List of signatories and ratified countries == Dis na di list of countries wey don sign and ratify di African Union (AU) Convention for Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection.<ref>{{Cite web|title=LIST OF COUNTRIES WHICH HAVE SIGNED, RATIFIED/ACCEDED TO THE AFRICAN UNION CONVENTION ON CYBER SECURITY AND PERSONAL DATA PROTECTION|url=https://au.int/sites/default/files/treaties/29560-sl-AFRICAN_UNION_CONVENTION_ON_CYBER_SECURITY_AND_PERSONAL_DATA_PROTECTION.pdf|website=African Union}}</ref> {| class="wikitable sortable" |+'''African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection – Status by Country (as of 8 July 2024)''' !No. !Country !Date of Signature !Date of Ratification/Accession !Date Deposited |- |1 |{{flag|Algeria}} |– |– |– |- |2 |{{flag|Angola}} |– |21/02/2020 |11/05/2020 |- |3 |{{flag|Benin}} |28/01/2015 |– |– |- |4 |{{flag|Botswana}} |– |– |– |- |5 |{{flag|Burkina Faso}} |– |– |– |- |6 |{{flag|Burundi}} |– |– |– |- |7 |{{flag|Cameroon}} |12/08/2021 |– |– |- |8 |{{flag|Central African Republic}} |– |– |– |- |9 |{{flag|Cape Verde}} |– |13/11/2020 |05/02/2022 |- |10 |{{flag|Chad}} |14/06/2015 |– |– |- |11 |{{flag|Côte d’Ivoire}} |– |08/03/2023 |03/04/2023 |- |12 |{{flag|Comoros}} |29/01/2018 |– |– |- |13 |{{flag|Republic of the Congo}} |12/06/2015 |24/09/2020 |23/10/2020 |- |14 |{{flag|Djibouti}} |12/05/2023 |– |– |- |15 |{{flag|Democratic Republic of the Congo}} |– |– |– |- |16 |{{flag|Egypt}} |– |– |– |- |17 |{{flag|Equatorial Guinea}} |– |– |– |- |18 |{{flag|Eritrea}} |– |– |– |- |19 |{{flag|Ethiopia}} |– |– |– |- |20 |{{flag|Gabon}} |– |– |– |- |21 |{{flag|Gambia}} |02/12/2022 |– |– |- |22 |{{flag|Ghana}} |04/07/2017 |13/05/2019 |03/06/2019 |- |23 |{{flag|Guinea-Bissau}} |31/01/2015 |– |– |- |24 |{{flag|Guinea}} |– |31/07/2018 |16/10/2018 |- |25 |{{flag|Kenya}} |– |– |– |- |26 |{{flag|Libya}} |– |– |– |- |27 |{{flag|Lesotho}} |30/11/2023 |– |– |- |28 |{{flag|Liberia}} |– |– |– |- |29 |{{flag|Madagascar}} |– |– |– |- |30 |{{flag|Mali}} |– |– |– |- |31 |{{flag|Malawi}} |– |– |– |- |32 |{{flag|Morocco}} |– |– |– |- |33 |{{flag|Mozambique}} |29/06/2018 |02/12/2019 |21/01/2020 |- |34 |{{flag|Mauritania}} |26/02/2015 |19/04/2023 |09/05/2023 |- |35 |{{flag|Mauritius}} |– |06/03/2018 |14/03/2018 |- |36 |{{flag|Namibia}} |– |25/01/2019 |01/02/2019 |- |37 |{{flag|Nigeria}} |23/01/2024 |– |– |- |38 |{{flag|Niger}} |– |22/02/2022 |16/03/2022 |- |39 |{{flag|Rwanda}} |16/04/2019 |14/11/2019 |21/11/2019 |- |40 |{{flag|South Africa}} |16/02/2023 |– |– |- |41 |{{flag|Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic}} |– |– |– |- |42 |{{flag|Senegal}} |– |03/08/2016 |16/08/2016 |- |43 |{{flag|Seychelles}} |– |– |– |- |44 |{{flag|Sierra Leone}} |29/01/2016 |– |– |- |45 |{{flag|Somalia}} |– |– |– |- |46 |{{flag|South Sudan}} |– |– |– |- |47 |{{flag|Sao Tome and Principe}} |29/01/2016 |25/09/2023 |15/02/2024 |- |48 |{{flag|Sudan}} |15/03/2023 |– |– |- |49 |{{flag|Eswatini}} |– |– |– |- |50 |{{flag|Tanzania}} |– |– |– |- |51 |{{flag|Togo}} |02/04/2019 |30/09/2021 |19/10/2021 |- |52 |{{flag|Tunisia}} |23/04/2019 |– |– |- |53 |{{flag|Uganda}} |– |– |– |- |54 |{{flag|Zambia}} |29/01/2016 |15/12/2020 |24/03/2021 |- |55 |{{flag|Zimbabwe}} |– |– |– |} == References == lv08wsn8niaqdfmvw8xq3ilhw4mviia Sudanese Refugee Returns and Reintegration Challenge 0 18006 69109 67301 2025-07-05T21:59:01Z Yambutigra 1400 69109 wikitext text/x-wiki == '''Introduction''' == De war and its aftermath left millions of Sudanese people displaced within their own country and across borders. Political and physical infrastructures have been completely spoiled, and the capacity of local institutions and communities is far from ready to meet the expected massive return and reintegration of displaced people. Many of the displaced will be returning to areas which have suffered severely, not only from conflict but also from drought, and where basic social services are extremely limited or nonexistent. While protection and community-based reintegration activities in these areas are gradually taking root, the access from refugee settlements in hosting countries to areas of return presents an enormous challenge. UNHCR has set itself the target of helping some 64,000 people to repatriate before the end of 2005. Organized voluntary returns will begin after the end of the rainy season in October, conditions permitting. To effectively start organized returns and make the returnees’ journey home a safe one, timely and substantial financial resources are required. At this stage, urgent funds are needed to repair selected sections of the road network from neighboring countries to areas of return; reinforce bridges over which trucks carrying refugees and their belongings will cross; procure barges to cross the river Nile; procure trucks and convoy vehicles in areas where commercial transport is non-existent; set up and manage way stations and dispersal centres; establish an emergency response capacity to assist stranded spontaneously returning refugees and internally displaced persons; and demine routes of return. Countries of Asylum Expected Return in 2005 Main Area of Return Kenya Uganda 15,500 6,000 Equatoria Equatoria Ethiopia 25,000 Democratic Republic of the Congo Central African Republic 10,000 6,000 Egypt 1,500 Southern Blue Nile Yambio (W. Equatoria) Tambura (W. Equatoria) Khartoum/S. Sudan During the pre-rainy season from January to May 2005, UNHCR’s efforts have been focused on establishing a presence in the areas where returns are expected and undertakingactivities to support spontaneous returnees, refugees, and internally displaced persons, as well as receiving communities, to avert further displacement and create absorption capacity. UNHCR opened offices in Yambio, Kajo Keji, and Malakal in 2005 to complement its existing offices in Juba, Rumbek and Yei. The Office started building the capacity of local institutions to strengthen protection and deployed an emergency response team of sectoral experts in water, sanitation, health, education, community services, and income generation to kick-start community-based reintegration projects. 2 Return and Reintegration of Sudanese Refugees to Southern Sudan Executive Summary (continued)... The rainy and post-rainy seasons present greater challenges that will require matching financial resources. During the rainy season (June-September), UNHCR will engage in preparatory activities for organized voluntary repatriation and will start repatriation ac tivities after the rainy season. Meanwhile, refugees in neighboring countries who are not yet ready to return home will continue to receive protection and assistance. Structures, such as this destroyed school in Yambio, will be rehabilitated to facilitate the return and reintegration of refugees who have benefited from such services in the asylum countries. Photo: UNHCR/S. Malik To meet these daunting yet surmountable challenges, the sustained and long-term support of the international community is crucial. UNHCR will require USD 76.3 million for its regional operations, of which USD 54.5 million represents operations in South Sudan and USD 21.8 million represents activities in countries of asylum as well as headquarters support. UNHCR’s revised requirements for South Sudan are included in the June 2005 revision of the UN Work Plan. The purpose of this appeal is not only to highlight the needs in Sudan, but also to reflect the needs in countries of asylum which are not part of the UN Work Plan. This school in Yei is used by primary school children,includingg spontaneous returnees. Photo: UNHCR/ S. Malik 3 Return and Reintegration of Sudanese Refugees to Southern Sudan Background. The signing of the Comprehen siv e Peace Agreement (CPA) between the Government of Sudan and the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement (SPLM) in Janu ary 2005 ends one of the longest running civil conflicts in Africa and paves the way for the recovery and reconstruction of South Sudan and the return of ml lions of uprooted people . According to the interim figures recently released by the Sudan Relief and Rehabilitation Commission (SRRC)1 more than 500,000 refugees and internally displaced persons already returned to South Sudan and the Transitional Areas between January 2004 and March 2005. However, large numbers of people who are still displaced and wish to return home simply do not have the means to do so at this stage. At the same time, an estimated 320,000 new displacements have been recorded in the South2, while new Sudanese refugees have arrived in Uganda and Kenya. In Sudan, the challenges for the post conflict return and reintegration of refu gees and internally displaced persons are enormous and the task at hand is beyond any single agency’s capability. The lack of capacity in the country is evident at all levels and in all sectors. In a politically fragile environment, typical of post conflict situations, returnees and their communities must not be left in deprived conditions for extended periods of time without means and opportunities for the future, in particular with regard to protection, basic services, and livelihoods. Many may opt to return to their countries of asylum or become internally displaced persons again. This phenomenon of backflows is often witnessed in repatriation operations when return and reintegration are not sustainable due to the lack of adequate financial commitment. Similarly, those who wish to return home should be provided with the means to do so, de sustainable return of millions of displaced people will contribute to the consolidation of peace. People in South Sudan are rebuilding their lives and creating income-generating opportunities such as these local shops in South Sudan. Photo: UNHCR == <sub>'''References'''</sub> == 4 1 SRRC is the humanitarian wing of SPLM<ref>[https://www.bing.com/search?pglt=43&q=Return+and+Reintegration+of+Cameroonian+Refugees+from+Nigeria&cvid=c71934f5a8694837bb8e12ad84641ada&gs_lcrp=EgRlZGdlKgYIABBFGDkyBggAEEUYOdIBCDEzNTBqMGoxqAIAsAIA&FORM=ANNTA1&DAF0=1&PC=U531 Return and Reintegration of Cameroonian Refugees from Nigeria - Search]</ref> h247mgttx5a1hl1t7k4bivb48wmktp7 69125 69109 2025-07-05T22:42:12Z Yambutigra 1400 69125 wikitext text/x-wiki == '''Introduction''' == De war and its aftermath left millions of Sudanese people displaced within their own country and across borders. Political and physical infrastructures have been completely spoiled, and de capacity of local institutions and communities is far from ready to meet de expected massive return and reintegration of displaced people. Many of de displaced will be returning to areas which have suffered severely, not only from conflict but also from drought, and where basic social services are extremely limited or nonexistent. While protection and community-based reintegration activities in these areas are gradually taking root, de access from refugee settlements in hosting countries to areas of return presents an enormous challenge. [https://www.unhcr.org/ UNHCR] has set itself de target of helping some 64,000 people to repatriate before de end of 2005. Organized voluntary returns will begin after de end of de rainy season in October, conditions permitting. To effectively start organized returns and make de returnees’ journey home a safe one, timely and substantial financial resources are required. At this stage, urgent funds are needed to repair selected sections of de road network from neighboring countries to areas of return; reinforce bridges over which trucks carrying refugees and demma belongings will cross; procure barges to cross the river Nile; procure trucks and convoy vehicles in areas where commercial transport is non-existent; set up and manage way stations and dispersal centers; establish an emergency response capacity to assist stranded spontaneously returning refugees and internally displaced persons; and demine routes of return. Countries of Asylum Expected Return in 2005 Main Area of Return Kenya Uganda 15,500 6,000 Equatoria Equatoria Ethiopia 25,000 Democratic Republic of the Congo Central African Republic 10,000 6,000 Egypt 1,500 Southern Blue Nile Yambio (W. Equatoria) Tambura (W. Equatoria) Khartoum/S. Sudan During the pre-rainy season from January to May 2005, UNHCR’s efforts have been focused on establishing a presence in the areas where returns are expected and undertaking activities to support spontaneous returnees, refugees, and internally displaced persons, as well as receiving communities, to avert further displacement and create absorption capacity. [https://www.unhcr.org/ UNHCR] opened offices in Yambio, Kajo Keji, and Malakal in 2005 to complement its existing offices in Juba, Rumbek and Yei. The office started building the capacity of local institutions to strengthen protection and deployed an emergency response team of sectoral experts in water, sanitation, health, education, community services, and income generation to kick-start community-based reintegration projects. Return and Reintegration of Sudanese Refugees to Southern Sudan Executive Summary De rainy and post-rainy seasons present greater challenges that will require matching financial resources. During the rainy season (June-September), UNHCR will engage in preparatory activities for organized voluntary repatriation and will start repatriation activities after the rainy season. Meanwhile, refugees in neighboring countries who are not yet ready to return home will continue to receive protection and assistance. Structures, such as this destroyed school in Yambio, will be rehabilitated to facilitate de return and reintegration of refugees who have benefited from such services in the asylum countries. Photo: UNHCR/S. Malik To meet these daunting yet surmountable challenges, the sustained and long-term support of the international community is crucial. UNHCR will require USD 76.3 million for its regional operations, of which USD 54.5 million represents operations in South Sudan and USD 21.8 million represents activities in countries of asylum as well as headquarters support. UNHCR’s revised requirements for South Sudan are included in the June 2005 revision of the UN Work Plan. The purpose of this appeal is not only to highlight the needs in Sudan, but also to reflect the needs in countries of asylum that are not part of the UN Work Plan. This school in Yei is used by primary school children, including spontaneous returnees. Photo: UNHCR/S. Malik 3 Return and Reintegration of Sudanese Refugees to Southern Sudan Background. The signing of the ComprehensivePeace Agreement (CPA) between the Government of Sudan and the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement (SPLM) in January2005 ends one of the longest-running civil conflicts in Africa and paves the way for the recovery and reconstruction of South Sudan and the return of millions of uprooted people . According to the interim figures recently released by the Sudan Relief and Rehabilitation Commission (SRRC)1 more than 500,000 refugees and internally displaced persons already returned to South Sudan and the Transitional Areas between January 2004 and March 2005. However, large numbers of people who are still displaced and wish to return home simply do not have the means to do so at this stage. At the same time, an estimated 320,000 new displacements have been recorded in the South2, while new Sudanese refugees have arrived in Uganda and Kenya. In Sudan, the challenges for the post conflict return and reintegration of refu gees and internally displaced persons are enormous, and the task at hand is beyond any single agency’s capability. The lack of capacity in the country is evident at all levels and in all sectors. In a politically fragile environment, typical of post conflict situations, returnees and their communities must not be left in deprived conditions for extended periods of time without means and opportunities for the future, in particular with regard to protection, basic services, and livelihoods. Many may opt to return to their countries of asylum or become internally displaced persons again. This phenomenon of backflows is often witnessed in repatriation operations when return and reintegration are not sustainable due to the lack of adequate financial commitment. Similarly, those who wish to return home should be provided with the means to do so, de sustainable return of millions of displaced people will contribute to the consolidation of peace. People in South Sudan are rebuilding their lives and creating income-generating opportunities such as these local shops in South Sudan. Photo: UNHCR == <sub>'''References'''</sub> == 4 1 SRRC is the humanitarian wing of SPLM<ref>[https://www.bing.com/search?pglt=43&q=Return+and+Reintegration+of+Cameroonian+Refugees+from+Nigeria&cvid=c71934f5a8694837bb8e12ad84641ada&gs_lcrp=EgRlZGdlKgYIABBFGDkyBggAEEUYOdIBCDEzNTBqMGoxqAIAsAIA&FORM=ANNTA1&DAF0=1&PC=U531 Return and Reintegration of Cameroonian Refugees from Nigeria - Search]</ref> ojjzngu7m5pzkxrof3na51tkb1nvwdz Repatriation of the Makonde Mask to Tanzania 0 18088 69106 67100 2025-07-05T21:53:02Z Yambutigra 1400 69106 wikitext text/x-wiki The Makonde mask, e be important cultural artifact, dem return am go Tanzania after long wahala and as e get plenty history on how dem thief am and later find am. <ref>[https://www.bing.com/copilotsearch?q=repatriation+of+the+makonde+mask+to+tanzania&FORM=CSSCOP repatriation of the makonde mask to tanzania]</ref> Background of the Makonde Mask The Makonde Mask, na dem Makonde people for Tanzania dey create am, e be big cultural symbol. E dey show the artistry and cultural things wey the Makonde dey do, especially for male initiation ceremony and ritual performances. For 1984, dem thief the mask from National Museum of Tanzania during break-in, plus some other artifacts. <ref>[https://www.bing.com/copilotsearch?q=repatriation+of+the+makonde+mask+to+tanzania&FORM=CSSCOP repatriation of the makonde mask to tanzania]</ref> Modern Ghana Repatriation Efforts The journey to take back the Makonde Mask no be small matter o, e involve plenty legal and diplomatic talks. The Barbier-Mueller Museum for Geneva, Switzerland buy the mask for 1985 without sabi the illegal background. After one Italian professor shout am in 1990 say the mask fit don thief from Tanzania, the museum start dey talk how to return am. <ref>[https://www.bing.com/copilotsearch?q=repatriation+of+the+makonde+mask+to+tanzania&FORM=CSSCOP repatriation of the makonde mask to tanzania]</ref> Modern Ghana E take twenty years for negotiation, involve Tanzania government and International Council of Museums (ICOM) to help with the repatriation matter. <ref>[https://www.bing.com/copilotsearch?q=repatriation+of+the+makonde+mask+to+tanzania&FORM=CSSCOP repatriation of the makonde mask to tanzania]</ref> The return finalize in May 2010, during ceremony for Paris, where representatives from Tanzania and the museum sign agreement to give back the mask to Tanzania. This agreement be based on goodwill, but e show the long fight to correct the historical wrongs of colonialism and theft of cultural property .Dem repatriation wahala dey show say di world don recognize wetin be di right thing, wey be to return culture things back to where dem come from. For 2019, dem return one Makonde mask wey make sense, e show say countries like France dey return cultural property wey dem take during colonial time back to Tanzania. Dis one dey explain say plenty people dey push for solve di wahala wey colonialism cause and di need for reparative justice for culture matter. Di return of di Makonde Mask to Tanzania too dey talk about di global gist of culture restitution. Di legal forms wey UNESCO and ICOM set up dey help with di talk, but plenty challenges still dey, especially for items wey dem take during colonial rule. Di process need plenty gist, understanding, and cooperation between museums and di countries wey dem take di things from to make sure say di culture artifacts dey preserved and celebrated for di right places. In summary, di repatriation of di Makonde Mask to Tanzania na big step for cultural restoration, e dey show both di wahala wey dey for historical claims and di increasing awareness of di rights wey individuals and nations get to their cultural heritage. Di ongoing talk around dis artifacts no be just to return di things, but to heal historical wounds and celebrate cultural identities, na wetin be di right thing. <ref>[https://www.bing.com/copilotsearch?q=repatriation+of+the+makonde+mask+to+tanzania&FORM=CSSCOP repatriation of the makonde mask to tanzania]</ref> 4bqp5xcnybnkj9xurofq1ar1lp160cd Yam (vegetable) 0 18157 69159 67337 2025-07-06T00:10:10Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 69159 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Yam''' be de common name give sam plant species insyd de genus ''Dioscorea'' (family Dioscoreaceae) wey dey form edible tubers (sam oda species insyd de genus be toxic). Yams be perennial herbaceous vines native to Africa, Asia, den de Americas wey e be cultivated for de consumption of dema starchy tubers insyd chaw temperate den tropical regions. De tubers demaselves, dem sanso call "yams", dey cam insyd a variety of forms wey dey owe to chaw cultivars den related species. == Description == A monocot wey relate to lilies den grasses, yams be vigorous herbaceous, perennially dey grow vines from a tuber.<ref name="cabi2">{{cite web|date=2016|title=''Dioscorea alata'' (white yam)|url=https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/19293|url-status=live|access-date=5 December 2017|publisher=Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International}}</ref> Sam 870 species of yams be known,<ref name="cabi2" /> a few of wich be widely grown for dema edible tuber buh odas of wich be toxic (such as ''D. communis''). Yam plants fi grow up to {{convert|15|m|ft|-1|abbr=off}} in length den {{convert|7|to|15|cm|in|frac=2|abbr=off}} high.<ref name="cabi2" /> De tuber fi grow into de soil up to {{convert|1.5|m|ft|abbr=on|frac=2}} deep.<ref name="cabi2" /> De plant dey disperse by seed.<ref name="cabi2" /> De edible tuber get a rough skin wey be difficult to peel buh readily soften by cooking. De skins dey vary in color from dark brown to light pink. De majority, anaa meat, of de vegetable be composed of a much softer substance wey dey range insyd color from white anaa yellow to purple anaa pink insyd mature yams. == Etymology == De name "yam" dey appear to derive from Portuguese ''inhame'' anaa Canarian Spanish ''ñame'', wich derive from Fula, one of de West African languages during trade.<ref name=":0">[https://www.etymonline.com/word/yam "Yam"]. ''Online Etymology Dictionary''. Douglas Harper. 2017. Retrieved 5 December 2017.</ref> However, insyd Portuguese, dis name commonly dey refer to de taro plant (''Colocasia esculenta'') from de genus ''Colocasia'', as opposed to ''Dioscorea''.<ref>{{cite web|date=2020|title=Inhame dos Açores|url=https://tradicional.dgadr.gov.pt/pt/cat/outros-produtos-vegetais/771-inhame-dos-acores|url-status=live|access-date=13 August 2020|publisher=Produtos Tradicionais Portugueses}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2020|title=Sabores dos Açores: Inhame|url=https://www.clubevinhosportugueses.pt/turismo/sabores-dos-acores-inhame/|url-status=live|access-date=13 August 2020|publisher=Clube Vinhos Portugueses}}</ref> De main derivations borrow from verbs wey dey mean "to eat".<ref name=":0" /> True yams get various common names across multiple world regions.<ref name="cabi2" /> Insyd sam places, other (unrelated) root vegetables sam times be referred to as "yams", wey dey include:<ref name="cabi2" /> * Insyd de United States, sweet potatoes (''Ipomoea batatas''), especially those plus orange flesh, often be referred to as "yams"<ref>{{cite web|title=What is the difference between sweet potatoes and yams?|url=https://www.loc.gov/rr/scitech/mysteries/sweetpotato.html|website=LOC.gov}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Economic Research Service|url=http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/agoutlook/Nov2002/ao296e.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150315002720/http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/agoutlook/Nov2002/ao296e.pdf|archive-date=15 March 2015|access-date=26 November 2009}}</ref> * Insyd Australia, na de tubers of de ''Microseris walteri'', anaa yam daisy, be a staple food of Aboriginal Australians insyd sam regions.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Pascoe|first=Bruce|title=Dark Emu, Black Seeds: Agriculture or Accident?|date=2014|publisher=Magabala Books|isbn=978-1-922142-43-6|pages=22–24}}</ref> * Insyd New Zealand, oca (''Oxalis tuberosa'') be typically referred to as "yam".<ref>[http://www.garden-nz.co.nz/grow-your-own/grow-your-own/yams-grow-your-own.html ''"...but in New Zealand we call them yams."''], garden-nz.co.nz</ref><ref name="jsfa">{{cite journal |author1=Albihn, P.B.E. |author2=Savage, G.P. |date=18 June 2001 |title=The effect of cooking on the location and concentration of oxalate in three cultivars of New Zealand-grown oca (''Oxalis tuberosa'' Mol) |journal=Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture |volume=81 |issue=10 |pages=1027–1033 |bibcode=2001JSFA...81.1027A |doi=10.1002/jsfa.890}}</ref> * Insyd Malaysia den [[Singapore]], taro (''Colocasia esculenta'') be referred to as "yam".<ref>{{cite web|last=Lam|first=Lim Chin|title=I yam not taro|url=http://thestar.com.my/english/story.asp?file=/2010/7/16/lifefocus/6651716&sec=lifefocus|url-status=live|website=The Star}}</ref> * Insyd Africa, South den Southeast Asia as well as de tropical Pacific islands dem dey grow ''Amorphophallus paeoniifolius'' wey e be known as "elephant foot yam".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Santosa |first1=Edi |last2=Lian |first2=Chun Lan |last3=Sugiyama |first3=Nobuo |last4=Misra |first4=Raj Shekhar |last5=Boonkorkaew |first5=Patchareeya |last6=Thanomchit |first6=Kanokwan |last7=Chiang |first7=Tzen-Yuh |display-authors=1 |date=28 June 2017 |title=Population structure of elephant foot yams (''Amorphophallus paeoniifolius'' (Dennst.) Nicolson) in Asia |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=12 |issue=6 |page=e0180000 |bibcode=2017PLoSO..1280000S |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0180000 |pmc=5489206 |pmid=28658282 |doi-access=free}}</ref> == Distribution den habitat == Yams be native to Africa, Asia, den de Americas.<ref name="cabi2" /> Na three species be independently domesticated on those continents: ''D. rotundata'' (Africa), ''D.&nbsp;alata'' (Asia), den ''D.&nbsp;trifida'' (South America).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nora Scarcelli |display-authors=etal |date=1 May 2019 |title=Yam genomics supports West Africa as a major cradle of crop domestication |journal=Science Advances |volume=5 |issue=5 |pages=eaaw1947 |bibcode=2019SciA....5.1947S |doi=10.1126/sciadv.aaw1947 |pmc=6527260 |pmid=31114806 |doi-access=free}}</ref> == Ecology == Sam yams be invasive plants, dem often consider a noxious weed outsyd cultivated areas.<ref name="cabi2" /> == Cultivation == === Major cultivated species === ==== ''D. rotundata'' and ''D. cayennensis'' ==== ==== ''D. alata'' ==== ==== ''D. polystachya'' ==== ==== ''D. bulbifera'' ==== ==== ''D. esculenta'' ==== ==== ''D. dumetorum'' ==== ==== ''D. trifida'' ==== === Wild taxa === ==== ''D. hirtiflora'' subsp. ''pedicellata'' ==== ==== ''D. japonica'' ==== === Production === Insyd 2020, na world production of yams be {{Convert|75|e6MT|abbr=off}}, wey [[Nigeria]] lead plus 67% of de total (table). [[File:Yamoutput.png|center|thumb|Map of worldwide yam production wey dey show limited production range (Caribbean, West Africa, den Polynesia)]] == References == <references /> == External links == auepy4kiceql3g4f09amfgv9i5gmni8 The Role of African Union in Repatriation of Cultural Property 0 18184 69120 67544 2025-07-05T22:36:05Z Yambutigra 1400 69120 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introductions == [[Africa Union|African Union]]<ref name=":0">[[African Union]]</ref><ref name=":0" /> dey play big role for talk say make dem bring back our cultural property, focus on how to return stolen artifacts come Africa as e be important way to restore our heritage and identity.<ref><nowiki>https://core.unesco.org</nowiki> › en › project</ref> Strategic Frameworks and Initiatives Agenda 2063: African Union de put the principles of cultural heritage repatriation for Agenda 2063 wey dey show vision for Africa transformation. Dis one include say make dem promote return of African cultural heritage as part of healing and rebuilding after colonialism and exploitation.<ref><nowiki>https://core.unesco.org</nowiki> › en › project</ref> == '''Continental Experts’ Workshop:''' == For 2021, African Union hold Continental Experts’ Workshop wey be about how to bring back our cultural property, wey dem wan fit come together as Africa wey go strong on top the matter. Dis event focused on how to set framework wey go make dem fit negotiate and return cultural property wey dem take by force, and e show sey African Union dey serious to settle matter wey concern our cultural heritage. Dis workshop bring together cultural experts, policy people, and stakeholders as dem dey work on how to build network and share better ways to handle repatriation of cultural property. Collaborative International Efforts: AU dey work with organizations like UNESCO, wey dem fit build strong partnership wey dey focus on fight against illegal trafficking of cultural heritage and make the legal ways strong for restitution work. Dis international teamwork be very important as cultural property matter dey happen all over the world. == '''Legal and Ethical Framework''' == 1970 UNESCO Convention: African Union dey support the 1970 UNESCO Convention wey wan protect cultural heritage and stop illegal trading. Dem dey encourage member states to sign and follow dis convention so dem fit increase capacity to reclaim cultural property.<ref><nowiki>https://core.unesco.org</nowiki> › en › project</ref> African Charter for African Cultural Renaissance: Dis charter dey show say we need to follow strategies wey go bring cultural properties back to their original countries, stress the responsibility of African states to handle looting and trafficking of cultural artifacts.<ref><nowiki>https://core.unesco.org</nowiki> › en › project</ref> Support for Local Capacities: African Union sabi say e dey important to boost local capacities in African nations to fit safeguard returned artifacts well. Dem dey advocate to build cultural institutions wey go fit manage and preserve local heritage, wey dey crucial for the overall restitution process.<ref><nowiki>https://core.unesco.org</nowiki> › en › project</ref> == '''Challenges and Outlook''' == Even though African Union don make big move in advocating for the repatriation, challenges still dey. Dem include how to navigate complex international laws, balance different stakeholders’ interests, and handle concerns about African institutions’ ability to manage returned artifacts well.<ref><nowiki>https://core.unesco.org</nowiki> › en › project</ref> . E be true say di work no dey easy, but di AU dey try make sure say we fit bring back our culture and heritage wey dem take from us. Dem dey work hard to shape better future wey go show off Africa deep history and culture. Through constant talk, negotiation, and joining forces, di AU dey make am clear say dem go bring back di cultural treasures wey colonizers carry go, so dat dem go fit help build our identity and cultural landscape.<ref><nowiki>https://core.unesco.org</nowiki> › en › project</ref> == References == 222bbhffaszl6dp14p2npkqk3qb1t00 69121 69120 2025-07-05T22:36:46Z Yambutigra 1400 69121 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introductions == [[Africa Union|African Union]]<ref name=":0">[[African Union]]</ref><ref name=":0" /> dey play big role for talk say make dem bring back our cultural property, focus on how to return stolen artifacts come Africa as e be important way to restore our heritage and identity.<ref><nowiki>https://core.unesco.org</nowiki> › en › project</ref> == Strategic Frameworks and Initiatives == Agenda 2063: African Union de put the principles of cultural heritage repatriation for Agenda 2063 wey dey show vision for Africa transformation. Dis one include say make dem promote return of African cultural heritage as part of healing and rebuilding after colonialism and exploitation.<ref><nowiki>https://core.unesco.org</nowiki> › en › project</ref> == '''Continental Experts’ Workshop:''' == For 2021, African Union hold Continental Experts’ Workshop wey be about how to bring back our cultural property, wey dem wan fit come together as Africa wey go strong on top the matter. Dis event focused on how to set framework wey go make dem fit negotiate and return cultural property wey dem take by force, and e show sey African Union dey serious to settle matter wey concern our cultural heritage. Dis workshop bring together cultural experts, policy people, and stakeholders as dem dey work on how to build network and share better ways to handle repatriation of cultural property. Collaborative International Efforts: AU dey work with organizations like UNESCO, wey dem fit build strong partnership wey dey focus on fight against illegal trafficking of cultural heritage and make the legal ways strong for restitution work. Dis international teamwork be very important as cultural property matter dey happen all over the world. == '''Legal and Ethical Framework''' == 1970 UNESCO Convention: African Union dey support the 1970 UNESCO Convention wey wan protect cultural heritage and stop illegal trading. Dem dey encourage member states to sign and follow dis convention so dem fit increase capacity to reclaim cultural property.<ref><nowiki>https://core.unesco.org</nowiki> › en › project</ref> African Charter for African Cultural Renaissance: Dis charter dey show say we need to follow strategies wey go bring cultural properties back to their original countries, stress the responsibility of African states to handle looting and trafficking of cultural artifacts.<ref><nowiki>https://core.unesco.org</nowiki> › en › project</ref> Support for Local Capacities: African Union sabi say e dey important to boost local capacities in African nations to fit safeguard returned artifacts well. Dem dey advocate to build cultural institutions wey go fit manage and preserve local heritage, wey dey crucial for the overall restitution process.<ref><nowiki>https://core.unesco.org</nowiki> › en › project</ref> == '''Challenges and Outlook''' == Even though African Union don make big move in advocating for the repatriation, challenges still dey. Dem include how to navigate complex international laws, balance different stakeholders’ interests, and handle concerns about African institutions’ ability to manage returned artifacts well.<ref><nowiki>https://core.unesco.org</nowiki> › en › project</ref> . E be true say di work no dey easy, but di AU dey try make sure say we fit bring back our culture and heritage wey dem take from us. Dem dey work hard to shape better future wey go show off Africa deep history and culture. Through constant talk, negotiation, and joining forces, di AU dey make am clear say dem go bring back di cultural treasures wey colonizers carry go, so dat dem go fit help build our identity and cultural landscape.<ref><nowiki>https://core.unesco.org</nowiki> › en › project</ref> == References == crt1ao0blilhzmt5h0u8kw9h3ka532f 69124 69121 2025-07-05T22:42:08Z Yambutigra 1400 69124 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introductions == [[Africa Union|African Union]]<ref name=":0">[[African Union]]</ref><ref name=":0" /> dey play big role for talk say make dem bring back our cultural property, focus on how to return stolen artifacts come Africa as e be important way to restore our heritage and identity.<ref><nowiki>https://core.unesco.org</nowiki> › en › project</ref> == Strategic Frameworks and Initiatives == Agenda 2063: African Union de put the principles of cultural heritage repatriation for Agenda 2063 wey dey show vision for Africa transformation. Dis one include say make dem promote return of African cultural heritage as part of healing and rebuilding after colonialism<ref>colonialism</ref> and exploitation.<ref><nowiki>https://core.unesco.org</nowiki> › en › project</ref> == '''Continental Experts’ Workshop:''' == For 2021, African Union hold Continental Experts’ Workshop wey be about how to bring back our cultural property, wey dem wan fit come together as Africa wey go strong on top the matter. Dis event focused on how to set framework wey go make dem fit negotiate and return cultural property wey dem take by force, and e show sey African Union dey serious to settle matter wey concern our cultural heritage. Dis workshop bring together cultural experts, policy people, and stakeholders as dem dey work on how to build network and share better ways to handle repatriation of cultural property. Collaborative International Efforts: AU dey work with organizations like UNESCO<ref>UNESCO</ref>, wey dem fit build strong partnership wey dey focus on fight against illegal trafficking of cultural heritage and make the legal ways strong for restitution work. Dis international teamwork be very important as cultural property matter dey happen all over the world. == '''Legal and Ethical Framework''' == 1970 UNESCO Convention: African Union dey support the 1970 UNESCO Convention wey wan protect cultural heritage and stop illegal trading. Dem dey encourage member states to sign and follow dis convention so dem fit increase capacity to reclaim cultural property.<ref><nowiki>https://core.unesco.org</nowiki> › en › project</ref> African Charter for African Cultural Renaissance: Dis charter dey show say we need to follow strategies wey go bring cultural properties back to their original countries, stress the responsibility of African states to handle looting and trafficking of cultural artifacts.<ref><nowiki>https://core.unesco.org</nowiki> › en › project</ref> Support for Local Capacities: African Union sabi say e dey important to boost local capacities in African nations to fit safeguard returned artifacts well. Dem dey advocate to build cultural institutions wey go fit manage and preserve local heritage, wey dey crucial for the overall restitution process.<ref><nowiki>https://core.unesco.org</nowiki> › en › project</ref> == '''Challenges and Outlook''' == Even though African Union don make big move in advocating for the repatriation, challenges still dey. Dem include how to navigate complex international laws, balance different stakeholders’ interests, and handle concerns about African institutions’ ability to manage returned artifacts well.<ref><nowiki>https://core.unesco.org</nowiki> › en › project</ref> . E be true say di work no dey easy, but di AU dey try make sure say we fit bring back our culture and heritage wey dem take from us. Dem dey work hard to shape better future wey go show off Africa deep history and culture. Through constant talk, negotiation, and joining forces, di AU dey make am clear say dem go bring back di cultural treasures wey colonizers carry go, so dat dem go fit help build our identity and cultural landscape.<ref><nowiki>https://core.unesco.org</nowiki> › en › project</ref> == References == 0ktc5hn1jjs5kugvkx6nzf1dq3sw9j5 69128 69124 2025-07-05T22:48:33Z Yambutigra 1400 69128 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introductions == [[Africa Union|African Union]]<ref name=":0">[[African Union]]</ref><ref name=":0" /> dey play big role for talk say make dem bring back our cultural property, focus on how to return stolen artifacts come Africa as e be important way to restore our heritage and identity.<ref><nowiki>https://core.unesco.org</nowiki> › en › project</ref> == Strategic Frameworks and Initiatives == Agenda 2063: African Union de put the principles of cultural heritage repatriation for Agenda 2063 wey dey show vision for Africa transformation. Dis one include say make dem promote return of African cultural heritage as part of healing and rebuilding after colonialism<ref>colonialism</ref> and exploitation.<ref><nowiki>https://core.unesco.org</nowiki> › en › project</ref> == '''Continental Experts’ Workshop:''' == For 2021, African Union hold Continental Experts’ Workshop wey be about how to bring back our cultural property, wey dem wan fit come together as Africa wey go strong on top the matter. Dis event focused on how to set framework wey go make dem fit negotiate and return cultural property wey dem take by force, and e show sey African Union dey serious to settle matter wey concern our cultural heritage. Dis workshop bring together cultural experts, policy people, and stakeholders as dem dey work on how to build network and share better ways to handle repatriation of cultural property. Collaborative International Efforts: AU dey work with organizations like UNESCO<ref>UNESCO</ref>, wey dem fit build strong partnership wey dey focus on fight against illegal trafficking of cultural heritage and make the legal ways strong for restitution work. Dis international teamwork be very important as cultural property matter dey happen all over the world. == '''Legal and Ethical Framework''' == 1970 UNESCO Convention: African Union dey support the 1970 UNESCO Convention wey wan protect cultural heritage and stop illegal trading. Dem dey encourage member states to sign and follow dis convention so dem fit increase capacity to reclaim cultural property.<ref><nowiki>https://core.unesco.org</nowiki> › en › project</ref> African Charter for African Cultural Renaissance:<ref>African Cultural Renaissance</ref> Dis charter dey show say we need to follow strategies wey go bring cultural properties back to their original countries, stress the responsibility of African states to handle looting and trafficking of cultural artifacts.<ref><nowiki>https://core.unesco.org</nowiki> › en › project</ref> Support for Local Capacities: De African Union sabi say e dey important to boost local capacities in African nations to fit safeguard returned artifacts well. Dem dey advocate to build cultural institutions wey go fit manage and preserve local heritage, wey dey crucial for the overall restitution process.<ref><nowiki>https://core.unesco.org</nowiki> › en › project</ref> == '''Challenges and Outlook''' == Even though African Union don make big move in advocating for the repatriation, challenges still dey. Dem include how to navigate complex international laws, balance different stakeholders’ interests, and handle concerns about African institutions’ ability to manage returned artifacts well.<ref><nowiki>https://core.unesco.org</nowiki> › en › project</ref> . E be true say di work no dey easy, but di AU dey try make sure say we fit bring back our culture and heritage wey dem take from us. Dem dey work hard to shape better future wey go show off Africa deep history and culture. Through constant talk, negotiation, and joining forces, di AU dey make am clear say dem go bring back di cultural treasures wey colonizers carry go, so dat dem go fit help build our identity and cultural landscape.<ref><nowiki>https://core.unesco.org</nowiki> › en › project</ref> == References == 2otvpa8xc60gfyketixd4tkkar80t4z Ghana’s Call for Return of Ancestral Remains from UK Institutions 0 18186 69111 67554 2025-07-05T22:04:09Z Yambutigra 1400 69111 wikitext text/x-wiki Ghana dey push make dem return our ancestors’ bones and cultural things wey UK institutions hold as part of bigger movement for justice and to sabi our history well well.<ref>[https://trt.global/afrika-english/article/16780863 Return of Ghana's looted artefacts from UK on loan a ‘betrayal of ancestors' - TRT Global]</ref> == '''Historical Context''' == Ghana dey fight make dem bring back our forefathers’ bones wey colonizers take carry go. E no be small matter o! For 1874, when Anglo-Asante War happen, British soldiers invade Asante kingdom, carry plenty royal things plus gold and human remains wey dem wan use for science and show-off. Now, dem dey keep am for places like British Museum and Victoria and Albert Museum for UK. Dem still dey hold am be like colonial gbe na, wey dey pain we and scatter spiritual peace. Plenty people dey shout make dem bring our things back for Ghana and everywhere for Africa.<ref>[https://trt.global/afrika-english/article/16780863 Return of Ghana's looted artefacts from UK on loan a ‘betrayal of ancestors' - TRT Global]</ref> == '''Recent Developments''' == For 2023 and 2024, Ghana dey push hard make dem bring back dem things wey dem carry go, no be only physical artifacts but especially human bones wey dem take without permission. This one dey follow wetin plenty African countries dey do, wey dey shout make dem return cultural heritage. For January 2024, British Museum and Victoria and Albert Museum talk say dem wan loan 32 items back to Ghana for three years, including plenty important things from Asante royal collection. But plenty Ghanaians no happy with this one, dem dey see am as betrayal to dem ancestors.<ref>[https://trt.global/afrika-english/article/16780863 Return of Ghana's looted artefacts from UK on loan a ‘betrayal of ancestors' - TRT Global]</ref> == '''Ethical Matter and Policy Suggestions''' == The All-Party Parliamentary Group for African Reparations (APPG-AR) for de UK produces reports wey dey talk about returning human bones and take care of ancestral things well. Dem suggest say make dem no sell or display African ancestral bones for UK places unless dem get consent first. Dis one show say museums get de responsibility to handle things wey dem collect during colonial time with respect and transparency.<ref>[https://trt.global/afrika-english/article/16780863 Return of Ghana's looted artefacts from UK on loan a ‘betrayal of ancestors' - TRT Global]</ref> == '''Cultural Importance''' == The things wey dem dey talk about no be just artifacts; dem dey represent important parts of Ghanaian identity, spirituality, and heritage. If these cultural treasures no dey, e go affect community identity, spiritual connection, and the practice of cultural rites. Advocates dey argue say returning these things fit help bring back dignity and heal historical wounds, plus dem talk say how we dey interact with these cultural things now suppose show respect for where dem come from and how important dem be.<ref>[https://trt.global/afrika-english/article/16780863 Return of Ghana's looted artefacts from UK on loan a ‘betrayal of ancestors' - TRT Global]</ref> '''Conclusion''' Ghana dey call make dem bring back our ancestors' remains wey dem keep for UK institutions. Dis matter no simple, e dey mix history wahala, ethics, and our culture. Dis effort show say we dey try fix colonial wrongs and sabi say our heritage dey important for national pride and community identity. As people dey talk, many dey believe say dis movement no just dey tackle wetin don happen before, e go also open way for better international cultural rela<ref>[https://trt.global/afrika-english/article/16780863 Return of Ghana's looted artefacts from UK on loan a ‘betrayal of ancestors' - TRT Global]</ref> nffm2flohku5kvkj0ockusnjsb2wvgw 69126 69111 2025-07-05T22:45:31Z Yambutigra 1400 69126 wikitext text/x-wiki Ghana dey push make dem return our ancestors’ bones and cultural things wey UK institutions hold as part of bigger movement for justice and to sabi our history well well.<ref>[https://trt.global/afrika-english/article/16780863 Return of Ghana's looted artefacts from UK on loan a ‘betrayal of ancestors' - TRT Global]</ref> == '''Historical Context''' == Ghana dey fight make dem bring back our forefathers’ bones wey colonizers take carry go. E no be small matter o! For 1874, when Anglo-Asante War happen, British soldiers invade Asante kingdom, carry plenty royal things plus gold and human remains wey dem wan use for science and show-off. Now, dem dey keep am for places like British Museum and Victoria and Albert Museum for UK. Dem still dey hold am be like colonial gbe na, wey dey pain we and scatter spiritual peace. Plenty people dey shout make dem bring our things back for Ghana and everywhere for Africa.<ref>[https://trt.global/afrika-english/article/16780863 Return of Ghana's looted artefacts from UK on loan a ‘betrayal of ancestors' - TRT Global]</ref> == '''Recent Developments''' == For 2023 and 2024, Ghana dey push hard make dem bring back dem things wey dem carry go, no be only physical artifacts but especially human bones wey dem take without permission. This one dey follow wetin plenty African countries dey do, wey dey shout make dem return cultural heritage. For January 2024, British Museum and Victoria and Albert Museum talk say dem wan loan 32 items back to Ghana for three years, including plenty important things from Asante royal collection. But plenty Ghanaians no happy with this one, dem dey see am as betrayal to dem ancestors.<ref>[https://trt.global/afrika-english/article/16780863 Return of Ghana's looted artefacts from UK on loan a ‘betrayal of ancestors' - TRT Global]</ref> == '''Ethical Matter and Policy Suggestions''' == The All-Party Parliamentary Group for African Reparations (APPG-AR) for UK don produce reports wey dey talk about returning human bones and take care of ancestral things well. Dem suggest say make dem no sell or display African ancestral bones for UK places unless dem get consent first. Dis one show say museums get responsibility to handle things wey dem collect during colonial time with respect and transparency.<ref>[https://trt.global/afrika-english/article/16780863 Return of Ghana's looted artefacts from UK on loan a ‘betrayal of ancestors' - TRT Global]</ref> == '''Cultural Importance''' == The things wey dem dey talk about no be just artifacts; dem dey represent important parts of Ghanaian identity, spirituality, and heritage. If these cultural treasures no dey, e go affect community identity, spiritual connection, and the practice of cultural rites. Advocates dey argue say returning these things fit help bring back dignity and heal historical wounds, plus dem talk say how we dey interact with these cultural things now suppose show respect for where dem come from and how important dem be.<ref>[https://trt.global/afrika-english/article/16780863 Return of Ghana's looted artefacts from UK on loan a ‘betrayal of ancestors' - TRT Global]</ref> == '''Conclusion''' == Ghana dey call make dem bring back our ancestors' remains wey dem keep for UK institutions. Dis matter no simple, e dey mix history wahala, ethics, and our culture. Dis effort show say we dey try fix colonial wrongs and sabi say our heritage dey important for national pride and community identity. As people dey talk, many dey believe say dis movement no just dey tackle wetin don happen before, e go also open way for better international cultural rela<ref>[https://trt.global/afrika-english/article/16780863 Return of Ghana's looted artefacts from UK on loan a ‘betrayal of ancestors' - TRT Global]</ref> ls1kqx72fi9uq4z1ruu5fcd64oadl7l Return of Sierra Leoneans After Ebola Crisis 0 18193 69122 67601 2025-07-05T22:40:06Z Yambutigra 1400 69122 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == Freetown<ref>[[Freetown]] </ref>/Sierra Leone, December 4, 2024 – Tomorrow – ten years after the deadliest Ebola outbreak scatter gbege for the country and health workers – Sierra Leone go be the first country, among the three wey suffer well well ten years ago for the West Africa Ebola wahala, to start nationwide preventive Ebola vaccination campaign for frontline workers. Dis campaign, wey the Sierra Leone Ministry of Health (MOH) dey carry out with Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance, WHO and UNICEF, go target 20,000 frontline workers for all 16 districts for the country. Dem go give one single dose of Ebola vaccine Ervebo to health professionals, frontline workers and first responders like motorbike riders, ambulance drivers, traditional healers, religious leaders, security forces and others wey dey high risk for EVD. Vaccines dey come from Gavi-funded global vaccine stock wey the International Coordinating Group (ICG) on Vaccine Provision dey manage. Gavi dey also provide money to make the vaccination campaign happen, with technical support from WHO and UNICEF to the MOH.<ref>[https://www.myairbridge.com/en/#!/folder/rNjBPLGfOuj874DEW3FpMi1q38usDzUa/eu1 MyAirBridge.com | Send or share big files up to 20 GiB for free]</ref> Dis preventive vaccination campaign come ten years after di deadly 2014–2016 Ebola outbreak wey WHO talk say na Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC). Di outbreak bring more than 11,000 deaths, mostly for West Africa, but dem catch cases for 10 countries around di world. Of all dis, Sierra Leone suffer pass, with close to 9,000 confirmed cases and probable ones, including nearly 4,000 deaths. Di loss of life and di long-lasting economic wahala strong, as di outbreak really hit Sierra Leone health system: e kill almost 7% of di health workers, wey dey 32 times more likely to catch Ebola than regular adults, according to WHO. <ref>[https://www.afro.who.int/countries/sierra-leone/news/decade-after-deadliest-ebola-outbreak-history-sierra-leone-begins-new-chapter-nationwide-preventive A decade after the deadliest Ebola outbreak in history, Sierra Leone begins a new chapter with nationwide preventive vaccination of frontline workers | WHO | Regional Office for Africa]</ref> “Dis nationwide preventive vaccination campaign na big step to make our health system stronger. Protecting our frontline workers dey very important for our National Health Security Plan, to make sure we ready for future health wahala. Dis na investment for our people's safety and for healthier Sierra Leone,” Dr Austin Demby<ref>[[Dr Austin Demby]]</ref>, Health Minister for Sierra Leone talk. <ref>[https://www.afro.who.int/countries/sierra-leone/news/decade-after-deadliest-ebola-outbreak-history-sierra-leone-begins-new-chapter-nationwide-preventive A decade after the deadliest Ebola outbreak in history, Sierra Leone begins a new chapter with nationwide preventive vaccination of frontline workers | WHO | Regional Office for Africa]</ref> When di 2014 West Africa outbreak happen, no vaccine dey approved. Gavi take fast action to push rapid development and production, dem announce say dem go buy eligible vaccines and later sign agreement to secure 300,000 investigational doses of Ervebo, and fund dem use by countries and partners to respond to outbreaks – showing di vaccine near 100% effectiveness. In 2021, Gavi agree to fund global stockpile of 500,000 doses of Ebola vaccine. Dis stockpile dey manage by di ICG, with doses wey UNICEF procure, and e dey available to any country for di world. Since then, nearly 146,000 doses don ship from di stockpile till 2023, 95% don dey repurpose for preventive vaccination for high-risk groups, and 5% used for outbreak response [4]. Plenty of we sabi the fear and wahala wey 2014 Ebola outbreak bring come for world. One decade later, vaccination don change how we fit fight one of di deadliest diseases for di world,” Dr Sania Nishtar, CEO of Gavi, di Vaccine Alliance talk. “Gavi dey very proud say our mission to make sure say people fit get vaccine on time and fair against di biggest infectious disease threats don help change di way we dey respond to Ebola, save life and protect communities, health systems and economy. To see di first nationwide preventive vaccination campaign happen for di country wey suffer pass during di 2014 outbreak make dis milestone even more sweet. We dey hail Sierra Leone and our Alliance partners for dem consistent work to protect di people wey dey at risk, and we dey look forward to di vaccine rollout for other at-risk countries.” After di EVD outbreak for Guinea in February 2021, WHO do quick risk assessment, wey show say di risk for spread dey high. As reply, WHO support governments to put in place immediate preventive measures like better surveillance, strong screening for border points, engage di community well, send Rapid Response Teams to di border areas to increase district readiness, and boost testing and treatment facilities. “Though three years don pass since di last EVD outbreak for neighboring Guinea, WHO don still dey committed to work with partners and vaccine manufacturers to ensure say dem get highly effective, life-saving vaccines for di people wey dey most at risk for Sierra Leone. All dis sustained effort and partnership don lead to di 2024 nationwide EVD vaccination campaign, wey go target healthcare workers, traditional healers, motorbike taxi riders and other frontline workers,” Dr Thompson Igbu, Head of di WHO Sierra Leone Expanded Programme on Immunization talk.<ref>https://www.afro.who.int/countries/sierra-leone/news/decade-after-deadliest-ebola-outbreak-history-sierra-leone-begins-new-chapter-nationwide-preventive</ref> WHO don give support wey include technical, logistics and money for make the vaccination exercise happen, plus training for health care workers for ready for the vaccination. Rudolf Schwenk, wey dey represent UNICEF for Sierra Leone, talk say, “This vaccine wey fit save life go give communities and frontline workers new hope for protect against this dangerous disease. UNICEF dey work close with Ministry of Health and WHO, we be part of this campaign wey dey go nationwide to make sure say the vaccines dey stored well and dey reach the right people, wey include health workers. And we appreciate Gavi wey dey help protect families from serious diseases like Ebola.” UNICEF don buy and deliver more than 20,000 doses of the Ervebo vaccine to Sierra Leone. The cold chain system, wey UNICEF and WHO help build, dey store the vaccine for ultra-low temperature freezers wey dey keep am strong. Dem dey combine these efforts with community engagement and risk communication to boost vaccine take-up, reduce fear and build trust. Other countries like Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda and Guinea-Bissau don also do preventive vaccination campaigns recently. Next country wey plan to start preventive Ebola vaccination be Central African Republic (timing to be confirmed), plus other countries wey dey at risk dey plan their own timing too. In total, 18 countries wey don report EVD cases before or wey share border with country wey don get EVD outbreak fit join Gavi preventive vaccination programme , wey dey aim to give extra protection for the areas wey Ebola fit show face.<ref>[https://www.myairbridge.com/en/#!/folder/rNjBPLGfOuj874DEW3FpMi1q38usDzUa/eu1 MyAirBridge.com | Send or share big files up to 20 GiB for free]</ref> == References == ihcro2o4exi1woc5ktsvcnescu0a6so Ethiopia’s Request for the Tabots from the British Museum 0 18259 69115 68101 2025-07-05T22:17:24Z Yambutigra 1400 69115 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introductions == De information watchdog dey investigate British Museum because dem dey claim say dem dey too secretive about some sensitive items wey dey dier collection – dis group of sacred Ethiopian altar tablets wey don hide from public eye for over 150 years. De 11 wood and stone tabots, wey de museum don accept say dem be looted by British soldiers after de Battle of Maqdala for 1868, never show for public display and dem consider am so sacred say even de curators and trustees for de place no fit see dem. Plenty people don dey call make dem return am back to Ethiopia. For 2019, di country’s culture minister, when e visit de museum, request say make dem bring dem back. Now, campaigners don submit complaint to Information Commissioner’s Office (ICO) dey argue say di museum no fit disclose important details of internal talk about di tabots after dem request for freedom of information. Returning Heritage, wey be non-profit wey dey gather info on cultural restitution, submit di FoI request for August 2023 and dem talk say di museum response no include some important matter, while some information been too jammed up. An internal review wey di museum do at Returning Heritage’s request still support di initial response. De organisation dey argue say even though di British Museum Act 1963, wey dey block disposal of objects unless in very limited situation, mean say di status of other disputed artefacts dey confuse, di tabots fit come back lawfully now.“Di act clear say di museum no fit return objects,” Lewis McNaught wey be di managing editor for Returning Heritage talk. “But some legal exemptions dey inside di act. One of dem allows di trustees to return some items if dem feel say dem no fit keep am.” Di tabots no go ever dey exhibit or dey study – dem dey believe say dem dey hold am for one sealed room wey only Ethiopian clergy fit enter – so dem fit dis category, di organization dey believe. Returning Heritage request info from meetings wey di trustees discuss di tabots, wey dem believe fit give dem insight why dem feel say dem no fit return am lawfully. “E dey strange say di museum no wan explain why dem dey hold objects wey dem fit return,” McNaught talk, argue say e get “genuine public interest – with dis unique group of objects wey fit return – [to understand] why di museum no wan explain why dem no dey return dem”. Last month Westminster Abbey talk say dem agree “in principle” say one tabot wey dey sealed for cathedral altar suppose return go Ethiopia. Another one don return shortly after dem find am for church cupboard for Edinburgh 23 years ago, wey cause big celebration for im home country. Tom Short from di law firm Leigh Day, wey submit di ICO complaint on behalf of Returning Heritage, talk say dem believe di museum dey wrongly rely on some permitted exemptions to FoI as reason to hold back material. Leigh Day don draw legal opinion before wey dem say show di items fit legally return. “Our client dey seek info from di museum wey plenty go argue suppose dey for public domain by default,” Short talk. “[E] concern decision-making by one major public institution on matter wey get very strong public interest.” Di British Museum no wan talk. Dem don talk before say im long-term ambition na to lend di tab.<ref><nowiki>https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2024/mar/31/british-museum-investigated-ethiopian-artefacts-hidden-view-150-years-maqdala-tabots</nowiki></ref> == References == <references /> dipz9zix6pjwgc1bcr2y3aglcktzlk6 69116 69115 2025-07-05T22:22:58Z Yambutigra 1400 69116 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introductions == De information watchdog dey investigate British Museum because dem dey claim say dem dey too secretive about some sensitive items wey dey dier collection – dis group of sacred Ethiopian altar tablets wey don hide from public eye for over 150 years. De 11 wood and stone tabots, wey de museum don accept say dem be looted by British soldiers after de Battle of Maqdala for 1868, never show for public display and dem consider am so sacred say even de curators and trustees for de place no fit see dem. Plenty people don dey call make dem return am back to Ethiopia. For 2019, di country’s culture minister, when e visit de museum, request say make dem bring dem back. Now, campaigners don submit complaint to Information Commissioner’s Office (ICO) dey argue say di museum no fit disclose important details of internal talk about di tabots after dem request for freedom of information. Returning Heritage, wey be non-profit wey dey gather info on cultural restitution, submit di FoI request for August 2023 and dem talk say di museum response no include some important matter, while some information been too jammed up. An internal review wey di museum do at Returning Heritage’s request still support di initial response. De organisation dey argue say even though di British Museum Act 1963, wey dey block disposal of objects unless in very limited situation, mean say di status of other disputed artefacts dey confuse, di tabots fit come back lawfully now.“Di act clear say di museum no fit return objects,” Lewis McNaught wey be di managing editor for Returning Heritage talk. “But some legal exemptions dey inside di act. One of dem allows di trustees to return some items if dem feel say dem no fit keep am.” Di tabots no go ever dey exhibit or dey study – dem dey believe say dem dey hold am for one sealed room wey only Ethiopian clergy fit enter – so dem fit dis category, di organization dey believe. Returning Heritage request info from meetings wey di trustees discuss di tabots, wey dem believe fit give dem insight why dem feel say dem no fit return am lawfully. “E dey strange say di museum no wan explain why dem dey hold objects wey dem fit return,” McNaught talk, argue say e get “genuine public interest – with dis unique group of objects wey fit return – [to understand] why di museum no wan explain why dem no dey return dem”. Last month Westminster Abbey talk say dem agree “in principle” say one tabot wey dey sealed for cathedral altar suppose return go Ethiopia. Another one don return shortly after dem find am for church cupboard for Edinburgh 23 years ago, wey cause big celebration for im home country. Tom Short from di law firm Leigh Day, wey submit di ICO complaint on behalf of Returning Heritage, talk say dem believe di museum dey wrongly rely on some permitted exemptions to FoI as reason to hold back material. Leigh Day don draw legal opinion before wey dem say show di items fit legally return. “Our client dey seek info from di museum wey plenty go argue suppose dey for public domain by default,” Short talk. “[E] concern decision-making by one major public institution on matter wey get very strong public interest.” Di British Museum no wan talk. Dem don talk before say im long-term ambition na to lend di tab.<ref><nowiki>https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2024/mar/31/british-museum-investigated-ethiopian-artefacts-hidden-view-150-years-maqdala-tabots</nowiki></ref> == References == <references /> [https://www.museumsassociation.org/museums-journal/news/2022/10/british-museum-asked-to-clarify-position-on-ethiopian-tabots/ 2. https://www.museumsassociation.org/museums-journal/news/2022/10/british-museum-asked-to-clarify-position-on-ethiopian-tabots/]<ref>https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2024/mar/31/british-museum-investigated-ethiopian-artefacts-hidden-view-150-years-maqdala-tabots</ref> 3.https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2024/mar/31/british-museum-investigated-ethiopian-artefacts-hidden-view-150-years-maqdala-tabots a1sfn7u8iwhn3rrywjyf18pdb3c4isp Grace d'Almeida 0 18281 69114 68923 2025-07-05T22:16:48Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 69114 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Grâce d'Almeida Adamon''' (1951–2005) be Beninese lawyer, feminist, plus human rights activist. Dem put am insyd 1,000 women from everywhere wey dem nominate dem together for 2005 Nobel Peace Prize. == Biography == Grace Antonia Almeida Benoite Adamon born for 21 March 1951 for Dakar, [[Senegal]]. She go primary school for Sisters of [[Porto-Novo]], wey na ein family move go Dahomey (now Benin) where she continue secondary school. She enroll for College of Our Lady of de Apostles for Cotonou, den for 1972 she take baccalaureate series A for Guebwiller, France. She get ein diploma plus master’s degree from Panthéon-Assas University for Paris. She study law for Pantheon-Sorbonne University, focus on maritime law den civil plus commercial rights for workers. After she fini ein postgraduate DEA, she come back go Pantheon-Assas, where she collect ein CAPA law degree.<ref name="DAB2">{{cite book|last1=Gleason|first1=Tiffany|title=Dictionary of African Biography|date=2 February 2012|publisher=OUP USA|isbn=978-0-19-538207-5|editor1-last=Gates|editor1-first=Henry Louis|pages=160–161|language=en|chapter=D'Almeida Adamon, Grace|editor2-last=Akyeampong|editor2-first=Emmanuel Kwaku|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=39JMAgAAQBAJ&dq=Grace%20d'Almeida&pg=RA1-PA160}}</ref> D'Almeida Adamon start dey practice as lawyer for Paris since 1977. De next year, she come back Cotonou. She be law professor for National University of Benin, she sabi well how to defend women's rights.<ref name="DAB2" /> For 1990, D'Almeida Adamon be one of de thirteen person wey dem choose to help build new, democratic constitution for Benin as part of de National Conference. She be de only woman wey dey there. Dat year, she sanso start de Association of Jurists of Benin (AFJB). De human rights organization dey fight for women make dem fi access legal services plus dem dey defend children's den women's rights. She still co-found de African Institute of Human Rights plus Democracy Promotion. D'Almeida Adamon work for [[United Nations|United Nations (UN)]] programs plus NGOs. She shine for de UN program wey dey run Burkina Faso's Democratic Center for Domestic Governance for de 90s. Na she sanso take part for de Independent International Commission on Kosovo.<ref name="DAB2" /> D'Almeida Adamon be co-founder den president of Association des Femmes Juristes du Bénin (Women Lawyers Association for Bénin). She start am, plus dem create 114-page booklet wey dem call Guide juridique de la femme béninoise. De French guide wey show women legal rights don translate to Fon plus Batonou.<ref>{{Cite book|last=D'Almeida|first=Irène Assiba|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3RNl8RlQLZ8C&dq=Grace%20d'Almeida&pg=PA183|title=Francophone African Women Writers: Destroying the Emptiness of Silence|date=1994|publisher=University Press of Florida|isbn=978-0-8130-1302-2|edition=2nd|location=Gainesville, Florida|pages=183–184|language=en}}</ref> She talk say, "De Association of Women Lawyers wey take de step to make judicial guide dey for women, dem aim be to fi give women for Benin some basic legal procedures from de law wey dey guide de country, make dem fi improve dema lives through de law way wey dey work."<ref name="DAB2" /> Na D'Almeida Adamon attend de Fourth World Conference on Women for 1995.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Shiner|first1=Cindy|title=Benin's Ex-Amazons Hold Purse Strings|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/1995/1005/05061.html|work=Christian Science Monitor|date=October 5, 1995}}</ref> From 22 November 1995 to 9 April 1996, she be Keeper of Seals and Minister of Justice Legislation for Benin government. Na ein hustle help open Women in Law plus Development wey dey happen for Africa side, Benin section insyd June 1999. Na she be Chief Technical Advisor for United Nations Development Programme plus she lead UN Justice Project for Haiti from 2000 to 2003. Na she serve for plenty international human rights committees during ein life. She be member of International Planned Parenthood Federation plus she help run Institute for de League of Human Rights for Benin. She be international consultant wey know democracy, electoral assistance, human rights, good governance, plus justice. From October 2004, she be vice-president for Network of Women Ministers and Parliamentarians of Benin.<ref name="DAB2" /> For 2005, she be one of only two people wey come from Benin (plus Grace Aboh) wey dem nominate as part of 1,000 women from all over de world for de [[Nobel Peace Prize]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=PeaceWomen Across the Globe|url=https://1000peacewomen.org/en/network/1000-peacewomen/|access-date=2025-01-27|website=PeaceWomen Across the Globe|language=en}}</ref> D'Almeida Adamon die for 12 May 2005 insyd Paris.<ref name="DAB2" /> Na she divorce, plus she get three kiddies. == References == {{DEFAULTSORT:Almeida, Grace}} [[Category:1951 births]] [[Category:2005 deaths]] [[Category:Human]] [[Category:Beninese people]] [[Category:Beninese lawyers]] [[Category:Beninese women writers]] [[Category:Government ministers of Benin]] [[Category:People wey komot Dakar]] [[Category:Beninese officials of de United Nations]] [[Category:20th-century Beninese women politicians]] [[Category:20th-century Beninese politicians]] [[Category:Women government ministers of Benin]] [[Category:20th-century lawyers]] [[Category:Women's rights insyd Benin]] [[Category:Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne University alumni]] [[Category:University of Abomey-Calavi]] <references /> ==External links== {{Wikiquote}} *[https://web.archive.org/web/20221018121834/http://fondationgracedalmeida.org/ Fondation Grâce d'Almeida] {{Authority control}} 2in43qwe486x4a7s3p05fr4ffniwaef The Tulsa Race Massacre and Demands for Reparations 0 18286 69243 68273 2025-07-06T10:32:38Z Yambutigra 1400 edits 69243 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == [https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2025/06/03/tulsa-mayor-reparations-race-massacre/ The Tulsa race massacre] wey happen for 1921 na one of di worst cases of racial violence for U.S. history. E start for Tulsa, Oklahoma on May 31, 1921, and e last for two days. Di massacre make plenty people die, between 30 and 300, mostly Black people, and e destroy di rich Black area for Tulsa wey dem dey call 'Black Wall Street.' More than 1,400 houses and shops burn down, and almost 10,000 people no get place to stay. Even though e plenty serious and e cause plenty destruction, dem no talk about di Tulsa race massacre for history books until late 1990s, when some state commission wey form to document di matter. Make you check also race riots and massacres wey happen for United State. For May 30, 1921, Dick Rowland, young African American wey dey shine shoe, dem accuse am sey e don assault one white elevator operator wey dem call Sarah Page inside elevator for downtown Tulsa. The next day, Tulsa Tribune come print story talk sey Rowland try rape Page, plus one editorial wey dem write sey dem wan lynch am that night. That evening, both African Americans and whites come gather for courthouse wey dem dey hold Rowland. When one armed African American wey dey protect Rowland jam one white protester, the white guy die, e make the white mob vex, so the Tulsa massacre begin. For the next two days, group of white people dey burn and loot African American shops and homes all over the city. Many of dem wey dey join the mob na World War I soldiers wey don come back, dem sabi carry gun well well and dem dey shoot African Americans as dem see dem. Some survivors even talk say people for airplane dey drop firebombs. Tulsa race massacre of 1921 When the wahala finish for June 1, dem record official death tally as 10 whites and 26 African Americans, but many people wey sabi matter believe say at least 300 people die. Small after the massacre, dem do quick investigation, but all the documents wey relate to the matter don disappear sharp sharp. The whole thing no get enough attention and e no show well for history book wey dem dey use teach children for Oklahoma. In 1997, Oklahoma form Tulsa Race Riot Commission to check the massacre and document wetin happen. Dem gather stories from survivors wey still dey alive, documents from people wey witness the massacre but don die, and other historical evidence. Scholars use wetin dem see from witnesses and ground radar to find one possible mass grave for outside Tulsa’s Oaklawn Cemetery, showing say the death toll fit dey higher pass wetin dem record. For their first recommendation, the commission suggest make Oklahoma state pay $33 million for compensation, some for the 121 surviving victims dem don find. But no law follow the recommendation, and the commission no get power to make legislation happen. Dem commission finish report drop on February 28, 2001. For April 2002, one private church charity wey dem call Tulsa Metropolitan Ministry, pay $28,000 to di survivors, wey be like $200 each, using money wey dem get from private donations. In 2010, dem open John Hope Franklin Reconciliation Park for Greenwood District to remember di massacre. Di park dey named after historian and civil rights champion John Hope Franklin, wey him puma survive di massacre. E get di Tower of Reconciliation, wey be 25-foot tall sculpture wey dey celebrate African American struggle. Greenwood Rising, one history center wey dey honor Black Wall Street, remember di victims of di massacre, plus di story, na 2021 dem establish am by di 1921 Tulsa Race Massacre Centennial Commission. == References == # https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2025/06/03/tulsa-mayor-reparations-race-massacre/ iu6gyhzykiop6mryamlia6ss3f6u0a1 The Impact of IMF and World Bank Structural Adjustment Programs on African Economies 0 18287 69242 68344 2025-07-06T10:08:48Z 154.161.32.82 edits 69242 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs<ref>[https://www.elibrary.imf.org/view/book/9781557752321/ch002.xml#:~:text=The%20results%20of%20structural%20adjustment,stand%2Dby%20and%20extended%20arrangements. https://www.elibrary.imf.org/view/book/9781557752321/ch002.xml#:~:text=The%20results%20of%20structural%20adjustment,stand%2Dby%20and%20extended%20arrangements.]</ref>) wey IMF and World Bank put for ground get plenty palava wey dey affect African economies, e dey bring quick money stabilization but long-term wahala, especially for social and developmental matter. == '''Overview of Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs)''' == Since 1980s, plenty African countries don dey run SAPs wey IMF and World Bank talk make dem do am as answer to serious economic problem or high debt level. Dis programs wan restructure economy for developing countries, dey push free-market policies, reduce government spending, and liberalize trade. But how effective these policies be, plenty people dey argue am. == '''Economic Impacts''' == Short-term Stabilization: Critics dey talk sey as SAPs wan bring macroeconomic stability , e dey often cause immediate reduction for government deficit and inflation. For example, Ghana wey adopt SAPs for 1980s, some people dey talk sey na success story, wey show say GDP grow well and currency stabilize. Long-term growth wahala: Plenty African economies no feel the growth wey dem expect from SAPs. Dem neglect de agricultural sector, stop subsidies, cause food production to drop plenty, and make poverty dey high for rural areas. Economic growth dey slow; GDP per capita still dey low everywhere, wey raise big questions about wetin we fit gain. Social wahala: Beyond economic wahala, SAPs dey make social inequality worse. Critics talk say di austerity measures wey follow dem programs dey hit vulnerable pipo bad, especially women, children, and di rural poor. Public services suffer from de funding cuts, wey make health and education outcomes dey bad. Debt Dependency <ref>Debt Dependency</ref>and Neocolonial Critique: SAPs dey critiqued like neocolonialism tools, wey IMF and World Bank dey put conditions wey go make countries dey depend on foreign aid and investment. Dem dey force countries make dem do policies wey go favour foreign investors but e dey hurt local economy and people welfare. Case Studies Ghana: At first, dem see SAPs for Ghana as success; GDP growth rate improve well after dem implement am. But critics dey argue say dis growth no dey reach everybody, and e no dey tackle poverty and inequality wey dey ground. Cedi wey depreciate and dem remove agricultural subsidies make prices dey high for local producers but e no boost export as dem plan. '''Nigeria'''<ref>'''Nigeria'''</ref>: E be like say Nigeria see small growth for GDP and agricultural production, but when dem withdraw subsidy, e create wahala for local farming and plenty people lose dem jobs as public sector jobs go down. Manufacturing sector too suffer because currency devaluation make costs rise, and dem remove support. == '''Conclusion''' == The structural adjustment programs wey IMF and World Bank bring come show say international financial help no be easy matter for Africa economy. Dem wan stabilize economy and boost growth, but reality be say dem dey cause social yawa, increase poverty, and economic shakings. We go need continue to analyze and critique these programs to sabi wetin e go mean for African development future. We need more research to find alternative development plans wey go favor social fairness and sustainable growth. So, to check the legacy of SAPs, we gots use critical eye wey go see beyond just numbers, but also how e dey affect the wider society. == References == {{Reflist}} [https://www.elibrary.imf.org/view/book/9781557752321/ch002.xml#:~:text=The%20results%20of%20structural%20adjustment,stand%2Dby%20and%20extended%20arrangements. 1https://www.elibrary.imf.org/view/book/9781557752321/ch002.xml#:~:text=The%20results%20of%20structural%20adjustment,stand%2Dby%20and%20extended%20arrangements.] mdko61egvt2d65o9e10m3r6dmyo95ya Marcus Garvey and the Call for African Economic Justice 0 18289 69097 68353 2025-07-05T21:36:08Z Yambutigra 1400 69097 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == [[Marcus Garvey]] dey fight for economic independence and make we all dey unite as Africans, he start Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) to push Black pride and self-reliance. Vision and Ideology Marcus Garvey, born for Jamaica in 1887 , na big figure for Pan-African movement, him focus on empower Africans. Him philosophy dey talk say, make we get Black nationalism, we go fit get economic independence and stick together as one family. Garvey believe say economic strength na the key to political and social equality, so him dey push make we get our own Black institutions and communities The Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) For 1914, Garvey start the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA), wey dem set up to bring all black people together worldwide. Dem dey promote economic independence, cultural pride, and dream of one Africa. Under Garvey, the UNIA grow fast, get millions of members and plenty branches everywhere. Key Initiatives One major work wey Garvey do na the Black Star Line, na shipping company wey dey help trade for black communities and make dem dey independent for money matter. This one na part of big plan to empower black businesses and create better economic system for African people wey dey abroad. But the Black Star Line face plenty wahala, like money mismanagement and operational issues, wey make am not sabi shine well. == References == # https://nationalhumanitiescenter.org/tserve/twenty/tkeyinfo/garvey.htm # https://www.africanelements.org/news/marcus-garvey-and-the-call-for-black-unity/ # https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA93458247&sid=googleScholar&v=2.1&it=r&linkaccess=abs&issn=01974327&p=AONE&sw=w ceomj7mh9o5iumr4wliypto6hu8z3s1 69104 69097 2025-07-05T21:47:22Z Yambutigra 1400 69104 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == [[Marcus Garvey]] dey fight for economic independence and make we all dey unite as Africans, he start Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) to push Black pride and self-reliance. Vision and Ideology Marcus Garvey, born for Jamaica in 1887 , na big figure for Pan-African movement, him focus on empower Africans. Him philosophy dey talk say, make we get Black nationalism, we go fit get economic independence and stick together as one family. Garvey believe say economic strength na the key to political and social equality, so him dey push make we get our own Black institutions and communities The Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) For 1914, Garvey start the [[Universal Negro Improvement Association]] (UNIA), wey dem set up to bring all black people together worldwide. Dem dey promote economic independence, cultural pride, and dream of one Africa. Under Garvey, the UNIA grow fast, get millions of members and plenty branches everywhere. Key Initiatives One major work wey Garvey do na the Black Star Line, na shipping company wey dey help trade for black communities and make dem dey independent for money matter. This one na part of big plan to empower black businesses and create better economic system for [[African]] people wey dey abroad. But the Black Star Line face plenty wahala, like money mismanagement and operational issues, wey make am not sabi shine well. == References == # https://nationalhumanitiescenter.org/tserve/twenty/tkeyinfo/garvey.htm # https://www.africanelements.org/news/marcus-garvey-and-the-call-for-black-unity/ # https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA93458247&sid=googleScholar&v=2.1&it=r&linkaccess=abs&issn=01974327&p=AONE&sw=w goatpjssyp0cx47w5c1elrnsjxy86fu List of slaves 0 18297 69168 68722 2025-07-06T00:25:34Z Abdul-Rauf Moshie 1580 /* List of slaves */ 69168 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Slavery}} [[File:Livorno_Quattro_mori_monument_07.JPG|thumb|375x375px|One out of four statues wey dey show chained slaves for base of the Monument of the Four Moors for Livorno, Italy, wey dem fit be real slaves o.]] Slavery be one kind social-economic system wey people dey suffer: dem no get freedom and dem dey force to do work or service without pay. Dem people wey dey in dis condition, we dey call dem slaves or enslaved people. Dis na list of some important historical people wey don dey enslave for some time for dem life, we go arrange am from A to Z based on dem first name. * A * B * C * D * E * F * G * H * I * J * K * L * M * N * O * P * Q * R * S * T * U * V * W * X * Y * Z * See also A Abraham be enslaved black man wey dey carry message between frontier and Charles Town for war with Cherokee, wey fit free am. Abdul Rahman Ibrahima Sori (1762–1829), na prince from West Africa wey dem hold for United States for 40 years till President John Quincy Adams free am. Abram Petrovich Gannibal (1696–1781), dem adopt am by Russian czar Peter the Great, him be governor for Tallinn (Reval) (1742–1752) and general-en-chef (1759–1762) wey dey build sea forts and canals for Russia; e be great-grandpapa of Alexander Pushkin. See The Slave in European Art for him portraits. Absalom Jones (1746–1818), him don free hims [[File:Cabeza_de_Vaca_Portrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cabeza_de_Vaca_Portrait.jpg|right|thumb|235x235px|[[:en:Álvar_Núñez_Cabeza_de_Vaca|Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca]]]] elf, na abolitionist and clergyman – first ordained black priest of Episcopal Church. Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz (die 644), na Persian craftsman and captive wey kill second Islamic caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab (r. 634–644). Addas (7th century) na enslaved Christian boy wey dey live for Taif during Muhammad time, wey people talk say na him be first person from western Taif wey convert to Islam. Adriaan de Bruin (c. 1700–1766), wey dem call Tabo Jansz before, na enslaved servant for Dutch Republic wey turn free man for Hoorn, North Holland. Adam Brzeziński (1768 – after 1797), Polish serf and Royal Ballet Dancer, wey donate to king of Poland by will and testament. Aesop (c. 620–564 BCE), na Greek poet and author or transcriber for Aesop's Fables. Afanasy Grigoriev (1782–1868), na Russian serf and Neoclassical architect. Afrosinya (1699/1700–1748), na Russian serf, fit be Finnish captive, na enslaved mistress of Alexei Petrovich, Tsarevich of Russia. Agathoclia (shey die around 230), na martyr and patron saint for Mequinenza town for Spain. Alam al-Malika (shey die 1130), na singer wey dem catch as slave but rise become de prime minister and ruler for Zubayd, wey dey now Yemen. Alexina Morrison, na run away girl from slavery for Louisiana wey claim say she be kidnapped white pikin, she sue her master wey make people vex say dem go lynch am. Alfred "Teen" Blackburn (1842–1951), one of de last survivors of slavery for United States wey fit remember wetin happen. Alfred Francis Russ [[File:Aesop_pushkin01.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aesop_pushkin01.jpg|left|thumb|264x264px|[[:en:Aesop|Aesop]] in a [[:en:Hellenistic_art|Hellenistic]] statue claimed to be him, Art Collection of [[:en:Villa_Albani|Villa Albani]], Rome]] ell (1817–1884), na 10th President of Liberia. Alice Clifton (c. 1772–unknown), as slave pikin, she dey trial for infanticide matter for 1787. Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca (c. 1490–c. 1558), na Spanish explorer wey dem turn slave by Native Americans for Gulf Coast after e survive Narváez expedition wey scatter for 1527. Al-Khayzuran bint Atta (shey die 789), na Yemeni girl wey turn wife for Abbasid Caliph Al-Mahdi and mama to two Caliphs, Al-Hadi and Harun al-Rashid, wey dem sabi well well. Alp-Tegin (shey die 963), na member of nomadic Turks, dem carry am as slave small for Samanid court for Bukhara, later e come be army commander for Samanid Empire. Him son-in-law Sabuktigin later start Ghaznavid Empire. Amanda America Dickson (1849–1893), daughter of white planter David Dickson and Julia Frances Lewis, she be slave under Dickson's mama. Even though she dey legally enslaved till after Civil War, Amanda be her papa favorite and she inherit him $500,000 estate after him die for 1885. Ammar bin Yasir (570–657), one of di popular sahaba dem wey Abu Bakr free. Amos Fortune (1710–1801), African prince wey don suffer for United States for most of him life. Di children book wey talk about am, Amos Fortune, Free Man win Newbery Medal for 1951. Anarcha Westcott (c. 1828–unknown), black woman wey dey enslaved for di United States, she be among di women wey J. Marion Sims use do experiment. Portrait of Andrey Voronikhin. Engraving by V. A. Bobrov from di early 19th century. Andrey Voronikhin (1759–1814), Russian serf, architect and painter. Andrea Aguyar (died 1849), former enslaved black ma [[File:Voronikhin.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Voronikhin.jpg|right|thumb|297x297px|Portrait of [[:en:Andrey_Voronikhin|Andrey Voronikhin]]. Engraving by V. A. Bobrov from the beginning of the 19th century.]] n from Uruguay wey join Giuseppe Garibaldi during di Italian revolution for di Uruguayan Civil War of di 1840s and die for fight for di Roman Republic of 1849. Andrew Jackson Beard (1849–1921), inventor, him free at age 15 by di Emancipation Proclamation. Anna J. Cooper (1858–1964), author, educator, speaker and big African-American scholar. Anna Madgigine Jai Kingsley (1793–1870), woman wey dey enslaved then become planter and slave owner. Anna Williams, woman wey dey enslaved for Washington, D.C. wey go court win her freedom against di United States Court of Appeals. Annice (died 1828), dem execute her for murder five children. Annika Svahn (fl. 1714), Finnish woman wey Russian take away during di Great Northern War. She be vicar pikin for Joutseno, wey become popular victim for di wahala wey civilian dem suffer during di Russian occupation. Antarah ibn Shaddad (525–608), pre-Islamic Arab wey born from enslaved woman, him papa free am before battle, and he be poet too. Anthony Burns (1834–1862), na Baptist pre [[File:Петровское._Бюст_А.П._Ганнибала.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5._%D0%91%D1%8E%D1%81%D1%82_%D0%90.%D0%9F._%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0.jpg|right|thumb|263x263px|[[:en:Abram_Petrovich_Gannibal|Abram Petrovich Gannibal]], bust in [[:en:Petrovskoye,_Yaroslavl_Oblast|Petrovskoe]], [[:en:Russia|Russia]]]] acher wey escape slavery go Boston, but dem catch am again because Fugitive Slave Act wey dey 1850, den people wey no want am capture buy im freedom for Boston. Antonia Bonnelli (1786–1870), dem capture am and enslave am by Mikasuki tribe for Florida in 1802. António Corea, na European name wey dem give to Korean. Dem carry am go Italy, wey fit make am di first Korean wey step foot for Europe. Antón Guanche (15th century), na Guanche from Tenerife, dem capture am, enslave am, come return am go di island. Aqualtune Ezgondidu Mahamud da Silva Santos (died 1677), na princess of Kongo, mother of Ganga Zumba and grandmother of Zumbi dos Palmares. She lead 10,000 men during di Battle of Mbwila between Kingdom of Kongo and Kingdom of Portugal. Dem catch am by Portuguese forces, carry am go Brazil and sell am as slave. She start di slave settlement of Quilombo dos Palmares with her son Ganga Zumba. Archer Alexander (1810–1879), na model wey dem use for di slave wey dey di 1876 Emancipation Memorial sculpture. Abram Petrovich Gannibal, bust wey dey Petrovskoe, Russia. Archibald Grimké (1849–1930), born into slavery, son of white papa, become American lawyer, intellectual, journalist, diplomat and community leader. Arthur Crumpler (c. 1835–1910), escape slavery for Virginia, na di second husband of Dr. Rebecca Davis Lee Crumpler. Aster Ganno (c. 1872–1964), na young Ethiopian woman wey Italian Navy rescue from slave ship wey dey cross go Yemen. She go translate di Bible into Oromo language. Also she prepare literacy materials and spend di rest of her life as school teacher. Augustine Tolton (1854–1897), na di first black priest for di United States. Aurelia Philematium, na freedwoman wey her tombstone dey praise her marriage with her fellow freedman, Lucius Aurelius Hermia. Ayuba Suleiman Diallo (1701–1773), wey dem sabi as Job ben S [[File:William_Hoare_of_Bath_-_Portrait_of_Ayuba_Suleiman_Diallo,_(1701-1773).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:William_Hoare_of_Bath_-_Portrait_of_Ayuba_Suleiman_Diallo,_(1701-1773).jpg|left|thumb|Portrait of [[:en:Ayuba_Suleiman_Diallo|Ayuba Suleiman Diallo]] by [[:en:William_Hoare|William Hoare]] (1733)]] olomon, na Muslim wey come from Bundu state for West Africa. E dey suffer for two years for Maryland as slave, but dem free am for 1734. Later, e write hin story wey dem publish as one of di first slave narrative. B Baibars Baibars (1223–1277), wey dem dey call am Abu al-Futuh, na Kipchak Turk wey turn Mamluk sultan for Egypt and Syria. Balthild (c. 626–680), na Anglo-Saxon woman wey come from big family, dem sell am gree as small pikin, serve for Erchinoald house, wey be mayor for Neustria. After, she marry Clovis II, and later she be regent when her pikin Clotaire dey small. She stop dem wey dey trade Christian slaves and dey fight for freedom of children wey dem sell as slaves. Pope Nicholas I canonize am about 200 years after she die. Bass Reeves (1838–1910), na one of di first black Deputy U.S. Marshals for di west of di Mississippi River, wey don arrest over 3,000 bad guys and shoot fourteen outlaws for self-defense. Belinda Sutton (1713–179?), born for Ghana, she dey beg for support from her enslaver estate, wey be one early case for reparations and inspire future activism. Belinda Sutton petition, wey dem print again Bell (Belinda) (c. 1750–c. 1772), born for Bengal, dem carry her go Scotland as servant for East India Company nabob. Dem accuse am say she kill pikin, she dey beg make dem banish am and she turn “slave for life” and dem carry am go Virginia for 1772. She na di last person wey court for Britain call slave. Benjamin S. Turner (1825–1894), former slave wey be politician wey represent Alabama's 1st congressional district for United States House of Representatives. Him be di first African American wey don represent di state for Congress. Benkos Biohó, wey born for royal family of Bissagos Islands, dem kidnap am and enslave am. After dem carry am go Spanish New Granada for South America, him fit escape, help plenty other slaves escape too, and create di maroon community of San Basilio de Palenque. Di Governor Diego Pacheco Téllez-Girón Gómez de Sandoval of Cartagena betray am and hang am for 1621, but di community wey him build still dey live free till today. Betty Hemings (c. 1735–1807), na enslave mixed-race woman wey for colonial Virginia, wey for 1761 start dey be sex slave of her master, planter John Wayles, and she get six mixed-race children with am over 12 years, including Sally Hemings and James Hemings. Big Eyes (fl. 1540), na Wichita woman wey dem enslave by Tejas people before dem capture am and enslave am by conquistador Juan de Zaldívar. Bilichild (died 610), be queen of Austrasia through marriage to Theudebert II. Bilal ibn Ribah (580–640), wey dem free in 6th century. Him convert to Islam and be Muhammad's muezzin. Bill Richmond (1763–1829), wey born for America, dem free am and him become one of England's best boxers. Saint Brigid of Kildare as dem depict am for Saint Non's chapel, St Davids, Wales. Billy (born c. 1754), na man wey run come from John Tayloe II's plantation, dem charge am for treason against Virginia during American Revolutionary War. Him collect pardon after e talk say, as slave, him no be citizen, so e no fit commit treason against government wey him no dey owe loyalty to. Bissula (fl. 368) na Alemannic woman wey dem enslave, and she be inspiration for Roman poet Ausonius. Blanche Bruce (1841–1898) na di first and only former slave wey serve for United States Senate. Blandina (c. 162–177) be slave and Christian martyr for Roman Gaul. Di Bodmin manumissions na manuscript wey dey inside British Library, e keep names and details of slaves wey dem free for Bodmin (di main town for Cornwall back then) during 9th or 10th centuries. Booker T. Washington (1856–1915), born inside slavery, come be American educator, author and leader of African-American community after Civil War. Saint Brigid of Kildare, na major Irish Saint. Tradition say Brigid born for 451 AD for Faughart, just north of Dundalk for County Louth, Ireland. Her mama na Brocca, Pict slave wey Saint Patrick don baptize. Dem talk say her papa be Dubhthach, chieftain of Leinster. Dubthach wife force am sell Brigid's mama to druid when she carry belle. Brigid self born for slavery. Di small Brigid fit perform miracle, like healing and feeding di poor. At age ten, dem return am as household servant to her papa, where her charity make am dey give out hin things to anybody wey ask. For two Lives, Dubthach dey vex with her, he carry am go King of Leinster to sell her. While Dubthach dey talk with di king, Brigid don give away hin jeweled sword to beggar to change am for food to feed di family. Di king sabi her holiness well well and e make Dubthach free him daughter. After dat, she start her waka as popular nun. Brigitta Scherzenfeldt (1698–1733), Swedish wey dey write memoirs and teach weaving, she catch during di Great Northern War, carry go live as slave for di Kalmyk kingdom for Central Asia. Bussa wey born free man for West Africa, maybe Igbo pikin, dem catch am by African slave traders, sell am go Britain, transport am go Barbados (wey slavery don dey legal since 1661) for late 18th century as slave. C Charlotte Aïssé Cezayirli Gazi Hasan Pasha statue for Mersin Naval Museum Caenis, na woman wey don suffer as slave, she be secretary for Antonia Minor (emperor Claudius mama) plus Vespasian wey be Roman emperor. Caesar (c. 1737–1852), na di last slave wey fit get freedom for New York. E reach supercentenarian level, plus fit be di first person wey dem snap while dem dey alive in 1851. Caesar Nero Paul (c. 1741–1823), as small pikin, dem carry am from Africa come Exeter, New Hampshire, but e get freedom, start big New England family wey dey fight against slavery. Pope Callixtus I (died 223), na man wey don suffer as slave, pope from about 218 to about 223, during di time of Heliogabalus and Alexander Severus. Dem kill am for him Christian faith, now he be saint for Roman Catholic Church. Carlota (died 1844), she lead slave rebellion for Cuba for 1843–1844. Castus, na enslaved Gaul and one of di leaders for di Third Servile War wey get people wey dey fight for freedom. Catalina of Motril (fl. 1501–1531), she be bed servant for Catherine of Aragon when she marry Henry VIII for England. Cato (1786–1803), na man wey don suffer for Charleston, New York, wey kill twelve-year-old Mary Akins after e try rape am. Him confession show for di murder book of dat time. Cato, na African-American man wey serve as American Black Patriot spy and courier to gather info with him owner, Hercules Mulligan. Celia (died 1855), na woman wey dem catch and kill for di murder of Robert Newsom, her enslaver. During di trial, John Jameson argue say she kill am for self-defense to stop am from raping her. Cesar Picton (c. 1765–1831), na slave wey start for Senegal, later work as servant for England, come get money as coal merchant. Cevri Kalfa, one Georgian girl wey e dey for sultan harem for Istanbul, wey save Mahmud II life. Dem reward am wit big position haznedar usta, wey be chief treasurer for the imperial Harem. Cezayirli Gazi Hasan Pasha (1713–1790) na Georgian wey dem enslave for Ottoman Empire, wey rise become grand vizier, Kapudan Pasha, and army boss. Charity Folks (1757–1834), American slave wey born for Annapolis, Maryland, release from slavery for 1797 and later become property owner. Charles Deslondes, Haitian mulatto wey dey oversee other slaves for André plantation and leader of 1811 German Coast Uprising for Louisiana. Dem kill am terribly by the militia wey suppress the slave revolt. Charlotte Aïssé, (c. 1694–1733), French letter-writer, daughter of one Circassian chief, wey suffer for Ottoman Black Sea slave trade. Charlotte Dupuy (c. 1787/1790–c. 1866), wey dem dey call Lottie, file freedom suit for 1829 against her enslaver, Henry Clay, wey be Secretary of State, but she lose. Chica da Silva (c. 1732–1796), wey dem sabi as Xica da Silva, Brazilian courtesan wey become rich and powerful even though she born into slavery. Chloe Cooley (fl. 1793), wey dey enslave for Canada, her violent treatment and transport to US make Upper Canada pass 1793 Act Against Slavery. Christopher Shields (born 1774) na George Washington slave wey he keep am for Mount Vernon. The place wey he die and the year wey e happen no dey clear. Christophorus Plato Castanis, (born 1814) na runaway Greek slave from Chios. He journey come US with Samuel Gridley Howe and John Celivergos Zachos. Castanis be Greek-American author and lecturer. Çiçek Hatun (fl. 1453) na Greek girl wey dem capture when Constantinople fall and put as one of the concubine for Sultan Mehmet II harem. Clara Brown (around 1800–1885), she be one woman wey dem don enslave for Virginia. She come be community leader, give back for people wey don free during Colorado Gold Rush. Claudia Acte (1st century), na mistress for Roman emperor Nero. Pope Clement I (wey die for 100), na di fourth Pope for Catholic tradition. E fit dey freedman for Titus Flavius Clemens. Cleon (die 132 BC) na leader for di First Servile War. Colonel Tye (1753–1780), wey dem dey call Titus Cornelius, him don free, come be Black Loyalist soldier and guerrilla leader for di American Revolution. Crixus, na Gallic gladiator and military leader for di Third Servile War. Cudjoe Lewis (around 1840–1935), wey originally be Oluale Kossola, na di third-to-last survivor of di Transatlantic slave trade for USA. Dem carry am go di slave ship Clotilda. Cuffy (die 1763), na Akan man wey dem capture for him own West Africa, carry am go work for di plantations of di Dutch colony for Berbice wey dey Guyana today, and for 1763, him lead revolt wey get more than 2,500 slaves against di colonial regime. Today, him na national hero for Guyana. D Dred Scott wey no fit win im case for im freedom for United States Supreme Court for 1857. Dabitum, woman wey dem enslave for Old Babylonia wey sabi write letter about miscarriage. Daniel Bell (around 1802–1877) wey try for years make e and im family fit enjoy freedom. E help organize one big escape plan wey dem call "the Pearl incident" for Washington, D.C., for 1848. Dada Masiti (around 1810s–15 July 1919) poet, mystic and Islamic scholar. Dave Drake (around 1801–1876), wey people sabi am as Dave the Potter. Deborah Squash and im husband Harvey wey escape from George Washington Mount Vernon, join British for New York during American Revolutionary War, and dem carry dem go free in 1783. Denmark Vesey (around 1767–1822), one enslaved African-American man wey plan one big slave rebellion for United States wey dem leak the plans before e go happen. Dido Elizabeth Belle (1761–1804), wey born into slavery as the daughter of Maria Belle, one enslaved African woman for West Indies, and Sir John Lindsay, one Navy officer. Lindsay carry Belle go England for 1765, give im uncle William Murray, 1st Earl of Mansfield, and im wife Elizabeth to take care of am. Dem educate Belle, raise am as free gentlewoman for their Kenwood House with their niece, Lady Elizabeth Murray. Belle stay there for 30 years. For im will for 1793, Lord Mansfield confirm im freedom and give am money and annuity, make Belle heiress. Diego be one freedman wey dem don enslave before, and e dey close with di Elizabethan navigator Francis Drake. For March 1573, Drake raid Darien (for today Panama) and Maroons help am well – dem be Africans wey don run from Spanish slave owners and dem glad to help their English enemies. One of dem na Diego, wey sabi build ship well, and e follow Drake go England. For 1577, Queen Elizabeth send Drake make e start journey against di Spanish for di Pacific coast fit America – wey later turn as Drake waka go round di world – Diego again dey work under Drake; him sabi Spanish and English well well, so he fit be good interpreter when dem catch Spaniard or Portuguese wey dey speak Spanish. E be Drake's servant and dem dey pay am like di rest of di crew. Diego die while Drake ship dey cross di Pacific, wounds wey e get earlier for di journey. Drake dey feel bad for him death, as Diego don become him good friend. Diogenes of Sinope (c. 412–323 BCE), Greek philosopher wey pirates carry away and sell for Corinth. Diocletian (244–312), Emperor of Rome, some people talk say e born as slave of Senator Anullinus. Other talk say na Diocletian papa (we no sabi im name) wey be slave and free before him son, di future emperor, born. Dionysius I (die 1492), Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, dem don enslave am by di Ottomans after di Fall of Constantinople for 1453. Dolly Johnson (born late 1820s, die after 1887), African-American woman from Tennessee, wey President Andrew Johnson don enslave, later become small small-business owner. Dorota Sitańska (die after 1797), Polish serf and Royal Ballet Dancer, wey dem donate to di king of Poland by will and testament. Dred Scott (around 1799–1858), na one enslaved African-American guy wey dey Missouri wey carry case go court make e fit get freedom for one big trial, Scott v. Sandford, wey reach U.S. Supreme Court for 1857. E Florence, Lady Baker around 1875. Na Romanian wey dem enslave as orphan, Samuel Baker buy am, later marry am. Edward Mozingo Sr., (about 1649–1712), dem kidnap am from Africa when e dey like 10 years, sell am for slavery for Jamestown, Virginia. After e owner die, he sue for im freedom and win am. E marry poor white woman, Margaret Pierce Bayley (1645–1711) and together dem be dem wey start the Mozingo family for North America. Elijah Abel (1808–1884), wey born enslave for Maryland, people believe say e escape from slavery enter Underground Railroad go Canada. He join Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints early, na him dey among the first black wey get priesthood and the first black wey rise to elder and seventy rank. Elizabeth Marsh (1735–1785), na English woman wey corsairs capture and hold for slavery for Morocco. Edith Hern Fossett, na woman wey U.S. President Thomas Jefferson enslave, dem teach am to cook by French chef wey create French food for White House and Monticello. Elias Polk (1806–1886), na conservative political activist from 19th century. Eliezer of Damascus, na Abraham slave and trusted manager for im house in Hebrew Bible. Elieser be man wey dem enslave by Paulo de Pina family, Portuguese Jews wey move go Netherlands for 1610 to escape wahala and forced conversion for Portugal. E dey stay with the family for Amsterdam till e die for 1629, dem bury am for Beth Haim cemetery, wey be the oldest Jewish cemetery for Netherlands. E appear say dem don free am, whether officially or in practice, and e dey near equal level with the family wey own am for Portugal – show by fact say e attend the funeral of im master wife, Sara de Pina, and contribute six stuivers, and dem bury am alongside im (former) owners and Jacob Israel Belmonte, wey be the richest man for the community. Elieser don convert to Judaism and dem accept am as Jewish, true true if not, he for no dey buried for Jewish cemetery; dem fit give am the name 'Elieser' when dem convert am, e dey bring Eliezer from Damascus mind. Recently, members of Surinamese community for Netherlands don carry Elieser memory go high, dem put statue for am and dey do yearly pilgrimage go his grave wey dem call Elieser Day. Elisenda de Sant Climent (1220–1275), dem enslave am during slave raid for Mallorca and carry am go emir harem for Tunis. Eliza Hopewell, woman wey dey under Confederates spy Isabella Maria Boyd ('Belle Boyd'). For 1862, she help her owner do spy work, carry message go Confederate Army inside watch case wey dem hollow. Eliza Moore (1843–1948), one of the last African-American former slaves wey dey live for United States. Elizabeth Johnson Forby, mixed-race American woman wey dem enslave under President Andrew Johnson, daughter of Dolly Johnson. Elizabeth Key Grinstead (1630–after 1665), na the first woman wey get African blood for North America wey go court for her freedom and win. Key and her small pikin, John Grinstead, come free on July 21, 1656 for Virginia because her papa be Englishman and she be baptized Christian. Elizabeth Freeman (c. 1742–1829), wey dem dey call Bett and later Mum Bett, na among the first enslaved black people for Massachusetts wey fit file freedom suit and win, based on 1780 constitution wey rule slavery illegal. Elizabeth Hobbs Keckley (1818–1907), wey be popular as personal modiste and close friend of Mary Todd Lincoln, First Lady of the United States. Keckley write and publish autobiography, Behind the Scenes: Or, Thirty Years a Slave and Four Years in the White House (1868). Ellen Craft (1826–1891), light-skin wife of William Craft, wey escape from Georgia to Philadelphia, by acting like white woman and her slave, case wey become popular. Ellen More, enslaved woman wey them carry go royal Scottish court. Emilia Soares de Patrocinio (1805–1886) na Brazilian slave, slave owner and businesswoman. Emiline (23 years); Nancy (20); Lewis, Nancy brother (16); Edward, Emiline brother (13); Lewis and Edward, sons of Nancy (7); Ann, daughter of Nancy (5); and Amanda, daughter of Emiline (2), dem free for 1852 Lemmon v. New York court case after dem bring dem go New York from Virginia. Emily Edmonson (1835–1895), with her sister Mary, try escape for 1848 wey dem call Pearl incident, but Henry Ward Beecher and him church gather money to free dem. Enrique of Malacca, wey dem dey call Henry the Black, na slave and interpreter for Ferdinand Magellan and maybe the first person wey waka round the globe for Magellan's trip of 1519–1521. Epictetus (55–c. 135), ancient Greek stoic philosopher. Estevanico (1500–1539), wey dem dey call Esteban the Moor. He be slave of the Portuguese first, then become servant of the Spaniards. He be one of the only four wey survive the bad Narváez expedition, later na guide for search of the fabled Seven Cities of Gold and maybe the first African wey reach wetin be Arizona and New Mexico today. Eston Hemings (1808–1856), son of Sally Hemings and Thomas Jefferson. Eucharis, na Greek wey dem free, born Roman Licinia, dem describe am for him epitaph for 1st century AD as fourteen when she die, child actress and professional dancer. Eunus (him die for 132 BC), na slave wey come from Apamea for Syria, and him be leader for slave wahala for First Servile War wey happen for Roman province of Sicily. Eunus sabi gree people as prophet and wonder-worker. Him dey claim say him dey see visions and dey communicate with goddess Atargatis, wey dey popular for him place; he even fit connect am to Sicilian Demeter. Some prophecies wey he drop na say di rebel slaves go fit capture di city of Enna and say one day, he go be king. Euphemia (him die for 520s), na Empress of Byzantine Empire because she marry Justin I, she be slave before. Euphraios, na Athenian slave and banker. Exuperius and Zoe (dem die for 127), na Christian martyrs for 2nd century. Dem be married couple wey slave master in Pamphylia enslave. Dem kill dem with their sons, Cyriacus and Theodolus, because dem no wan join pagan rites when dem pikin born. Florence Johnson Smith be mixed-race American babe wey President Andrew Johnson carry go enslave, she be Dolly Johnson pikin. Fountain Hughes (1848–1957), dem interview am for June 1949 about him life by Library of Congress as part of Federal Writers' Project. Francis Bok (wey born 1979), na Dinka slave from South Sudan, now him dey fight for freedom and be author for United States. Francis Jackson (wey born between 1815 and 1820), him dey free from birth, but dem kidnap am for 1850 and sell am into slavery. Him finally get freedom for 1855 when case Francis Jackson v. John W. Deshazer end. Francis James Grimké (1850–1937), him be minister. Francisco Menéndez, na man wey dem enslave for South Carolina but e run go Spanish Florida, wey e serve for Spanish militia, even lead the garrison wey dem set for 1738 for Fort Mose. This place be the first legal free black community for wetin we dey call United States now. François Mackandal (wey die 1758), na Haitian Maroon leader. Frederick Douglass (1818–1895), him born for slavery for Maryland and run go Northeast for 1838, where e turn big-time abolitionist writer, speaker, and diplomat. Fyodor Slavyansky (1817–1876), na Russian serf painter. G Medical photo wey show Gordon back wey dem whip, plenty abolitionists dey share am to show how slavery dey be bad. Portrait of Gülnuş Sultan Gabriel Prosser (1776–1800), leader wey lead Virginia slave revolt. Gaius Furius Chresimus, ancient Roman. As him free man, e produce crops from him small farm wey people accuse am say him dey witch other people crop, but when him bring him farm tools for court, dem free am. Pliny the Elder talk say him story na proof say hard work be wetin matter for farming. Galatian de Sesse (16th century), knight from Aragon wey dey work for hospital and be Governor of Gozo wey dem enslave during 1551 Ottoman attack, e spend five years as galley slave before dem pay ransom and free am. Galeria Lysistrate (2nd century), mistress of Roman emperor Antoninus Pius. Ganga Zumba or Ganazumba (c. 1630–1678), one descendant of unknown Kongo king wey run away from slavery for Brazilian colonial and be first leader of runaway slave settlement wey be Quilombo dos Palmares. Gannicus, enslaved Celt wey be one of the leaders of rebel slaves during Third Servile War. Garafilia Mohalbi (1817–1830), Greek slave wey American merchant rescue and carry go Boston. She die young and inspire big art movement. Genghis Khan (c. 1162–1227), dem capture am after raid and make am slave for Taichiud. George Africanus (1763–1834), enslaved African man from Sierra Leone wey become successful businessman for Nottingham. George Edward Doney (1758–1809), Gambian man wey William Capell, 4th Earl of Essex enslave. George Colvocoresses (1816–1872), from Chios, Greece, come America come be captain for U.S. Navy, but small small dem carry am put for slavery when e be pikin. Colvos Passage dey named after am. George Freeman Bragg (1863–1940), wey born for slavery for North Carolina, later turn big Episcopal priest and social activist. George Lewis (1794–1811), wey dem dey call Slave George, na enslaved guy wey dem kill for Kentucky night of December 15–16, 1811. George Moses Horton (1797–1884), na di first African-American author; him first poetry book publish for North Carolina. George Washington Carver (c. 1864–1943), na African-American scientist, botanist, educator and inventor wey sabi to promote other crops like sweet potatoes and peanuts for South; him born for slavery for Missouri but dem free am as small pikin after American Civil War. George Griffin (1849–1897), born for slavery for Maryland but later dem free am; him be close person to Mark Twain. George W. Hayes (1847–1933), na court crier and politician for Ohio, mixed African American and Native American background, dem carry am put for slavery early for him life. Gerónimo de Aguilar (1489–1531), na Franciscan friar wey waka go Yucatán Peninsula for 1511 but dem shipwreck am and dem carry am for slavery by Mayans. Gosala, one ascetic teacher from ancient India – wey dey live same time (and dey compete) with Gautama Buddha – people talk say him born for slavery, and he become naked ascetic after him run from him bad captor, wey catch him cloth before e run. Gonzalo Guerrero (died 1536), na sailor from Palos, Spain, wey shipwreck for Yucatán Peninsula for 1511 and dem carry am for slavery by di local Maya. Gordon, wey dem dey call Whipped Peter, na enslaved African-American wey escape come Union Army camp from plantation near Baton Rouge, Louisiana for 1863. Di pictures wey dem take of Gordon back wey dem beat during medical check, dem publish am for Harper's Weekly, e show Northerners di wahala wey slavery dey cause. E make plenty free blacks want join di Union Army. Gülnuş Sultan (1642–1715) na Haseki Sultan for Ottoman Sultan Mehmed IV and Valide sultan for dia pikin Mustafa II and Ahmed III. Guðríður Símonardóttir (1598–1682) na Iceland woman wey some North African slavers (Barbary Pirates) carry go. Gustav Badin (wey die for 1822) na servant for royal Swedish court, originally na Danish slave. H Hurrem Sultan, be Eastern European slave girl wey Ottoman sultan Süleyman the Magnificent buy, marry am. Hababah, concubine of Caliph Yazid II. Hagar, biblical figure, Sarah own. Hannah Bond (weh dey born for 1830s), pen name Hannah Crafts, write The Bondwoman's Narrative after she gain freedom. E fit be di first novel wey African-American woman write, na di only novel wey woman wey run from slavery don write. Hark Olufs (1708–1754), Danish sailor, dem capture am by Algerian pirates. Dem sell am to di Bey of Constantine, and him become Commander in Chief for di Bey's cavalry. Dem release am for 1735. Harriet Balfour (c. 1818–1858), Surinam-born enslaved woman wey free for 1841 and move go Scotland. Harriet Evans Paine, (c. 1822–1917), Texas enslaved woman and later oral historian and storyteller. Harriet Hemings (1801–after 1822), daughter of Sally Hemings and Thomas Jefferson. Harriet Jacobs (1813–1897), author of Incidents in di Life of a Slave Girl. Harriet Powers (1837–1910), American folk artist, and quilter. Harriet Tubman (c. 1822–1913), dem dey call am 'Moses' because of di work wey she dey do to help other American slaves escape through di Underground Railroad. Harry, di plaintiff for di 1818 Harry v. Decker & Hopkins case wey di Supreme Court of Mississippi decide to free person from slavery just because him dey stay for free land. Harry Washington (wey die for 1800), dem dey call am Henry Washington, be slave wey George Washington dey own. Dem transport am go America as slave, and Washington buy am for 1763 to work on project wey go drain di Great Dismal Swamp. Hafsa Sultan (she die March 1534), na Selim I wife and di first real sultan of Ottoman Empire as Suleiman di Magnificent mama. Pipo sabi her background matter dey confuse, but some historians talk say she be slave. Helen Gloag (1750–1790), from Muthill, Perthshire, Scotland, become di Empress of Morocco as di harem slave for Morocco sultan. Henry Bibb (1815–1854), American writer and abolitionist wey born as slave. After e run come out from slavery to British Upper Canada, he start newspaper wey dey call The Voice of the Fugitive. E later come back to U.S. come dey lecture against slavery. Henry Highland Garnet (1815–1882), wey born African-American slave for Maryland, run from slavery for 1824, come become abolitionist and teacher. Hercules (born c. 1755), na di head cook wey George Washington enslave for him plantation, Mount Vernon. E run come gain him freedom for 1797, but him wife Alice and him three pikin still dey enslave. Hermas, wey write di book The Shepherd of Hermas and na Pope Pius I brother. Hernando de Escalante Fontaneda, been born for Cartagena, but e don dey enslave at 13 when di ship wey carry am go Spain for school sink for Florida. Calusa chief take am as slave and use am as translator until dem free am at 30. Horace King (1807–1885), American architect, engineer, and bridge builder, born into slavery for South Carolina plantation. Hümaşah Sultan (fl. 1647–1672) na di wife of Sultan Ibrahim for Ottoman Empire. Hurrem Sultan (c. 1504–1558), wey dem sabi as Roxelana, be Eastern European girl wey slave traders capture and sell to di Imperial Harem, become di chief consort and legal wife of Ottoman sultan Süleyman di Magnificent. Halime Sultan (about 1570–after 1639) be Valide Sultan wey dey rule alongside Ottoman Empire. Handan Sultan (about 1568–1605) too be Valide Sultan and her dey act as regent for the Ottomans. I İbrahim Pasha Ivan Argunov. Self-portrait (late 1750s). İbrahim Pasha (about 1495 – 1536), na first Grand Vizier wey Suleiman the Magnificent appoint. E be Greek by birth, at six years old, dem sell am as slave to Ottoman palace for future sultans, where e meet Suleiman wey dey same age. Icelus Marcianus, na slave and later free guy for Roman emperor Galba for 1st century CE. E be one of three men wey dey control the emperor well well, make Galba no dey popular. Ida B. Wells (1862–1931), na big African-American activist wey born into slavery, but later she dey fight against lynching and fit cancel am. For 1909, she co-found National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). Imma, na Northumbrian noble wey knock for battle and later sabi act like peasant, so say captors no go kill am. Him behavior show say him no be real peasant, and dem sell am into slavery. Isabel de Solís (fl. 1485), na enslaved Castilian concubine for Abu l-Hasan Ali, Sultan of Granada. Isabella Gibbons (1826–1890), become schoolteacher for Virginia after dem liberate am for 1865. Isfandíyár, na enslaved servant for Bahá'u'lláh's house for Tehran, Isfandíyár die for Mazandaran. Israel Jefferson (about 1800–after 1873), wey people sabi as Israel Gillette before 1844, born into slavery for Monticello, Thomas Jefferson estate, and work as domestic servant near Jefferson for many years. Ivan Bolotnikov (1565–1608), na fugitive kholop (enslaved for Russia) and leader of Bolotnikov rebellion for 1606–1607. Ivan Argunov (1729–1802), na Russian serf painter, one of the founders of Russian school of portrait painting. J Jean Parisot de Valette St. Josephine Margaret Bakhita, F.D.C.C. Jack Gladstone, di leader wey lead di Demerara rebellion for 1823. Jackey Wright, na enslaved American woman wey sue for im freedom for di popular 1806 Virginia case, Hudgins v. Wright. Di Virginia Supreme Court talk say Wright look white and Native American, but di lower court under George Wythe dey try arrange say everybody fit be free, no matter di race. Jacob Notaras (fl. 1453), na Byzantine nobleman wey dem carry as slave by Sultan Mehmed di Conqueror when Constantinople fall. Jaja of Opobo (1821–1891), dem sell am around age 12 as slave for di Kingdom of Bonny wey dey Nigeria now. From young, di guy don show say e sabi business, so e find im way come out from slavery, become rich merchant prince and start di Opobo city-state, but British colonizers wey e wan challenge come end im career. James Armistead Lafayette (1760–1830), na enslaved African-American man wey serve di Continental Army for di American Revolutionary War as double agent. James Baugh, na enslaved American wey sue for im freedom because im mama granmama na Indian. James Hemings (1765–1801), na mixed-race American wey dem enslave later free am by Thomas Jefferson. E be di older brother of Sally Hemings and half-brother of Jefferson wife, Martha Wayles Skelton Jefferson, through dia papa John Wayles. James Leander Cathcart (1767–1843), diplomat and sailor wey sabi tell story about 11 years wey e dey enslave for Algiers and e do some big diplomatic work while for slavery. James Poovey (born c. 1769), Philadelphian wey dem enslave am from birth, but e find freedom through peaceful resistance. James M. Priest (1819–1883), 6th Vice President of Liberia, wey born inside slavery for Kentucky. James Somersett, man wey dey enslave for colonial America, escape for England in 1771 with help of Beta British people, wey lead to the big case Somerset v Stewart, wey change the slavery matter for Britain, but not for dem colonies. James W. C. Pennington (c. 1807–1870), African-American writer and abolitionist. Jan Ernst Matzeliger (1852–1889), Surinamese-American wey invent shoe making. Jane Johnson (1814/1827–1872), she gain freedom on July 18, 1855, with her two small pikin while dem dey Philadelphia with her owner. William Still and Passmore Williamson help am, dem be abolitionists for Pennsylvania Anti-Slavery Society. Jean Amilcar (c. 1781–1793), Senegalese son of Marie Antoinette. Jean-Jacques Dessalines (1758–1806), leader of Haitian Revolution and first leader of independent Haiti. Jean Marteilhe (1684–1777), French Huguenot wey be slave narrator, him be galley slave. Jean Saint Malo (died 1784), leader of runaway slaves (maroon colony) for Spanish Louisiana and he name dey for Saint Malo, Louisiana. Jean Parisot de Valette (1495–1568), knight of the Order of Saint John, wey dem capture and make galley slave for 1541 by Barbary pirates. After about one year, dem free am and him later become Grandmaster of the Order. Jefferson F. Long (1836–1901), first former slave wey serve for United States Congress and first African American wey represent Georgia for Congress. Jeffrey Hudson (1619–c. 1682), na English court guy wey spend 25 years for North Africa as slave. Jehan Alard (fl. 1580), na French Huguenot wey dey serve as galley slave for Italy, dem catch am for Inquisition. Jehu Grant (c. 1752–1840), na veteran from Revolutionary War. Jeremiah Haralson (1846–Unknown), na former slave and politician wey represent Alabama for House of Representatives during 44th Congress. Jermain Wesley Loguen (1813–1872), na African-American wey run away from slavery, be abolitionist, bishop of the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church, and e write slave narrative. Jim Cuff or Jim Crow be physically disabled African man wey people talk say e fit dey St. Louis, Cincinnati, or Pittsburgh, e song and dance inspire the blackface song 'Jump Jim Crow' wey white comedian Thomas D. Rice bring come. Rice popular creation make Jim Crow turn bad name for blacks, later dem use am for dem segregation laws. Jim Henson, na African wey escape slavery and publish im memoirs, Broken Shackles, for Canada. Joana da Gama (c. 1520–1586), na Portuguese maid-of-honor and writer. Joe, na man wey William B. Travis, one of the Texian commanders for Battle of Alamo enslaved. After dem lose, Mexican General Santa Anna spare Joe, hoping say e go fit convince other slaves for Texas to support Mexican government instead of Texian rebels. After that, Joe and some survivors go Gonzales, dem encourage dem to talk about the battle and tell Texian forces say Santa Anna army no fit beat. John Axouch (1087–1150), na Seljuk Turk wey dem capture as pikin by Byzantine Empire, dem free am and raise am for di imperial house as John II Komnenos wey go be emperor future friend. When him take over, dem put am for di army command and e be di emperor only close pal and confidant. John Boston (c. 1832–after 1880), na former slave wey dey represent Darlington County for South Carolina House during di Reconstruction era. Him dey involved for community work and, as minister, him start di Lamar Colored Methodist Church for 1865. By 1880, him don turn farmer. John 'Lit' Fleming, born for slavery for Virginia but later move go Edmundson, Arkansas with him papa and siblings. E go move go Memphis, Tennessee, and be part owner of di newspaper Memphis Free Speech with activist Ida B. Wells-Barnett. John Munroe Brazealle, with him mama, dem case dey Hinds v. Brazealle (1838), for di Supreme Court of Mississippi, wey deny di legality and inheritance rights for Mississippi for manumission wey Elisha Brazealle, wey dey Ohio, do to free dem. John Brown (c. 1810–1876), wey escape and write about di conditions for di Deep South of United States. John Casor, na di first person wey dey enslaved as result of civil case for di Thirteen Colonies (Virginia Colony, 1655). John Ezzidio (c. 1810–1872), na enslaved Nigerian man wey turn successful politician and businessman for Sierra Leone. John Adams Hyman (1840-1891), na former slave and politician wey serve for di North Carolina Senate and later be di first African American to represent di state for Congress. John Jea (born 1773), na enslaved African-American man wey popular for him 1811 autobiography, The Life, History, and Unparalleled Sufferings of John Jea, di African Preacher. John Joyce wey dem born am for slavery for Maryland, serve for United States Navy, do plenty work after, and kill shopkeeper, Sarah Cross; him life and crime dey for murder stories wey dem dey talk for him time. John R. Jewitt (1783–1821), small English man wey dey make armor, spend three years as prisoner for Maquinna of the Nuu-chah-nulth people for Pacific coast wey dey for Canada now. John R. Lynch (1847–1939), former slave and politician wey serve for Mississippi House of Representatives, be the first African American wey lead state legislative chamber. Later he go serve for United States House of Representatives and write The Facts of Reconstruction to answer dem wey dey talk bad about Reconstruction time policies. John Punch (fl. 1630s, live 1640), na enslaved African man wey dey for Virginia Colony for 17th century. For July 1640, Virginia Governor's Council punish am to serve for him whole life because e run go Maryland. Historians dey call Punch the 'first official slave for the English colonies,' and him case na the 'first time dem make slavery forever for the Chesapeake.' Historians also sabi say this one be the first legal line wey dem draw between Europeans and Africans for the colony, and na important step for slavery matter for United States. John S. Jacobs (1815–1873), wey dem born into slavery for North Carolina, escape, become abolitionist speaker and write slave memoir. Him be brother of famous author Harriet Jacobs. John Smith (1580–1631), English soldier, sailor, and author wey everybody sabi for him role wey help Jamestown colony survive for Virginia. Smith dey captured by Crimean Tatars for 1602 while him dey fight for Wallachia and dem make am slave for Ottoman Empire, but him escape come England by 1604. As Smith talk am: 'we all dey sell for slaves, like goat for market-place.' Jordan Anderson (1825–1907), wey people sabi well well for di letter wey he gree send to im old master when dem call am make he come back to serve dem. Jordan Winston Early (1814–after 1894) na American Methodist preacher wey get different blood, and dem write book about im life as slave. John White, na black boy wey Creeks capture for 1797, but he escape come back New Orleans, only to find Spanish people don carry am go back to slavery. John Ystumllyn, wey dem dey call Jac Du or Jack Black, na 18th-century Welsh gardener, di first Black person wey record well for North Wales. Jonathan Strong, na di person wey dem dey talk about one of di first legal cases wey concern slavery for Britain. José Antonio Aponte, na di leader of Aponte conspiracy. Joseph, na important person for Old Testament and Quran. Joseph Antonio Emidy (1775–1835), violinist wey born for Africa, die for Cornwall. Joseph Cinqué (1814–1879), wey dem know as Sengbe Pieh, na di leader of slave rebellion for di slave ship La Amistad and di case wey follow for Supreme Court, United States v. Amistad for 1839. Joseph Jackson Fuller (1825–1908), one of di earliest slaves wey gree free for Jamaica, at first under di partial freedoms of 1833 Slavery Abolition Act. Joseph Knight, wey succeed find im freedom through court case for Scotland in 1777, case wey make Scots law no go support slavery. Josephine Bakhita (c. 1869–1947), Sudanese-born Roman Catholic Canossian nun and saint. Joshua Glover, na fugitive wey slavery people chase am but abolitionists help am for Racine, Wisconsin in 1854. Josiah T. Walls (c. 1842–1905), former slave wey turn politician wey don serve for di two chambers of Florida State Legislature, na di first African American wey represent di state for Congress. Juan de Pareja (1606–1670), man wey Spanish artist Diego Velázquez enslave am. Velázquez teach am how to paint and free am for 1650. Juan Francisco Manzano (c. 1797–1854), Cuban poet. Juan Gros, free black soldier wey Upper Creek catch near Pensacola, sell am to white trader wey carry am go sell to Mitasuki chief Kinache, wey Spanish people come pay ransom for am. Juan Latino, dem dey call am "el negro Juan Latino", from Ethiopia, dem carry am go Spain when e small, e go school and become Latin professor for University of Granada, 16th-century Spain. Juan Ortiz, young nobleman from Andalucía wey Chief Ucita enslave for Florida to take revenge for wetin happen to am during the expedition. Juan Valiente (died 1553), black African slave wey get chance to be conquistador. E die during the battle of Tucapel against Mapuche people for Chile. Juana Ramírez (1790–1856), rebel soldier and heroine for Venezuelan War of Independence. Julia Chinn, enslave woman wey be octoroon and common-law wife to Richard Mentor Johnson, 9th Vice President of the United States. Julia Frances Lewis, mama to Amanda American Dickson through her owner’s son. Juliana, Guaraní woman from Paraguay, wey famous for kill her Spanish enslaver between 1538 and 1542 and encourage other women to do same. Julius Soubise (1754–1798) be freed Afro-Caribbean slave wey become popular fop for late eighteenth-century Britain. Julius Zoilos, enslave by Julius Caesar. After him get freedom, e shine for him city Aphrodisias after Caesar die. Jupiter Hammon (1711–before 1806), for 1761, become the first African-American writer wey dem publish for the present-day United States. Born for slavery, Hammon never get freedom. Dem dey consider am one of the founders of African-American literature. K Kösem Sultan (1589–1651), na slave concubine just like all di other pipo wey dey di Imperial Harem. Kunta Kinte (c. 1750–c. 1822), na character from di 1976 novel Roots: Di Saga of an American Family wey author Alex Haley base on one of him real ancestors. Kinte be man wey dey come from di Mandinka pipo, he grow for small village wey dem dey call Juffure for wetin we sabi as The Gambia, and dem raise am as Muslim before dem capture am and turn am slave for Virginia. Di historical accuracy of Haley's story get debate. Kodjo (c. 1803–1833), na Surinamese slave wey dem burn alive fit start di 1832 fire for Paramaribo, Dutch Suriname, maybe as way to show resistance. Kösem Sultan (1589–1651), na Ottoman enslaved woman, wey later become very powerful as wife, then mother and later grandmother of di Ottoman sultan during di 130-year wey dem dey call di Sultanate of Women. L Laurens de Graaf Lalla Balqis (1670–after 1721), na English woman wey dem capture and turn slave by Corsairs, dem include am for di harem of di Sultan of Morocco. Lamhatty, na Tawasa Indian wey dem capture and enslave by Creek; him escape. Lampegia (die after 730), Aquitanian noblewoman, wey Abd al-Rahman ibn Abd Allah al-Ghafiqi capture, wey in 730 take di Llivia Fortress, kill her husband Munuza and send her go as slave for di harem of Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik for Damascus. La Mulâtresse Solitude (1772–1802), na slave for di island of Guadeloupe wey dem free in 1794 when dem abolish slavery during di French Revolution. Dem execute am after she fight for freedom when slavery come back because Napoleon in 1802. Laurens de Graaf (c. 1653–1704), na Dutch pirate, mercenary, and naval officer, wey dem enslave by Spanish slave traders when dem capture am for wetin we dey call Netherlands, and dem carry am go di Canary Islands to work for plantation before 1674. Lear Green (around 1839–1860), one African-American woman from Maryland wey run go freedom for New York by fitting inside box make dem carry am. Leo Africanus (1494–1554), one Moor wey born for Granada, dem carry am go Morocco in 1498 because of Spanish wahala. As adult, he dey do diplomatic work. Crusaders catch am for Middle East, dem carry am go Rome make he be slave and convert to Christianity. Later, he get him freedom back and live him life for Tunis. Leofgifu, wey be dairy maid, na one enslaved woman for Anglo-Saxon England, dem mention am for her freedom paper. Leoflaed, another enslaved woman for Anglo-Saxon England, man buy her freedom wey describe her as “kinswoman.” Leonor de Mendoza, enslaved woman for colonial Mexico wey wan marry Tomás Ortega wey be slave for another master; when her master put Tomás for prison, she go church court beg make dem help, dem even threaten say if him no free Tomás, e go fit face excommunication. Letitia Munson (around 1820–after 1882), na midwife wey don come out from slavery, dem don free her for doing illegal abortion for Canada. Lewis Adams (1842–1905), man wey don free from slavery, wey co-found Tuskegee Institute, now Tuskegee University for Alabama. Lewis Hayden (1811–1889), na African-American man from Kentucky, later dem elect am for Massachusetts General Court. Lilliam Williams, settler from Tennessee wey Creek catch while she dey pregnant. Creek adopt her pikin (wey she name Molly and dem name Esnahatchee); dem keep the girl when Williams arrange her freedom. Liol, one Chinese man wey dem carry as slave by Mongol bannerman Soosar. E get semi-independent status for dem. In 1735, him pikin Fuji try claim say him and him brother be Manchus but e no work. Lorenzo de Apapis (around 1501–1586), priest and notary from Gozitan wey dey slavery during 1551 Ottoman attack for Gozo. Dem ransom am and free am by 1553. Lott Cary (about 1780–1828), wey dem born am as African-American slave for Virginia, buy im freedom around 1813, move go Liberia for 1822, where e serve as colonial administrator.[1] Louis Hughes (1832–1913), African-American man wey run away from slavery, author, and businessman.[2] Lovisa von Burghausen (1698–1733), Swedish writer wey publish story of how dem enslave am for Russia after dem capture am during the Great Northern War. Lucius Agermus, freedman of Agrippina the Elder.[3] Lucius Aurelius Hermia, freedman butcher wey his tombstone dey praise im marriage with his fellow freedwoman Aurelia Philematium.[4] Lucius Cancrius Primigenius, freedman of Clemens for one inscription wey dey thank am for breaking spells wey dey affect the city.[5] Lucius of Campione, wey lose lawsuit for 8th century about man Toto wey claim ownership of am.[6] Lucy, di black woman wey John Lang enslave. Dem capture her by di Creek wen she dey 12 years and keep her as slave for Creek land, where she born slave children and grandchildren.[7] Lucy Ann (Berry) Delaney (1830–1891), former enslaved woman, daughter of Polly Berry. Lucy Higgs Nichols (1838–1915), wey escape slavery, serve as nurse for di Civil War, member of di Grand Army of di Republic. Lucy Terry (about 1733–1821), dem kidnap her for Africa and enslave her, dem carry am go British colony of Rhode Island. She later gain freedom and become poet. Luís Gama (1830–1882), wey born free for Brazil, illegally sell am into slavery as pikin, he regain freedom as adult and become lawyer wey free plenty people from slavery without asking for money, especially for di Netto Case. Lunsford Lane (1803–after 1870), na enslaved African-American guy wey dey North Carolina wey buy him freedom and him family too. Him write one slave story. Lyde, na woman wey dem free from slavery by Roman empress Livia. Lydia, na woman wey dem shoot when she try run away from her captor wey dey whip am. Supreme Court of North Carolina talk say na legal in 1830 (check North Carolina v. Mann). Lydia Carter, dey call am 'Little Osage Captive,' dem catch am among Cherokee. Na Lydia Carter go pay money come free am and she name her. Osage try take am back, but she fall sick and die. Lydia Polite, na mother of Robert Smalls. M Mikhail Shchepkin Macuncuzade Mustafa Efendi (wey born around 1550s), na Ottoman qadi and poet wey suffer for slavery for Malta after di ship wey e dey waka for capture by di Knights Hospitaller for 1597. Dem release am for 1600, and e write story about im captivity. Madison Hemings (1805–1877), na di pikin of Sally Hemings and Thomas Jefferson. Mae Louise Miller (1943–2014), American woman wey dey live for modern slavery (peonage) till 1961. Malgarida (wey born around 1488), black African woman and boyfriend of di conquistador Diego de Almagro. For 1536, she be di first non-indigenous woman wey enter di land wey we call Chile today. Malik Ambar, wey born for 1548 as Chapu, na im birth-name for Harar, Adal Sultanate wey dey Ethiopia today. Im come from di Maya ethnic group wey don disappear. As small pikin, im parents sell am for slavery. Mir Qasim Al Baghdadi, one of di people wey own am, convert Chapu come Islam and give am di name Ambar, after e sabi sey di boy get sharp brain. Malik waka go India as slave. For India, e create mercenary group wey reach 1500 men. Di group dey for di Deccan region and local kings dey hire dem. Malik become popular Prime Minister for Ahmadnagar Sultanate, show sey e sabi how to manage. E also dey regarded as pacesetter for guerilla warfare for di area. Dem dey credit am with managing tax collection for plenty for di Deccan, wey set di ground for future collections. Di Siddis of Gujarat dey respect am well. E match di strength of di Mughals and Adil Shah of Bijapur, lift di low status of di Nizam Shah. Margaret Himfi (before 1380–after 1408), na Hungarian woman wey dem carry go enslave by Ottoman bad guys for late 14th century. She later become slave mistress for one rich Venetian man for Crete, wey she born two daughters for. Margaret manage come back to Hungary for 1405. Margaret Morgan dey involved for Prigg v. Pennsylvania case wey United States Supreme Court rule say federal Fugitive Slave Act no go allow Pennsylvania law wey stop blacks from chop dey carry dem go slavery, an dem clear Edward Prigg case because of dat. Marguerite Duplessis (c. 1718–after 1740) na Pawnee woman wey dem enslave for Montreal wey, for 1740, try sue for her freedom but e no work. Marguerite Scypion (c. 1770s–after 1836) na African-Natchez woman wey born for slavery for St. Louis wey go sue for her freedom and eventually win am. Maria al-Qibtiyya (died 637), wey dem dey call “Maria the Copt” or sometimes Maria Qupthiya, na Copt woman wey dem send give Muhammad as gift from Muqawqis, one Byzantine big man, for 628, an she become Muhammad concubine. She be mama to Muhammad son Ibrahim wey die for small pikin age. Her sister, Sirin, sef go meet Muhammad. Muhammad give am to him guy Hassan ibn Thabit. Maria die five years after Muhammad die for 632. Maria (died 1716), na leader for slave uprising for Curaçao. Maria Boguslavka (17th century), na Ukrainian woman wey dem enslave for harem, she start help 30 Cossacks run away from slavery. Maria Guyomar de Pinha (1664–1728), na royal chef from Siam wey get Japanese-Portuguese blood. Maria Perkins, na enslave woman from Virginia wey write letter to her husband for 1852 say dem don sell their son away. Maria ter Meetelen (1704–after 1751), na Dutch writer wey tell her own slave story, dem carry her go enslave by pirates and later sell am to Sultan of Morocco. Her 1748 biography na important witness statement about life of former slave. Mariah Bell Winder McGavock Otey Reddick (she die 1922), as she be small girl, dem give am as wedding gift to Carrie Winder when she marry John McGavock for 1848 inside Terrebonne Parish, Louisiana. Mariah wey born for Mississippi as enslaved person, dem carry am go Franklin, Tennessee, where she spend plenty of her life. Dem match her with Harvey Otey after him first wife Phebe die. Dem get plenty pikin, including two set of twins, wey born into slavery. When Civil War start, dem send her go Montgomery make she dey far from Union lines and possible freedom. She don appear for three novels: Widow of the South and Orphan Mother wey Robert Hicks write and also for book wey her great-grandson William 'Damani' Keene and him wife Carole 'Ife' Keene write titled Clandestine: The Times and Secret Life of Mariah Otey Reddick. Marianna Malińska (she die after 1797), Polish serf and Royal Ballet Dancer, dem donates am to king of Poland by will. Marie (she die 1759), enslaved Cree woman wey get death sentence for Trois-Rivières, New France. Marie-Cessette Dumas, woman wey Marquis Antoine de la Pailleterie enslaved, she be mama of General Thomas-Alexandre Dumas, and grandmother of famous author Alexandre Dumas, père. Marie-Josèphe dite Angélique (she die 1734), black Portuguese enslaved woman wey dem try and convict, beat and hang because she set fire to her woman owner house, wey burn plenty of wetin dem dey call Old Montreal now. Marie Thérèse Metoyer, na planter and businesswoman wey dey Natchitoches, Louisiana after dem free her. Mark, one man from Massachusetts wey dey enslaved by Captain John Codman. Mark body dey display for chains for public near Charlestown, Massachusetts for twenty years. That gruesome display of him body dey popular well-well for that time, and na the place wey dem display Mark body make Paul Revere mention am as landmark for him 1798 account of him 1775 midnight ride. Martha Ann Erskine Ricks (1817–1901), na African-American wey dey born enslave for Tennessee, later she become Americo-Liberian wey sabi quilt. Marthe Franceschini (1755–1799), na Italian wey dem capture and enslave by Corsairs, enter Sultan of Morocco harem. Mary, wey be George Washington Carver mama. Mary (wey die 1838), na teenager wey dem hang for murder wey she do to Vienna Brinker, two-year-old girl wey she dey take care of. Mary Black, one of three enslave women wey dem charge for witchcraft during Salem witch trials for 1692. Mary Calhoun, white woman and cousin of John C. Calhoun wey dem kidnap by Cherokee. She no fit come back home. Mary Edmonson (1832–1853), with her sister Emily, dem try escape for 1848 wey dem dey call Pearl incident, but Henry Ward Beecher and him church gather money help free dem. Mary Eliza Smith, dem dey call 'slave' or 'former slave,' na common-law wife of Michael Morris Healy and mama of him pikin dem, wey include James Augustine Healy, Patrick Francis Healy, Michael A. Healy, and Eliza Healy. Mary Fields (c. 1832–1914): she be first African-American female wey dey carry mail for United States star route. Mary Mildred Williams, Nee Botts (born 1847), na the original 'Poster Child' wey dem use her picture push abolitionist cause by dey spread 'White Slavery' for 1855. Mary Prince (c. 1788–after 1833), her life story motivate anti-slavery movement for England. The Master of Morton and e first son of Clan Oliphant Chief, two Scottish noble wey dem exile from Scotland after 1582 Raid of Ruthven. Dem ship wey dem travel with vanish for sea, and dem talk say na Dutch ship catch dem. Last report be say dem dey enslave for Turkish ship for Mediterranean. Dem raise plaque for church for Algiers to remember dem. Masúd, dem buy am when e be pikin from Khál-i Akbar, wey be Báb uncle, Masúd go serve Bahá'u'lláh for Acre. Matilda McCrear (around 1857–1940), last person wey survive for US wey gree say Transatlantic slave trade no easy. Dem carry am go for slave ship Clotilda. Mende Nazer (born around 1982), Nuba woman wey dem capture for Darfur carry am from Sudan go London, later she get refugee status and write book wey title Slave: My True Story (2002). Menecrates of Tralles, na Greek doctor wey dey for 1st century BC. Metaneira, woman for ancient Greece wey dem talk say na Nicarete property, wey dey sell am for body. Michael Shiner (1805–1880), en slaved laborer, painter entrepreneur, community leader and diary writer for Washington Navy Yard. Miguel de Buría (around 1510–around 1555), na slave and rebel. Miguel Perez na the Spanish name of boy wey be Yojuane people, wey dey among 149 Yojuane women and children wey dem carry go as captive for 1759 when some Spanish and Apaches come attack their camp along Red River for northern Texas. Many of dem wey dem capture die from smallpox, the ones wey survive, dem go still enslave dem. Dem sell the boy to Spanish soldier wey give am that Spanish name. Perez become Hispanicized Indian for San Antonio but he still dey connect with his Yojuane people. For 1786, Perez go persuade the Yojuanes and their Tonkawa friends to fight Lipan Apache, wey he do am well. Mikhail Matinsky (1750–1820), Russian serf wey be scientist, dramatist, librettist and opera composer. Michał Rymiński (e don die after 1797), Polish serf wey be Royal Ballet Dancer, wey donate am to king of Poland by him will. Mikhail Shchepkin (1788–1863), Russian serf actor. Mikhail Shibanov, Russian serf painter wey dey active for 1780s. Mikhail Tikhanov (1789–1862), Russian serf artist. Mina Kolokolnikov (1708?–1775?), Russian serf painter and teacher. Mingo, di 15–16 years old boy wey Titsworth family use as slave for Tennessee, dem capture am for 1794 by Creeks when dem raid di house. Minerva (Anderson) Breedlove, na Madam C.J. Walker mama. Moses A. Hopkins (1846–1886), African-American diplomat, U.S. minister to Liberia. Murad Agha (c. 1480–c. 1556), Italy-born Ottoman eunuch and naval officer, wey turn Beylerbey of Tripoli. Mustapha Khaznadar (1817–1878), him be Christian Greek wey dem capture during 1822 Massacre of Chios, change am to Islam wey dem call am Mustapha, sell am for Constantinople to envoy of Husainid Dynasty. Him grow for Mustapha Bey family, later him son Ahmad I Bey. Him first be prince private treasurer before him become Ahmad state treasurer (khaznadar). Him rise to top offices for Tunisian state, marry Princess Lalla Kalthoum for 1839, turn lieutenant-general of di army, become bey for 1840 and de president of Grand Council from 1862 to 1878. Muyahid ibn Yusuf ibn Ali (11th century), na di leader of Saqaliba (slaves wey dem say be Slavic origin) for Dénia, Spain. As Caliphate of Córdoba dey fall, him and him followers rebel, free demself, control di city and establish di Taifa of Dénia, wey at di peak dey reach as far as di island of Majorca. N Nafisa al-Bayda, Egyptian investor wey dem dey call "white slave", na hin dey buy as concubine slave. Nancy, wey dem dey call Ann, na di plaintiff for di 1799 New Brunswick habeas corpus case R v Jones. Nancy Brown, Nancy Caffrey, na white captive wey Creek dey enslave. When trader John O'Reilly try to ransom her and Elsey Thompson, dem tell am say dem no capture dem to go back, but to work. Nanny of di Maroons, wey dem dey call Granny Nanny and Queen Nanny, na di leader of di Jamaican Maroons. Nat Turner (1800–1831), wey escape come lead revolt for Southampton County, Virginia. Nathan McMillian, wey as free man sue to make him pikin enter local "Croatan Indian" school, say e dey for all non-white pikin, and say him pikin get Croatan blood for their mama side. Nathaniel Booth (1826–1901), wey escape slavery for Virginia and settle for Lowell, Massachusetts. For 1851, di people of Lowell buy him freedom from slave hunters. Neaera, formerly enslaved woman and prostitute wey di Athenian Stephanus marry against di law around 340 BC, according to Demosthenes speech. Nero Hawley (1742–1817), wey be formerly enslaved freeperson wey serve for Continental Army during di American Revolutionary War, and dem bury am for Trumbull, Connecticut. Newport Gardner (1746–1826), na formerly enslaved freeperson for colonial Newport, Rhode Island. Ng Akew (died 1880), be Tanka enslaved woman for British Hong Kong wey famous for piracy scandal. Nicarete, na woman for ancient Greece, wey dem describe for Against Neaera di freedwoman of Charisius di Elean and him wife wey be cook Hippias, and as her dey own and sell several women around 340 BC. Saint Nino (c. 280–c. 332), na 4th-century Roman woman from Constantinople wey dem dey respect well well for bring Christianity come Georgia. Some account of her life talk say she originally come Georgia as slave wey dem kidnap from her homeland. Nurbanu Sultan (about 1525–1583), wey dem call Cecilia Venier-Baffo before, na enslaved noblewoman from Venice wey become the favorite wife of Ottoman sultan Selim II, and her wan dey very powerful as mother to sultan Murad III. O Omar ibn Said, Senegal scholar wey don dey slavery for North Carolina more than 50 years, around 1850. Oenomaus, Gallic gladiator wey lead slaves wey dey rebel during Third Servile War. Olaudah Equiano (c. 1745–1797), wey dem sabi as Gustavus Vassa, strong African-British writer wey dey fight for abolition, but dem no sure where e born. Omar ibn Said (1770–1864), writer and Islamic scholar wey come from Senegal wey dem carry go USA for 1807, spend di rest of im life for slavery. Onesimus, slave of Philemon from Colossae wey run away, meet St. Paul, and Paul change am. Paul send am back go Philemon with letter, wey be Epistle to Philemon. Ignatius of Antioch talk about an Onesimus wey be Bishop of Ephesus for early 2nd century, but nobody sure if na di same people. Onesimus, slave for colonial Boston wey help spread knowledge about smallpox inoculation. Onesimos Nesib (c. 1856–1931), Ethiopian wey Swedish missionaries buy out of slavery when e be pikin. E work with another former slave Aster Ganno to translate Bible into Oromo language. Oney Judge (1773–1848), wey dem enslave for Martha Washington family, and later for di First Lady, Judge dey work for Mount Vernon and all over as personal servant to Martha Washington until she escape for 1796 go Portsmouth New Hampshire. Ottobah Cugoano, wey dem sabi as John Stuart (c. 1757–after 1791), be abolitionist, political activist, and natural rights philosopher from West Africa wey dey active for Britain. Owen Fitzpen (c. 1582–1636), English merchant wey Barbary pirates carry capture for 1620 but escape later. Owen Breedlove, papa of Madam C.J. Walker. P Pallas, secretary wey dey work for Roman emperor Claudius. Pasion, na enslaved Athenian guy wey be banker. E later get dat rare chance for freedman to get citizen. Pata Seca (real name na Roque José Florêncio), wey come from Angola for 1828, dem capture am come Brazil as slave, na tall, strong guy: 2m18 tall plus over 140 kg weight. E dey work as breeding slave, e don born over 200 pikin. When dem cancel slavery for Brazil for 1888, e get land, wey e live with e wife and 9 children. Saint Patrick, dem kidnap am from Britain, enslave for Ireland, escape go Britain, come back to Ireland as missionary. Patsey (born around 1830), na enslaved African-American wey dey live for mid-1800s for South Carolina. Paul Jennings (1799–1874), na personal servant wey dem enslave under President James Madison during e White House time, e buy im freedom for 1845 from Daniel Webster. E publish di first White House memoir, 1865's A Colored Man's Reminiscences of James Madison. Paul Smith, na free black wey accuse di Cherokee headman Doublehead say e kidnap am and force am into bondage. Pedro Camejo (1790–1821), na Venezuelan soldier for di Venezuelan War of Independence. Peggy Margaret Titsworth, dem enslave am at 13 years for three years, after Creek raid for 1794 on her Tennessee home. Pete and Hannah Byrne, na freed slaves from Napoleon Bonaparte Byrne family wey travel from Missouri to California by land (six months journey) for 1859, dem leave di farm for Missouri carry six adults (including Pete & Hannah), di four Byrne children and cattle come settle for Berkeley, California. Pete and Hannah be di first blacks wey dey live for Berkeley and among di first African-Americans for California. Peter Salem (c. 1750–1816), African American wey born for slavery for Massachusetts, serve as soldier for American Revolutionary War. Petronia Justa, woman wey dey Herculaneum, sue her owner say she born after her mama don freedom; Vesuvius eruption preserve di court matter. Phaedo of Elis, wey dem capture for war, carry go Athens, force am to do prostitution, later become Socrates student wey free am, give him name to one Plato dialogue, Phaedo, and him be famous philosopher. Phaedrus (c. 15 BCE–c. 50 CE), Roman storyteller. Praskovia Kovalyova-Zhemchugova dress fine for Les mariages samnites by André Ernest Modeste Grétry. Phillis (die 1755), woman wey dey Massachusetts, enslave by Captain John Codman. She and her people plot to poison her owner as dem no fit take di wahala from their master, but dem burn am to death for 1755. Phillis Wheatley (1753–1784?), Colonial American poet, second published African-American poet and first African-American woman wey publish. Phoebe, woman wey dey slavery wey sue for her freedom for Tennessee, with her pikin Davy and Tom, say dem be descendants of one enslaved Indian woman wey prove say dem no suppose hold dem. Philocrates, wey dey slavery under Roman reformer Gaius Gracchus. He stay with him master when Gracchus dey run from him enemies, everybody don leave am. When dem reach one grove wey dey sacred to di Furies, Philocrates help Gracchus kill himself first before he take him own life, some talk say dem kill am after him refuse to let go him master body. Phormion, one enslaved man from Athens wey dey do banking. For him old age, dem give am rare honor of citizenship as free man. Pierre d'Espagnac, sometimes Pierre d'Espagnal (1650–1689), na French Jesuit missionary, dem enslave am by di Siamese. Pope Pius I (e die around 154), na Bishop for Rome from around 140 to 154, when dem dey reign under Roman emperor Antoninus Pius. E be brother to freedman Hermas, so e fit don be former slave too, but dem no talk am clear for di small records wey dey about e life. Pleasant Richardson, wey escape slavery become Union soldier plus property owner for Fincastle, Virginia. Polly, di subject of 1820 Indiana Supreme Court case Polly v. Lasselle, wey make all slaves wey dey Indiana go free. Polly Berry, wey dem also dey call Polly Crockett or Polly Wash, win freedom suit for 1843 for St. Louis, Missouri plus she free her daughter Lucy Ann Berry too. Politoria, wey get lead curse tablet for ancient Rome; na curse on Clodia Valeria Sophrone say make she no fit get Politoria into her power. E look like say she be slave-courtesan wey dey fear say dem go send am go brothel. Praskovia Kovalyova-Zhemchugova (1768–1803) na Russian serf actress plus soprano opera singer. Primus (1700–1791), wey Daniel Fowle from Portsmouth, New Hampshire enslave. Primus dey run di press for di New Hampshire Gazette wey be di oldest newspaper wey still dey print for America. Prince na di slave of Choctaw man wey name Richard Harkins. E vex say him owner no give di slaves Christmas celebration, Prince kill am sharply and dump di body for river for 1858. Prince Boston (born 1750), sue for him freedom and win for 1773 U.S. jury trial. Prince Estabrook (1741–1830), wey Benjamin Estabrook enslave; join fight for Continental Army and get wound for di Battle of Lexington and Concord. Prince Whipple (1750–1796), enslave by American General William Whipple. Prosper, na enslaved man wey dem murder for 1807 for Virgin Islands by him owner Arthur William Hodge, and Hodge go face trial and dem execute am for 1811, na di first case wey dem fit record like dat. One pregnant Thrall wey we no fit remember the name, dey run from her life for 11th-century Oslo, Hallvard Vebjørnsson carry am go hide for him boat. Dem people come attack dem, shoot dem with arrow, and both of dem die. Because of dat, dem make Hallvard saint and him be patron saint for Oslo. Publilius Syrus (fl. 85–43 BCE), na Latin writer wey sabi plenty for him wise sayings. E be Syrian wey dem carry come Italy as slave. Q Quamina Gladstone, him be Jack Gladstone papa and e dey involve for Demerara rebellion wey happen for 1823. Quassi van Timotebo or Kwasimukamba (1692–1787) na Surinam slave, wey don free and na Maroon hunter for Dutch Surinam. Him name dey for plant genus wey dem call Quassia. Quock Walker, wey dem dey call Kwaku or Quok Walker too, him sue and win him freedom for 1781 because of new Massachusetts Constitution (1780) wey talk say all men dem dey born free and equal. Qutb-ud-din Aybak or Qutbuddin Aibak (1150–1210), na Turk wey don suffer slavery before, become soldier, be first Sultan of Delhi, for India e start "slave dynasty". R Rachel, na the person wey dey the 1834 Rachel v. Walker case for Supreme Court of Missouri wey rule say U.S. Army officer go lose him slave if e carry the person go place wey slavery no dey allowed. Dis ruling come dey used as example for 1856 for Dred Scott v. Sandford case for U.S. Supreme Court. Rachel of Kittery, Maine (she die 1695), na enslaved woman wey her owner kill, and e case set legal example for New England. Rachel Knight (she die 1889), at first na enslaved by Newton Knight grandpapa, wey be popular Southern Unionist wey during American Civil War, e no gree Confederacy, wey dem dey call Free State of Jones. After the war, Rachel come get freedom with other slaves. By mid-1870s, Knight don separate from him wife, Serena, come marry Rachel. During this time, Knight grown son, Mat (from him first wife), come marry Rachel grown daughter, Fannie, from her previous relationship. Knight daughter, Molly, come marry Rachel son, Jeff, turns three interracial families for the community. Newton and Rachel Knight born plenty children before she die for 1889. Rebecca Huger, na enslaved woman wey General Benjamin F. Butler free for New Orleans, and dem talk for Harper's Weekly say she be white, come dey go school for freed slaves for Philadelphia. Richard Preston (around 1791–1861), e comot from slavery come be religious leader and abolitionist for Nova Scotia. Robert Blake, e get Medal of Honor as sailor during American Civil War, after e become 'contraband' (slaves wey Union forces free) come join. Robert Drury (1687–1743/1750), English sailor wey shipwreck for Madagascar island in 1702, e dey slave there till 1717. Robert J. Patterson (1809–1884), e run from slavery for Virginia come be restaurateur for Saint John, New Brunswick. Robert Smalls (1839–1915), e take charge of Confederate ship, carry the ship and enslaved people go freedom, make Union allow African Americans join; later e serve for South Carolina Senate before e enter U.S. House of Representatives wey represent South Carolina's 5th congressional district. Robin and Polly Holmes, na dem be plaintiffs for the 1853 Holmes v. Ford court case for Oregon Territory wey free their pikin dem. The verdict confirm say slavery no dey legal for that area as Organic Laws of Oregon talk when the place become U.S. territory. Rosina Downs, na enslaved woman wey General Benjamin F. Butler free for New Orleans, dem describe am for Harper's Weekly say she look white, and she come school for emancipated slaves for Philadelphia. Roustam Raza (1783–1845), na Napoleon Bonaparte's Armenian bodyguard. S Solomon Northup wey come from Twelve Years a Slave Sabuktigin (c. 942–997), full name Abu Mansur Sabuktigin, be small pikin wey dem carry go sell for slavery, but e rise come be general, then king wey start the Ghaznavid Empire for medieval Iran. Safiye Sultan (c. 1550 – c. 1619), na enslaved woman wey be Albanian, dem put am for harem of Ottoman sultan Murad III, and she be the mama of sultan Mehmed III. Salem Poor (1747–1802), na enslaved African-American man wey buy im freedom, and e be war hero during the American Revolutionary War. Sally Hemings (1773–1835), na mixed-race woman wey dem enslave by Thomas Jefferson, plenty people dey believe say she born six pikin for am, four of dem survive grow reach adult. Sally Miller or Salomé Müller (born c. 1814), na enslaved American woman wey file her freedom case for Louisiana based on say she dey claim say she be free German immigrant and indentured servant. Sally Seymour (died 1824), na American pastry chef and restaurateur, enslaved woman wey dem free and she come own her own slaves too. Salonia na di second wife of Cato di Elder. Salvius, wey dem sabi as Tryphon, be leader of di 104 BCE slave rebellion for Sicily wey dem call di Second Servile War. Sambo (died 1736), na enslaved boy wey enter Sunderland Point, near Lancaster, England, around 1736 from West Indies as captain servant. Dem bury am for grave wey no dey blessed inside one field near small village of Sunderland Point, Lancashire, England. Sambo, a black guy wey dey under Tiger King, one Lower Creek, wey tell traveler William Bartram say Sambo be him family property. Samson Rowlie (wey die after 1588), wey dem sabi as Hassan Aga, Chief Eunuch and Treasurer for Algiers. Samuel Benedict (1792–1854), wey born be African-American slave, later become free and waka go Liberia, where he turn politician and judge. Samuel Green (c. 1802–1877), one enslaved man wey buy him freedom and freedom for him loved ones, dey involve for Underground Railroad, and dem lock him up for 1857 because e carry Uncle Tom's Cabin. Samuel Ringgold Ward (1817–c. 1866), African-American wey dey fight for abolition and be journalist. Sandy Jenkins, na person wey dey enslave wey Frederick Douglass talk for him first autobiography. Sanker, na manservant wey dey work for Samuel R. Watkins, wey write "Co. Aytch" (1882), wey dey tell how him life be as soldier for the 1st Tennessee Infantry Regiment. Sarah Forbes Bonetta (1843–1880), na Egbado princess from Yoruba wey lose her people during fight, sell into slavery as small pikin, but Captain Frederick E. Forbes from Royal Navy come rescue am carry am go UK wey she con become goddaughter to Queen Victoria. Sarah Basset (die 1730), wey dey enslave for Bermuda; dem execute am for poison matter wey involve three people. Sarah Johnson (1844–1920), her life for the first president plantation dey published for book wey dem call "Sarah Johnson's Mount Vernon." Satrelanus, from Gaul, wey Ermedruda sell give Toto for Milan for 725. Scipio Africanus (around 1702–1720). Scipio Moorhead (fl. 1773–1775), na enslaved African-American artist. Scipio Vaughan (around 1784–around 1840), dem carry am komot from him place for Africa young, sell am go slavery for United States. E turn skilled artisan for Camden, South Carolina; manage get him freedom and inspire plenty of him pikin dem. Septimus Clarke (1787–1859), wey dem don enslave before, him turn e get success as farmer and leader for community for Nova Scotia. Servius Tullius, ancient King of Rome wey people talk sey e start life as slave (but some people dey argue this matter, both Romans and modern historians). Seymour Burr (1754/1762–1837), e fight for Continental Army for American Revolution. Shadrach Minkins (1814–1875), na fugitive wey slavery no fit catch, dem save am by abolitionists for Boston in 1850. Shaghab (dem don die 933), mother and double ruler of the eighteenth Abbasid Caliph al-Muqtadir. Silas Chandler (1838–1919), na man wey dey follow him enslavers for Confederate Army during American Civil War. Sojourner Truth (around 1797–1883), na abolitionist and women's rights activist. Solomon Bayley (1771–1839), write book for 1825 about him life as slave. Solomon Northup (1807–around 1863), na farmer, pro violinist, and free-born black man from New York wey dem lure go Washington, D.C., wey slavery dey legal, kidnap am and sell am for South. E dey enslaved for Louisiana from 1841 till dem rescue am and liberate am for 1853. Na author of Twelve Years a Slave. Solomon Flores, na enslaved man from northern Alabama. Sosias the Thracian, na enslaved Athenian man, later freedman, wey Nicias carry enslave, later rent am one thousand slaves for mining work. Spartacus (around 111–71 BCE), na gladiator and rebel leader during the Servile Revolt. == List of slaves == 2mdv510wgiyo71l59pj008r9n5b8h0i 69169 69168 2025-07-06T00:26:43Z Abdul-Rauf Moshie 1580 /* List of slaves */ 69169 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Slavery}} [[File:Livorno_Quattro_mori_monument_07.JPG|thumb|375x375px|One out of four statues wey dey show chained slaves for base of the Monument of the Four Moors for Livorno, Italy, wey dem fit be real slaves o.]] Slavery be one kind social-economic system wey people dey suffer: dem no get freedom and dem dey force to do work or service without pay. Dem people wey dey in dis condition, we dey call dem slaves or enslaved people. Dis na list of some important historical people wey don dey enslave for some time for dem life, we go arrange am from A to Z based on dem first name. * A * B * C * D * E * F * G * H * I * J * K * L * M * N * O * P * Q * R * S * T * U * V * W * X * Y * Z * See also A Abraham be enslaved black man wey dey carry message between frontier and Charles Town for war with Cherokee, wey fit free am. Abdul Rahman Ibrahima Sori (1762–1829), na prince from West Africa wey dem hold for United States for 40 years till President John Quincy Adams free am. Abram Petrovich Gannibal (1696–1781), dem adopt am by Russian czar Peter the Great, him be governor for Tallinn (Reval) (1742–1752) and general-en-chef (1759–1762) wey dey build sea forts and canals for Russia; e be great-grandpapa of Alexander Pushkin. See The Slave in European Art for him portraits. Absalom Jones (1746–1818), him don free hims [[File:Cabeza_de_Vaca_Portrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cabeza_de_Vaca_Portrait.jpg|right|thumb|235x235px|[[:en:Álvar_Núñez_Cabeza_de_Vaca|Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca]]]] elf, na abolitionist and clergyman – first ordained black priest of Episcopal Church. Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz (die 644), na Persian craftsman and captive wey kill second Islamic caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab (r. 634–644). Addas (7th century) na enslaved Christian boy wey dey live for Taif during Muhammad time, wey people talk say na him be first person from western Taif wey convert to Islam. Adriaan de Bruin (c. 1700–1766), wey dem call Tabo Jansz before, na enslaved servant for Dutch Republic wey turn free man for Hoorn, North Holland. Adam Brzeziński (1768 – after 1797), Polish serf and Royal Ballet Dancer, wey donate to king of Poland by will and testament. Aesop (c. 620–564 BCE), na Greek poet and author or transcriber for Aesop's Fables. Afanasy Grigoriev (1782–1868), na Russian serf and Neoclassical architect. Afrosinya (1699/1700–1748), na Russian serf, fit be Finnish captive, na enslaved mistress of Alexei Petrovich, Tsarevich of Russia. Agathoclia (shey die around 230), na martyr and patron saint for Mequinenza town for Spain. Alam al-Malika (shey die 1130), na singer wey dem catch as slave but rise become de prime minister and ruler for Zubayd, wey dey now Yemen. Alexina Morrison, na run away girl from slavery for Louisiana wey claim say she be kidnapped white pikin, she sue her master wey make people vex say dem go lynch am. Alfred "Teen" Blackburn (1842–1951), one of de last survivors of slavery for United States wey fit remember wetin happen. Alfred Francis Russ [[File:Aesop_pushkin01.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aesop_pushkin01.jpg|left|thumb|264x264px|[[:en:Aesop|Aesop]] in a [[:en:Hellenistic_art|Hellenistic]] statue claimed to be him, Art Collection of [[:en:Villa_Albani|Villa Albani]], Rome]] ell (1817–1884), na 10th President of Liberia. Alice Clifton (c. 1772–unknown), as slave pikin, she dey trial for infanticide matter for 1787. Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca (c. 1490–c. 1558), na Spanish explorer wey dem turn slave by Native Americans for Gulf Coast after e survive Narváez expedition wey scatter for 1527. Al-Khayzuran bint Atta (shey die 789), na Yemeni girl wey turn wife for Abbasid Caliph Al-Mahdi and mama to two Caliphs, Al-Hadi and Harun al-Rashid, wey dem sabi well well. Alp-Tegin (shey die 963), na member of nomadic Turks, dem carry am as slave small for Samanid court for Bukhara, later e come be army commander for Samanid Empire. Him son-in-law Sabuktigin later start Ghaznavid Empire. Amanda America Dickson (1849–1893), daughter of white planter David Dickson and Julia Frances Lewis, she be slave under Dickson's mama. Even though she dey legally enslaved till after Civil War, Amanda be her papa favorite and she inherit him $500,000 estate after him die for 1885. Ammar bin Yasir (570–657), one of di popular sahaba dem wey Abu Bakr free. Amos Fortune (1710–1801), African prince wey don suffer for United States for most of him life. Di children book wey talk about am, Amos Fortune, Free Man win Newbery Medal for 1951. Anarcha Westcott (c. 1828–unknown), black woman wey dey enslaved for di United States, she be among di women wey J. Marion Sims use do experiment. Portrait of Andrey Voronikhin. Engraving by V. A. Bobrov from di early 19th century. Andrey Voronikhin (1759–1814), Russian serf, architect and painter. Andrea Aguyar (died 1849), former enslaved black ma [[File:Voronikhin.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Voronikhin.jpg|right|thumb|297x297px|Portrait of [[:en:Andrey_Voronikhin|Andrey Voronikhin]]. Engraving by V. A. Bobrov from the beginning of the 19th century.]] n from Uruguay wey join Giuseppe Garibaldi during di Italian revolution for di Uruguayan Civil War of di 1840s and die for fight for di Roman Republic of 1849. Andrew Jackson Beard (1849–1921), inventor, him free at age 15 by di Emancipation Proclamation. Anna J. Cooper (1858–1964), author, educator, speaker and big African-American scholar. Anna Madgigine Jai Kingsley (1793–1870), woman wey dey enslaved then become planter and slave owner. Anna Williams, woman wey dey enslaved for Washington, D.C. wey go court win her freedom against di United States Court of Appeals. Annice (died 1828), dem execute her for murder five children. Annika Svahn (fl. 1714), Finnish woman wey Russian take away during di Great Northern War. She be vicar pikin for Joutseno, wey become popular victim for di wahala wey civilian dem suffer during di Russian occupation. Antarah ibn Shaddad (525–608), pre-Islamic Arab wey born from enslaved woman, him papa free am before battle, and he be poet too. Anthony Burns (1834–1862), na Baptist pre [[File:Петровское._Бюст_А.П._Ганнибала.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5._%D0%91%D1%8E%D1%81%D1%82_%D0%90.%D0%9F._%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0.jpg|right|thumb|263x263px|[[:en:Abram_Petrovich_Gannibal|Abram Petrovich Gannibal]], bust in [[:en:Petrovskoye,_Yaroslavl_Oblast|Petrovskoe]], [[:en:Russia|Russia]]]] acher wey escape slavery go Boston, but dem catch am again because Fugitive Slave Act wey dey 1850, den people wey no want am capture buy im freedom for Boston. Antonia Bonnelli (1786–1870), dem capture am and enslave am by Mikasuki tribe for Florida in 1802. António Corea, na European name wey dem give to Korean. Dem carry am go Italy, wey fit make am di first Korean wey step foot for Europe. Antón Guanche (15th century), na Guanche from Tenerife, dem capture am, enslave am, come return am go di island. Aqualtune Ezgondidu Mahamud da Silva Santos (died 1677), na princess of Kongo, mother of Ganga Zumba and grandmother of Zumbi dos Palmares. She lead 10,000 men during di Battle of Mbwila between Kingdom of Kongo and Kingdom of Portugal. Dem catch am by Portuguese forces, carry am go Brazil and sell am as slave. She start di slave settlement of Quilombo dos Palmares with her son Ganga Zumba. Archer Alexander (1810–1879), na model wey dem use for di slave wey dey di 1876 Emancipation Memorial sculpture. Abram Petrovich Gannibal, bust wey dey Petrovskoe, Russia. Archibald Grimké (1849–1930), born into slavery, son of white papa, become American lawyer, intellectual, journalist, diplomat and community leader. Arthur Crumpler (c. 1835–1910), escape slavery for Virginia, na di second husband of Dr. Rebecca Davis Lee Crumpler. Aster Ganno (c. 1872–1964), na young Ethiopian woman wey Italian Navy rescue from slave ship wey dey cross go Yemen. She go translate di Bible into Oromo language. Also she prepare literacy materials and spend di rest of her life as school teacher. Augustine Tolton (1854–1897), na di first black priest for di United States. Aurelia Philematium, na freedwoman wey her tombstone dey praise her marriage with her fellow freedman, Lucius Aurelius Hermia. Ayuba Suleiman Diallo (1701–1773), wey dem sabi as Job ben S [[File:William_Hoare_of_Bath_-_Portrait_of_Ayuba_Suleiman_Diallo,_(1701-1773).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:William_Hoare_of_Bath_-_Portrait_of_Ayuba_Suleiman_Diallo,_(1701-1773).jpg|left|thumb|Portrait of [[:en:Ayuba_Suleiman_Diallo|Ayuba Suleiman Diallo]] by [[:en:William_Hoare|William Hoare]] (1733)]] olomon, na Muslim wey come from Bundu state for West Africa. E dey suffer for two years for Maryland as slave, but dem free am for 1734. Later, e write hin story wey dem publish as one of di first slave narrative. B Baibars Baibars (1223–1277), wey dem dey call am Abu al-Futuh, na Kipchak Turk wey turn Mamluk sultan for Egypt and Syria. Balthild (c. 626–680), na Anglo-Saxon woman wey come from big family, dem sell am gree as small pikin, serve for Erchinoald house, wey be mayor for Neustria. After, she marry Clovis II, and later she be regent when her pikin Clotaire dey small. She stop dem wey dey trade Christian slaves and dey fight for freedom of children wey dem sell as slaves. Pope Nicholas I canonize am about 200 years after she die. Bass Reeves (1838–1910), na one of di first black Deputy U.S. Marshals for di west of di Mississippi River, wey don arrest over 3,000 bad guys and shoot fourteen outlaws for self-defense. Belinda Sutton (1713–179?), born for Ghana, she dey beg for support from her enslaver estate, wey be one early case for reparations and inspire future activism. Belinda Sutton petition, wey dem print again Bell (Belinda) (c. 1750–c. 1772), born for Bengal, dem carry her go Scotland as servant for East India Company nabob. Dem accuse am say she kill pikin, she dey beg make dem banish am and she turn “slave for life” and dem carry am go Virginia for 1772. She na di last person wey court for Britain call slave. Benjamin S. Turner (1825–1894), former slave wey be politician wey represent Alabama's 1st congressional district for United States House of Representatives. Him be di first African American wey don represent di state for Congress. Benkos Biohó, wey born for royal family of Bissagos Islands, dem kidnap am and enslave am. After dem carry am go Spanish New Granada for South America, him fit escape, help plenty other slaves escape too, and create di maroon community of San Basilio de Palenque. Di Governor Diego Pacheco Téllez-Girón Gómez de Sandoval of Cartagena betray am and hang am for 1621, but di community wey him build still dey live free till today. Betty Hemings (c. 1735–1807), na enslave mixed-race woman wey for colonial Virginia, wey for 1761 start dey be sex slave of her master, planter John Wayles, and she get six mixed-race children with am over 12 years, including Sally Hemings and James Hemings. Big Eyes (fl. 1540), na Wichita woman wey dem enslave by Tejas people before dem capture am and enslave am by conquistador Juan de Zaldívar. Bilichild (died 610), be queen of Austrasia through marriage to Theudebert II. Bilal ibn Ribah (580–640), wey dem free in 6th century. Him convert to Islam and be Muhammad's muezzin. Bill Richmond (1763–1829), wey born for America, dem free am and him become one of England's best boxers. Saint Brigid of Kildare as dem depict am for Saint Non's chapel, St Davids, Wales. Billy (born c. 1754), na man wey run come from John Tayloe II's plantation, dem charge am for treason against Virginia during American Revolutionary War. Him collect pardon after e talk say, as slave, him no be citizen, so e no fit commit treason against government wey him no dey owe loyalty to. Bissula (fl. 368) na Alemannic woman wey dem enslave, and she be inspiration for Roman poet Ausonius. Blanche Bruce (1841–1898) na di first and only former slave wey serve for United States Senate. Blandina (c. 162–177) be slave and Christian martyr for Roman Gaul. Di Bodmin manumissions na manuscript wey dey inside British Library, e keep names and details of slaves wey dem free for Bodmin (di main town for Cornwall back then) during 9th or 10th centuries. Booker T. Washington (1856–1915), born inside slavery, come be American educator, author and leader of African-American community after Civil War. Saint Brigid of Kildare, na major Irish Saint. Tradition say Brigid born for 451 AD for Faughart, just north of Dundalk for County Louth, Ireland. Her mama na Brocca, Pict slave wey Saint Patrick don baptize. Dem talk say her papa be Dubhthach, chieftain of Leinster. Dubthach wife force am sell Brigid's mama to druid when she carry belle. Brigid self born for slavery. Di small Brigid fit perform miracle, like healing and feeding di poor. At age ten, dem return am as household servant to her papa, where her charity make am dey give out hin things to anybody wey ask. For two Lives, Dubthach dey vex with her, he carry am go King of Leinster to sell her. While Dubthach dey talk with di king, Brigid don give away hin jeweled sword to beggar to change am for food to feed di family. Di king sabi her holiness well well and e make Dubthach free him daughter. After dat, she start her waka as popular nun. Brigitta Scherzenfeldt (1698–1733), Swedish wey dey write memoirs and teach weaving, she catch during di Great Northern War, carry go live as slave for di Kalmyk kingdom for Central Asia. Bussa wey born free man for West Africa, maybe Igbo pikin, dem catch am by African slave traders, sell am go Britain, transport am go Barbados (wey slavery don dey legal since 1661) for late 18th century as slave. C Charlotte Aïssé Cezayirli Gazi Hasan Pasha statue for Mersin Naval Museum Caenis, na woman wey don suffer as slave, she be secretary for Antonia Minor (emperor Claudius mama) plus Vespasian wey be Roman emperor. Caesar (c. 1737–1852), na di last slave wey fit get freedom for New York. E reach supercentenarian level, plus fit be di first person wey dem snap while dem dey alive in 1851. Caesar Nero Paul (c. 1741–1823), as small pikin, dem carry am from Africa come Exeter, New Hampshire, but e get freedom, start big New England family wey dey fight against slavery. Pope Callixtus I (died 223), na man wey don suffer as slave, pope from about 218 to about 223, during di time of Heliogabalus and Alexander Severus. Dem kill am for him Christian faith, now he be saint for Roman Catholic Church. Carlota (died 1844), she lead slave rebellion for Cuba for 1843–1844. Castus, na enslaved Gaul and one of di leaders for di Third Servile War wey get people wey dey fight for freedom. Catalina of Motril (fl. 1501–1531), she be bed servant for Catherine of Aragon when she marry Henry VIII for England. Cato (1786–1803), na man wey don suffer for Charleston, New York, wey kill twelve-year-old Mary Akins after e try rape am. Him confession show for di murder book of dat time. Cato, na African-American man wey serve as American Black Patriot spy and courier to gather info with him owner, Hercules Mulligan. Celia (died 1855), na woman wey dem catch and kill for di murder of Robert Newsom, her enslaver. During di trial, John Jameson argue say she kill am for self-defense to stop am from raping her. Cesar Picton (c. 1765–1831), na slave wey start for Senegal, later work as servant for England, come get money as coal merchant. Cevri Kalfa, one Georgian girl wey e dey for sultan harem for Istanbul, wey save Mahmud II life. Dem reward am wit big position haznedar usta, wey be chief treasurer for the imperial Harem. Cezayirli Gazi Hasan Pasha (1713–1790) na Georgian wey dem enslave for Ottoman Empire, wey rise become grand vizier, Kapudan Pasha, and army boss. Charity Folks (1757–1834), American slave wey born for Annapolis, Maryland, release from slavery for 1797 and later become property owner. Charles Deslondes, Haitian mulatto wey dey oversee other slaves for André plantation and leader of 1811 German Coast Uprising for Louisiana. Dem kill am terribly by the militia wey suppress the slave revolt. Charlotte Aïssé, (c. 1694–1733), French letter-writer, daughter of one Circassian chief, wey suffer for Ottoman Black Sea slave trade. Charlotte Dupuy (c. 1787/1790–c. 1866), wey dem dey call Lottie, file freedom suit for 1829 against her enslaver, Henry Clay, wey be Secretary of State, but she lose. Chica da Silva (c. 1732–1796), wey dem sabi as Xica da Silva, Brazilian courtesan wey become rich and powerful even though she born into slavery. Chloe Cooley (fl. 1793), wey dey enslave for Canada, her violent treatment and transport to US make Upper Canada pass 1793 Act Against Slavery. Christopher Shields (born 1774) na George Washington slave wey he keep am for Mount Vernon. The place wey he die and the year wey e happen no dey clear. Christophorus Plato Castanis, (born 1814) na runaway Greek slave from Chios. He journey come US with Samuel Gridley Howe and John Celivergos Zachos. Castanis be Greek-American author and lecturer. Çiçek Hatun (fl. 1453) na Greek girl wey dem capture when Constantinople fall and put as one of the concubine for Sultan Mehmet II harem. Clara Brown (around 1800–1885), she be one woman wey dem don enslave for Virginia. She come be community leader, give back for people wey don free during Colorado Gold Rush. Claudia Acte (1st century), na mistress for Roman emperor Nero. Pope Clement I (wey die for 100), na di fourth Pope for Catholic tradition. E fit dey freedman for Titus Flavius Clemens. Cleon (die 132 BC) na leader for di First Servile War. Colonel Tye (1753–1780), wey dem dey call Titus Cornelius, him don free, come be Black Loyalist soldier and guerrilla leader for di American Revolution. Crixus, na Gallic gladiator and military leader for di Third Servile War. Cudjoe Lewis (around 1840–1935), wey originally be Oluale Kossola, na di third-to-last survivor of di Transatlantic slave trade for USA. Dem carry am go di slave ship Clotilda. Cuffy (die 1763), na Akan man wey dem capture for him own West Africa, carry am go work for di plantations of di Dutch colony for Berbice wey dey Guyana today, and for 1763, him lead revolt wey get more than 2,500 slaves against di colonial regime. Today, him na national hero for Guyana. D Dred Scott wey no fit win im case for im freedom for United States Supreme Court for 1857. Dabitum, woman wey dem enslave for Old Babylonia wey sabi write letter about miscarriage. Daniel Bell (around 1802–1877) wey try for years make e and im family fit enjoy freedom. E help organize one big escape plan wey dem call "the Pearl incident" for Washington, D.C., for 1848. Dada Masiti (around 1810s–15 July 1919) poet, mystic and Islamic scholar. Dave Drake (around 1801–1876), wey people sabi am as Dave the Potter. Deborah Squash and im husband Harvey wey escape from George Washington Mount Vernon, join British for New York during American Revolutionary War, and dem carry dem go free in 1783. Denmark Vesey (around 1767–1822), one enslaved African-American man wey plan one big slave rebellion for United States wey dem leak the plans before e go happen. Dido Elizabeth Belle (1761–1804), wey born into slavery as the daughter of Maria Belle, one enslaved African woman for West Indies, and Sir John Lindsay, one Navy officer. Lindsay carry Belle go England for 1765, give im uncle William Murray, 1st Earl of Mansfield, and im wife Elizabeth to take care of am. Dem educate Belle, raise am as free gentlewoman for their Kenwood House with their niece, Lady Elizabeth Murray. Belle stay there for 30 years. For im will for 1793, Lord Mansfield confirm im freedom and give am money and annuity, make Belle heiress. Diego be one freedman wey dem don enslave before, and e dey close with di Elizabethan navigator Francis Drake. For March 1573, Drake raid Darien (for today Panama) and Maroons help am well – dem be Africans wey don run from Spanish slave owners and dem glad to help their English enemies. One of dem na Diego, wey sabi build ship well, and e follow Drake go England. For 1577, Queen Elizabeth send Drake make e start journey against di Spanish for di Pacific coast fit America – wey later turn as Drake waka go round di world – Diego again dey work under Drake; him sabi Spanish and English well well, so he fit be good interpreter when dem catch Spaniard or Portuguese wey dey speak Spanish. E be Drake's servant and dem dey pay am like di rest of di crew. Diego die while Drake ship dey cross di Pacific, wounds wey e get earlier for di journey. Drake dey feel bad for him death, as Diego don become him good friend. Diogenes of Sinope (c. 412–323 BCE), Greek philosopher wey pirates carry away and sell for Corinth. Diocletian (244–312), Emperor of Rome, some people talk say e born as slave of Senator Anullinus. Other talk say na Diocletian papa (we no sabi im name) wey be slave and free before him son, di future emperor, born. Dionysius I (die 1492), Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, dem don enslave am by di Ottomans after di Fall of Constantinople for 1453. Dolly Johnson (born late 1820s, die after 1887), African-American woman from Tennessee, wey President Andrew Johnson don enslave, later become small small-business owner. Dorota Sitańska (die after 1797), Polish serf and Royal Ballet Dancer, wey dem donate to di king of Poland by will and testament. Dred Scott (around 1799–1858), na one enslaved African-American guy wey dey Missouri wey carry case go court make e fit get freedom for one big trial, Scott v. Sandford, wey reach U.S. Supreme Court for 1857. E Florence, Lady Baker around 1875. Na Romanian wey dem enslave as orphan, Samuel Baker buy am, later marry am. Edward Mozingo Sr., (about 1649–1712), dem kidnap am from Africa when e dey like 10 years, sell am for slavery for Jamestown, Virginia. After e owner die, he sue for im freedom and win am. E marry poor white woman, Margaret Pierce Bayley (1645–1711) and together dem be dem wey start the Mozingo family for North America. Elijah Abel (1808–1884), wey born enslave for Maryland, people believe say e escape from slavery enter Underground Railroad go Canada. He join Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints early, na him dey among the first black wey get priesthood and the first black wey rise to elder and seventy rank. Elizabeth Marsh (1735–1785), na English woman wey corsairs capture and hold for slavery for Morocco. Edith Hern Fossett, na woman wey U.S. President Thomas Jefferson enslave, dem teach am to cook by French chef wey create French food for White House and Monticello. Elias Polk (1806–1886), na conservative political activist from 19th century. Eliezer of Damascus, na Abraham slave and trusted manager for im house in Hebrew Bible. Elieser be man wey dem enslave by Paulo de Pina family, Portuguese Jews wey move go Netherlands for 1610 to escape wahala and forced conversion for Portugal. E dey stay with the family for Amsterdam till e die for 1629, dem bury am for Beth Haim cemetery, wey be the oldest Jewish cemetery for Netherlands. E appear say dem don free am, whether officially or in practice, and e dey near equal level with the family wey own am for Portugal – show by fact say e attend the funeral of im master wife, Sara de Pina, and contribute six stuivers, and dem bury am alongside im (former) owners and Jacob Israel Belmonte, wey be the richest man for the community. Elieser don convert to Judaism and dem accept am as Jewish, true true if not, he for no dey buried for Jewish cemetery; dem fit give am the name 'Elieser' when dem convert am, e dey bring Eliezer from Damascus mind. Recently, members of Surinamese community for Netherlands don carry Elieser memory go high, dem put statue for am and dey do yearly pilgrimage go his grave wey dem call Elieser Day. Elisenda de Sant Climent (1220–1275), dem enslave am during slave raid for Mallorca and carry am go emir harem for Tunis. Eliza Hopewell, woman wey dey under Confederates spy Isabella Maria Boyd ('Belle Boyd'). For 1862, she help her owner do spy work, carry message go Confederate Army inside watch case wey dem hollow. Eliza Moore (1843–1948), one of the last African-American former slaves wey dey live for United States. Elizabeth Johnson Forby, mixed-race American woman wey dem enslave under President Andrew Johnson, daughter of Dolly Johnson. Elizabeth Key Grinstead (1630–after 1665), na the first woman wey get African blood for North America wey go court for her freedom and win. Key and her small pikin, John Grinstead, come free on July 21, 1656 for Virginia because her papa be Englishman and she be baptized Christian. Elizabeth Freeman (c. 1742–1829), wey dem dey call Bett and later Mum Bett, na among the first enslaved black people for Massachusetts wey fit file freedom suit and win, based on 1780 constitution wey rule slavery illegal. Elizabeth Hobbs Keckley (1818–1907), wey be popular as personal modiste and close friend of Mary Todd Lincoln, First Lady of the United States. Keckley write and publish autobiography, Behind the Scenes: Or, Thirty Years a Slave and Four Years in the White House (1868). Ellen Craft (1826–1891), light-skin wife of William Craft, wey escape from Georgia to Philadelphia, by acting like white woman and her slave, case wey become popular. Ellen More, enslaved woman wey them carry go royal Scottish court. Emilia Soares de Patrocinio (1805–1886) na Brazilian slave, slave owner and businesswoman. Emiline (23 years); Nancy (20); Lewis, Nancy brother (16); Edward, Emiline brother (13); Lewis and Edward, sons of Nancy (7); Ann, daughter of Nancy (5); and Amanda, daughter of Emiline (2), dem free for 1852 Lemmon v. New York court case after dem bring dem go New York from Virginia. Emily Edmonson (1835–1895), with her sister Mary, try escape for 1848 wey dem call Pearl incident, but Henry Ward Beecher and him church gather money to free dem. Enrique of Malacca, wey dem dey call Henry the Black, na slave and interpreter for Ferdinand Magellan and maybe the first person wey waka round the globe for Magellan's trip of 1519–1521. Epictetus (55–c. 135), ancient Greek stoic philosopher. Estevanico (1500–1539), wey dem dey call Esteban the Moor. He be slave of the Portuguese first, then become servant of the Spaniards. He be one of the only four wey survive the bad Narváez expedition, later na guide for search of the fabled Seven Cities of Gold and maybe the first African wey reach wetin be Arizona and New Mexico today. Eston Hemings (1808–1856), son of Sally Hemings and Thomas Jefferson. Eucharis, na Greek wey dem free, born Roman Licinia, dem describe am for him epitaph for 1st century AD as fourteen when she die, child actress and professional dancer. Eunus (him die for 132 BC), na slave wey come from Apamea for Syria, and him be leader for slave wahala for First Servile War wey happen for Roman province of Sicily. Eunus sabi gree people as prophet and wonder-worker. Him dey claim say him dey see visions and dey communicate with goddess Atargatis, wey dey popular for him place; he even fit connect am to Sicilian Demeter. Some prophecies wey he drop na say di rebel slaves go fit capture di city of Enna and say one day, he go be king. Euphemia (him die for 520s), na Empress of Byzantine Empire because she marry Justin I, she be slave before. Euphraios, na Athenian slave and banker. Exuperius and Zoe (dem die for 127), na Christian martyrs for 2nd century. Dem be married couple wey slave master in Pamphylia enslave. Dem kill dem with their sons, Cyriacus and Theodolus, because dem no wan join pagan rites when dem pikin born. Florence Johnson Smith be mixed-race American babe wey President Andrew Johnson carry go enslave, she be Dolly Johnson pikin. Fountain Hughes (1848–1957), dem interview am for June 1949 about him life by Library of Congress as part of Federal Writers' Project. Francis Bok (wey born 1979), na Dinka slave from South Sudan, now him dey fight for freedom and be author for United States. Francis Jackson (wey born between 1815 and 1820), him dey free from birth, but dem kidnap am for 1850 and sell am into slavery. Him finally get freedom for 1855 when case Francis Jackson v. John W. Deshazer end. Francis James Grimké (1850–1937), him be minister. Francisco Menéndez, na man wey dem enslave for South Carolina but e run go Spanish Florida, wey e serve for Spanish militia, even lead the garrison wey dem set for 1738 for Fort Mose. This place be the first legal free black community for wetin we dey call United States now. François Mackandal (wey die 1758), na Haitian Maroon leader. Frederick Douglass (1818–1895), him born for slavery for Maryland and run go Northeast for 1838, where e turn big-time abolitionist writer, speaker, and diplomat. Fyodor Slavyansky (1817–1876), na Russian serf painter. G Medical photo wey show Gordon back wey dem whip, plenty abolitionists dey share am to show how slavery dey be bad. Portrait of Gülnuş Sultan Gabriel Prosser (1776–1800), leader wey lead Virginia slave revolt. Gaius Furius Chresimus, ancient Roman. As him free man, e produce crops from him small farm wey people accuse am say him dey witch other people crop, but when him bring him farm tools for court, dem free am. Pliny the Elder talk say him story na proof say hard work be wetin matter for farming. Galatian de Sesse (16th century), knight from Aragon wey dey work for hospital and be Governor of Gozo wey dem enslave during 1551 Ottoman attack, e spend five years as galley slave before dem pay ransom and free am. Galeria Lysistrate (2nd century), mistress of Roman emperor Antoninus Pius. Ganga Zumba or Ganazumba (c. 1630–1678), one descendant of unknown Kongo king wey run away from slavery for Brazilian colonial and be first leader of runaway slave settlement wey be Quilombo dos Palmares. Gannicus, enslaved Celt wey be one of the leaders of rebel slaves during Third Servile War. Garafilia Mohalbi (1817–1830), Greek slave wey American merchant rescue and carry go Boston. She die young and inspire big art movement. Genghis Khan (c. 1162–1227), dem capture am after raid and make am slave for Taichiud. George Africanus (1763–1834), enslaved African man from Sierra Leone wey become successful businessman for Nottingham. George Edward Doney (1758–1809), Gambian man wey William Capell, 4th Earl of Essex enslave. George Colvocoresses (1816–1872), from Chios, Greece, come America come be captain for U.S. Navy, but small small dem carry am put for slavery when e be pikin. Colvos Passage dey named after am. George Freeman Bragg (1863–1940), wey born for slavery for North Carolina, later turn big Episcopal priest and social activist. George Lewis (1794–1811), wey dem dey call Slave George, na enslaved guy wey dem kill for Kentucky night of December 15–16, 1811. George Moses Horton (1797–1884), na di first African-American author; him first poetry book publish for North Carolina. George Washington Carver (c. 1864–1943), na African-American scientist, botanist, educator and inventor wey sabi to promote other crops like sweet potatoes and peanuts for South; him born for slavery for Missouri but dem free am as small pikin after American Civil War. George Griffin (1849–1897), born for slavery for Maryland but later dem free am; him be close person to Mark Twain. George W. Hayes (1847–1933), na court crier and politician for Ohio, mixed African American and Native American background, dem carry am put for slavery early for him life. Gerónimo de Aguilar (1489–1531), na Franciscan friar wey waka go Yucatán Peninsula for 1511 but dem shipwreck am and dem carry am for slavery by Mayans. Gosala, one ascetic teacher from ancient India – wey dey live same time (and dey compete) with Gautama Buddha – people talk say him born for slavery, and he become naked ascetic after him run from him bad captor, wey catch him cloth before e run. Gonzalo Guerrero (died 1536), na sailor from Palos, Spain, wey shipwreck for Yucatán Peninsula for 1511 and dem carry am for slavery by di local Maya. Gordon, wey dem dey call Whipped Peter, na enslaved African-American wey escape come Union Army camp from plantation near Baton Rouge, Louisiana for 1863. Di pictures wey dem take of Gordon back wey dem beat during medical check, dem publish am for Harper's Weekly, e show Northerners di wahala wey slavery dey cause. E make plenty free blacks want join di Union Army. Gülnuş Sultan (1642–1715) na Haseki Sultan for Ottoman Sultan Mehmed IV and Valide sultan for dia pikin Mustafa II and Ahmed III. Guðríður Símonardóttir (1598–1682) na Iceland woman wey some North African slavers (Barbary Pirates) carry go. Gustav Badin (wey die for 1822) na servant for royal Swedish court, originally na Danish slave. H Hurrem Sultan, be Eastern European slave girl wey Ottoman sultan Süleyman the Magnificent buy, marry am. Hababah, concubine of Caliph Yazid II. Hagar, biblical figure, Sarah own. Hannah Bond (weh dey born for 1830s), pen name Hannah Crafts, write The Bondwoman's Narrative after she gain freedom. E fit be di first novel wey African-American woman write, na di only novel wey woman wey run from slavery don write. Hark Olufs (1708–1754), Danish sailor, dem capture am by Algerian pirates. Dem sell am to di Bey of Constantine, and him become Commander in Chief for di Bey's cavalry. Dem release am for 1735. Harriet Balfour (c. 1818–1858), Surinam-born enslaved woman wey free for 1841 and move go Scotland. Harriet Evans Paine, (c. 1822–1917), Texas enslaved woman and later oral historian and storyteller. Harriet Hemings (1801–after 1822), daughter of Sally Hemings and Thomas Jefferson. Harriet Jacobs (1813–1897), author of Incidents in di Life of a Slave Girl. Harriet Powers (1837–1910), American folk artist, and quilter. Harriet Tubman (c. 1822–1913), dem dey call am 'Moses' because of di work wey she dey do to help other American slaves escape through di Underground Railroad. Harry, di plaintiff for di 1818 Harry v. Decker & Hopkins case wey di Supreme Court of Mississippi decide to free person from slavery just because him dey stay for free land. Harry Washington (wey die for 1800), dem dey call am Henry Washington, be slave wey George Washington dey own. Dem transport am go America as slave, and Washington buy am for 1763 to work on project wey go drain di Great Dismal Swamp. Hafsa Sultan (she die March 1534), na Selim I wife and di first real sultan of Ottoman Empire as Suleiman di Magnificent mama. Pipo sabi her background matter dey confuse, but some historians talk say she be slave. Helen Gloag (1750–1790), from Muthill, Perthshire, Scotland, become di Empress of Morocco as di harem slave for Morocco sultan. Henry Bibb (1815–1854), American writer and abolitionist wey born as slave. After e run come out from slavery to British Upper Canada, he start newspaper wey dey call The Voice of the Fugitive. E later come back to U.S. come dey lecture against slavery. Henry Highland Garnet (1815–1882), wey born African-American slave for Maryland, run from slavery for 1824, come become abolitionist and teacher. Hercules (born c. 1755), na di head cook wey George Washington enslave for him plantation, Mount Vernon. E run come gain him freedom for 1797, but him wife Alice and him three pikin still dey enslave. Hermas, wey write di book The Shepherd of Hermas and na Pope Pius I brother. Hernando de Escalante Fontaneda, been born for Cartagena, but e don dey enslave at 13 when di ship wey carry am go Spain for school sink for Florida. Calusa chief take am as slave and use am as translator until dem free am at 30. Horace King (1807–1885), American architect, engineer, and bridge builder, born into slavery for South Carolina plantation. Hümaşah Sultan (fl. 1647–1672) na di wife of Sultan Ibrahim for Ottoman Empire. Hurrem Sultan (c. 1504–1558), wey dem sabi as Roxelana, be Eastern European girl wey slave traders capture and sell to di Imperial Harem, become di chief consort and legal wife of Ottoman sultan Süleyman di Magnificent. Halime Sultan (about 1570–after 1639) be Valide Sultan wey dey rule alongside Ottoman Empire. Handan Sultan (about 1568–1605) too be Valide Sultan and her dey act as regent for the Ottomans. I İbrahim Pasha Ivan Argunov. Self-portrait (late 1750s). İbrahim Pasha (about 1495 – 1536), na first Grand Vizier wey Suleiman the Magnificent appoint. E be Greek by birth, at six years old, dem sell am as slave to Ottoman palace for future sultans, where e meet Suleiman wey dey same age. Icelus Marcianus, na slave and later free guy for Roman emperor Galba for 1st century CE. E be one of three men wey dey control the emperor well well, make Galba no dey popular. Ida B. Wells (1862–1931), na big African-American activist wey born into slavery, but later she dey fight against lynching and fit cancel am. For 1909, she co-found National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). Imma, na Northumbrian noble wey knock for battle and later sabi act like peasant, so say captors no go kill am. Him behavior show say him no be real peasant, and dem sell am into slavery. Isabel de Solís (fl. 1485), na enslaved Castilian concubine for Abu l-Hasan Ali, Sultan of Granada. Isabella Gibbons (1826–1890), become schoolteacher for Virginia after dem liberate am for 1865. Isfandíyár, na enslaved servant for Bahá'u'lláh's house for Tehran, Isfandíyár die for Mazandaran. Israel Jefferson (about 1800–after 1873), wey people sabi as Israel Gillette before 1844, born into slavery for Monticello, Thomas Jefferson estate, and work as domestic servant near Jefferson for many years. Ivan Bolotnikov (1565–1608), na fugitive kholop (enslaved for Russia) and leader of Bolotnikov rebellion for 1606–1607. Ivan Argunov (1729–1802), na Russian serf painter, one of the founders of Russian school of portrait painting. J Jean Parisot de Valette St. Josephine Margaret Bakhita, F.D.C.C. Jack Gladstone, di leader wey lead di Demerara rebellion for 1823. Jackey Wright, na enslaved American woman wey sue for im freedom for di popular 1806 Virginia case, Hudgins v. Wright. Di Virginia Supreme Court talk say Wright look white and Native American, but di lower court under George Wythe dey try arrange say everybody fit be free, no matter di race. Jacob Notaras (fl. 1453), na Byzantine nobleman wey dem carry as slave by Sultan Mehmed di Conqueror when Constantinople fall. Jaja of Opobo (1821–1891), dem sell am around age 12 as slave for di Kingdom of Bonny wey dey Nigeria now. From young, di guy don show say e sabi business, so e find im way come out from slavery, become rich merchant prince and start di Opobo city-state, but British colonizers wey e wan challenge come end im career. James Armistead Lafayette (1760–1830), na enslaved African-American man wey serve di Continental Army for di American Revolutionary War as double agent. James Baugh, na enslaved American wey sue for im freedom because im mama granmama na Indian. James Hemings (1765–1801), na mixed-race American wey dem enslave later free am by Thomas Jefferson. E be di older brother of Sally Hemings and half-brother of Jefferson wife, Martha Wayles Skelton Jefferson, through dia papa John Wayles. James Leander Cathcart (1767–1843), diplomat and sailor wey sabi tell story about 11 years wey e dey enslave for Algiers and e do some big diplomatic work while for slavery. James Poovey (born c. 1769), Philadelphian wey dem enslave am from birth, but e find freedom through peaceful resistance. James M. Priest (1819–1883), 6th Vice President of Liberia, wey born inside slavery for Kentucky. James Somersett, man wey dey enslave for colonial America, escape for England in 1771 with help of Beta British people, wey lead to the big case Somerset v Stewart, wey change the slavery matter for Britain, but not for dem colonies. James W. C. Pennington (c. 1807–1870), African-American writer and abolitionist. Jan Ernst Matzeliger (1852–1889), Surinamese-American wey invent shoe making. Jane Johnson (1814/1827–1872), she gain freedom on July 18, 1855, with her two small pikin while dem dey Philadelphia with her owner. William Still and Passmore Williamson help am, dem be abolitionists for Pennsylvania Anti-Slavery Society. Jean Amilcar (c. 1781–1793), Senegalese son of Marie Antoinette. Jean-Jacques Dessalines (1758–1806), leader of Haitian Revolution and first leader of independent Haiti. Jean Marteilhe (1684–1777), French Huguenot wey be slave narrator, him be galley slave. Jean Saint Malo (died 1784), leader of runaway slaves (maroon colony) for Spanish Louisiana and he name dey for Saint Malo, Louisiana. Jean Parisot de Valette (1495–1568), knight of the Order of Saint John, wey dem capture and make galley slave for 1541 by Barbary pirates. After about one year, dem free am and him later become Grandmaster of the Order. Jefferson F. Long (1836–1901), first former slave wey serve for United States Congress and first African American wey represent Georgia for Congress. Jeffrey Hudson (1619–c. 1682), na English court guy wey spend 25 years for North Africa as slave. Jehan Alard (fl. 1580), na French Huguenot wey dey serve as galley slave for Italy, dem catch am for Inquisition. Jehu Grant (c. 1752–1840), na veteran from Revolutionary War. Jeremiah Haralson (1846–Unknown), na former slave and politician wey represent Alabama for House of Representatives during 44th Congress. Jermain Wesley Loguen (1813–1872), na African-American wey run away from slavery, be abolitionist, bishop of the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church, and e write slave narrative. Jim Cuff or Jim Crow be physically disabled African man wey people talk say e fit dey St. Louis, Cincinnati, or Pittsburgh, e song and dance inspire the blackface song 'Jump Jim Crow' wey white comedian Thomas D. Rice bring come. Rice popular creation make Jim Crow turn bad name for blacks, later dem use am for dem segregation laws. Jim Henson, na African wey escape slavery and publish im memoirs, Broken Shackles, for Canada. Joana da Gama (c. 1520–1586), na Portuguese maid-of-honor and writer. Joe, na man wey William B. Travis, one of the Texian commanders for Battle of Alamo enslaved. After dem lose, Mexican General Santa Anna spare Joe, hoping say e go fit convince other slaves for Texas to support Mexican government instead of Texian rebels. After that, Joe and some survivors go Gonzales, dem encourage dem to talk about the battle and tell Texian forces say Santa Anna army no fit beat. John Axouch (1087–1150), na Seljuk Turk wey dem capture as pikin by Byzantine Empire, dem free am and raise am for di imperial house as John II Komnenos wey go be emperor future friend. When him take over, dem put am for di army command and e be di emperor only close pal and confidant. John Boston (c. 1832–after 1880), na former slave wey dey represent Darlington County for South Carolina House during di Reconstruction era. Him dey involved for community work and, as minister, him start di Lamar Colored Methodist Church for 1865. By 1880, him don turn farmer. John 'Lit' Fleming, born for slavery for Virginia but later move go Edmundson, Arkansas with him papa and siblings. E go move go Memphis, Tennessee, and be part owner of di newspaper Memphis Free Speech with activist Ida B. Wells-Barnett. John Munroe Brazealle, with him mama, dem case dey Hinds v. Brazealle (1838), for di Supreme Court of Mississippi, wey deny di legality and inheritance rights for Mississippi for manumission wey Elisha Brazealle, wey dey Ohio, do to free dem. John Brown (c. 1810–1876), wey escape and write about di conditions for di Deep South of United States. John Casor, na di first person wey dey enslaved as result of civil case for di Thirteen Colonies (Virginia Colony, 1655). John Ezzidio (c. 1810–1872), na enslaved Nigerian man wey turn successful politician and businessman for Sierra Leone. John Adams Hyman (1840-1891), na former slave and politician wey serve for di North Carolina Senate and later be di first African American to represent di state for Congress. John Jea (born 1773), na enslaved African-American man wey popular for him 1811 autobiography, The Life, History, and Unparalleled Sufferings of John Jea, di African Preacher. John Joyce wey dem born am for slavery for Maryland, serve for United States Navy, do plenty work after, and kill shopkeeper, Sarah Cross; him life and crime dey for murder stories wey dem dey talk for him time. John R. Jewitt (1783–1821), small English man wey dey make armor, spend three years as prisoner for Maquinna of the Nuu-chah-nulth people for Pacific coast wey dey for Canada now. John R. Lynch (1847–1939), former slave and politician wey serve for Mississippi House of Representatives, be the first African American wey lead state legislative chamber. Later he go serve for United States House of Representatives and write The Facts of Reconstruction to answer dem wey dey talk bad about Reconstruction time policies. John Punch (fl. 1630s, live 1640), na enslaved African man wey dey for Virginia Colony for 17th century. For July 1640, Virginia Governor's Council punish am to serve for him whole life because e run go Maryland. Historians dey call Punch the 'first official slave for the English colonies,' and him case na the 'first time dem make slavery forever for the Chesapeake.' Historians also sabi say this one be the first legal line wey dem draw between Europeans and Africans for the colony, and na important step for slavery matter for United States. John S. Jacobs (1815–1873), wey dem born into slavery for North Carolina, escape, become abolitionist speaker and write slave memoir. Him be brother of famous author Harriet Jacobs. John Smith (1580–1631), English soldier, sailor, and author wey everybody sabi for him role wey help Jamestown colony survive for Virginia. Smith dey captured by Crimean Tatars for 1602 while him dey fight for Wallachia and dem make am slave for Ottoman Empire, but him escape come England by 1604. As Smith talk am: 'we all dey sell for slaves, like goat for market-place.' Jordan Anderson (1825–1907), wey people sabi well well for di letter wey he gree send to im old master when dem call am make he come back to serve dem. Jordan Winston Early (1814–after 1894) na American Methodist preacher wey get different blood, and dem write book about im life as slave. John White, na black boy wey Creeks capture for 1797, but he escape come back New Orleans, only to find Spanish people don carry am go back to slavery. John Ystumllyn, wey dem dey call Jac Du or Jack Black, na 18th-century Welsh gardener, di first Black person wey record well for North Wales. Jonathan Strong, na di person wey dem dey talk about one of di first legal cases wey concern slavery for Britain. José Antonio Aponte, na di leader of Aponte conspiracy. Joseph, na important person for Old Testament and Quran. Joseph Antonio Emidy (1775–1835), violinist wey born for Africa, die for Cornwall. Joseph Cinqué (1814–1879), wey dem know as Sengbe Pieh, na di leader of slave rebellion for di slave ship La Amistad and di case wey follow for Supreme Court, United States v. Amistad for 1839. Joseph Jackson Fuller (1825–1908), one of di earliest slaves wey gree free for Jamaica, at first under di partial freedoms of 1833 Slavery Abolition Act. Joseph Knight, wey succeed find im freedom through court case for Scotland in 1777, case wey make Scots law no go support slavery. Josephine Bakhita (c. 1869–1947), Sudanese-born Roman Catholic Canossian nun and saint. Joshua Glover, na fugitive wey slavery people chase am but abolitionists help am for Racine, Wisconsin in 1854. Josiah T. Walls (c. 1842–1905), former slave wey turn politician wey don serve for di two chambers of Florida State Legislature, na di first African American wey represent di state for Congress. Juan de Pareja (1606–1670), man wey Spanish artist Diego Velázquez enslave am. Velázquez teach am how to paint and free am for 1650. Juan Francisco Manzano (c. 1797–1854), Cuban poet. Juan Gros, free black soldier wey Upper Creek catch near Pensacola, sell am to white trader wey carry am go sell to Mitasuki chief Kinache, wey Spanish people come pay ransom for am. Juan Latino, dem dey call am "el negro Juan Latino", from Ethiopia, dem carry am go Spain when e small, e go school and become Latin professor for University of Granada, 16th-century Spain. Juan Ortiz, young nobleman from Andalucía wey Chief Ucita enslave for Florida to take revenge for wetin happen to am during the expedition. Juan Valiente (died 1553), black African slave wey get chance to be conquistador. E die during the battle of Tucapel against Mapuche people for Chile. Juana Ramírez (1790–1856), rebel soldier and heroine for Venezuelan War of Independence. Julia Chinn, enslave woman wey be octoroon and common-law wife to Richard Mentor Johnson, 9th Vice President of the United States. Julia Frances Lewis, mama to Amanda American Dickson through her owner’s son. Juliana, Guaraní woman from Paraguay, wey famous for kill her Spanish enslaver between 1538 and 1542 and encourage other women to do same. Julius Soubise (1754–1798) be freed Afro-Caribbean slave wey become popular fop for late eighteenth-century Britain. Julius Zoilos, enslave by Julius Caesar. After him get freedom, e shine for him city Aphrodisias after Caesar die. Jupiter Hammon (1711–before 1806), for 1761, become the first African-American writer wey dem publish for the present-day United States. Born for slavery, Hammon never get freedom. Dem dey consider am one of the founders of African-American literature. K Kösem Sultan (1589–1651), na slave concubine just like all di other pipo wey dey di Imperial Harem. Kunta Kinte (c. 1750–c. 1822), na character from di 1976 novel Roots: Di Saga of an American Family wey author Alex Haley base on one of him real ancestors. Kinte be man wey dey come from di Mandinka pipo, he grow for small village wey dem dey call Juffure for wetin we sabi as The Gambia, and dem raise am as Muslim before dem capture am and turn am slave for Virginia. Di historical accuracy of Haley's story get debate. Kodjo (c. 1803–1833), na Surinamese slave wey dem burn alive fit start di 1832 fire for Paramaribo, Dutch Suriname, maybe as way to show resistance. Kösem Sultan (1589–1651), na Ottoman enslaved woman, wey later become very powerful as wife, then mother and later grandmother of di Ottoman sultan during di 130-year wey dem dey call di Sultanate of Women. L Laurens de Graaf Lalla Balqis (1670–after 1721), na English woman wey dem capture and turn slave by Corsairs, dem include am for di harem of di Sultan of Morocco. Lamhatty, na Tawasa Indian wey dem capture and enslave by Creek; him escape. Lampegia (die after 730), Aquitanian noblewoman, wey Abd al-Rahman ibn Abd Allah al-Ghafiqi capture, wey in 730 take di Llivia Fortress, kill her husband Munuza and send her go as slave for di harem of Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik for Damascus. La Mulâtresse Solitude (1772–1802), na slave for di island of Guadeloupe wey dem free in 1794 when dem abolish slavery during di French Revolution. Dem execute am after she fight for freedom when slavery come back because Napoleon in 1802. Laurens de Graaf (c. 1653–1704), na Dutch pirate, mercenary, and naval officer, wey dem enslave by Spanish slave traders when dem capture am for wetin we dey call Netherlands, and dem carry am go di Canary Islands to work for plantation before 1674. Lear Green (around 1839–1860), one African-American woman from Maryland wey run go freedom for New York by fitting inside box make dem carry am. Leo Africanus (1494–1554), one Moor wey born for Granada, dem carry am go Morocco in 1498 because of Spanish wahala. As adult, he dey do diplomatic work. Crusaders catch am for Middle East, dem carry am go Rome make he be slave and convert to Christianity. Later, he get him freedom back and live him life for Tunis. Leofgifu, wey be dairy maid, na one enslaved woman for Anglo-Saxon England, dem mention am for her freedom paper. Leoflaed, another enslaved woman for Anglo-Saxon England, man buy her freedom wey describe her as “kinswoman.” Leonor de Mendoza, enslaved woman for colonial Mexico wey wan marry Tomás Ortega wey be slave for another master; when her master put Tomás for prison, she go church court beg make dem help, dem even threaten say if him no free Tomás, e go fit face excommunication. Letitia Munson (around 1820–after 1882), na midwife wey don come out from slavery, dem don free her for doing illegal abortion for Canada. Lewis Adams (1842–1905), man wey don free from slavery, wey co-found Tuskegee Institute, now Tuskegee University for Alabama. Lewis Hayden (1811–1889), na African-American man from Kentucky, later dem elect am for Massachusetts General Court. Lilliam Williams, settler from Tennessee wey Creek catch while she dey pregnant. Creek adopt her pikin (wey she name Molly and dem name Esnahatchee); dem keep the girl when Williams arrange her freedom. Liol, one Chinese man wey dem carry as slave by Mongol bannerman Soosar. E get semi-independent status for dem. In 1735, him pikin Fuji try claim say him and him brother be Manchus but e no work. Lorenzo de Apapis (around 1501–1586), priest and notary from Gozitan wey dey slavery during 1551 Ottoman attack for Gozo. Dem ransom am and free am by 1553. Lott Cary (about 1780–1828), wey dem born am as African-American slave for Virginia, buy im freedom around 1813, move go Liberia for 1822, where e serve as colonial administrator.[1] Louis Hughes (1832–1913), African-American man wey run away from slavery, author, and businessman.[2] Lovisa von Burghausen (1698–1733), Swedish writer wey publish story of how dem enslave am for Russia after dem capture am during the Great Northern War. Lucius Agermus, freedman of Agrippina the Elder.[3] Lucius Aurelius Hermia, freedman butcher wey his tombstone dey praise im marriage with his fellow freedwoman Aurelia Philematium.[4] Lucius Cancrius Primigenius, freedman of Clemens for one inscription wey dey thank am for breaking spells wey dey affect the city.[5] Lucius of Campione, wey lose lawsuit for 8th century about man Toto wey claim ownership of am.[6] Lucy, di black woman wey John Lang enslave. Dem capture her by di Creek wen she dey 12 years and keep her as slave for Creek land, where she born slave children and grandchildren.[7] Lucy Ann (Berry) Delaney (1830–1891), former enslaved woman, daughter of Polly Berry. Lucy Higgs Nichols (1838–1915), wey escape slavery, serve as nurse for di Civil War, member of di Grand Army of di Republic. Lucy Terry (about 1733–1821), dem kidnap her for Africa and enslave her, dem carry am go British colony of Rhode Island. She later gain freedom and become poet. Luís Gama (1830–1882), wey born free for Brazil, illegally sell am into slavery as pikin, he regain freedom as adult and become lawyer wey free plenty people from slavery without asking for money, especially for di Netto Case. Lunsford Lane (1803–after 1870), na enslaved African-American guy wey dey North Carolina wey buy him freedom and him family too. Him write one slave story. Lyde, na woman wey dem free from slavery by Roman empress Livia. Lydia, na woman wey dem shoot when she try run away from her captor wey dey whip am. Supreme Court of North Carolina talk say na legal in 1830 (check North Carolina v. Mann). Lydia Carter, dey call am 'Little Osage Captive,' dem catch am among Cherokee. Na Lydia Carter go pay money come free am and she name her. Osage try take am back, but she fall sick and die. Lydia Polite, na mother of Robert Smalls. M Mikhail Shchepkin Macuncuzade Mustafa Efendi (wey born around 1550s), na Ottoman qadi and poet wey suffer for slavery for Malta after di ship wey e dey waka for capture by di Knights Hospitaller for 1597. Dem release am for 1600, and e write story about im captivity. Madison Hemings (1805–1877), na di pikin of Sally Hemings and Thomas Jefferson. Mae Louise Miller (1943–2014), American woman wey dey live for modern slavery (peonage) till 1961. Malgarida (wey born around 1488), black African woman and boyfriend of di conquistador Diego de Almagro. For 1536, she be di first non-indigenous woman wey enter di land wey we call Chile today. Malik Ambar, wey born for 1548 as Chapu, na im birth-name for Harar, Adal Sultanate wey dey Ethiopia today. Im come from di Maya ethnic group wey don disappear. As small pikin, im parents sell am for slavery. Mir Qasim Al Baghdadi, one of di people wey own am, convert Chapu come Islam and give am di name Ambar, after e sabi sey di boy get sharp brain. Malik waka go India as slave. For India, e create mercenary group wey reach 1500 men. Di group dey for di Deccan region and local kings dey hire dem. Malik become popular Prime Minister for Ahmadnagar Sultanate, show sey e sabi how to manage. E also dey regarded as pacesetter for guerilla warfare for di area. Dem dey credit am with managing tax collection for plenty for di Deccan, wey set di ground for future collections. Di Siddis of Gujarat dey respect am well. E match di strength of di Mughals and Adil Shah of Bijapur, lift di low status of di Nizam Shah. Margaret Himfi (before 1380–after 1408), na Hungarian woman wey dem carry go enslave by Ottoman bad guys for late 14th century. She later become slave mistress for one rich Venetian man for Crete, wey she born two daughters for. Margaret manage come back to Hungary for 1405. Margaret Morgan dey involved for Prigg v. Pennsylvania case wey United States Supreme Court rule say federal Fugitive Slave Act no go allow Pennsylvania law wey stop blacks from chop dey carry dem go slavery, an dem clear Edward Prigg case because of dat. Marguerite Duplessis (c. 1718–after 1740) na Pawnee woman wey dem enslave for Montreal wey, for 1740, try sue for her freedom but e no work. Marguerite Scypion (c. 1770s–after 1836) na African-Natchez woman wey born for slavery for St. Louis wey go sue for her freedom and eventually win am. Maria al-Qibtiyya (died 637), wey dem dey call “Maria the Copt” or sometimes Maria Qupthiya, na Copt woman wey dem send give Muhammad as gift from Muqawqis, one Byzantine big man, for 628, an she become Muhammad concubine. She be mama to Muhammad son Ibrahim wey die for small pikin age. Her sister, Sirin, sef go meet Muhammad. Muhammad give am to him guy Hassan ibn Thabit. Maria die five years after Muhammad die for 632. Maria (died 1716), na leader for slave uprising for Curaçao. Maria Boguslavka (17th century), na Ukrainian woman wey dem enslave for harem, she start help 30 Cossacks run away from slavery. Maria Guyomar de Pinha (1664–1728), na royal chef from Siam wey get Japanese-Portuguese blood. Maria Perkins, na enslave woman from Virginia wey write letter to her husband for 1852 say dem don sell their son away. Maria ter Meetelen (1704–after 1751), na Dutch writer wey tell her own slave story, dem carry her go enslave by pirates and later sell am to Sultan of Morocco. Her 1748 biography na important witness statement about life of former slave. Mariah Bell Winder McGavock Otey Reddick (she die 1922), as she be small girl, dem give am as wedding gift to Carrie Winder when she marry John McGavock for 1848 inside Terrebonne Parish, Louisiana. Mariah wey born for Mississippi as enslaved person, dem carry am go Franklin, Tennessee, where she spend plenty of her life. Dem match her with Harvey Otey after him first wife Phebe die. Dem get plenty pikin, including two set of twins, wey born into slavery. When Civil War start, dem send her go Montgomery make she dey far from Union lines and possible freedom. She don appear for three novels: Widow of the South and Orphan Mother wey Robert Hicks write and also for book wey her great-grandson William 'Damani' Keene and him wife Carole 'Ife' Keene write titled Clandestine: The Times and Secret Life of Mariah Otey Reddick. Marianna Malińska (she die after 1797), Polish serf and Royal Ballet Dancer, dem donates am to king of Poland by will. Marie (she die 1759), enslaved Cree woman wey get death sentence for Trois-Rivières, New France. Marie-Cessette Dumas, woman wey Marquis Antoine de la Pailleterie enslaved, she be mama of General Thomas-Alexandre Dumas, and grandmother of famous author Alexandre Dumas, père. Marie-Josèphe dite Angélique (she die 1734), black Portuguese enslaved woman wey dem try and convict, beat and hang because she set fire to her woman owner house, wey burn plenty of wetin dem dey call Old Montreal now. Marie Thérèse Metoyer, na planter and businesswoman wey dey Natchitoches, Louisiana after dem free her. Mark, one man from Massachusetts wey dey enslaved by Captain John Codman. Mark body dey display for chains for public near Charlestown, Massachusetts for twenty years. That gruesome display of him body dey popular well-well for that time, and na the place wey dem display Mark body make Paul Revere mention am as landmark for him 1798 account of him 1775 midnight ride. Martha Ann Erskine Ricks (1817–1901), na African-American wey dey born enslave for Tennessee, later she become Americo-Liberian wey sabi quilt. Marthe Franceschini (1755–1799), na Italian wey dem capture and enslave by Corsairs, enter Sultan of Morocco harem. Mary, wey be George Washington Carver mama. Mary (wey die 1838), na teenager wey dem hang for murder wey she do to Vienna Brinker, two-year-old girl wey she dey take care of. Mary Black, one of three enslave women wey dem charge for witchcraft during Salem witch trials for 1692. Mary Calhoun, white woman and cousin of John C. Calhoun wey dem kidnap by Cherokee. She no fit come back home. Mary Edmonson (1832–1853), with her sister Emily, dem try escape for 1848 wey dem dey call Pearl incident, but Henry Ward Beecher and him church gather money help free dem. Mary Eliza Smith, dem dey call 'slave' or 'former slave,' na common-law wife of Michael Morris Healy and mama of him pikin dem, wey include James Augustine Healy, Patrick Francis Healy, Michael A. Healy, and Eliza Healy. Mary Fields (c. 1832–1914): she be first African-American female wey dey carry mail for United States star route. Mary Mildred Williams, Nee Botts (born 1847), na the original 'Poster Child' wey dem use her picture push abolitionist cause by dey spread 'White Slavery' for 1855. Mary Prince (c. 1788–after 1833), her life story motivate anti-slavery movement for England. The Master of Morton and e first son of Clan Oliphant Chief, two Scottish noble wey dem exile from Scotland after 1582 Raid of Ruthven. Dem ship wey dem travel with vanish for sea, and dem talk say na Dutch ship catch dem. Last report be say dem dey enslave for Turkish ship for Mediterranean. Dem raise plaque for church for Algiers to remember dem. Masúd, dem buy am when e be pikin from Khál-i Akbar, wey be Báb uncle, Masúd go serve Bahá'u'lláh for Acre. Matilda McCrear (around 1857–1940), last person wey survive for US wey gree say Transatlantic slave trade no easy. Dem carry am go for slave ship Clotilda. Mende Nazer (born around 1982), Nuba woman wey dem capture for Darfur carry am from Sudan go London, later she get refugee status and write book wey title Slave: My True Story (2002). Menecrates of Tralles, na Greek doctor wey dey for 1st century BC. Metaneira, woman for ancient Greece wey dem talk say na Nicarete property, wey dey sell am for body. Michael Shiner (1805–1880), en slaved laborer, painter entrepreneur, community leader and diary writer for Washington Navy Yard. Miguel de Buría (around 1510–around 1555), na slave and rebel. Miguel Perez na the Spanish name of boy wey be Yojuane people, wey dey among 149 Yojuane women and children wey dem carry go as captive for 1759 when some Spanish and Apaches come attack their camp along Red River for northern Texas. Many of dem wey dem capture die from smallpox, the ones wey survive, dem go still enslave dem. Dem sell the boy to Spanish soldier wey give am that Spanish name. Perez become Hispanicized Indian for San Antonio but he still dey connect with his Yojuane people. For 1786, Perez go persuade the Yojuanes and their Tonkawa friends to fight Lipan Apache, wey he do am well. Mikhail Matinsky (1750–1820), Russian serf wey be scientist, dramatist, librettist and opera composer. Michał Rymiński (e don die after 1797), Polish serf wey be Royal Ballet Dancer, wey donate am to king of Poland by him will. Mikhail Shchepkin (1788–1863), Russian serf actor. Mikhail Shibanov, Russian serf painter wey dey active for 1780s. Mikhail Tikhanov (1789–1862), Russian serf artist. Mina Kolokolnikov (1708?–1775?), Russian serf painter and teacher. Mingo, di 15–16 years old boy wey Titsworth family use as slave for Tennessee, dem capture am for 1794 by Creeks when dem raid di house. Minerva (Anderson) Breedlove, na Madam C.J. Walker mama. Moses A. Hopkins (1846–1886), African-American diplomat, U.S. minister to Liberia. Murad Agha (c. 1480–c. 1556), Italy-born Ottoman eunuch and naval officer, wey turn Beylerbey of Tripoli. Mustapha Khaznadar (1817–1878), him be Christian Greek wey dem capture during 1822 Massacre of Chios, change am to Islam wey dem call am Mustapha, sell am for Constantinople to envoy of Husainid Dynasty. Him grow for Mustapha Bey family, later him son Ahmad I Bey. Him first be prince private treasurer before him become Ahmad state treasurer (khaznadar). Him rise to top offices for Tunisian state, marry Princess Lalla Kalthoum for 1839, turn lieutenant-general of di army, become bey for 1840 and de president of Grand Council from 1862 to 1878. Muyahid ibn Yusuf ibn Ali (11th century), na di leader of Saqaliba (slaves wey dem say be Slavic origin) for Dénia, Spain. As Caliphate of Córdoba dey fall, him and him followers rebel, free demself, control di city and establish di Taifa of Dénia, wey at di peak dey reach as far as di island of Majorca. N Nafisa al-Bayda, Egyptian investor wey dem dey call "white slave", na hin dey buy as concubine slave. Nancy, wey dem dey call Ann, na di plaintiff for di 1799 New Brunswick habeas corpus case R v Jones. Nancy Brown, Nancy Caffrey, na white captive wey Creek dey enslave. When trader John O'Reilly try to ransom her and Elsey Thompson, dem tell am say dem no capture dem to go back, but to work. Nanny of di Maroons, wey dem dey call Granny Nanny and Queen Nanny, na di leader of di Jamaican Maroons. Nat Turner (1800–1831), wey escape come lead revolt for Southampton County, Virginia. Nathan McMillian, wey as free man sue to make him pikin enter local "Croatan Indian" school, say e dey for all non-white pikin, and say him pikin get Croatan blood for their mama side. Nathaniel Booth (1826–1901), wey escape slavery for Virginia and settle for Lowell, Massachusetts. For 1851, di people of Lowell buy him freedom from slave hunters. Neaera, formerly enslaved woman and prostitute wey di Athenian Stephanus marry against di law around 340 BC, according to Demosthenes speech. Nero Hawley (1742–1817), wey be formerly enslaved freeperson wey serve for Continental Army during di American Revolutionary War, and dem bury am for Trumbull, Connecticut. Newport Gardner (1746–1826), na formerly enslaved freeperson for colonial Newport, Rhode Island. Ng Akew (died 1880), be Tanka enslaved woman for British Hong Kong wey famous for piracy scandal. Nicarete, na woman for ancient Greece, wey dem describe for Against Neaera di freedwoman of Charisius di Elean and him wife wey be cook Hippias, and as her dey own and sell several women around 340 BC. Saint Nino (c. 280–c. 332), na 4th-century Roman woman from Constantinople wey dem dey respect well well for bring Christianity come Georgia. Some account of her life talk say she originally come Georgia as slave wey dem kidnap from her homeland. Nurbanu Sultan (about 1525–1583), wey dem call Cecilia Venier-Baffo before, na enslaved noblewoman from Venice wey become the favorite wife of Ottoman sultan Selim II, and her wan dey very powerful as mother to sultan Murad III. O Omar ibn Said, Senegal scholar wey don dey slavery for North Carolina more than 50 years, around 1850. Oenomaus, Gallic gladiator wey lead slaves wey dey rebel during Third Servile War. Olaudah Equiano (c. 1745–1797), wey dem sabi as Gustavus Vassa, strong African-British writer wey dey fight for abolition, but dem no sure where e born. Omar ibn Said (1770–1864), writer and Islamic scholar wey come from Senegal wey dem carry go USA for 1807, spend di rest of im life for slavery. Onesimus, slave of Philemon from Colossae wey run away, meet St. Paul, and Paul change am. Paul send am back go Philemon with letter, wey be Epistle to Philemon. Ignatius of Antioch talk about an Onesimus wey be Bishop of Ephesus for early 2nd century, but nobody sure if na di same people. Onesimus, slave for colonial Boston wey help spread knowledge about smallpox inoculation. Onesimos Nesib (c. 1856–1931), Ethiopian wey Swedish missionaries buy out of slavery when e be pikin. E work with another former slave Aster Ganno to translate Bible into Oromo language. Oney Judge (1773–1848), wey dem enslave for Martha Washington family, and later for di First Lady, Judge dey work for Mount Vernon and all over as personal servant to Martha Washington until she escape for 1796 go Portsmouth New Hampshire. Ottobah Cugoano, wey dem sabi as John Stuart (c. 1757–after 1791), be abolitionist, political activist, and natural rights philosopher from West Africa wey dey active for Britain. Owen Fitzpen (c. 1582–1636), English merchant wey Barbary pirates carry capture for 1620 but escape later. Owen Breedlove, papa of Madam C.J. Walker. P Pallas, secretary wey dey work for Roman emperor Claudius. Pasion, na enslaved Athenian guy wey be banker. E later get dat rare chance for freedman to get citizen. Pata Seca (real name na Roque José Florêncio), wey come from Angola for 1828, dem capture am come Brazil as slave, na tall, strong guy: 2m18 tall plus over 140 kg weight. E dey work as breeding slave, e don born over 200 pikin. When dem cancel slavery for Brazil for 1888, e get land, wey e live with e wife and 9 children. Saint Patrick, dem kidnap am from Britain, enslave for Ireland, escape go Britain, come back to Ireland as missionary. Patsey (born around 1830), na enslaved African-American wey dey live for mid-1800s for South Carolina. Paul Jennings (1799–1874), na personal servant wey dem enslave under President James Madison during e White House time, e buy im freedom for 1845 from Daniel Webster. E publish di first White House memoir, 1865's A Colored Man's Reminiscences of James Madison. Paul Smith, na free black wey accuse di Cherokee headman Doublehead say e kidnap am and force am into bondage. Pedro Camejo (1790–1821), na Venezuelan soldier for di Venezuelan War of Independence. Peggy Margaret Titsworth, dem enslave am at 13 years for three years, after Creek raid for 1794 on her Tennessee home. Pete and Hannah Byrne, na freed slaves from Napoleon Bonaparte Byrne family wey travel from Missouri to California by land (six months journey) for 1859, dem leave di farm for Missouri carry six adults (including Pete & Hannah), di four Byrne children and cattle come settle for Berkeley, California. Pete and Hannah be di first blacks wey dey live for Berkeley and among di first African-Americans for California. Peter Salem (c. 1750–1816), African American wey born for slavery for Massachusetts, serve as soldier for American Revolutionary War. Petronia Justa, woman wey dey Herculaneum, sue her owner say she born after her mama don freedom; Vesuvius eruption preserve di court matter. Phaedo of Elis, wey dem capture for war, carry go Athens, force am to do prostitution, later become Socrates student wey free am, give him name to one Plato dialogue, Phaedo, and him be famous philosopher. Phaedrus (c. 15 BCE–c. 50 CE), Roman storyteller. Praskovia Kovalyova-Zhemchugova dress fine for Les mariages samnites by André Ernest Modeste Grétry. Phillis (die 1755), woman wey dey Massachusetts, enslave by Captain John Codman. She and her people plot to poison her owner as dem no fit take di wahala from their master, but dem burn am to death for 1755. Phillis Wheatley (1753–1784?), Colonial American poet, second published African-American poet and first African-American woman wey publish. Phoebe, woman wey dey slavery wey sue for her freedom for Tennessee, with her pikin Davy and Tom, say dem be descendants of one enslaved Indian woman wey prove say dem no suppose hold dem. Philocrates, wey dey slavery under Roman reformer Gaius Gracchus. He stay with him master when Gracchus dey run from him enemies, everybody don leave am. When dem reach one grove wey dey sacred to di Furies, Philocrates help Gracchus kill himself first before he take him own life, some talk say dem kill am after him refuse to let go him master body. Phormion, one enslaved man from Athens wey dey do banking. For him old age, dem give am rare honor of citizenship as free man. Pierre d'Espagnac, sometimes Pierre d'Espagnal (1650–1689), na French Jesuit missionary, dem enslave am by di Siamese. Pope Pius I (e die around 154), na Bishop for Rome from around 140 to 154, when dem dey reign under Roman emperor Antoninus Pius. E be brother to freedman Hermas, so e fit don be former slave too, but dem no talk am clear for di small records wey dey about e life. Pleasant Richardson, wey escape slavery become Union soldier plus property owner for Fincastle, Virginia. Polly, di subject of 1820 Indiana Supreme Court case Polly v. Lasselle, wey make all slaves wey dey Indiana go free. Polly Berry, wey dem also dey call Polly Crockett or Polly Wash, win freedom suit for 1843 for St. Louis, Missouri plus she free her daughter Lucy Ann Berry too. Politoria, wey get lead curse tablet for ancient Rome; na curse on Clodia Valeria Sophrone say make she no fit get Politoria into her power. E look like say she be slave-courtesan wey dey fear say dem go send am go brothel. Praskovia Kovalyova-Zhemchugova (1768–1803) na Russian serf actress plus soprano opera singer. Primus (1700–1791), wey Daniel Fowle from Portsmouth, New Hampshire enslave. Primus dey run di press for di New Hampshire Gazette wey be di oldest newspaper wey still dey print for America. Prince na di slave of Choctaw man wey name Richard Harkins. E vex say him owner no give di slaves Christmas celebration, Prince kill am sharply and dump di body for river for 1858. Prince Boston (born 1750), sue for him freedom and win for 1773 U.S. jury trial. Prince Estabrook (1741–1830), wey Benjamin Estabrook enslave; join fight for Continental Army and get wound for di Battle of Lexington and Concord. Prince Whipple (1750–1796), enslave by American General William Whipple. Prosper, na enslaved man wey dem murder for 1807 for Virgin Islands by him owner Arthur William Hodge, and Hodge go face trial and dem execute am for 1811, na di first case wey dem fit record like dat. One pregnant Thrall wey we no fit remember the name, dey run from her life for 11th-century Oslo, Hallvard Vebjørnsson carry am go hide for him boat. Dem people come attack dem, shoot dem with arrow, and both of dem die. Because of dat, dem make Hallvard saint and him be patron saint for Oslo. Publilius Syrus (fl. 85–43 BCE), na Latin writer wey sabi plenty for him wise sayings. E be Syrian wey dem carry come Italy as slave. Q Quamina Gladstone, him be Jack Gladstone papa and e dey involve for Demerara rebellion wey happen for 1823. Quassi van Timotebo or Kwasimukamba (1692–1787) na Surinam slave, wey don free and na Maroon hunter for Dutch Surinam. Him name dey for plant genus wey dem call Quassia. Quock Walker, wey dem dey call Kwaku or Quok Walker too, him sue and win him freedom for 1781 because of new Massachusetts Constitution (1780) wey talk say all men dem dey born free and equal. Qutb-ud-din Aybak or Qutbuddin Aibak (1150–1210), na Turk wey don suffer slavery before, become soldier, be first Sultan of Delhi, for India e start "slave dynasty". R Rachel, na the person wey dey the 1834 Rachel v. Walker case for Supreme Court of Missouri wey rule say U.S. Army officer go lose him slave if e carry the person go place wey slavery no dey allowed. Dis ruling come dey used as example for 1856 for Dred Scott v. Sandford case for U.S. Supreme Court. Rachel of Kittery, Maine (she die 1695), na enslaved woman wey her owner kill, and e case set legal example for New England. Rachel Knight (she die 1889), at first na enslaved by Newton Knight grandpapa, wey be popular Southern Unionist wey during American Civil War, e no gree Confederacy, wey dem dey call Free State of Jones. After the war, Rachel come get freedom with other slaves. By mid-1870s, Knight don separate from him wife, Serena, come marry Rachel. During this time, Knight grown son, Mat (from him first wife), come marry Rachel grown daughter, Fannie, from her previous relationship. Knight daughter, Molly, come marry Rachel son, Jeff, turns three interracial families for the community. Newton and Rachel Knight born plenty children before she die for 1889. Rebecca Huger, na enslaved woman wey General Benjamin F. Butler free for New Orleans, and dem talk for Harper's Weekly say she be white, come dey go school for freed slaves for Philadelphia. Richard Preston (around 1791–1861), e comot from slavery come be religious leader and abolitionist for Nova Scotia. Robert Blake, e get Medal of Honor as sailor during American Civil War, after e become 'contraband' (slaves wey Union forces free) come join. Robert Drury (1687–1743/1750), English sailor wey shipwreck for Madagascar island in 1702, e dey slave there till 1717. Robert J. Patterson (1809–1884), e run from slavery for Virginia come be restaurateur for Saint John, New Brunswick. Robert Smalls (1839–1915), e take charge of Confederate ship, carry the ship and enslaved people go freedom, make Union allow African Americans join; later e serve for South Carolina Senate before e enter U.S. House of Representatives wey represent South Carolina's 5th congressional district. Robin and Polly Holmes, na dem be plaintiffs for the 1853 Holmes v. Ford court case for Oregon Territory wey free their pikin dem. The verdict confirm say slavery no dey legal for that area as Organic Laws of Oregon talk when the place become U.S. territory. Rosina Downs, na enslaved woman wey General Benjamin F. Butler free for New Orleans, dem describe am for Harper's Weekly say she look white, and she come school for emancipated slaves for Philadelphia. Roustam Raza (1783–1845), na Napoleon Bonaparte's Armenian bodyguard. S Solomon Northup wey come from Twelve Years a Slave Sabuktigin (c. 942–997), full name Abu Mansur Sabuktigin, be small pikin wey dem carry go sell for slavery, but e rise come be general, then king wey start the Ghaznavid Empire for medieval Iran. Safiye Sultan (c. 1550 – c. 1619), na enslaved woman wey be Albanian, dem put am for harem of Ottoman sultan Murad III, and she be the mama of sultan Mehmed III. Salem Poor (1747–1802), na enslaved African-American man wey buy im freedom, and e be war hero during the American Revolutionary War. Sally Hemings (1773–1835), na mixed-race woman wey dem enslave by Thomas Jefferson, plenty people dey believe say she born six pikin for am, four of dem survive grow reach adult. Sally Miller or Salomé Müller (born c. 1814), na enslaved American woman wey file her freedom case for Louisiana based on say she dey claim say she be free German immigrant and indentured servant. Sally Seymour (died 1824), na American pastry chef and restaurateur, enslaved woman wey dem free and she come own her own slaves too. Salonia na di second wife of Cato di Elder. Salvius, wey dem sabi as Tryphon, be leader of di 104 BCE slave rebellion for Sicily wey dem call di Second Servile War. Sambo (died 1736), na enslaved boy wey enter Sunderland Point, near Lancaster, England, around 1736 from West Indies as captain servant. Dem bury am for grave wey no dey blessed inside one field near small village of Sunderland Point, Lancashire, England. Sambo, a black guy wey dey under Tiger King, one Lower Creek, wey tell traveler William Bartram say Sambo be him family property. Samson Rowlie (wey die after 1588), wey dem sabi as Hassan Aga, Chief Eunuch and Treasurer for Algiers. Samuel Benedict (1792–1854), wey born be African-American slave, later become free and waka go Liberia, where he turn politician and judge. Samuel Green (c. 1802–1877), one enslaved man wey buy him freedom and freedom for him loved ones, dey involve for Underground Railroad, and dem lock him up for 1857 because e carry Uncle Tom's Cabin. Samuel Ringgold Ward (1817–c. 1866), African-American wey dey fight for abolition and be journalist. Sandy Jenkins, na person wey dey enslave wey Frederick Douglass talk for him first autobiography. Sanker, na manservant wey dey work for Samuel R. Watkins, wey write "Co. Aytch" (1882), wey dey tell how him life be as soldier for the 1st Tennessee Infantry Regiment. Sarah Forbes Bonetta (1843–1880), na Egbado princess from Yoruba wey lose her people during fight, sell into slavery as small pikin, but Captain Frederick E. Forbes from Royal Navy come rescue am carry am go UK wey she con become goddaughter to Queen Victoria. Sarah Basset (die 1730), wey dey enslave for Bermuda; dem execute am for poison matter wey involve three people. Sarah Johnson (1844–1920), her life for the first president plantation dey published for book wey dem call "Sarah Johnson's Mount Vernon." Satrelanus, from Gaul, wey Ermedruda sell give Toto for Milan for 725. Scipio Africanus (around 1702–1720). Scipio Moorhead (fl. 1773–1775), na enslaved African-American artist. Scipio Vaughan (around 1784–around 1840), dem carry am komot from him place for Africa young, sell am go slavery for United States. E turn skilled artisan for Camden, South Carolina; manage get him freedom and inspire plenty of him pikin dem. Septimus Clarke (1787–1859), wey dem don enslave before, him turn e get success as farmer and leader for community for Nova Scotia. Servius Tullius, ancient King of Rome wey people talk sey e start life as slave (but some people dey argue this matter, both Romans and modern historians). Seymour Burr (1754/1762–1837), e fight for Continental Army for American Revolution. Shadrach Minkins (1814–1875), na fugitive wey slavery no fit catch, dem save am by abolitionists for Boston in 1850. Shaghab (dem don die 933), mother and double ruler of the eighteenth Abbasid Caliph al-Muqtadir. Silas Chandler (1838–1919), na man wey dey follow him enslavers for Confederate Army during American Civil War. Sojourner Truth (around 1797–1883), na abolitionist and women's rights activist. Solomon Bayley (1771–1839), write book for 1825 about him life as slave. Solomon Northup (1807–around 1863), na farmer, pro violinist, and free-born black man from New York wey dem lure go Washington, D.C., wey slavery dey legal, kidnap am and sell am for South. E dey enslaved for Louisiana from 1841 till dem rescue am and liberate am for 1853. Na author of Twelve Years a Slave. Solomon Flores, na enslaved man from northern Alabama. Sosias the Thracian, na enslaved Athenian man, later freedman, wey Nicias carry enslave, later rent am one thousand slaves for mining work. Spartacus (around 111–71 BCE), na gladiator and rebel leader during the Servile Revolt. Spendius be Campanian wey run come out from slavery, serve as Carthaginian mercenary for di First Punic War, den later be general for Mercenary War wey dem fight against Carthage. Stefan Holnicki (we no sabi when e die after 1797), Polish serf and Royal Ballet Dancer, don give plenty to di king of Poland by im will. Stephen Bishop (about 1821–1857), na mixed-race man wey dem hold for Kentucky, him dey known as one of di first explorers and guides for Mammoth Cave. Sue, na black woman wey James Brown enslave, dem capture am with plenty members for di Brown family and other slaves by Chickamaugas. When di warrior wey catch am threaten another captive, di other captor come threaten say dem go kill Sue for revenge. James' pikin Joseph later kidnap Sue, her children and grandchildren—total eight—for di revenge wey dey follow im captivity. Suhayb ar-Rumi (born around 587), wey people sabi as Suhayb ibn Sinan, na child wey dey enslave for Byzantine Empire, escape as young man go Mecca, come join Muhammad and become big friend for di early Muslim community. Sumayyah bint Khayyat (550–615), na woman wey dem enslave for Mecca; she be one of di first seven pipo wey convert to Islam by Prophet Muhammad early for him work. Dem torture am and kill am because of di new faith, she become di first Muslim Shahid. Squanto (1585–1622), wey dem also sabi as Tisquantum, na Native American from wetin dem dey call coastal Massachusetts now; dem capture am by English pirates and sell am as slave. Later, he free and return go New England, meet di Pilgrims for di Mayflower in 1621. Subh of Cordoba (940–999), na enslave concubine of a Caliph, na mother and regent of di next Caliph of Cordoba inside di 10th century. Suk-bin Choe (1670–1718), na consort of Sukjong of Joseon and mother of Yeongjo of Joseon. Surya Devi (we no sabi when she die, 715), na Indian princess wey dem enslave by Caliph Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik. == List of slaves == 6ho5l1t7j9vd636ibtiinn8d1g12k6c 69171 69169 2025-07-06T00:27:43Z Abdul-Rauf Moshie 1580 /* List of slaves */ 69171 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Slavery}} [[File:Livorno_Quattro_mori_monument_07.JPG|thumb|375x375px|One out of four statues wey dey show chained slaves for base of the Monument of the Four Moors for Livorno, Italy, wey dem fit be real slaves o.]] Slavery be one kind social-economic system wey people dey suffer: dem no get freedom and dem dey force to do work or service without pay. Dem people wey dey in dis condition, we dey call dem slaves or enslaved people. Dis na list of some important historical people wey don dey enslave for some time for dem life, we go arrange am from A to Z based on dem first name. * A * B * C * D * E * F * G * H * I * J * K * L * M * N * O * P * Q * R * S * T * U * V * W * X * Y * Z * See also A Abraham be enslaved black man wey dey carry message between frontier and Charles Town for war with Cherokee, wey fit free am. Abdul Rahman Ibrahima Sori (1762–1829), na prince from West Africa wey dem hold for United States for 40 years till President John Quincy Adams free am. Abram Petrovich Gannibal (1696–1781), dem adopt am by Russian czar Peter the Great, him be governor for Tallinn (Reval) (1742–1752) and general-en-chef (1759–1762) wey dey build sea forts and canals for Russia; e be great-grandpapa of Alexander Pushkin. See The Slave in European Art for him portraits. Absalom Jones (1746–1818), him don free hims [[File:Cabeza_de_Vaca_Portrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cabeza_de_Vaca_Portrait.jpg|right|thumb|235x235px|[[:en:Álvar_Núñez_Cabeza_de_Vaca|Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca]]]] elf, na abolitionist and clergyman – first ordained black priest of Episcopal Church. Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz (die 644), na Persian craftsman and captive wey kill second Islamic caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab (r. 634–644). Addas (7th century) na enslaved Christian boy wey dey live for Taif during Muhammad time, wey people talk say na him be first person from western Taif wey convert to Islam. Adriaan de Bruin (c. 1700–1766), wey dem call Tabo Jansz before, na enslaved servant for Dutch Republic wey turn free man for Hoorn, North Holland. Adam Brzeziński (1768 – after 1797), Polish serf and Royal Ballet Dancer, wey donate to king of Poland by will and testament. Aesop (c. 620–564 BCE), na Greek poet and author or transcriber for Aesop's Fables. Afanasy Grigoriev (1782–1868), na Russian serf and Neoclassical architect. Afrosinya (1699/1700–1748), na Russian serf, fit be Finnish captive, na enslaved mistress of Alexei Petrovich, Tsarevich of Russia. Agathoclia (shey die around 230), na martyr and patron saint for Mequinenza town for Spain. Alam al-Malika (shey die 1130), na singer wey dem catch as slave but rise become de prime minister and ruler for Zubayd, wey dey now Yemen. Alexina Morrison, na run away girl from slavery for Louisiana wey claim say she be kidnapped white pikin, she sue her master wey make people vex say dem go lynch am. Alfred "Teen" Blackburn (1842–1951), one of de last survivors of slavery for United States wey fit remember wetin happen. Alfred Francis Russ [[File:Aesop_pushkin01.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aesop_pushkin01.jpg|left|thumb|264x264px|[[:en:Aesop|Aesop]] in a [[:en:Hellenistic_art|Hellenistic]] statue claimed to be him, Art Collection of [[:en:Villa_Albani|Villa Albani]], Rome]] ell (1817–1884), na 10th President of Liberia. Alice Clifton (c. 1772–unknown), as slave pikin, she dey trial for infanticide matter for 1787. Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca (c. 1490–c. 1558), na Spanish explorer wey dem turn slave by Native Americans for Gulf Coast after e survive Narváez expedition wey scatter for 1527. Al-Khayzuran bint Atta (shey die 789), na Yemeni girl wey turn wife for Abbasid Caliph Al-Mahdi and mama to two Caliphs, Al-Hadi and Harun al-Rashid, wey dem sabi well well. Alp-Tegin (shey die 963), na member of nomadic Turks, dem carry am as slave small for Samanid court for Bukhara, later e come be army commander for Samanid Empire. Him son-in-law Sabuktigin later start Ghaznavid Empire. Amanda America Dickson (1849–1893), daughter of white planter David Dickson and Julia Frances Lewis, she be slave under Dickson's mama. Even though she dey legally enslaved till after Civil War, Amanda be her papa favorite and she inherit him $500,000 estate after him die for 1885. Ammar bin Yasir (570–657), one of di popular sahaba dem wey Abu Bakr free. Amos Fortune (1710–1801), African prince wey don suffer for United States for most of him life. Di children book wey talk about am, Amos Fortune, Free Man win Newbery Medal for 1951. Anarcha Westcott (c. 1828–unknown), black woman wey dey enslaved for di United States, she be among di women wey J. Marion Sims use do experiment. Portrait of Andrey Voronikhin. Engraving by V. A. Bobrov from di early 19th century. Andrey Voronikhin (1759–1814), Russian serf, architect and painter. Andrea Aguyar (died 1849), former enslaved black ma [[File:Voronikhin.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Voronikhin.jpg|right|thumb|297x297px|Portrait of [[:en:Andrey_Voronikhin|Andrey Voronikhin]]. Engraving by V. A. Bobrov from the beginning of the 19th century.]] n from Uruguay wey join Giuseppe Garibaldi during di Italian revolution for di Uruguayan Civil War of di 1840s and die for fight for di Roman Republic of 1849. Andrew Jackson Beard (1849–1921), inventor, him free at age 15 by di Emancipation Proclamation. Anna J. Cooper (1858–1964), author, educator, speaker and big African-American scholar. Anna Madgigine Jai Kingsley (1793–1870), woman wey dey enslaved then become planter and slave owner. Anna Williams, woman wey dey enslaved for Washington, D.C. wey go court win her freedom against di United States Court of Appeals. Annice (died 1828), dem execute her for murder five children. Annika Svahn (fl. 1714), Finnish woman wey Russian take away during di Great Northern War. She be vicar pikin for Joutseno, wey become popular victim for di wahala wey civilian dem suffer during di Russian occupation. Antarah ibn Shaddad (525–608), pre-Islamic Arab wey born from enslaved woman, him papa free am before battle, and he be poet too. Anthony Burns (1834–1862), na Baptist pre [[File:Петровское._Бюст_А.П._Ганнибала.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5._%D0%91%D1%8E%D1%81%D1%82_%D0%90.%D0%9F._%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0.jpg|right|thumb|263x263px|[[:en:Abram_Petrovich_Gannibal|Abram Petrovich Gannibal]], bust in [[:en:Petrovskoye,_Yaroslavl_Oblast|Petrovskoe]], [[:en:Russia|Russia]]]] acher wey escape slavery go Boston, but dem catch am again because Fugitive Slave Act wey dey 1850, den people wey no want am capture buy im freedom for Boston. Antonia Bonnelli (1786–1870), dem capture am and enslave am by Mikasuki tribe for Florida in 1802. António Corea, na European name wey dem give to Korean. Dem carry am go Italy, wey fit make am di first Korean wey step foot for Europe. Antón Guanche (15th century), na Guanche from Tenerife, dem capture am, enslave am, come return am go di island. Aqualtune Ezgondidu Mahamud da Silva Santos (died 1677), na princess of Kongo, mother of Ganga Zumba and grandmother of Zumbi dos Palmares. She lead 10,000 men during di Battle of Mbwila between Kingdom of Kongo and Kingdom of Portugal. Dem catch am by Portuguese forces, carry am go Brazil and sell am as slave. She start di slave settlement of Quilombo dos Palmares with her son Ganga Zumba. Archer Alexander (1810–1879), na model wey dem use for di slave wey dey di 1876 Emancipation Memorial sculpture. Abram Petrovich Gannibal, bust wey dey Petrovskoe, Russia. Archibald Grimké (1849–1930), born into slavery, son of white papa, become American lawyer, intellectual, journalist, diplomat and community leader. Arthur Crumpler (c. 1835–1910), escape slavery for Virginia, na di second husband of Dr. Rebecca Davis Lee Crumpler. Aster Ganno (c. 1872–1964), na young Ethiopian woman wey Italian Navy rescue from slave ship wey dey cross go Yemen. She go translate di Bible into Oromo language. Also she prepare literacy materials and spend di rest of her life as school teacher. Augustine Tolton (1854–1897), na di first black priest for di United States. Aurelia Philematium, na freedwoman wey her tombstone dey praise her marriage with her fellow freedman, Lucius Aurelius Hermia. Ayuba Suleiman Diallo (1701–1773), wey dem sabi as Job ben S [[File:William_Hoare_of_Bath_-_Portrait_of_Ayuba_Suleiman_Diallo,_(1701-1773).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:William_Hoare_of_Bath_-_Portrait_of_Ayuba_Suleiman_Diallo,_(1701-1773).jpg|left|thumb|Portrait of [[:en:Ayuba_Suleiman_Diallo|Ayuba Suleiman Diallo]] by [[:en:William_Hoare|William Hoare]] (1733)]] olomon, na Muslim wey come from Bundu state for West Africa. E dey suffer for two years for Maryland as slave, but dem free am for 1734. Later, e write hin story wey dem publish as one of di first slave narrative. B Baibars Baibars (1223–1277), wey dem dey call am Abu al-Futuh, na Kipchak Turk wey turn Mamluk sultan for Egypt and Syria. Balthild (c. 626–680), na Anglo-Saxon woman wey come from big family, dem sell am gree as small pikin, serve for Erchinoald house, wey be mayor for Neustria. After, she marry Clovis II, and later she be regent when her pikin Clotaire dey small. She stop dem wey dey trade Christian slaves and dey fight for freedom of children wey dem sell as slaves. Pope Nicholas I canonize am about 200 years after she die. Bass Reeves (1838–1910), na one of di first black Deputy U.S. Marshals for di west of di Mississippi River, wey don arrest over 3,000 bad guys and shoot fourteen outlaws for self-defense. Belinda Sutton (1713–179?), born for Ghana, she dey beg for support from her enslaver estate, wey be one early case for reparations and inspire future activism. Belinda Sutton petition, wey dem print again Bell (Belinda) (c. 1750–c. 1772), born for Bengal, dem carry her go Scotland as servant for East India Company nabob. Dem accuse am say she kill pikin, she dey beg make dem banish am and she turn “slave for life” and dem carry am go Virginia for 1772. She na di last person wey court for Britain call slave. Benjamin S. Turner (1825–1894), former slave wey be politician wey represent Alabama's 1st congressional district for United States House of Representatives. Him be di first African American wey don represent di state for Congress. Benkos Biohó, wey born for royal family of Bissagos Islands, dem kidnap am and enslave am. After dem carry am go Spanish New Granada for South America, him fit escape, help plenty other slaves escape too, and create di maroon community of San Basilio de Palenque. Di Governor Diego Pacheco Téllez-Girón Gómez de Sandoval of Cartagena betray am and hang am for 1621, but di community wey him build still dey live free till today. Betty Hemings (c. 1735–1807), na enslave mixed-race woman wey for colonial Virginia, wey for 1761 start dey be sex slave of her master, planter John Wayles, and she get six mixed-race children with am over 12 years, including Sally Hemings and James Hemings. Big Eyes (fl. 1540), na Wichita woman wey dem enslave by Tejas people before dem capture am and enslave am by conquistador Juan de Zaldívar. Bilichild (died 610), be queen of Austrasia through marriage to Theudebert II. Bilal ibn Ribah (580–640), wey dem free in 6th century. Him convert to Islam and be Muhammad's muezzin. Bill Richmond (1763–1829), wey born for America, dem free am and him become one of England's best boxers. Saint Brigid of Kildare as dem depict am for Saint Non's chapel, St Davids, Wales. Billy (born c. 1754), na man wey run come from John Tayloe II's plantation, dem charge am for treason against Virginia during American Revolutionary War. Him collect pardon after e talk say, as slave, him no be citizen, so e no fit commit treason against government wey him no dey owe loyalty to. Bissula (fl. 368) na Alemannic woman wey dem enslave, and she be inspiration for Roman poet Ausonius. Blanche Bruce (1841–1898) na di first and only former slave wey serve for United States Senate. Blandina (c. 162–177) be slave and Christian martyr for Roman Gaul. Di Bodmin manumissions na manuscript wey dey inside British Library, e keep names and details of slaves wey dem free for Bodmin (di main town for Cornwall back then) during 9th or 10th centuries. Booker T. Washington (1856–1915), born inside slavery, come be American educator, author and leader of African-American community after Civil War. Saint Brigid of Kildare, na major Irish Saint. Tradition say Brigid born for 451 AD for Faughart, just north of Dundalk for County Louth, Ireland. Her mama na Brocca, Pict slave wey Saint Patrick don baptize. Dem talk say her papa be Dubhthach, chieftain of Leinster. Dubthach wife force am sell Brigid's mama to druid when she carry belle. Brigid self born for slavery. Di small Brigid fit perform miracle, like healing and feeding di poor. At age ten, dem return am as household servant to her papa, where her charity make am dey give out hin things to anybody wey ask. For two Lives, Dubthach dey vex with her, he carry am go King of Leinster to sell her. While Dubthach dey talk with di king, Brigid don give away hin jeweled sword to beggar to change am for food to feed di family. Di king sabi her holiness well well and e make Dubthach free him daughter. After dat, she start her waka as popular nun. Brigitta Scherzenfeldt (1698–1733), Swedish wey dey write memoirs and teach weaving, she catch during di Great Northern War, carry go live as slave for di Kalmyk kingdom for Central Asia. Bussa wey born free man for West Africa, maybe Igbo pikin, dem catch am by African slave traders, sell am go Britain, transport am go Barbados (wey slavery don dey legal since 1661) for late 18th century as slave. C Charlotte Aïssé Cezayirli Gazi Hasan Pasha statue for Mersin Naval Museum Caenis, na woman wey don suffer as slave, she be secretary for Antonia Minor (emperor Claudius mama) plus Vespasian wey be Roman emperor. Caesar (c. 1737–1852), na di last slave wey fit get freedom for New York. E reach supercentenarian level, plus fit be di first person wey dem snap while dem dey alive in 1851. Caesar Nero Paul (c. 1741–1823), as small pikin, dem carry am from Africa come Exeter, New Hampshire, but e get freedom, start big New England family wey dey fight against slavery. Pope Callixtus I (died 223), na man wey don suffer as slave, pope from about 218 to about 223, during di time of Heliogabalus and Alexander Severus. Dem kill am for him Christian faith, now he be saint for Roman Catholic Church. Carlota (died 1844), she lead slave rebellion for Cuba for 1843–1844. Castus, na enslaved Gaul and one of di leaders for di Third Servile War wey get people wey dey fight for freedom. Catalina of Motril (fl. 1501–1531), she be bed servant for Catherine of Aragon when she marry Henry VIII for England. Cato (1786–1803), na man wey don suffer for Charleston, New York, wey kill twelve-year-old Mary Akins after e try rape am. Him confession show for di murder book of dat time. Cato, na African-American man wey serve as American Black Patriot spy and courier to gather info with him owner, Hercules Mulligan. Celia (died 1855), na woman wey dem catch and kill for di murder of Robert Newsom, her enslaver. During di trial, John Jameson argue say she kill am for self-defense to stop am from raping her. Cesar Picton (c. 1765–1831), na slave wey start for Senegal, later work as servant for England, come get money as coal merchant. Cevri Kalfa, one Georgian girl wey e dey for sultan harem for Istanbul, wey save Mahmud II life. Dem reward am wit big position haznedar usta, wey be chief treasurer for the imperial Harem. Cezayirli Gazi Hasan Pasha (1713–1790) na Georgian wey dem enslave for Ottoman Empire, wey rise become grand vizier, Kapudan Pasha, and army boss. Charity Folks (1757–1834), American slave wey born for Annapolis, Maryland, release from slavery for 1797 and later become property owner. Charles Deslondes, Haitian mulatto wey dey oversee other slaves for André plantation and leader of 1811 German Coast Uprising for Louisiana. Dem kill am terribly by the militia wey suppress the slave revolt. Charlotte Aïssé, (c. 1694–1733), French letter-writer, daughter of one Circassian chief, wey suffer for Ottoman Black Sea slave trade. Charlotte Dupuy (c. 1787/1790–c. 1866), wey dem dey call Lottie, file freedom suit for 1829 against her enslaver, Henry Clay, wey be Secretary of State, but she lose. Chica da Silva (c. 1732–1796), wey dem sabi as Xica da Silva, Brazilian courtesan wey become rich and powerful even though she born into slavery. Chloe Cooley (fl. 1793), wey dey enslave for Canada, her violent treatment and transport to US make Upper Canada pass 1793 Act Against Slavery. Christopher Shields (born 1774) na George Washington slave wey he keep am for Mount Vernon. The place wey he die and the year wey e happen no dey clear. Christophorus Plato Castanis, (born 1814) na runaway Greek slave from Chios. He journey come US with Samuel Gridley Howe and John Celivergos Zachos. Castanis be Greek-American author and lecturer. Çiçek Hatun (fl. 1453) na Greek girl wey dem capture when Constantinople fall and put as one of the concubine for Sultan Mehmet II harem. Clara Brown (around 1800–1885), she be one woman wey dem don enslave for Virginia. She come be community leader, give back for people wey don free during Colorado Gold Rush. Claudia Acte (1st century), na mistress for Roman emperor Nero. Pope Clement I (wey die for 100), na di fourth Pope for Catholic tradition. E fit dey freedman for Titus Flavius Clemens. Cleon (die 132 BC) na leader for di First Servile War. Colonel Tye (1753–1780), wey dem dey call Titus Cornelius, him don free, come be Black Loyalist soldier and guerrilla leader for di American Revolution. Crixus, na Gallic gladiator and military leader for di Third Servile War. Cudjoe Lewis (around 1840–1935), wey originally be Oluale Kossola, na di third-to-last survivor of di Transatlantic slave trade for USA. Dem carry am go di slave ship Clotilda. Cuffy (die 1763), na Akan man wey dem capture for him own West Africa, carry am go work for di plantations of di Dutch colony for Berbice wey dey Guyana today, and for 1763, him lead revolt wey get more than 2,500 slaves against di colonial regime. Today, him na national hero for Guyana. D Dred Scott wey no fit win im case for im freedom for United States Supreme Court for 1857. Dabitum, woman wey dem enslave for Old Babylonia wey sabi write letter about miscarriage. Daniel Bell (around 1802–1877) wey try for years make e and im family fit enjoy freedom. E help organize one big escape plan wey dem call "the Pearl incident" for Washington, D.C., for 1848. Dada Masiti (around 1810s–15 July 1919) poet, mystic and Islamic scholar. Dave Drake (around 1801–1876), wey people sabi am as Dave the Potter. Deborah Squash and im husband Harvey wey escape from George Washington Mount Vernon, join British for New York during American Revolutionary War, and dem carry dem go free in 1783. Denmark Vesey (around 1767–1822), one enslaved African-American man wey plan one big slave rebellion for United States wey dem leak the plans before e go happen. Dido Elizabeth Belle (1761–1804), wey born into slavery as the daughter of Maria Belle, one enslaved African woman for West Indies, and Sir John Lindsay, one Navy officer. Lindsay carry Belle go England for 1765, give im uncle William Murray, 1st Earl of Mansfield, and im wife Elizabeth to take care of am. Dem educate Belle, raise am as free gentlewoman for their Kenwood House with their niece, Lady Elizabeth Murray. Belle stay there for 30 years. For im will for 1793, Lord Mansfield confirm im freedom and give am money and annuity, make Belle heiress. Diego be one freedman wey dem don enslave before, and e dey close with di Elizabethan navigator Francis Drake. For March 1573, Drake raid Darien (for today Panama) and Maroons help am well – dem be Africans wey don run from Spanish slave owners and dem glad to help their English enemies. One of dem na Diego, wey sabi build ship well, and e follow Drake go England. For 1577, Queen Elizabeth send Drake make e start journey against di Spanish for di Pacific coast fit America – wey later turn as Drake waka go round di world – Diego again dey work under Drake; him sabi Spanish and English well well, so he fit be good interpreter when dem catch Spaniard or Portuguese wey dey speak Spanish. E be Drake's servant and dem dey pay am like di rest of di crew. Diego die while Drake ship dey cross di Pacific, wounds wey e get earlier for di journey. Drake dey feel bad for him death, as Diego don become him good friend. Diogenes of Sinope (c. 412–323 BCE), Greek philosopher wey pirates carry away and sell for Corinth. Diocletian (244–312), Emperor of Rome, some people talk say e born as slave of Senator Anullinus. Other talk say na Diocletian papa (we no sabi im name) wey be slave and free before him son, di future emperor, born. Dionysius I (die 1492), Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, dem don enslave am by di Ottomans after di Fall of Constantinople for 1453. Dolly Johnson (born late 1820s, die after 1887), African-American woman from Tennessee, wey President Andrew Johnson don enslave, later become small small-business owner. Dorota Sitańska (die after 1797), Polish serf and Royal Ballet Dancer, wey dem donate to di king of Poland by will and testament. Dred Scott (around 1799–1858), na one enslaved African-American guy wey dey Missouri wey carry case go court make e fit get freedom for one big trial, Scott v. Sandford, wey reach U.S. Supreme Court for 1857. E Florence, Lady Baker around 1875. Na Romanian wey dem enslave as orphan, Samuel Baker buy am, later marry am. Edward Mozingo Sr., (about 1649–1712), dem kidnap am from Africa when e dey like 10 years, sell am for slavery for Jamestown, Virginia. After e owner die, he sue for im freedom and win am. E marry poor white woman, Margaret Pierce Bayley (1645–1711) and together dem be dem wey start the Mozingo family for North America. Elijah Abel (1808–1884), wey born enslave for Maryland, people believe say e escape from slavery enter Underground Railroad go Canada. He join Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints early, na him dey among the first black wey get priesthood and the first black wey rise to elder and seventy rank. Elizabeth Marsh (1735–1785), na English woman wey corsairs capture and hold for slavery for Morocco. Edith Hern Fossett, na woman wey U.S. President Thomas Jefferson enslave, dem teach am to cook by French chef wey create French food for White House and Monticello. Elias Polk (1806–1886), na conservative political activist from 19th century. Eliezer of Damascus, na Abraham slave and trusted manager for im house in Hebrew Bible. Elieser be man wey dem enslave by Paulo de Pina family, Portuguese Jews wey move go Netherlands for 1610 to escape wahala and forced conversion for Portugal. E dey stay with the family for Amsterdam till e die for 1629, dem bury am for Beth Haim cemetery, wey be the oldest Jewish cemetery for Netherlands. E appear say dem don free am, whether officially or in practice, and e dey near equal level with the family wey own am for Portugal – show by fact say e attend the funeral of im master wife, Sara de Pina, and contribute six stuivers, and dem bury am alongside im (former) owners and Jacob Israel Belmonte, wey be the richest man for the community. Elieser don convert to Judaism and dem accept am as Jewish, true true if not, he for no dey buried for Jewish cemetery; dem fit give am the name 'Elieser' when dem convert am, e dey bring Eliezer from Damascus mind. Recently, members of Surinamese community for Netherlands don carry Elieser memory go high, dem put statue for am and dey do yearly pilgrimage go his grave wey dem call Elieser Day. Elisenda de Sant Climent (1220–1275), dem enslave am during slave raid for Mallorca and carry am go emir harem for Tunis. Eliza Hopewell, woman wey dey under Confederates spy Isabella Maria Boyd ('Belle Boyd'). For 1862, she help her owner do spy work, carry message go Confederate Army inside watch case wey dem hollow. Eliza Moore (1843–1948), one of the last African-American former slaves wey dey live for United States. Elizabeth Johnson Forby, mixed-race American woman wey dem enslave under President Andrew Johnson, daughter of Dolly Johnson. Elizabeth Key Grinstead (1630–after 1665), na the first woman wey get African blood for North America wey go court for her freedom and win. Key and her small pikin, John Grinstead, come free on July 21, 1656 for Virginia because her papa be Englishman and she be baptized Christian. Elizabeth Freeman (c. 1742–1829), wey dem dey call Bett and later Mum Bett, na among the first enslaved black people for Massachusetts wey fit file freedom suit and win, based on 1780 constitution wey rule slavery illegal. Elizabeth Hobbs Keckley (1818–1907), wey be popular as personal modiste and close friend of Mary Todd Lincoln, First Lady of the United States. Keckley write and publish autobiography, Behind the Scenes: Or, Thirty Years a Slave and Four Years in the White House (1868). Ellen Craft (1826–1891), light-skin wife of William Craft, wey escape from Georgia to Philadelphia, by acting like white woman and her slave, case wey become popular. Ellen More, enslaved woman wey them carry go royal Scottish court. Emilia Soares de Patrocinio (1805–1886) na Brazilian slave, slave owner and businesswoman. Emiline (23 years); Nancy (20); Lewis, Nancy brother (16); Edward, Emiline brother (13); Lewis and Edward, sons of Nancy (7); Ann, daughter of Nancy (5); and Amanda, daughter of Emiline (2), dem free for 1852 Lemmon v. New York court case after dem bring dem go New York from Virginia. Emily Edmonson (1835–1895), with her sister Mary, try escape for 1848 wey dem call Pearl incident, but Henry Ward Beecher and him church gather money to free dem. Enrique of Malacca, wey dem dey call Henry the Black, na slave and interpreter for Ferdinand Magellan and maybe the first person wey waka round the globe for Magellan's trip of 1519–1521. Epictetus (55–c. 135), ancient Greek stoic philosopher. Estevanico (1500–1539), wey dem dey call Esteban the Moor. He be slave of the Portuguese first, then become servant of the Spaniards. He be one of the only four wey survive the bad Narváez expedition, later na guide for search of the fabled Seven Cities of Gold and maybe the first African wey reach wetin be Arizona and New Mexico today. Eston Hemings (1808–1856), son of Sally Hemings and Thomas Jefferson. Eucharis, na Greek wey dem free, born Roman Licinia, dem describe am for him epitaph for 1st century AD as fourteen when she die, child actress and professional dancer. Eunus (him die for 132 BC), na slave wey come from Apamea for Syria, and him be leader for slave wahala for First Servile War wey happen for Roman province of Sicily. Eunus sabi gree people as prophet and wonder-worker. Him dey claim say him dey see visions and dey communicate with goddess Atargatis, wey dey popular for him place; he even fit connect am to Sicilian Demeter. Some prophecies wey he drop na say di rebel slaves go fit capture di city of Enna and say one day, he go be king. Euphemia (him die for 520s), na Empress of Byzantine Empire because she marry Justin I, she be slave before. Euphraios, na Athenian slave and banker. Exuperius and Zoe (dem die for 127), na Christian martyrs for 2nd century. Dem be married couple wey slave master in Pamphylia enslave. Dem kill dem with their sons, Cyriacus and Theodolus, because dem no wan join pagan rites when dem pikin born. Florence Johnson Smith be mixed-race American babe wey President Andrew Johnson carry go enslave, she be Dolly Johnson pikin. Fountain Hughes (1848–1957), dem interview am for June 1949 about him life by Library of Congress as part of Federal Writers' Project. Francis Bok (wey born 1979), na Dinka slave from South Sudan, now him dey fight for freedom and be author for United States. Francis Jackson (wey born between 1815 and 1820), him dey free from birth, but dem kidnap am for 1850 and sell am into slavery. Him finally get freedom for 1855 when case Francis Jackson v. John W. Deshazer end. Francis James Grimké (1850–1937), him be minister. Francisco Menéndez, na man wey dem enslave for South Carolina but e run go Spanish Florida, wey e serve for Spanish militia, even lead the garrison wey dem set for 1738 for Fort Mose. This place be the first legal free black community for wetin we dey call United States now. François Mackandal (wey die 1758), na Haitian Maroon leader. Frederick Douglass (1818–1895), him born for slavery for Maryland and run go Northeast for 1838, where e turn big-time abolitionist writer, speaker, and diplomat. Fyodor Slavyansky (1817–1876), na Russian serf painter. G Medical photo wey show Gordon back wey dem whip, plenty abolitionists dey share am to show how slavery dey be bad. Portrait of Gülnuş Sultan Gabriel Prosser (1776–1800), leader wey lead Virginia slave revolt. Gaius Furius Chresimus, ancient Roman. As him free man, e produce crops from him small farm wey people accuse am say him dey witch other people crop, but when him bring him farm tools for court, dem free am. Pliny the Elder talk say him story na proof say hard work be wetin matter for farming. Galatian de Sesse (16th century), knight from Aragon wey dey work for hospital and be Governor of Gozo wey dem enslave during 1551 Ottoman attack, e spend five years as galley slave before dem pay ransom and free am. Galeria Lysistrate (2nd century), mistress of Roman emperor Antoninus Pius. Ganga Zumba or Ganazumba (c. 1630–1678), one descendant of unknown Kongo king wey run away from slavery for Brazilian colonial and be first leader of runaway slave settlement wey be Quilombo dos Palmares. Gannicus, enslaved Celt wey be one of the leaders of rebel slaves during Third Servile War. Garafilia Mohalbi (1817–1830), Greek slave wey American merchant rescue and carry go Boston. She die young and inspire big art movement. Genghis Khan (c. 1162–1227), dem capture am after raid and make am slave for Taichiud. George Africanus (1763–1834), enslaved African man from Sierra Leone wey become successful businessman for Nottingham. George Edward Doney (1758–1809), Gambian man wey William Capell, 4th Earl of Essex enslave. George Colvocoresses (1816–1872), from Chios, Greece, come America come be captain for U.S. Navy, but small small dem carry am put for slavery when e be pikin. Colvos Passage dey named after am. George Freeman Bragg (1863–1940), wey born for slavery for North Carolina, later turn big Episcopal priest and social activist. George Lewis (1794–1811), wey dem dey call Slave George, na enslaved guy wey dem kill for Kentucky night of December 15–16, 1811. George Moses Horton (1797–1884), na di first African-American author; him first poetry book publish for North Carolina. George Washington Carver (c. 1864–1943), na African-American scientist, botanist, educator and inventor wey sabi to promote other crops like sweet potatoes and peanuts for South; him born for slavery for Missouri but dem free am as small pikin after American Civil War. George Griffin (1849–1897), born for slavery for Maryland but later dem free am; him be close person to Mark Twain. George W. Hayes (1847–1933), na court crier and politician for Ohio, mixed African American and Native American background, dem carry am put for slavery early for him life. Gerónimo de Aguilar (1489–1531), na Franciscan friar wey waka go Yucatán Peninsula for 1511 but dem shipwreck am and dem carry am for slavery by Mayans. Gosala, one ascetic teacher from ancient India – wey dey live same time (and dey compete) with Gautama Buddha – people talk say him born for slavery, and he become naked ascetic after him run from him bad captor, wey catch him cloth before e run. Gonzalo Guerrero (died 1536), na sailor from Palos, Spain, wey shipwreck for Yucatán Peninsula for 1511 and dem carry am for slavery by di local Maya. Gordon, wey dem dey call Whipped Peter, na enslaved African-American wey escape come Union Army camp from plantation near Baton Rouge, Louisiana for 1863. Di pictures wey dem take of Gordon back wey dem beat during medical check, dem publish am for Harper's Weekly, e show Northerners di wahala wey slavery dey cause. E make plenty free blacks want join di Union Army. Gülnuş Sultan (1642–1715) na Haseki Sultan for Ottoman Sultan Mehmed IV and Valide sultan for dia pikin Mustafa II and Ahmed III. Guðríður Símonardóttir (1598–1682) na Iceland woman wey some North African slavers (Barbary Pirates) carry go. Gustav Badin (wey die for 1822) na servant for royal Swedish court, originally na Danish slave. H Hurrem Sultan, be Eastern European slave girl wey Ottoman sultan Süleyman the Magnificent buy, marry am. Hababah, concubine of Caliph Yazid II. Hagar, biblical figure, Sarah own. Hannah Bond (weh dey born for 1830s), pen name Hannah Crafts, write The Bondwoman's Narrative after she gain freedom. E fit be di first novel wey African-American woman write, na di only novel wey woman wey run from slavery don write. Hark Olufs (1708–1754), Danish sailor, dem capture am by Algerian pirates. Dem sell am to di Bey of Constantine, and him become Commander in Chief for di Bey's cavalry. Dem release am for 1735. Harriet Balfour (c. 1818–1858), Surinam-born enslaved woman wey free for 1841 and move go Scotland. Harriet Evans Paine, (c. 1822–1917), Texas enslaved woman and later oral historian and storyteller. Harriet Hemings (1801–after 1822), daughter of Sally Hemings and Thomas Jefferson. Harriet Jacobs (1813–1897), author of Incidents in di Life of a Slave Girl. Harriet Powers (1837–1910), American folk artist, and quilter. Harriet Tubman (c. 1822–1913), dem dey call am 'Moses' because of di work wey she dey do to help other American slaves escape through di Underground Railroad. Harry, di plaintiff for di 1818 Harry v. Decker & Hopkins case wey di Supreme Court of Mississippi decide to free person from slavery just because him dey stay for free land. Harry Washington (wey die for 1800), dem dey call am Henry Washington, be slave wey George Washington dey own. Dem transport am go America as slave, and Washington buy am for 1763 to work on project wey go drain di Great Dismal Swamp. Hafsa Sultan (she die March 1534), na Selim I wife and di first real sultan of Ottoman Empire as Suleiman di Magnificent mama. Pipo sabi her background matter dey confuse, but some historians talk say she be slave. Helen Gloag (1750–1790), from Muthill, Perthshire, Scotland, become di Empress of Morocco as di harem slave for Morocco sultan. Henry Bibb (1815–1854), American writer and abolitionist wey born as slave. After e run come out from slavery to British Upper Canada, he start newspaper wey dey call The Voice of the Fugitive. E later come back to U.S. come dey lecture against slavery. Henry Highland Garnet (1815–1882), wey born African-American slave for Maryland, run from slavery for 1824, come become abolitionist and teacher. Hercules (born c. 1755), na di head cook wey George Washington enslave for him plantation, Mount Vernon. E run come gain him freedom for 1797, but him wife Alice and him three pikin still dey enslave. Hermas, wey write di book The Shepherd of Hermas and na Pope Pius I brother. Hernando de Escalante Fontaneda, been born for Cartagena, but e don dey enslave at 13 when di ship wey carry am go Spain for school sink for Florida. Calusa chief take am as slave and use am as translator until dem free am at 30. Horace King (1807–1885), American architect, engineer, and bridge builder, born into slavery for South Carolina plantation. Hümaşah Sultan (fl. 1647–1672) na di wife of Sultan Ibrahim for Ottoman Empire. Hurrem Sultan (c. 1504–1558), wey dem sabi as Roxelana, be Eastern European girl wey slave traders capture and sell to di Imperial Harem, become di chief consort and legal wife of Ottoman sultan Süleyman di Magnificent. Halime Sultan (about 1570–after 1639) be Valide Sultan wey dey rule alongside Ottoman Empire. Handan Sultan (about 1568–1605) too be Valide Sultan and her dey act as regent for the Ottomans. I İbrahim Pasha Ivan Argunov. Self-portrait (late 1750s). İbrahim Pasha (about 1495 – 1536), na first Grand Vizier wey Suleiman the Magnificent appoint. E be Greek by birth, at six years old, dem sell am as slave to Ottoman palace for future sultans, where e meet Suleiman wey dey same age. Icelus Marcianus, na slave and later free guy for Roman emperor Galba for 1st century CE. E be one of three men wey dey control the emperor well well, make Galba no dey popular. Ida B. Wells (1862–1931), na big African-American activist wey born into slavery, but later she dey fight against lynching and fit cancel am. For 1909, she co-found National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). Imma, na Northumbrian noble wey knock for battle and later sabi act like peasant, so say captors no go kill am. Him behavior show say him no be real peasant, and dem sell am into slavery. Isabel de Solís (fl. 1485), na enslaved Castilian concubine for Abu l-Hasan Ali, Sultan of Granada. Isabella Gibbons (1826–1890), become schoolteacher for Virginia after dem liberate am for 1865. Isfandíyár, na enslaved servant for Bahá'u'lláh's house for Tehran, Isfandíyár die for Mazandaran. Israel Jefferson (about 1800–after 1873), wey people sabi as Israel Gillette before 1844, born into slavery for Monticello, Thomas Jefferson estate, and work as domestic servant near Jefferson for many years. Ivan Bolotnikov (1565–1608), na fugitive kholop (enslaved for Russia) and leader of Bolotnikov rebellion for 1606–1607. Ivan Argunov (1729–1802), na Russian serf painter, one of the founders of Russian school of portrait painting. J Jean Parisot de Valette St. Josephine Margaret Bakhita, F.D.C.C. Jack Gladstone, di leader wey lead di Demerara rebellion for 1823. Jackey Wright, na enslaved American woman wey sue for im freedom for di popular 1806 Virginia case, Hudgins v. Wright. Di Virginia Supreme Court talk say Wright look white and Native American, but di lower court under George Wythe dey try arrange say everybody fit be free, no matter di race. Jacob Notaras (fl. 1453), na Byzantine nobleman wey dem carry as slave by Sultan Mehmed di Conqueror when Constantinople fall. Jaja of Opobo (1821–1891), dem sell am around age 12 as slave for di Kingdom of Bonny wey dey Nigeria now. From young, di guy don show say e sabi business, so e find im way come out from slavery, become rich merchant prince and start di Opobo city-state, but British colonizers wey e wan challenge come end im career. James Armistead Lafayette (1760–1830), na enslaved African-American man wey serve di Continental Army for di American Revolutionary War as double agent. James Baugh, na enslaved American wey sue for im freedom because im mama granmama na Indian. James Hemings (1765–1801), na mixed-race American wey dem enslave later free am by Thomas Jefferson. E be di older brother of Sally Hemings and half-brother of Jefferson wife, Martha Wayles Skelton Jefferson, through dia papa John Wayles. James Leander Cathcart (1767–1843), diplomat and sailor wey sabi tell story about 11 years wey e dey enslave for Algiers and e do some big diplomatic work while for slavery. James Poovey (born c. 1769), Philadelphian wey dem enslave am from birth, but e find freedom through peaceful resistance. James M. Priest (1819–1883), 6th Vice President of Liberia, wey born inside slavery for Kentucky. James Somersett, man wey dey enslave for colonial America, escape for England in 1771 with help of Beta British people, wey lead to the big case Somerset v Stewart, wey change the slavery matter for Britain, but not for dem colonies. James W. C. Pennington (c. 1807–1870), African-American writer and abolitionist. Jan Ernst Matzeliger (1852–1889), Surinamese-American wey invent shoe making. Jane Johnson (1814/1827–1872), she gain freedom on July 18, 1855, with her two small pikin while dem dey Philadelphia with her owner. William Still and Passmore Williamson help am, dem be abolitionists for Pennsylvania Anti-Slavery Society. Jean Amilcar (c. 1781–1793), Senegalese son of Marie Antoinette. Jean-Jacques Dessalines (1758–1806), leader of Haitian Revolution and first leader of independent Haiti. Jean Marteilhe (1684–1777), French Huguenot wey be slave narrator, him be galley slave. Jean Saint Malo (died 1784), leader of runaway slaves (maroon colony) for Spanish Louisiana and he name dey for Saint Malo, Louisiana. Jean Parisot de Valette (1495–1568), knight of the Order of Saint John, wey dem capture and make galley slave for 1541 by Barbary pirates. After about one year, dem free am and him later become Grandmaster of the Order. Jefferson F. Long (1836–1901), first former slave wey serve for United States Congress and first African American wey represent Georgia for Congress. Jeffrey Hudson (1619–c. 1682), na English court guy wey spend 25 years for North Africa as slave. Jehan Alard (fl. 1580), na French Huguenot wey dey serve as galley slave for Italy, dem catch am for Inquisition. Jehu Grant (c. 1752–1840), na veteran from Revolutionary War. Jeremiah Haralson (1846–Unknown), na former slave and politician wey represent Alabama for House of Representatives during 44th Congress. Jermain Wesley Loguen (1813–1872), na African-American wey run away from slavery, be abolitionist, bishop of the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church, and e write slave narrative. Jim Cuff or Jim Crow be physically disabled African man wey people talk say e fit dey St. Louis, Cincinnati, or Pittsburgh, e song and dance inspire the blackface song 'Jump Jim Crow' wey white comedian Thomas D. Rice bring come. Rice popular creation make Jim Crow turn bad name for blacks, later dem use am for dem segregation laws. Jim Henson, na African wey escape slavery and publish im memoirs, Broken Shackles, for Canada. Joana da Gama (c. 1520–1586), na Portuguese maid-of-honor and writer. Joe, na man wey William B. Travis, one of the Texian commanders for Battle of Alamo enslaved. After dem lose, Mexican General Santa Anna spare Joe, hoping say e go fit convince other slaves for Texas to support Mexican government instead of Texian rebels. After that, Joe and some survivors go Gonzales, dem encourage dem to talk about the battle and tell Texian forces say Santa Anna army no fit beat. John Axouch (1087–1150), na Seljuk Turk wey dem capture as pikin by Byzantine Empire, dem free am and raise am for di imperial house as John II Komnenos wey go be emperor future friend. When him take over, dem put am for di army command and e be di emperor only close pal and confidant. John Boston (c. 1832–after 1880), na former slave wey dey represent Darlington County for South Carolina House during di Reconstruction era. Him dey involved for community work and, as minister, him start di Lamar Colored Methodist Church for 1865. By 1880, him don turn farmer. John 'Lit' Fleming, born for slavery for Virginia but later move go Edmundson, Arkansas with him papa and siblings. E go move go Memphis, Tennessee, and be part owner of di newspaper Memphis Free Speech with activist Ida B. Wells-Barnett. John Munroe Brazealle, with him mama, dem case dey Hinds v. Brazealle (1838), for di Supreme Court of Mississippi, wey deny di legality and inheritance rights for Mississippi for manumission wey Elisha Brazealle, wey dey Ohio, do to free dem. John Brown (c. 1810–1876), wey escape and write about di conditions for di Deep South of United States. John Casor, na di first person wey dey enslaved as result of civil case for di Thirteen Colonies (Virginia Colony, 1655). John Ezzidio (c. 1810–1872), na enslaved Nigerian man wey turn successful politician and businessman for Sierra Leone. John Adams Hyman (1840-1891), na former slave and politician wey serve for di North Carolina Senate and later be di first African American to represent di state for Congress. John Jea (born 1773), na enslaved African-American man wey popular for him 1811 autobiography, The Life, History, and Unparalleled Sufferings of John Jea, di African Preacher. John Joyce wey dem born am for slavery for Maryland, serve for United States Navy, do plenty work after, and kill shopkeeper, Sarah Cross; him life and crime dey for murder stories wey dem dey talk for him time. John R. Jewitt (1783–1821), small English man wey dey make armor, spend three years as prisoner for Maquinna of the Nuu-chah-nulth people for Pacific coast wey dey for Canada now. John R. Lynch (1847–1939), former slave and politician wey serve for Mississippi House of Representatives, be the first African American wey lead state legislative chamber. Later he go serve for United States House of Representatives and write The Facts of Reconstruction to answer dem wey dey talk bad about Reconstruction time policies. John Punch (fl. 1630s, live 1640), na enslaved African man wey dey for Virginia Colony for 17th century. For July 1640, Virginia Governor's Council punish am to serve for him whole life because e run go Maryland. Historians dey call Punch the 'first official slave for the English colonies,' and him case na the 'first time dem make slavery forever for the Chesapeake.' Historians also sabi say this one be the first legal line wey dem draw between Europeans and Africans for the colony, and na important step for slavery matter for United States. John S. Jacobs (1815–1873), wey dem born into slavery for North Carolina, escape, become abolitionist speaker and write slave memoir. Him be brother of famous author Harriet Jacobs. John Smith (1580–1631), English soldier, sailor, and author wey everybody sabi for him role wey help Jamestown colony survive for Virginia. Smith dey captured by Crimean Tatars for 1602 while him dey fight for Wallachia and dem make am slave for Ottoman Empire, but him escape come England by 1604. As Smith talk am: 'we all dey sell for slaves, like goat for market-place.' Jordan Anderson (1825–1907), wey people sabi well well for di letter wey he gree send to im old master when dem call am make he come back to serve dem. Jordan Winston Early (1814–after 1894) na American Methodist preacher wey get different blood, and dem write book about im life as slave. John White, na black boy wey Creeks capture for 1797, but he escape come back New Orleans, only to find Spanish people don carry am go back to slavery. John Ystumllyn, wey dem dey call Jac Du or Jack Black, na 18th-century Welsh gardener, di first Black person wey record well for North Wales. Jonathan Strong, na di person wey dem dey talk about one of di first legal cases wey concern slavery for Britain. José Antonio Aponte, na di leader of Aponte conspiracy. Joseph, na important person for Old Testament and Quran. Joseph Antonio Emidy (1775–1835), violinist wey born for Africa, die for Cornwall. Joseph Cinqué (1814–1879), wey dem know as Sengbe Pieh, na di leader of slave rebellion for di slave ship La Amistad and di case wey follow for Supreme Court, United States v. Amistad for 1839. Joseph Jackson Fuller (1825–1908), one of di earliest slaves wey gree free for Jamaica, at first under di partial freedoms of 1833 Slavery Abolition Act. Joseph Knight, wey succeed find im freedom through court case for Scotland in 1777, case wey make Scots law no go support slavery. Josephine Bakhita (c. 1869–1947), Sudanese-born Roman Catholic Canossian nun and saint. Joshua Glover, na fugitive wey slavery people chase am but abolitionists help am for Racine, Wisconsin in 1854. Josiah T. Walls (c. 1842–1905), former slave wey turn politician wey don serve for di two chambers of Florida State Legislature, na di first African American wey represent di state for Congress. Juan de Pareja (1606–1670), man wey Spanish artist Diego Velázquez enslave am. Velázquez teach am how to paint and free am for 1650. Juan Francisco Manzano (c. 1797–1854), Cuban poet. Juan Gros, free black soldier wey Upper Creek catch near Pensacola, sell am to white trader wey carry am go sell to Mitasuki chief Kinache, wey Spanish people come pay ransom for am. Juan Latino, dem dey call am "el negro Juan Latino", from Ethiopia, dem carry am go Spain when e small, e go school and become Latin professor for University of Granada, 16th-century Spain. Juan Ortiz, young nobleman from Andalucía wey Chief Ucita enslave for Florida to take revenge for wetin happen to am during the expedition. Juan Valiente (died 1553), black African slave wey get chance to be conquistador. E die during the battle of Tucapel against Mapuche people for Chile. Juana Ramírez (1790–1856), rebel soldier and heroine for Venezuelan War of Independence. Julia Chinn, enslave woman wey be octoroon and common-law wife to Richard Mentor Johnson, 9th Vice President of the United States. Julia Frances Lewis, mama to Amanda American Dickson through her owner’s son. Juliana, Guaraní woman from Paraguay, wey famous for kill her Spanish enslaver between 1538 and 1542 and encourage other women to do same. Julius Soubise (1754–1798) be freed Afro-Caribbean slave wey become popular fop for late eighteenth-century Britain. Julius Zoilos, enslave by Julius Caesar. After him get freedom, e shine for him city Aphrodisias after Caesar die. Jupiter Hammon (1711–before 1806), for 1761, become the first African-American writer wey dem publish for the present-day United States. Born for slavery, Hammon never get freedom. Dem dey consider am one of the founders of African-American literature. K Kösem Sultan (1589–1651), na slave concubine just like all di other pipo wey dey di Imperial Harem. Kunta Kinte (c. 1750–c. 1822), na character from di 1976 novel Roots: Di Saga of an American Family wey author Alex Haley base on one of him real ancestors. Kinte be man wey dey come from di Mandinka pipo, he grow for small village wey dem dey call Juffure for wetin we sabi as The Gambia, and dem raise am as Muslim before dem capture am and turn am slave for Virginia. Di historical accuracy of Haley's story get debate. Kodjo (c. 1803–1833), na Surinamese slave wey dem burn alive fit start di 1832 fire for Paramaribo, Dutch Suriname, maybe as way to show resistance. Kösem Sultan (1589–1651), na Ottoman enslaved woman, wey later become very powerful as wife, then mother and later grandmother of di Ottoman sultan during di 130-year wey dem dey call di Sultanate of Women. L Laurens de Graaf Lalla Balqis (1670–after 1721), na English woman wey dem capture and turn slave by Corsairs, dem include am for di harem of di Sultan of Morocco. Lamhatty, na Tawasa Indian wey dem capture and enslave by Creek; him escape. Lampegia (die after 730), Aquitanian noblewoman, wey Abd al-Rahman ibn Abd Allah al-Ghafiqi capture, wey in 730 take di Llivia Fortress, kill her husband Munuza and send her go as slave for di harem of Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik for Damascus. La Mulâtresse Solitude (1772–1802), na slave for di island of Guadeloupe wey dem free in 1794 when dem abolish slavery during di French Revolution. Dem execute am after she fight for freedom when slavery come back because Napoleon in 1802. Laurens de Graaf (c. 1653–1704), na Dutch pirate, mercenary, and naval officer, wey dem enslave by Spanish slave traders when dem capture am for wetin we dey call Netherlands, and dem carry am go di Canary Islands to work for plantation before 1674. Lear Green (around 1839–1860), one African-American woman from Maryland wey run go freedom for New York by fitting inside box make dem carry am. Leo Africanus (1494–1554), one Moor wey born for Granada, dem carry am go Morocco in 1498 because of Spanish wahala. As adult, he dey do diplomatic work. Crusaders catch am for Middle East, dem carry am go Rome make he be slave and convert to Christianity. Later, he get him freedom back and live him life for Tunis. Leofgifu, wey be dairy maid, na one enslaved woman for Anglo-Saxon England, dem mention am for her freedom paper. Leoflaed, another enslaved woman for Anglo-Saxon England, man buy her freedom wey describe her as “kinswoman.” Leonor de Mendoza, enslaved woman for colonial Mexico wey wan marry Tomás Ortega wey be slave for another master; when her master put Tomás for prison, she go church court beg make dem help, dem even threaten say if him no free Tomás, e go fit face excommunication. Letitia Munson (around 1820–after 1882), na midwife wey don come out from slavery, dem don free her for doing illegal abortion for Canada. Lewis Adams (1842–1905), man wey don free from slavery, wey co-found Tuskegee Institute, now Tuskegee University for Alabama. Lewis Hayden (1811–1889), na African-American man from Kentucky, later dem elect am for Massachusetts General Court. Lilliam Williams, settler from Tennessee wey Creek catch while she dey pregnant. Creek adopt her pikin (wey she name Molly and dem name Esnahatchee); dem keep the girl when Williams arrange her freedom. Liol, one Chinese man wey dem carry as slave by Mongol bannerman Soosar. E get semi-independent status for dem. In 1735, him pikin Fuji try claim say him and him brother be Manchus but e no work. Lorenzo de Apapis (around 1501–1586), priest and notary from Gozitan wey dey slavery during 1551 Ottoman attack for Gozo. Dem ransom am and free am by 1553. Lott Cary (about 1780–1828), wey dem born am as African-American slave for Virginia, buy im freedom around 1813, move go Liberia for 1822, where e serve as colonial administrator.[1] Louis Hughes (1832–1913), African-American man wey run away from slavery, author, and businessman.[2] Lovisa von Burghausen (1698–1733), Swedish writer wey publish story of how dem enslave am for Russia after dem capture am during the Great Northern War. Lucius Agermus, freedman of Agrippina the Elder.[3] Lucius Aurelius Hermia, freedman butcher wey his tombstone dey praise im marriage with his fellow freedwoman Aurelia Philematium.[4] Lucius Cancrius Primigenius, freedman of Clemens for one inscription wey dey thank am for breaking spells wey dey affect the city.[5] Lucius of Campione, wey lose lawsuit for 8th century about man Toto wey claim ownership of am.[6] Lucy, di black woman wey John Lang enslave. Dem capture her by di Creek wen she dey 12 years and keep her as slave for Creek land, where she born slave children and grandchildren.[7] Lucy Ann (Berry) Delaney (1830–1891), former enslaved woman, daughter of Polly Berry. Lucy Higgs Nichols (1838–1915), wey escape slavery, serve as nurse for di Civil War, member of di Grand Army of di Republic. Lucy Terry (about 1733–1821), dem kidnap her for Africa and enslave her, dem carry am go British colony of Rhode Island. She later gain freedom and become poet. Luís Gama (1830–1882), wey born free for Brazil, illegally sell am into slavery as pikin, he regain freedom as adult and become lawyer wey free plenty people from slavery without asking for money, especially for di Netto Case. Lunsford Lane (1803–after 1870), na enslaved African-American guy wey dey North Carolina wey buy him freedom and him family too. Him write one slave story. Lyde, na woman wey dem free from slavery by Roman empress Livia. Lydia, na woman wey dem shoot when she try run away from her captor wey dey whip am. Supreme Court of North Carolina talk say na legal in 1830 (check North Carolina v. Mann). Lydia Carter, dey call am 'Little Osage Captive,' dem catch am among Cherokee. Na Lydia Carter go pay money come free am and she name her. Osage try take am back, but she fall sick and die. Lydia Polite, na mother of Robert Smalls. M Mikhail Shchepkin Macuncuzade Mustafa Efendi (wey born around 1550s), na Ottoman qadi and poet wey suffer for slavery for Malta after di ship wey e dey waka for capture by di Knights Hospitaller for 1597. Dem release am for 1600, and e write story about im captivity. Madison Hemings (1805–1877), na di pikin of Sally Hemings and Thomas Jefferson. Mae Louise Miller (1943–2014), American woman wey dey live for modern slavery (peonage) till 1961. Malgarida (wey born around 1488), black African woman and boyfriend of di conquistador Diego de Almagro. For 1536, she be di first non-indigenous woman wey enter di land wey we call Chile today. Malik Ambar, wey born for 1548 as Chapu, na im birth-name for Harar, Adal Sultanate wey dey Ethiopia today. Im come from di Maya ethnic group wey don disappear. As small pikin, im parents sell am for slavery. Mir Qasim Al Baghdadi, one of di people wey own am, convert Chapu come Islam and give am di name Ambar, after e sabi sey di boy get sharp brain. Malik waka go India as slave. For India, e create mercenary group wey reach 1500 men. Di group dey for di Deccan region and local kings dey hire dem. Malik become popular Prime Minister for Ahmadnagar Sultanate, show sey e sabi how to manage. E also dey regarded as pacesetter for guerilla warfare for di area. Dem dey credit am with managing tax collection for plenty for di Deccan, wey set di ground for future collections. Di Siddis of Gujarat dey respect am well. E match di strength of di Mughals and Adil Shah of Bijapur, lift di low status of di Nizam Shah. Margaret Himfi (before 1380–after 1408), na Hungarian woman wey dem carry go enslave by Ottoman bad guys for late 14th century. She later become slave mistress for one rich Venetian man for Crete, wey she born two daughters for. Margaret manage come back to Hungary for 1405. Margaret Morgan dey involved for Prigg v. Pennsylvania case wey United States Supreme Court rule say federal Fugitive Slave Act no go allow Pennsylvania law wey stop blacks from chop dey carry dem go slavery, an dem clear Edward Prigg case because of dat. Marguerite Duplessis (c. 1718–after 1740) na Pawnee woman wey dem enslave for Montreal wey, for 1740, try sue for her freedom but e no work. Marguerite Scypion (c. 1770s–after 1836) na African-Natchez woman wey born for slavery for St. Louis wey go sue for her freedom and eventually win am. Maria al-Qibtiyya (died 637), wey dem dey call “Maria the Copt” or sometimes Maria Qupthiya, na Copt woman wey dem send give Muhammad as gift from Muqawqis, one Byzantine big man, for 628, an she become Muhammad concubine. She be mama to Muhammad son Ibrahim wey die for small pikin age. Her sister, Sirin, sef go meet Muhammad. Muhammad give am to him guy Hassan ibn Thabit. Maria die five years after Muhammad die for 632. Maria (died 1716), na leader for slave uprising for Curaçao. Maria Boguslavka (17th century), na Ukrainian woman wey dem enslave for harem, she start help 30 Cossacks run away from slavery. Maria Guyomar de Pinha (1664–1728), na royal chef from Siam wey get Japanese-Portuguese blood. Maria Perkins, na enslave woman from Virginia wey write letter to her husband for 1852 say dem don sell their son away. Maria ter Meetelen (1704–after 1751), na Dutch writer wey tell her own slave story, dem carry her go enslave by pirates and later sell am to Sultan of Morocco. Her 1748 biography na important witness statement about life of former slave. Mariah Bell Winder McGavock Otey Reddick (she die 1922), as she be small girl, dem give am as wedding gift to Carrie Winder when she marry John McGavock for 1848 inside Terrebonne Parish, Louisiana. Mariah wey born for Mississippi as enslaved person, dem carry am go Franklin, Tennessee, where she spend plenty of her life. Dem match her with Harvey Otey after him first wife Phebe die. Dem get plenty pikin, including two set of twins, wey born into slavery. When Civil War start, dem send her go Montgomery make she dey far from Union lines and possible freedom. She don appear for three novels: Widow of the South and Orphan Mother wey Robert Hicks write and also for book wey her great-grandson William 'Damani' Keene and him wife Carole 'Ife' Keene write titled Clandestine: The Times and Secret Life of Mariah Otey Reddick. Marianna Malińska (she die after 1797), Polish serf and Royal Ballet Dancer, dem donates am to king of Poland by will. Marie (she die 1759), enslaved Cree woman wey get death sentence for Trois-Rivières, New France. Marie-Cessette Dumas, woman wey Marquis Antoine de la Pailleterie enslaved, she be mama of General Thomas-Alexandre Dumas, and grandmother of famous author Alexandre Dumas, père. Marie-Josèphe dite Angélique (she die 1734), black Portuguese enslaved woman wey dem try and convict, beat and hang because she set fire to her woman owner house, wey burn plenty of wetin dem dey call Old Montreal now. Marie Thérèse Metoyer, na planter and businesswoman wey dey Natchitoches, Louisiana after dem free her. Mark, one man from Massachusetts wey dey enslaved by Captain John Codman. Mark body dey display for chains for public near Charlestown, Massachusetts for twenty years. That gruesome display of him body dey popular well-well for that time, and na the place wey dem display Mark body make Paul Revere mention am as landmark for him 1798 account of him 1775 midnight ride. Martha Ann Erskine Ricks (1817–1901), na African-American wey dey born enslave for Tennessee, later she become Americo-Liberian wey sabi quilt. Marthe Franceschini (1755–1799), na Italian wey dem capture and enslave by Corsairs, enter Sultan of Morocco harem. Mary, wey be George Washington Carver mama. Mary (wey die 1838), na teenager wey dem hang for murder wey she do to Vienna Brinker, two-year-old girl wey she dey take care of. Mary Black, one of three enslave women wey dem charge for witchcraft during Salem witch trials for 1692. Mary Calhoun, white woman and cousin of John C. Calhoun wey dem kidnap by Cherokee. She no fit come back home. Mary Edmonson (1832–1853), with her sister Emily, dem try escape for 1848 wey dem dey call Pearl incident, but Henry Ward Beecher and him church gather money help free dem. Mary Eliza Smith, dem dey call 'slave' or 'former slave,' na common-law wife of Michael Morris Healy and mama of him pikin dem, wey include James Augustine Healy, Patrick Francis Healy, Michael A. Healy, and Eliza Healy. Mary Fields (c. 1832–1914): she be first African-American female wey dey carry mail for United States star route. Mary Mildred Williams, Nee Botts (born 1847), na the original 'Poster Child' wey dem use her picture push abolitionist cause by dey spread 'White Slavery' for 1855. Mary Prince (c. 1788–after 1833), her life story motivate anti-slavery movement for England. The Master of Morton and e first son of Clan Oliphant Chief, two Scottish noble wey dem exile from Scotland after 1582 Raid of Ruthven. Dem ship wey dem travel with vanish for sea, and dem talk say na Dutch ship catch dem. Last report be say dem dey enslave for Turkish ship for Mediterranean. Dem raise plaque for church for Algiers to remember dem. Masúd, dem buy am when e be pikin from Khál-i Akbar, wey be Báb uncle, Masúd go serve Bahá'u'lláh for Acre. Matilda McCrear (around 1857–1940), last person wey survive for US wey gree say Transatlantic slave trade no easy. Dem carry am go for slave ship Clotilda. Mende Nazer (born around 1982), Nuba woman wey dem capture for Darfur carry am from Sudan go London, later she get refugee status and write book wey title Slave: My True Story (2002). Menecrates of Tralles, na Greek doctor wey dey for 1st century BC. Metaneira, woman for ancient Greece wey dem talk say na Nicarete property, wey dey sell am for body. Michael Shiner (1805–1880), en slaved laborer, painter entrepreneur, community leader and diary writer for Washington Navy Yard. Miguel de Buría (around 1510–around 1555), na slave and rebel. Miguel Perez na the Spanish name of boy wey be Yojuane people, wey dey among 149 Yojuane women and children wey dem carry go as captive for 1759 when some Spanish and Apaches come attack their camp along Red River for northern Texas. Many of dem wey dem capture die from smallpox, the ones wey survive, dem go still enslave dem. Dem sell the boy to Spanish soldier wey give am that Spanish name. Perez become Hispanicized Indian for San Antonio but he still dey connect with his Yojuane people. For 1786, Perez go persuade the Yojuanes and their Tonkawa friends to fight Lipan Apache, wey he do am well. Mikhail Matinsky (1750–1820), Russian serf wey be scientist, dramatist, librettist and opera composer. Michał Rymiński (e don die after 1797), Polish serf wey be Royal Ballet Dancer, wey donate am to king of Poland by him will. Mikhail Shchepkin (1788–1863), Russian serf actor. Mikhail Shibanov, Russian serf painter wey dey active for 1780s. Mikhail Tikhanov (1789–1862), Russian serf artist. Mina Kolokolnikov (1708?–1775?), Russian serf painter and teacher. Mingo, di 15–16 years old boy wey Titsworth family use as slave for Tennessee, dem capture am for 1794 by Creeks when dem raid di house. Minerva (Anderson) Breedlove, na Madam C.J. Walker mama. Moses A. Hopkins (1846–1886), African-American diplomat, U.S. minister to Liberia. Murad Agha (c. 1480–c. 1556), Italy-born Ottoman eunuch and naval officer, wey turn Beylerbey of Tripoli. Mustapha Khaznadar (1817–1878), him be Christian Greek wey dem capture during 1822 Massacre of Chios, change am to Islam wey dem call am Mustapha, sell am for Constantinople to envoy of Husainid Dynasty. Him grow for Mustapha Bey family, later him son Ahmad I Bey. Him first be prince private treasurer before him become Ahmad state treasurer (khaznadar). Him rise to top offices for Tunisian state, marry Princess Lalla Kalthoum for 1839, turn lieutenant-general of di army, become bey for 1840 and de president of Grand Council from 1862 to 1878. Muyahid ibn Yusuf ibn Ali (11th century), na di leader of Saqaliba (slaves wey dem say be Slavic origin) for Dénia, Spain. As Caliphate of Córdoba dey fall, him and him followers rebel, free demself, control di city and establish di Taifa of Dénia, wey at di peak dey reach as far as di island of Majorca. N Nafisa al-Bayda, Egyptian investor wey dem dey call "white slave", na hin dey buy as concubine slave. Nancy, wey dem dey call Ann, na di plaintiff for di 1799 New Brunswick habeas corpus case R v Jones. Nancy Brown, Nancy Caffrey, na white captive wey Creek dey enslave. When trader John O'Reilly try to ransom her and Elsey Thompson, dem tell am say dem no capture dem to go back, but to work. Nanny of di Maroons, wey dem dey call Granny Nanny and Queen Nanny, na di leader of di Jamaican Maroons. Nat Turner (1800–1831), wey escape come lead revolt for Southampton County, Virginia. Nathan McMillian, wey as free man sue to make him pikin enter local "Croatan Indian" school, say e dey for all non-white pikin, and say him pikin get Croatan blood for their mama side. Nathaniel Booth (1826–1901), wey escape slavery for Virginia and settle for Lowell, Massachusetts. For 1851, di people of Lowell buy him freedom from slave hunters. Neaera, formerly enslaved woman and prostitute wey di Athenian Stephanus marry against di law around 340 BC, according to Demosthenes speech. Nero Hawley (1742–1817), wey be formerly enslaved freeperson wey serve for Continental Army during di American Revolutionary War, and dem bury am for Trumbull, Connecticut. Newport Gardner (1746–1826), na formerly enslaved freeperson for colonial Newport, Rhode Island. Ng Akew (died 1880), be Tanka enslaved woman for British Hong Kong wey famous for piracy scandal. Nicarete, na woman for ancient Greece, wey dem describe for Against Neaera di freedwoman of Charisius di Elean and him wife wey be cook Hippias, and as her dey own and sell several women around 340 BC. Saint Nino (c. 280–c. 332), na 4th-century Roman woman from Constantinople wey dem dey respect well well for bring Christianity come Georgia. Some account of her life talk say she originally come Georgia as slave wey dem kidnap from her homeland. Nurbanu Sultan (about 1525–1583), wey dem call Cecilia Venier-Baffo before, na enslaved noblewoman from Venice wey become the favorite wife of Ottoman sultan Selim II, and her wan dey very powerful as mother to sultan Murad III. O Omar ibn Said, Senegal scholar wey don dey slavery for North Carolina more than 50 years, around 1850. Oenomaus, Gallic gladiator wey lead slaves wey dey rebel during Third Servile War. Olaudah Equiano (c. 1745–1797), wey dem sabi as Gustavus Vassa, strong African-British writer wey dey fight for abolition, but dem no sure where e born. Omar ibn Said (1770–1864), writer and Islamic scholar wey come from Senegal wey dem carry go USA for 1807, spend di rest of im life for slavery. Onesimus, slave of Philemon from Colossae wey run away, meet St. Paul, and Paul change am. Paul send am back go Philemon with letter, wey be Epistle to Philemon. Ignatius of Antioch talk about an Onesimus wey be Bishop of Ephesus for early 2nd century, but nobody sure if na di same people. Onesimus, slave for colonial Boston wey help spread knowledge about smallpox inoculation. Onesimos Nesib (c. 1856–1931), Ethiopian wey Swedish missionaries buy out of slavery when e be pikin. E work with another former slave Aster Ganno to translate Bible into Oromo language. Oney Judge (1773–1848), wey dem enslave for Martha Washington family, and later for di First Lady, Judge dey work for Mount Vernon and all over as personal servant to Martha Washington until she escape for 1796 go Portsmouth New Hampshire. Ottobah Cugoano, wey dem sabi as John Stuart (c. 1757–after 1791), be abolitionist, political activist, and natural rights philosopher from West Africa wey dey active for Britain. Owen Fitzpen (c. 1582–1636), English merchant wey Barbary pirates carry capture for 1620 but escape later. Owen Breedlove, papa of Madam C.J. Walker. P Pallas, secretary wey dey work for Roman emperor Claudius. Pasion, na enslaved Athenian guy wey be banker. E later get dat rare chance for freedman to get citizen. Pata Seca (real name na Roque José Florêncio), wey come from Angola for 1828, dem capture am come Brazil as slave, na tall, strong guy: 2m18 tall plus over 140 kg weight. E dey work as breeding slave, e don born over 200 pikin. When dem cancel slavery for Brazil for 1888, e get land, wey e live with e wife and 9 children. Saint Patrick, dem kidnap am from Britain, enslave for Ireland, escape go Britain, come back to Ireland as missionary. Patsey (born around 1830), na enslaved African-American wey dey live for mid-1800s for South Carolina. Paul Jennings (1799–1874), na personal servant wey dem enslave under President James Madison during e White House time, e buy im freedom for 1845 from Daniel Webster. E publish di first White House memoir, 1865's A Colored Man's Reminiscences of James Madison. Paul Smith, na free black wey accuse di Cherokee headman Doublehead say e kidnap am and force am into bondage. Pedro Camejo (1790–1821), na Venezuelan soldier for di Venezuelan War of Independence. Peggy Margaret Titsworth, dem enslave am at 13 years for three years, after Creek raid for 1794 on her Tennessee home. Pete and Hannah Byrne, na freed slaves from Napoleon Bonaparte Byrne family wey travel from Missouri to California by land (six months journey) for 1859, dem leave di farm for Missouri carry six adults (including Pete & Hannah), di four Byrne children and cattle come settle for Berkeley, California. Pete and Hannah be di first blacks wey dey live for Berkeley and among di first African-Americans for California. Peter Salem (c. 1750–1816), African American wey born for slavery for Massachusetts, serve as soldier for American Revolutionary War. Petronia Justa, woman wey dey Herculaneum, sue her owner say she born after her mama don freedom; Vesuvius eruption preserve di court matter. Phaedo of Elis, wey dem capture for war, carry go Athens, force am to do prostitution, later become Socrates student wey free am, give him name to one Plato dialogue, Phaedo, and him be famous philosopher. Phaedrus (c. 15 BCE–c. 50 CE), Roman storyteller. Praskovia Kovalyova-Zhemchugova dress fine for Les mariages samnites by André Ernest Modeste Grétry. Phillis (die 1755), woman wey dey Massachusetts, enslave by Captain John Codman. She and her people plot to poison her owner as dem no fit take di wahala from their master, but dem burn am to death for 1755. Phillis Wheatley (1753–1784?), Colonial American poet, second published African-American poet and first African-American woman wey publish. Phoebe, woman wey dey slavery wey sue for her freedom for Tennessee, with her pikin Davy and Tom, say dem be descendants of one enslaved Indian woman wey prove say dem no suppose hold dem. Philocrates, wey dey slavery under Roman reformer Gaius Gracchus. He stay with him master when Gracchus dey run from him enemies, everybody don leave am. When dem reach one grove wey dey sacred to di Furies, Philocrates help Gracchus kill himself first before he take him own life, some talk say dem kill am after him refuse to let go him master body. Phormion, one enslaved man from Athens wey dey do banking. For him old age, dem give am rare honor of citizenship as free man. Pierre d'Espagnac, sometimes Pierre d'Espagnal (1650–1689), na French Jesuit missionary, dem enslave am by di Siamese. Pope Pius I (e die around 154), na Bishop for Rome from around 140 to 154, when dem dey reign under Roman emperor Antoninus Pius. E be brother to freedman Hermas, so e fit don be former slave too, but dem no talk am clear for di small records wey dey about e life. Pleasant Richardson, wey escape slavery become Union soldier plus property owner for Fincastle, Virginia. Polly, di subject of 1820 Indiana Supreme Court case Polly v. Lasselle, wey make all slaves wey dey Indiana go free. Polly Berry, wey dem also dey call Polly Crockett or Polly Wash, win freedom suit for 1843 for St. Louis, Missouri plus she free her daughter Lucy Ann Berry too. Politoria, wey get lead curse tablet for ancient Rome; na curse on Clodia Valeria Sophrone say make she no fit get Politoria into her power. E look like say she be slave-courtesan wey dey fear say dem go send am go brothel. Praskovia Kovalyova-Zhemchugova (1768–1803) na Russian serf actress plus soprano opera singer. Primus (1700–1791), wey Daniel Fowle from Portsmouth, New Hampshire enslave. Primus dey run di press for di New Hampshire Gazette wey be di oldest newspaper wey still dey print for America. Prince na di slave of Choctaw man wey name Richard Harkins. E vex say him owner no give di slaves Christmas celebration, Prince kill am sharply and dump di body for river for 1858. Prince Boston (born 1750), sue for him freedom and win for 1773 U.S. jury trial. Prince Estabrook (1741–1830), wey Benjamin Estabrook enslave; join fight for Continental Army and get wound for di Battle of Lexington and Concord. Prince Whipple (1750–1796), enslave by American General William Whipple. Prosper, na enslaved man wey dem murder for 1807 for Virgin Islands by him owner Arthur William Hodge, and Hodge go face trial and dem execute am for 1811, na di first case wey dem fit record like dat. One pregnant Thrall wey we no fit remember the name, dey run from her life for 11th-century Oslo, Hallvard Vebjørnsson carry am go hide for him boat. Dem people come attack dem, shoot dem with arrow, and both of dem die. Because of dat, dem make Hallvard saint and him be patron saint for Oslo. Publilius Syrus (fl. 85–43 BCE), na Latin writer wey sabi plenty for him wise sayings. E be Syrian wey dem carry come Italy as slave. Q Quamina Gladstone, him be Jack Gladstone papa and e dey involve for Demerara rebellion wey happen for 1823. Quassi van Timotebo or Kwasimukamba (1692–1787) na Surinam slave, wey don free and na Maroon hunter for Dutch Surinam. Him name dey for plant genus wey dem call Quassia. Quock Walker, wey dem dey call Kwaku or Quok Walker too, him sue and win him freedom for 1781 because of new Massachusetts Constitution (1780) wey talk say all men dem dey born free and equal. Qutb-ud-din Aybak or Qutbuddin Aibak (1150–1210), na Turk wey don suffer slavery before, become soldier, be first Sultan of Delhi, for India e start "slave dynasty". R Rachel, na the person wey dey the 1834 Rachel v. Walker case for Supreme Court of Missouri wey rule say U.S. Army officer go lose him slave if e carry the person go place wey slavery no dey allowed. Dis ruling come dey used as example for 1856 for Dred Scott v. Sandford case for U.S. Supreme Court. Rachel of Kittery, Maine (she die 1695), na enslaved woman wey her owner kill, and e case set legal example for New England. Rachel Knight (she die 1889), at first na enslaved by Newton Knight grandpapa, wey be popular Southern Unionist wey during American Civil War, e no gree Confederacy, wey dem dey call Free State of Jones. After the war, Rachel come get freedom with other slaves. By mid-1870s, Knight don separate from him wife, Serena, come marry Rachel. During this time, Knight grown son, Mat (from him first wife), come marry Rachel grown daughter, Fannie, from her previous relationship. Knight daughter, Molly, come marry Rachel son, Jeff, turns three interracial families for the community. Newton and Rachel Knight born plenty children before she die for 1889. Rebecca Huger, na enslaved woman wey General Benjamin F. Butler free for New Orleans, and dem talk for Harper's Weekly say she be white, come dey go school for freed slaves for Philadelphia. Richard Preston (around 1791–1861), e comot from slavery come be religious leader and abolitionist for Nova Scotia. Robert Blake, e get Medal of Honor as sailor during American Civil War, after e become 'contraband' (slaves wey Union forces free) come join. Robert Drury (1687–1743/1750), English sailor wey shipwreck for Madagascar island in 1702, e dey slave there till 1717. Robert J. Patterson (1809–1884), e run from slavery for Virginia come be restaurateur for Saint John, New Brunswick. Robert Smalls (1839–1915), e take charge of Confederate ship, carry the ship and enslaved people go freedom, make Union allow African Americans join; later e serve for South Carolina Senate before e enter U.S. House of Representatives wey represent South Carolina's 5th congressional district. Robin and Polly Holmes, na dem be plaintiffs for the 1853 Holmes v. Ford court case for Oregon Territory wey free their pikin dem. The verdict confirm say slavery no dey legal for that area as Organic Laws of Oregon talk when the place become U.S. territory. Rosina Downs, na enslaved woman wey General Benjamin F. Butler free for New Orleans, dem describe am for Harper's Weekly say she look white, and she come school for emancipated slaves for Philadelphia. Roustam Raza (1783–1845), na Napoleon Bonaparte's Armenian bodyguard. S Solomon Northup wey come from Twelve Years a Slave Sabuktigin (c. 942–997), full name Abu Mansur Sabuktigin, be small pikin wey dem carry go sell for slavery, but e rise come be general, then king wey start the Ghaznavid Empire for medieval Iran. Safiye Sultan (c. 1550 – c. 1619), na enslaved woman wey be Albanian, dem put am for harem of Ottoman sultan Murad III, and she be the mama of sultan Mehmed III. Salem Poor (1747–1802), na enslaved African-American man wey buy im freedom, and e be war hero during the American Revolutionary War. Sally Hemings (1773–1835), na mixed-race woman wey dem enslave by Thomas Jefferson, plenty people dey believe say she born six pikin for am, four of dem survive grow reach adult. Sally Miller or Salomé Müller (born c. 1814), na enslaved American woman wey file her freedom case for Louisiana based on say she dey claim say she be free German immigrant and indentured servant. Sally Seymour (died 1824), na American pastry chef and restaurateur, enslaved woman wey dem free and she come own her own slaves too. Salonia na di second wife of Cato di Elder. Salvius, wey dem sabi as Tryphon, be leader of di 104 BCE slave rebellion for Sicily wey dem call di Second Servile War. Sambo (died 1736), na enslaved boy wey enter Sunderland Point, near Lancaster, England, around 1736 from West Indies as captain servant. Dem bury am for grave wey no dey blessed inside one field near small village of Sunderland Point, Lancashire, England. Sambo, a black guy wey dey under Tiger King, one Lower Creek, wey tell traveler William Bartram say Sambo be him family property. Samson Rowlie (wey die after 1588), wey dem sabi as Hassan Aga, Chief Eunuch and Treasurer for Algiers. Samuel Benedict (1792–1854), wey born be African-American slave, later become free and waka go Liberia, where he turn politician and judge. Samuel Green (c. 1802–1877), one enslaved man wey buy him freedom and freedom for him loved ones, dey involve for Underground Railroad, and dem lock him up for 1857 because e carry Uncle Tom's Cabin. Samuel Ringgold Ward (1817–c. 1866), African-American wey dey fight for abolition and be journalist. Sandy Jenkins, na person wey dey enslave wey Frederick Douglass talk for him first autobiography. Sanker, na manservant wey dey work for Samuel R. Watkins, wey write "Co. Aytch" (1882), wey dey tell how him life be as soldier for the 1st Tennessee Infantry Regiment. Sarah Forbes Bonetta (1843–1880), na Egbado princess from Yoruba wey lose her people during fight, sell into slavery as small pikin, but Captain Frederick E. Forbes from Royal Navy come rescue am carry am go UK wey she con become goddaughter to Queen Victoria. Sarah Basset (die 1730), wey dey enslave for Bermuda; dem execute am for poison matter wey involve three people. Sarah Johnson (1844–1920), her life for the first president plantation dey published for book wey dem call "Sarah Johnson's Mount Vernon." Satrelanus, from Gaul, wey Ermedruda sell give Toto for Milan for 725. Scipio Africanus (around 1702–1720). Scipio Moorhead (fl. 1773–1775), na enslaved African-American artist. Scipio Vaughan (around 1784–around 1840), dem carry am komot from him place for Africa young, sell am go slavery for United States. E turn skilled artisan for Camden, South Carolina; manage get him freedom and inspire plenty of him pikin dem. Septimus Clarke (1787–1859), wey dem don enslave before, him turn e get success as farmer and leader for community for Nova Scotia. Servius Tullius, ancient King of Rome wey people talk sey e start life as slave (but some people dey argue this matter, both Romans and modern historians). Seymour Burr (1754/1762–1837), e fight for Continental Army for American Revolution. Shadrach Minkins (1814–1875), na fugitive wey slavery no fit catch, dem save am by abolitionists for Boston in 1850. Shaghab (dem don die 933), mother and double ruler of the eighteenth Abbasid Caliph al-Muqtadir. Silas Chandler (1838–1919), na man wey dey follow him enslavers for Confederate Army during American Civil War. Sojourner Truth (around 1797–1883), na abolitionist and women's rights activist. Solomon Bayley (1771–1839), write book for 1825 about him life as slave. Solomon Northup (1807–around 1863), na farmer, pro violinist, and free-born black man from New York wey dem lure go Washington, D.C., wey slavery dey legal, kidnap am and sell am for South. E dey enslaved for Louisiana from 1841 till dem rescue am and liberate am for 1853. Na author of Twelve Years a Slave. Solomon Flores, na enslaved man from northern Alabama. Sosias the Thracian, na enslaved Athenian man, later freedman, wey Nicias carry enslave, later rent am one thousand slaves for mining work. Spartacus (around 111–71 BCE), na gladiator and rebel leader during the Servile Revolt. Spendius be Campanian wey run come out from slavery, serve as Carthaginian mercenary for di First Punic War, den later be general for Mercenary War wey dem fight against Carthage. Stefan Holnicki (we no sabi when e die after 1797), Polish serf and Royal Ballet Dancer, don give plenty to di king of Poland by im will. Stephen Bishop (about 1821–1857), na mixed-race man wey dem hold for Kentucky, him dey known as one of di first explorers and guides for Mammoth Cave. Sue, na black woman wey James Brown enslave, dem capture am with plenty members for di Brown family and other slaves by Chickamaugas. When di warrior wey catch am threaten another captive, di other captor come threaten say dem go kill Sue for revenge. James' pikin Joseph later kidnap Sue, her children and grandchildren—total eight—for di revenge wey dey follow im captivity. Suhayb ar-Rumi (born around 587), wey people sabi as Suhayb ibn Sinan, na child wey dey enslave for Byzantine Empire, escape as young man go Mecca, come join Muhammad and become big friend for di early Muslim community. Sumayyah bint Khayyat (550–615), na woman wey dem enslave for Mecca; she be one of di first seven pipo wey convert to Islam by Prophet Muhammad early for him work. Dem torture am and kill am because of di new faith, she become di first Muslim Shahid. Squanto (1585–1622), wey dem also sabi as Tisquantum, na Native American from wetin dem dey call coastal Massachusetts now; dem capture am by English pirates and sell am as slave. Later, he free and return go New England, meet di Pilgrims for di Mayflower in 1621. Subh of Cordoba (940–999), na enslave concubine of a Caliph, na mother and regent of di next Caliph of Cordoba inside di 10th century. Suk-bin Choe (1670–1718), na consort of Sukjong of Joseon and mother of Yeongjo of Joseon. Surya Devi (we no sabi when she die, 715), na Indian princess wey dem enslave by Caliph Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik. T Taras Shevchenko Tatyana Shlykova Dem dey talk say na Terence portrait from Vatican Codex 3868. E fit be copy from 3rd-century original. Taras Shevchenko (1814–1861): Na di biggest Ukrainian poet, artist and illustrator wey come from serf family. E artist padi buy am freedom for 1838. Tatyana Shlykova (1773–1863), Russian serf wey be ballerina and opera singer. Thanadelthur (c. 1697–1717), woman from Chipewyan Dënesųłı̨ne nation wey help as guide and interpreter for Hudson's Bay Company. Thomas Fuller, African American man wey dey suffer for Virginia, dem sabi am for im math skills. Thomas Pellow (1704–1745), wey pirates from Barbary enslave, carry am go Morocco, dem select am and torture am by Ismail Ibn Sharif. E escape after 23 years, come back home to Cornwall. Thomas Peters (1738–1792), wey first be Thomas Potters, one of di founding fathers of Sierra Leone. Dem don enslave am before, e run come out from North Carolina during American Revolutionary War. Peters na Black Loyalist member of British Black Company of Pioneers, e become sergeant, settle down, and marry for Nova Scotia. E even recruit African settlers for Nova Scotia to colonize Sierra Leone, later become leader for Freetown. Thomas Sims (born 1834), African American man wey escape slavery for Georgia come Boston, Massachusetts, but dem catch am back under Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, but e escape go Boston again. Thomas-Alexandre Dumas (1762–1806), French general and papa of Alexandre Dumas. Thumal, administrator of justice for di eighteenth Abbasid Caliph al-Muqtadir. T. Aelius Dionysius, freedman for di late Roman Empire, wey create stela for himself, im wife, and Aelius Perseus, im fellow freedman, and dem and dem wey come after dem. == List of slaves == dkgqsbc0j2b4570wrez2q2xfbtbj4vk 69173 69171 2025-07-06T00:30:04Z Abdul-Rauf Moshie 1580 /* List of slaves */ 69173 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Slavery}} [[File:Livorno_Quattro_mori_monument_07.JPG|thumb|375x375px|One out of four statues wey dey show chained slaves for base of the Monument of the Four Moors for Livorno, Italy, wey dem fit be real slaves o.]] Slavery be one kind social-economic system wey people dey suffer: dem no get freedom and dem dey force to do work or service without pay. Dem people wey dey in dis condition, we dey call dem slaves or enslaved people. Dis na list of some important historical people wey don dey enslave for some time for dem life, we go arrange am from A to Z based on dem first name. * A * B * C * D * E * F * G * H * I * J * K * L * M * N * O * P * Q * R * S * T * U * V * W * X * Y * Z * See also A Abraham be enslaved black man wey dey carry message between frontier and Charles Town for war with Cherokee, wey fit free am. Abdul Rahman Ibrahima Sori (1762–1829), na prince from West Africa wey dem hold for United States for 40 years till President John Quincy Adams free am. Abram Petrovich Gannibal (1696–1781), dem adopt am by Russian czar Peter the Great, him be governor for Tallinn (Reval) (1742–1752) and general-en-chef (1759–1762) wey dey build sea forts and canals for Russia; e be great-grandpapa of Alexander Pushkin. See The Slave in European Art for him portraits. Absalom Jones (1746–1818), him don free hims [[File:Cabeza_de_Vaca_Portrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cabeza_de_Vaca_Portrait.jpg|right|thumb|235x235px|[[:en:Álvar_Núñez_Cabeza_de_Vaca|Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca]]]] elf, na abolitionist and clergyman – first ordained black priest of Episcopal Church. Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz (die 644), na Persian craftsman and captive wey kill second Islamic caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab (r. 634–644). Addas (7th century) na enslaved Christian boy wey dey live for Taif during Muhammad time, wey people talk say na him be first person from western Taif wey convert to Islam. Adriaan de Bruin (c. 1700–1766), wey dem call Tabo Jansz before, na enslaved servant for Dutch Republic wey turn free man for Hoorn, North Holland. Adam Brzeziński (1768 – after 1797), Polish serf and Royal Ballet Dancer, wey donate to king of Poland by will and testament. Aesop (c. 620–564 BCE), na Greek poet and author or transcriber for Aesop's Fables. Afanasy Grigoriev (1782–1868), na Russian serf and Neoclassical architect. Afrosinya (1699/1700–1748), na Russian serf, fit be Finnish captive, na enslaved mistress of Alexei Petrovich, Tsarevich of Russia. Agathoclia (shey die around 230), na martyr and patron saint for Mequinenza town for Spain. Alam al-Malika (shey die 1130), na singer wey dem catch as slave but rise become de prime minister and ruler for Zubayd, wey dey now Yemen. Alexina Morrison, na run away girl from slavery for Louisiana wey claim say she be kidnapped white pikin, she sue her master wey make people vex say dem go lynch am. Alfred "Teen" Blackburn (1842–1951), one of de last survivors of slavery for United States wey fit remember wetin happen. Alfred Francis Russ [[File:Aesop_pushkin01.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aesop_pushkin01.jpg|left|thumb|264x264px|[[:en:Aesop|Aesop]] in a [[:en:Hellenistic_art|Hellenistic]] statue claimed to be him, Art Collection of [[:en:Villa_Albani|Villa Albani]], Rome]] ell (1817–1884), na 10th President of Liberia. Alice Clifton (c. 1772–unknown), as slave pikin, she dey trial for infanticide matter for 1787. Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca (c. 1490–c. 1558), na Spanish explorer wey dem turn slave by Native Americans for Gulf Coast after e survive Narváez expedition wey scatter for 1527. Al-Khayzuran bint Atta (shey die 789), na Yemeni girl wey turn wife for Abbasid Caliph Al-Mahdi and mama to two Caliphs, Al-Hadi and Harun al-Rashid, wey dem sabi well well. Alp-Tegin (shey die 963), na member of nomadic Turks, dem carry am as slave small for Samanid court for Bukhara, later e come be army commander for Samanid Empire. Him son-in-law Sabuktigin later start Ghaznavid Empire. Amanda America Dickson (1849–1893), daughter of white planter David Dickson and Julia Frances Lewis, she be slave under Dickson's mama. Even though she dey legally enslaved till after Civil War, Amanda be her papa favorite and she inherit him $500,000 estate after him die for 1885. Ammar bin Yasir (570–657), one of di popular sahaba dem wey Abu Bakr free. Amos Fortune (1710–1801), African prince wey don suffer for United States for most of him life. Di children book wey talk about am, Amos Fortune, Free Man win Newbery Medal for 1951. Anarcha Westcott (c. 1828–unknown), black woman wey dey enslaved for di United States, she be among di women wey J. Marion Sims use do experiment. Portrait of Andrey Voronikhin. Engraving by V. A. Bobrov from di early 19th century. Andrey Voronikhin (1759–1814), Russian serf, architect and painter. Andrea Aguyar (died 1849), former enslaved black ma [[File:Voronikhin.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Voronikhin.jpg|right|thumb|297x297px|Portrait of [[:en:Andrey_Voronikhin|Andrey Voronikhin]]. Engraving by V. A. Bobrov from the beginning of the 19th century.]] n from Uruguay wey join Giuseppe Garibaldi during di Italian revolution for di Uruguayan Civil War of di 1840s and die for fight for di Roman Republic of 1849. Andrew Jackson Beard (1849–1921), inventor, him free at age 15 by di Emancipation Proclamation. Anna J. Cooper (1858–1964), author, educator, speaker and big African-American scholar. Anna Madgigine Jai Kingsley (1793–1870), woman wey dey enslaved then become planter and slave owner. Anna Williams, woman wey dey enslaved for Washington, D.C. wey go court win her freedom against di United States Court of Appeals. Annice (died 1828), dem execute her for murder five children. Annika Svahn (fl. 1714), Finnish woman wey Russian take away during di Great Northern War. She be vicar pikin for Joutseno, wey become popular victim for di wahala wey civilian dem suffer during di Russian occupation. Antarah ibn Shaddad (525–608), pre-Islamic Arab wey born from enslaved woman, him papa free am before battle, and he be poet too. Anthony Burns (1834–1862), na Baptist pre [[File:Петровское._Бюст_А.П._Ганнибала.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5._%D0%91%D1%8E%D1%81%D1%82_%D0%90.%D0%9F._%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0.jpg|right|thumb|263x263px|[[:en:Abram_Petrovich_Gannibal|Abram Petrovich Gannibal]], bust in [[:en:Petrovskoye,_Yaroslavl_Oblast|Petrovskoe]], [[:en:Russia|Russia]]]] acher wey escape slavery go Boston, but dem catch am again because Fugitive Slave Act wey dey 1850, den people wey no want am capture buy im freedom for Boston. Antonia Bonnelli (1786–1870), dem capture am and enslave am by Mikasuki tribe for Florida in 1802. António Corea, na European name wey dem give to Korean. Dem carry am go Italy, wey fit make am di first Korean wey step foot for Europe. Antón Guanche (15th century), na Guanche from Tenerife, dem capture am, enslave am, come return am go di island. Aqualtune Ezgondidu Mahamud da Silva Santos (died 1677), na princess of Kongo, mother of Ganga Zumba and grandmother of Zumbi dos Palmares. She lead 10,000 men during di Battle of Mbwila between Kingdom of Kongo and Kingdom of Portugal. Dem catch am by Portuguese forces, carry am go Brazil and sell am as slave. She start di slave settlement of Quilombo dos Palmares with her son Ganga Zumba. Archer Alexander (1810–1879), na model wey dem use for di slave wey dey di 1876 Emancipation Memorial sculpture. Abram Petrovich Gannibal, bust wey dey Petrovskoe, Russia. Archibald Grimké (1849–1930), born into slavery, son of white papa, become American lawyer, intellectual, journalist, diplomat and community leader. Arthur Crumpler (c. 1835–1910), escape slavery for Virginia, na di second husband of Dr. Rebecca Davis Lee Crumpler. Aster Ganno (c. 1872–1964), na young Ethiopian woman wey Italian Navy rescue from slave ship wey dey cross go Yemen. She go translate di Bible into Oromo language. Also she prepare literacy materials and spend di rest of her life as school teacher. Augustine Tolton (1854–1897), na di first black priest for di United States. Aurelia Philematium, na freedwoman wey her tombstone dey praise her marriage with her fellow freedman, Lucius Aurelius Hermia. Ayuba Suleiman Diallo (1701–1773), wey dem sabi as Job ben S [[File:William_Hoare_of_Bath_-_Portrait_of_Ayuba_Suleiman_Diallo,_(1701-1773).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:William_Hoare_of_Bath_-_Portrait_of_Ayuba_Suleiman_Diallo,_(1701-1773).jpg|left|thumb|Portrait of [[:en:Ayuba_Suleiman_Diallo|Ayuba Suleiman Diallo]] by [[:en:William_Hoare|William Hoare]] (1733)]] olomon, na Muslim wey come from Bundu state for West Africa. E dey suffer for two years for Maryland as slave, but dem free am for 1734. Later, e write hin story wey dem publish as one of di first slave narrative. B Baibars Baibars (1223–1277), wey dem dey call am Abu al-Futuh, na Kipchak Turk wey turn Mamluk sultan for Egypt and Syria. Balthild (c. 626–680), na Anglo-Saxon woman wey come from big family, dem sell am gree as small pikin, serve for Erchinoald house, wey be mayor for Neustria. After, she marry Clovis II, and later she be regent when her pikin Clotaire dey small. She stop dem wey dey trade Christian slaves and dey fight for freedom of children wey dem sell as slaves. Pope Nicholas I canonize am about 200 years after she die. Bass Reeves (1838–1910), na one of di first black Deputy U.S. Marshals for di west of di Mississippi River, wey don arrest over 3,000 bad guys and shoot fourteen outlaws for self-defense. Belinda Sutton (1713–179?), born for Ghana, she dey beg for support from her enslaver estate, wey be one early case for reparations and inspire future activism. Belinda Sutton petition, wey dem print again Bell (Belinda) (c. 1750–c. 1772), born for Bengal, dem carry her go Scotland as servant for East India Company nabob. Dem accuse am say she kill pikin, she dey beg make dem banish am and she turn “slave for life” and dem carry am go Virginia for 1772. She na di last person wey court for Britain call slave. Benjamin S. Turner (1825–1894), former slave wey be politician wey represent Alabama's 1st congressional district for United States House of Representatives. Him be di first African American wey don represent di state for Congress. Benkos Biohó, wey born for royal family of Bissagos Islands, dem kidnap am and enslave am. After dem carry am go Spanish New Granada for South America, him fit escape, help plenty other slaves escape too, and create di maroon community of San Basilio de Palenque. Di Governor Diego Pacheco Téllez-Girón Gómez de Sandoval of Cartagena betray am and hang am for 1621, but di community wey him build still dey live free till today. Betty Hemings (c. 1735–1807), na enslave mixed-race woman wey for colonial Virginia, wey for 1761 start dey be sex slave of her master, planter John Wayles, and she get six mixed-race children with am over 12 years, including Sally Hemings and James Hemings. Big Eyes (fl. 1540), na Wichita woman wey dem enslave by Tejas people before dem capture am and enslave am by conquistador Juan de Zaldívar. Bilichild (died 610), be queen of Austrasia through marriage to Theudebert II. Bilal ibn Ribah (580–640), wey dem free in 6th century. Him convert to Islam and be Muhammad's muezzin. Bill Richmond (1763–1829), wey born for America, dem free am and him become one of England's best boxers. Saint Brigid of Kildare as dem depict am for Saint Non's chapel, St Davids, Wales. Billy (born c. 1754), na man wey run come from John Tayloe II's plantation, dem charge am for treason against Virginia during American Revolutionary War. Him collect pardon after e talk say, as slave, him no be citizen, so e no fit commit treason against government wey him no dey owe loyalty to. Bissula (fl. 368) na Alemannic woman wey dem enslave, and she be inspiration for Roman poet Ausonius. Blanche Bruce (1841–1898) na di first and only former slave wey serve for United States Senate. Blandina (c. 162–177) be slave and Christian martyr for Roman Gaul. Di Bodmin manumissions na manuscript wey dey inside British Library, e keep names and details of slaves wey dem free for Bodmin (di main town for Cornwall back then) during 9th or 10th centuries. Booker T. Washington (1856–1915), born inside slavery, come be American educator, author and leader of African-American community after Civil War. Saint Brigid of Kildare, na major Irish Saint. Tradition say Brigid born for 451 AD for Faughart, just north of Dundalk for County Louth, Ireland. Her mama na Brocca, Pict slave wey Saint Patrick don baptize. Dem talk say her papa be Dubhthach, chieftain of Leinster. Dubthach wife force am sell Brigid's mama to druid when she carry belle. Brigid self born for slavery. Di small Brigid fit perform miracle, like healing and feeding di poor. At age ten, dem return am as household servant to her papa, where her charity make am dey give out hin things to anybody wey ask. For two Lives, Dubthach dey vex with her, he carry am go King of Leinster to sell her. While Dubthach dey talk with di king, Brigid don give away hin jeweled sword to beggar to change am for food to feed di family. Di king sabi her holiness well well and e make Dubthach free him daughter. After dat, she start her waka as popular nun. Brigitta Scherzenfeldt (1698–1733), Swedish wey dey write memoirs and teach weaving, she catch during di Great Northern War, carry go live as slave for di Kalmyk kingdom for Central Asia. Bussa wey born free man for West Africa, maybe Igbo pikin, dem catch am by African slave traders, sell am go Britain, transport am go Barbados (wey slavery don dey legal since 1661) for late 18th century as slave. C Charlotte Aïssé Cezayirli Gazi Hasan Pasha statue for Mersin Naval Museum Caenis, na woman wey don suffer as slave, she be secretary for Antonia Minor (emperor Claudius mama) plus Vespasian wey be Roman emperor. Caesar (c. 1737–1852), na di last slave wey fit get freedom for New York. E reach supercentenarian level, plus fit be di first person wey dem snap while dem dey alive in 1851. Caesar Nero Paul (c. 1741–1823), as small pikin, dem carry am from Africa come Exeter, New Hampshire, but e get freedom, start big New England family wey dey fight against slavery. Pope Callixtus I (died 223), na man wey don suffer as slave, pope from about 218 to about 223, during di time of Heliogabalus and Alexander Severus. Dem kill am for him Christian faith, now he be saint for Roman Catholic Church. Carlota (died 1844), she lead slave rebellion for Cuba for 1843–1844. Castus, na enslaved Gaul and one of di leaders for di Third Servile War wey get people wey dey fight for freedom. Catalina of Motril (fl. 1501–1531), she be bed servant for Catherine of Aragon when she marry Henry VIII for England. Cato (1786–1803), na man wey don suffer for Charleston, New York, wey kill twelve-year-old Mary Akins after e try rape am. Him confession show for di murder book of dat time. Cato, na African-American man wey serve as American Black Patriot spy and courier to gather info with him owner, Hercules Mulligan. Celia (died 1855), na woman wey dem catch and kill for di murder of Robert Newsom, her enslaver. During di trial, John Jameson argue say she kill am for self-defense to stop am from raping her. Cesar Picton (c. 1765–1831), na slave wey start for Senegal, later work as servant for England, come get money as coal merchant. Cevri Kalfa, one Georgian girl wey e dey for sultan harem for Istanbul, wey save Mahmud II life. Dem reward am wit big position haznedar usta, wey be chief treasurer for the imperial Harem. Cezayirli Gazi Hasan Pasha (1713–1790) na Georgian wey dem enslave for Ottoman Empire, wey rise become grand vizier, Kapudan Pasha, and army boss. Charity Folks (1757–1834), American slave wey born for Annapolis, Maryland, release from slavery for 1797 and later become property owner. Charles Deslondes, Haitian mulatto wey dey oversee other slaves for André plantation and leader of 1811 German Coast Uprising for Louisiana. Dem kill am terribly by the militia wey suppress the slave revolt. Charlotte Aïssé, (c. 1694–1733), French letter-writer, daughter of one Circassian chief, wey suffer for Ottoman Black Sea slave trade. Charlotte Dupuy (c. 1787/1790–c. 1866), wey dem dey call Lottie, file freedom suit for 1829 against her enslaver, Henry Clay, wey be Secretary of State, but she lose. Chica da Silva (c. 1732–1796), wey dem sabi as Xica da Silva, Brazilian courtesan wey become rich and powerful even though she born into slavery. Chloe Cooley (fl. 1793), wey dey enslave for Canada, her violent treatment and transport to US make Upper Canada pass 1793 Act Against Slavery. Christopher Shields (born 1774) na George Washington slave wey he keep am for Mount Vernon. The place wey he die and the year wey e happen no dey clear. Christophorus Plato Castanis, (born 1814) na runaway Greek slave from Chios. He journey come US with Samuel Gridley Howe and John Celivergos Zachos. Castanis be Greek-American author and lecturer. Çiçek Hatun (fl. 1453) na Greek girl wey dem capture when Constantinople fall and put as one of the concubine for Sultan Mehmet II harem. Clara Brown (around 1800–1885), she be one woman wey dem don enslave for Virginia. She come be community leader, give back for people wey don free during Colorado Gold Rush. Claudia Acte (1st century), na mistress for Roman emperor Nero. Pope Clement I (wey die for 100), na di fourth Pope for Catholic tradition. E fit dey freedman for Titus Flavius Clemens. Cleon (die 132 BC) na leader for di First Servile War. Colonel Tye (1753–1780), wey dem dey call Titus Cornelius, him don free, come be Black Loyalist soldier and guerrilla leader for di American Revolution. Crixus, na Gallic gladiator and military leader for di Third Servile War. Cudjoe Lewis (around 1840–1935), wey originally be Oluale Kossola, na di third-to-last survivor of di Transatlantic slave trade for USA. Dem carry am go di slave ship Clotilda. Cuffy (die 1763), na Akan man wey dem capture for him own West Africa, carry am go work for di plantations of di Dutch colony for Berbice wey dey Guyana today, and for 1763, him lead revolt wey get more than 2,500 slaves against di colonial regime. Today, him na national hero for Guyana. D Dred Scott wey no fit win im case for im freedom for United States Supreme Court for 1857. Dabitum, woman wey dem enslave for Old Babylonia wey sabi write letter about miscarriage. Daniel Bell (around 1802–1877) wey try for years make e and im family fit enjoy freedom. E help organize one big escape plan wey dem call "the Pearl incident" for Washington, D.C., for 1848. Dada Masiti (around 1810s–15 July 1919) poet, mystic and Islamic scholar. Dave Drake (around 1801–1876), wey people sabi am as Dave the Potter. Deborah Squash and im husband Harvey wey escape from George Washington Mount Vernon, join British for New York during American Revolutionary War, and dem carry dem go free in 1783. Denmark Vesey (around 1767–1822), one enslaved African-American man wey plan one big slave rebellion for United States wey dem leak the plans before e go happen. Dido Elizabeth Belle (1761–1804), wey born into slavery as the daughter of Maria Belle, one enslaved African woman for West Indies, and Sir John Lindsay, one Navy officer. Lindsay carry Belle go England for 1765, give im uncle William Murray, 1st Earl of Mansfield, and im wife Elizabeth to take care of am. Dem educate Belle, raise am as free gentlewoman for their Kenwood House with their niece, Lady Elizabeth Murray. Belle stay there for 30 years. For im will for 1793, Lord Mansfield confirm im freedom and give am money and annuity, make Belle heiress. Diego be one freedman wey dem don enslave before, and e dey close with di Elizabethan navigator Francis Drake. For March 1573, Drake raid Darien (for today Panama) and Maroons help am well – dem be Africans wey don run from Spanish slave owners and dem glad to help their English enemies. One of dem na Diego, wey sabi build ship well, and e follow Drake go England. For 1577, Queen Elizabeth send Drake make e start journey against di Spanish for di Pacific coast fit America – wey later turn as Drake waka go round di world – Diego again dey work under Drake; him sabi Spanish and English well well, so he fit be good interpreter when dem catch Spaniard or Portuguese wey dey speak Spanish. E be Drake's servant and dem dey pay am like di rest of di crew. Diego die while Drake ship dey cross di Pacific, wounds wey e get earlier for di journey. Drake dey feel bad for him death, as Diego don become him good friend. Diogenes of Sinope (c. 412–323 BCE), Greek philosopher wey pirates carry away and sell for Corinth. Diocletian (244–312), Emperor of Rome, some people talk say e born as slave of Senator Anullinus. Other talk say na Diocletian papa (we no sabi im name) wey be slave and free before him son, di future emperor, born. Dionysius I (die 1492), Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, dem don enslave am by di Ottomans after di Fall of Constantinople for 1453. Dolly Johnson (born late 1820s, die after 1887), African-American woman from Tennessee, wey President Andrew Johnson don enslave, later become small small-business owner. Dorota Sitańska (die after 1797), Polish serf and Royal Ballet Dancer, wey dem donate to di king of Poland by will and testament. Dred Scott (around 1799–1858), na one enslaved African-American guy wey dey Missouri wey carry case go court make e fit get freedom for one big trial, Scott v. Sandford, wey reach U.S. Supreme Court for 1857. E Florence, Lady Baker around 1875. Na Romanian wey dem enslave as orphan, Samuel Baker buy am, later marry am. Edward Mozingo Sr., (about 1649–1712), dem kidnap am from Africa when e dey like 10 years, sell am for slavery for Jamestown, Virginia. After e owner die, he sue for im freedom and win am. E marry poor white woman, Margaret Pierce Bayley (1645–1711) and together dem be dem wey start the Mozingo family for North America. Elijah Abel (1808–1884), wey born enslave for Maryland, people believe say e escape from slavery enter Underground Railroad go Canada. He join Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints early, na him dey among the first black wey get priesthood and the first black wey rise to elder and seventy rank. Elizabeth Marsh (1735–1785), na English woman wey corsairs capture and hold for slavery for Morocco. Edith Hern Fossett, na woman wey U.S. President Thomas Jefferson enslave, dem teach am to cook by French chef wey create French food for White House and Monticello. Elias Polk (1806–1886), na conservative political activist from 19th century. Eliezer of Damascus, na Abraham slave and trusted manager for im house in Hebrew Bible. Elieser be man wey dem enslave by Paulo de Pina family, Portuguese Jews wey move go Netherlands for 1610 to escape wahala and forced conversion for Portugal. E dey stay with the family for Amsterdam till e die for 1629, dem bury am for Beth Haim cemetery, wey be the oldest Jewish cemetery for Netherlands. E appear say dem don free am, whether officially or in practice, and e dey near equal level with the family wey own am for Portugal – show by fact say e attend the funeral of im master wife, Sara de Pina, and contribute six stuivers, and dem bury am alongside im (former) owners and Jacob Israel Belmonte, wey be the richest man for the community. Elieser don convert to Judaism and dem accept am as Jewish, true true if not, he for no dey buried for Jewish cemetery; dem fit give am the name 'Elieser' when dem convert am, e dey bring Eliezer from Damascus mind. Recently, members of Surinamese community for Netherlands don carry Elieser memory go high, dem put statue for am and dey do yearly pilgrimage go his grave wey dem call Elieser Day. Elisenda de Sant Climent (1220–1275), dem enslave am during slave raid for Mallorca and carry am go emir harem for Tunis. Eliza Hopewell, woman wey dey under Confederates spy Isabella Maria Boyd ('Belle Boyd'). For 1862, she help her owner do spy work, carry message go Confederate Army inside watch case wey dem hollow. Eliza Moore (1843–1948), one of the last African-American former slaves wey dey live for United States. Elizabeth Johnson Forby, mixed-race American woman wey dem enslave under President Andrew Johnson, daughter of Dolly Johnson. Elizabeth Key Grinstead (1630–after 1665), na the first woman wey get African blood for North America wey go court for her freedom and win. Key and her small pikin, John Grinstead, come free on July 21, 1656 for Virginia because her papa be Englishman and she be baptized Christian. Elizabeth Freeman (c. 1742–1829), wey dem dey call Bett and later Mum Bett, na among the first enslaved black people for Massachusetts wey fit file freedom suit and win, based on 1780 constitution wey rule slavery illegal. Elizabeth Hobbs Keckley (1818–1907), wey be popular as personal modiste and close friend of Mary Todd Lincoln, First Lady of the United States. Keckley write and publish autobiography, Behind the Scenes: Or, Thirty Years a Slave and Four Years in the White House (1868). Ellen Craft (1826–1891), light-skin wife of William Craft, wey escape from Georgia to Philadelphia, by acting like white woman and her slave, case wey become popular. Ellen More, enslaved woman wey them carry go royal Scottish court. Emilia Soares de Patrocinio (1805–1886) na Brazilian slave, slave owner and businesswoman. Emiline (23 years); Nancy (20); Lewis, Nancy brother (16); Edward, Emiline brother (13); Lewis and Edward, sons of Nancy (7); Ann, daughter of Nancy (5); and Amanda, daughter of Emiline (2), dem free for 1852 Lemmon v. New York court case after dem bring dem go New York from Virginia. Emily Edmonson (1835–1895), with her sister Mary, try escape for 1848 wey dem call Pearl incident, but Henry Ward Beecher and him church gather money to free dem. Enrique of Malacca, wey dem dey call Henry the Black, na slave and interpreter for Ferdinand Magellan and maybe the first person wey waka round the globe for Magellan's trip of 1519–1521. Epictetus (55–c. 135), ancient Greek stoic philosopher. Estevanico (1500–1539), wey dem dey call Esteban the Moor. He be slave of the Portuguese first, then become servant of the Spaniards. He be one of the only four wey survive the bad Narváez expedition, later na guide for search of the fabled Seven Cities of Gold and maybe the first African wey reach wetin be Arizona and New Mexico today. Eston Hemings (1808–1856), son of Sally Hemings and Thomas Jefferson. Eucharis, na Greek wey dem free, born Roman Licinia, dem describe am for him epitaph for 1st century AD as fourteen when she die, child actress and professional dancer. Eunus (him die for 132 BC), na slave wey come from Apamea for Syria, and him be leader for slave wahala for First Servile War wey happen for Roman province of Sicily. Eunus sabi gree people as prophet and wonder-worker. Him dey claim say him dey see visions and dey communicate with goddess Atargatis, wey dey popular for him place; he even fit connect am to Sicilian Demeter. Some prophecies wey he drop na say di rebel slaves go fit capture di city of Enna and say one day, he go be king. Euphemia (him die for 520s), na Empress of Byzantine Empire because she marry Justin I, she be slave before. Euphraios, na Athenian slave and banker. Exuperius and Zoe (dem die for 127), na Christian martyrs for 2nd century. Dem be married couple wey slave master in Pamphylia enslave. Dem kill dem with their sons, Cyriacus and Theodolus, because dem no wan join pagan rites when dem pikin born. Florence Johnson Smith be mixed-race American babe wey President Andrew Johnson carry go enslave, she be Dolly Johnson pikin. Fountain Hughes (1848–1957), dem interview am for June 1949 about him life by Library of Congress as part of Federal Writers' Project. Francis Bok (wey born 1979), na Dinka slave from South Sudan, now him dey fight for freedom and be author for United States. Francis Jackson (wey born between 1815 and 1820), him dey free from birth, but dem kidnap am for 1850 and sell am into slavery. Him finally get freedom for 1855 when case Francis Jackson v. John W. Deshazer end. Francis James Grimké (1850–1937), him be minister. Francisco Menéndez, na man wey dem enslave for South Carolina but e run go Spanish Florida, wey e serve for Spanish militia, even lead the garrison wey dem set for 1738 for Fort Mose. This place be the first legal free black community for wetin we dey call United States now. François Mackandal (wey die 1758), na Haitian Maroon leader. Frederick Douglass (1818–1895), him born for slavery for Maryland and run go Northeast for 1838, where e turn big-time abolitionist writer, speaker, and diplomat. Fyodor Slavyansky (1817–1876), na Russian serf painter. G Medical photo wey show Gordon back wey dem whip, plenty abolitionists dey share am to show how slavery dey be bad. Portrait of Gülnuş Sultan Gabriel Prosser (1776–1800), leader wey lead Virginia slave revolt. Gaius Furius Chresimus, ancient Roman. As him free man, e produce crops from him small farm wey people accuse am say him dey witch other people crop, but when him bring him farm tools for court, dem free am. Pliny the Elder talk say him story na proof say hard work be wetin matter for farming. Galatian de Sesse (16th century), knight from Aragon wey dey work for hospital and be Governor of Gozo wey dem enslave during 1551 Ottoman attack, e spend five years as galley slave before dem pay ransom and free am. Galeria Lysistrate (2nd century), mistress of Roman emperor Antoninus Pius. Ganga Zumba or Ganazumba (c. 1630–1678), one descendant of unknown Kongo king wey run away from slavery for Brazilian colonial and be first leader of runaway slave settlement wey be Quilombo dos Palmares. Gannicus, enslaved Celt wey be one of the leaders of rebel slaves during Third Servile War. Garafilia Mohalbi (1817–1830), Greek slave wey American merchant rescue and carry go Boston. She die young and inspire big art movement. Genghis Khan (c. 1162–1227), dem capture am after raid and make am slave for Taichiud. George Africanus (1763–1834), enslaved African man from Sierra Leone wey become successful businessman for Nottingham. George Edward Doney (1758–1809), Gambian man wey William Capell, 4th Earl of Essex enslave. George Colvocoresses (1816–1872), from Chios, Greece, come America come be captain for U.S. Navy, but small small dem carry am put for slavery when e be pikin. Colvos Passage dey named after am. George Freeman Bragg (1863–1940), wey born for slavery for North Carolina, later turn big Episcopal priest and social activist. George Lewis (1794–1811), wey dem dey call Slave George, na enslaved guy wey dem kill for Kentucky night of December 15–16, 1811. George Moses Horton (1797–1884), na di first African-American author; him first poetry book publish for North Carolina. George Washington Carver (c. 1864–1943), na African-American scientist, botanist, educator and inventor wey sabi to promote other crops like sweet potatoes and peanuts for South; him born for slavery for Missouri but dem free am as small pikin after American Civil War. George Griffin (1849–1897), born for slavery for Maryland but later dem free am; him be close person to Mark Twain. George W. Hayes (1847–1933), na court crier and politician for Ohio, mixed African American and Native American background, dem carry am put for slavery early for him life. Gerónimo de Aguilar (1489–1531), na Franciscan friar wey waka go Yucatán Peninsula for 1511 but dem shipwreck am and dem carry am for slavery by Mayans. Gosala, one ascetic teacher from ancient India – wey dey live same time (and dey compete) with Gautama Buddha – people talk say him born for slavery, and he become naked ascetic after him run from him bad captor, wey catch him cloth before e run. Gonzalo Guerrero (died 1536), na sailor from Palos, Spain, wey shipwreck for Yucatán Peninsula for 1511 and dem carry am for slavery by di local Maya. Gordon, wey dem dey call Whipped Peter, na enslaved African-American wey escape come Union Army camp from plantation near Baton Rouge, Louisiana for 1863. Di pictures wey dem take of Gordon back wey dem beat during medical check, dem publish am for Harper's Weekly, e show Northerners di wahala wey slavery dey cause. E make plenty free blacks want join di Union Army. Gülnuş Sultan (1642–1715) na Haseki Sultan for Ottoman Sultan Mehmed IV and Valide sultan for dia pikin Mustafa II and Ahmed III. Guðríður Símonardóttir (1598–1682) na Iceland woman wey some North African slavers (Barbary Pirates) carry go. Gustav Badin (wey die for 1822) na servant for royal Swedish court, originally na Danish slave. H Hurrem Sultan, be Eastern European slave girl wey Ottoman sultan Süleyman the Magnificent buy, marry am. Hababah, concubine of Caliph Yazid II. Hagar, biblical figure, Sarah own. Hannah Bond (weh dey born for 1830s), pen name Hannah Crafts, write The Bondwoman's Narrative after she gain freedom. E fit be di first novel wey African-American woman write, na di only novel wey woman wey run from slavery don write. Hark Olufs (1708–1754), Danish sailor, dem capture am by Algerian pirates. Dem sell am to di Bey of Constantine, and him become Commander in Chief for di Bey's cavalry. Dem release am for 1735. Harriet Balfour (c. 1818–1858), Surinam-born enslaved woman wey free for 1841 and move go Scotland. Harriet Evans Paine, (c. 1822–1917), Texas enslaved woman and later oral historian and storyteller. Harriet Hemings (1801–after 1822), daughter of Sally Hemings and Thomas Jefferson. Harriet Jacobs (1813–1897), author of Incidents in di Life of a Slave Girl. Harriet Powers (1837–1910), American folk artist, and quilter. Harriet Tubman (c. 1822–1913), dem dey call am 'Moses' because of di work wey she dey do to help other American slaves escape through di Underground Railroad. Harry, di plaintiff for di 1818 Harry v. Decker & Hopkins case wey di Supreme Court of Mississippi decide to free person from slavery just because him dey stay for free land. Harry Washington (wey die for 1800), dem dey call am Henry Washington, be slave wey George Washington dey own. Dem transport am go America as slave, and Washington buy am for 1763 to work on project wey go drain di Great Dismal Swamp. Hafsa Sultan (she die March 1534), na Selim I wife and di first real sultan of Ottoman Empire as Suleiman di Magnificent mama. Pipo sabi her background matter dey confuse, but some historians talk say she be slave. Helen Gloag (1750–1790), from Muthill, Perthshire, Scotland, become di Empress of Morocco as di harem slave for Morocco sultan. Henry Bibb (1815–1854), American writer and abolitionist wey born as slave. After e run come out from slavery to British Upper Canada, he start newspaper wey dey call The Voice of the Fugitive. E later come back to U.S. come dey lecture against slavery. Henry Highland Garnet (1815–1882), wey born African-American slave for Maryland, run from slavery for 1824, come become abolitionist and teacher. Hercules (born c. 1755), na di head cook wey George Washington enslave for him plantation, Mount Vernon. E run come gain him freedom for 1797, but him wife Alice and him three pikin still dey enslave. Hermas, wey write di book The Shepherd of Hermas and na Pope Pius I brother. Hernando de Escalante Fontaneda, been born for Cartagena, but e don dey enslave at 13 when di ship wey carry am go Spain for school sink for Florida. Calusa chief take am as slave and use am as translator until dem free am at 30. Horace King (1807–1885), American architect, engineer, and bridge builder, born into slavery for South Carolina plantation. Hümaşah Sultan (fl. 1647–1672) na di wife of Sultan Ibrahim for Ottoman Empire. Hurrem Sultan (c. 1504–1558), wey dem sabi as Roxelana, be Eastern European girl wey slave traders capture and sell to di Imperial Harem, become di chief consort and legal wife of Ottoman sultan Süleyman di Magnificent. Halime Sultan (about 1570–after 1639) be Valide Sultan wey dey rule alongside Ottoman Empire. Handan Sultan (about 1568–1605) too be Valide Sultan and her dey act as regent for the Ottomans. I İbrahim Pasha Ivan Argunov. Self-portrait (late 1750s). İbrahim Pasha (about 1495 – 1536), na first Grand Vizier wey Suleiman the Magnificent appoint. E be Greek by birth, at six years old, dem sell am as slave to Ottoman palace for future sultans, where e meet Suleiman wey dey same age. Icelus Marcianus, na slave and later free guy for Roman emperor Galba for 1st century CE. E be one of three men wey dey control the emperor well well, make Galba no dey popular. Ida B. Wells (1862–1931), na big African-American activist wey born into slavery, but later she dey fight against lynching and fit cancel am. For 1909, she co-found National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). Imma, na Northumbrian noble wey knock for battle and later sabi act like peasant, so say captors no go kill am. Him behavior show say him no be real peasant, and dem sell am into slavery. Isabel de Solís (fl. 1485), na enslaved Castilian concubine for Abu l-Hasan Ali, Sultan of Granada. Isabella Gibbons (1826–1890), become schoolteacher for Virginia after dem liberate am for 1865. Isfandíyár, na enslaved servant for Bahá'u'lláh's house for Tehran, Isfandíyár die for Mazandaran. Israel Jefferson (about 1800–after 1873), wey people sabi as Israel Gillette before 1844, born into slavery for Monticello, Thomas Jefferson estate, and work as domestic servant near Jefferson for many years. Ivan Bolotnikov (1565–1608), na fugitive kholop (enslaved for Russia) and leader of Bolotnikov rebellion for 1606–1607. Ivan Argunov (1729–1802), na Russian serf painter, one of the founders of Russian school of portrait painting. J Jean Parisot de Valette St. Josephine Margaret Bakhita, F.D.C.C. Jack Gladstone, di leader wey lead di Demerara rebellion for 1823. Jackey Wright, na enslaved American woman wey sue for im freedom for di popular 1806 Virginia case, Hudgins v. Wright. Di Virginia Supreme Court talk say Wright look white and Native American, but di lower court under George Wythe dey try arrange say everybody fit be free, no matter di race. Jacob Notaras (fl. 1453), na Byzantine nobleman wey dem carry as slave by Sultan Mehmed di Conqueror when Constantinople fall. Jaja of Opobo (1821–1891), dem sell am around age 12 as slave for di Kingdom of Bonny wey dey Nigeria now. From young, di guy don show say e sabi business, so e find im way come out from slavery, become rich merchant prince and start di Opobo city-state, but British colonizers wey e wan challenge come end im career. James Armistead Lafayette (1760–1830), na enslaved African-American man wey serve di Continental Army for di American Revolutionary War as double agent. James Baugh, na enslaved American wey sue for im freedom because im mama granmama na Indian. James Hemings (1765–1801), na mixed-race American wey dem enslave later free am by Thomas Jefferson. E be di older brother of Sally Hemings and half-brother of Jefferson wife, Martha Wayles Skelton Jefferson, through dia papa John Wayles. James Leander Cathcart (1767–1843), diplomat and sailor wey sabi tell story about 11 years wey e dey enslave for Algiers and e do some big diplomatic work while for slavery. James Poovey (born c. 1769), Philadelphian wey dem enslave am from birth, but e find freedom through peaceful resistance. James M. Priest (1819–1883), 6th Vice President of Liberia, wey born inside slavery for Kentucky. James Somersett, man wey dey enslave for colonial America, escape for England in 1771 with help of Beta British people, wey lead to the big case Somerset v Stewart, wey change the slavery matter for Britain, but not for dem colonies. James W. C. Pennington (c. 1807–1870), African-American writer and abolitionist. Jan Ernst Matzeliger (1852–1889), Surinamese-American wey invent shoe making. Jane Johnson (1814/1827–1872), she gain freedom on July 18, 1855, with her two small pikin while dem dey Philadelphia with her owner. William Still and Passmore Williamson help am, dem be abolitionists for Pennsylvania Anti-Slavery Society. Jean Amilcar (c. 1781–1793), Senegalese son of Marie Antoinette. Jean-Jacques Dessalines (1758–1806), leader of Haitian Revolution and first leader of independent Haiti. Jean Marteilhe (1684–1777), French Huguenot wey be slave narrator, him be galley slave. Jean Saint Malo (died 1784), leader of runaway slaves (maroon colony) for Spanish Louisiana and he name dey for Saint Malo, Louisiana. Jean Parisot de Valette (1495–1568), knight of the Order of Saint John, wey dem capture and make galley slave for 1541 by Barbary pirates. After about one year, dem free am and him later become Grandmaster of the Order. Jefferson F. Long (1836–1901), first former slave wey serve for United States Congress and first African American wey represent Georgia for Congress. Jeffrey Hudson (1619–c. 1682), na English court guy wey spend 25 years for North Africa as slave. Jehan Alard (fl. 1580), na French Huguenot wey dey serve as galley slave for Italy, dem catch am for Inquisition. Jehu Grant (c. 1752–1840), na veteran from Revolutionary War. Jeremiah Haralson (1846–Unknown), na former slave and politician wey represent Alabama for House of Representatives during 44th Congress. Jermain Wesley Loguen (1813–1872), na African-American wey run away from slavery, be abolitionist, bishop of the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church, and e write slave narrative. Jim Cuff or Jim Crow be physically disabled African man wey people talk say e fit dey St. Louis, Cincinnati, or Pittsburgh, e song and dance inspire the blackface song 'Jump Jim Crow' wey white comedian Thomas D. Rice bring come. Rice popular creation make Jim Crow turn bad name for blacks, later dem use am for dem segregation laws. Jim Henson, na African wey escape slavery and publish im memoirs, Broken Shackles, for Canada. Joana da Gama (c. 1520–1586), na Portuguese maid-of-honor and writer. Joe, na man wey William B. Travis, one of the Texian commanders for Battle of Alamo enslaved. After dem lose, Mexican General Santa Anna spare Joe, hoping say e go fit convince other slaves for Texas to support Mexican government instead of Texian rebels. After that, Joe and some survivors go Gonzales, dem encourage dem to talk about the battle and tell Texian forces say Santa Anna army no fit beat. John Axouch (1087–1150), na Seljuk Turk wey dem capture as pikin by Byzantine Empire, dem free am and raise am for di imperial house as John II Komnenos wey go be emperor future friend. When him take over, dem put am for di army command and e be di emperor only close pal and confidant. John Boston (c. 1832–after 1880), na former slave wey dey represent Darlington County for South Carolina House during di Reconstruction era. Him dey involved for community work and, as minister, him start di Lamar Colored Methodist Church for 1865. By 1880, him don turn farmer. John 'Lit' Fleming, born for slavery for Virginia but later move go Edmundson, Arkansas with him papa and siblings. E go move go Memphis, Tennessee, and be part owner of di newspaper Memphis Free Speech with activist Ida B. Wells-Barnett. John Munroe Brazealle, with him mama, dem case dey Hinds v. Brazealle (1838), for di Supreme Court of Mississippi, wey deny di legality and inheritance rights for Mississippi for manumission wey Elisha Brazealle, wey dey Ohio, do to free dem. John Brown (c. 1810–1876), wey escape and write about di conditions for di Deep South of United States. John Casor, na di first person wey dey enslaved as result of civil case for di Thirteen Colonies (Virginia Colony, 1655). John Ezzidio (c. 1810–1872), na enslaved Nigerian man wey turn successful politician and businessman for Sierra Leone. John Adams Hyman (1840-1891), na former slave and politician wey serve for di North Carolina Senate and later be di first African American to represent di state for Congress. John Jea (born 1773), na enslaved African-American man wey popular for him 1811 autobiography, The Life, History, and Unparalleled Sufferings of John Jea, di African Preacher. John Joyce wey dem born am for slavery for Maryland, serve for United States Navy, do plenty work after, and kill shopkeeper, Sarah Cross; him life and crime dey for murder stories wey dem dey talk for him time. John R. Jewitt (1783–1821), small English man wey dey make armor, spend three years as prisoner for Maquinna of the Nuu-chah-nulth people for Pacific coast wey dey for Canada now. John R. Lynch (1847–1939), former slave and politician wey serve for Mississippi House of Representatives, be the first African American wey lead state legislative chamber. Later he go serve for United States House of Representatives and write The Facts of Reconstruction to answer dem wey dey talk bad about Reconstruction time policies. John Punch (fl. 1630s, live 1640), na enslaved African man wey dey for Virginia Colony for 17th century. For July 1640, Virginia Governor's Council punish am to serve for him whole life because e run go Maryland. Historians dey call Punch the 'first official slave for the English colonies,' and him case na the 'first time dem make slavery forever for the Chesapeake.' Historians also sabi say this one be the first legal line wey dem draw between Europeans and Africans for the colony, and na important step for slavery matter for United States. John S. Jacobs (1815–1873), wey dem born into slavery for North Carolina, escape, become abolitionist speaker and write slave memoir. Him be brother of famous author Harriet Jacobs. John Smith (1580–1631), English soldier, sailor, and author wey everybody sabi for him role wey help Jamestown colony survive for Virginia. Smith dey captured by Crimean Tatars for 1602 while him dey fight for Wallachia and dem make am slave for Ottoman Empire, but him escape come England by 1604. As Smith talk am: 'we all dey sell for slaves, like goat for market-place.' Jordan Anderson (1825–1907), wey people sabi well well for di letter wey he gree send to im old master when dem call am make he come back to serve dem. Jordan Winston Early (1814–after 1894) na American Methodist preacher wey get different blood, and dem write book about im life as slave. John White, na black boy wey Creeks capture for 1797, but he escape come back New Orleans, only to find Spanish people don carry am go back to slavery. John Ystumllyn, wey dem dey call Jac Du or Jack Black, na 18th-century Welsh gardener, di first Black person wey record well for North Wales. Jonathan Strong, na di person wey dem dey talk about one of di first legal cases wey concern slavery for Britain. José Antonio Aponte, na di leader of Aponte conspiracy. Joseph, na important person for Old Testament and Quran. Joseph Antonio Emidy (1775–1835), violinist wey born for Africa, die for Cornwall. Joseph Cinqué (1814–1879), wey dem know as Sengbe Pieh, na di leader of slave rebellion for di slave ship La Amistad and di case wey follow for Supreme Court, United States v. Amistad for 1839. Joseph Jackson Fuller (1825–1908), one of di earliest slaves wey gree free for Jamaica, at first under di partial freedoms of 1833 Slavery Abolition Act. Joseph Knight, wey succeed find im freedom through court case for Scotland in 1777, case wey make Scots law no go support slavery. Josephine Bakhita (c. 1869–1947), Sudanese-born Roman Catholic Canossian nun and saint. Joshua Glover, na fugitive wey slavery people chase am but abolitionists help am for Racine, Wisconsin in 1854. Josiah T. Walls (c. 1842–1905), former slave wey turn politician wey don serve for di two chambers of Florida State Legislature, na di first African American wey represent di state for Congress. Juan de Pareja (1606–1670), man wey Spanish artist Diego Velázquez enslave am. Velázquez teach am how to paint and free am for 1650. Juan Francisco Manzano (c. 1797–1854), Cuban poet. Juan Gros, free black soldier wey Upper Creek catch near Pensacola, sell am to white trader wey carry am go sell to Mitasuki chief Kinache, wey Spanish people come pay ransom for am. Juan Latino, dem dey call am "el negro Juan Latino", from Ethiopia, dem carry am go Spain when e small, e go school and become Latin professor for University of Granada, 16th-century Spain. Juan Ortiz, young nobleman from Andalucía wey Chief Ucita enslave for Florida to take revenge for wetin happen to am during the expedition. Juan Valiente (died 1553), black African slave wey get chance to be conquistador. E die during the battle of Tucapel against Mapuche people for Chile. Juana Ramírez (1790–1856), rebel soldier and heroine for Venezuelan War of Independence. Julia Chinn, enslave woman wey be octoroon and common-law wife to Richard Mentor Johnson, 9th Vice President of the United States. Julia Frances Lewis, mama to Amanda American Dickson through her owner’s son. Juliana, Guaraní woman from Paraguay, wey famous for kill her Spanish enslaver between 1538 and 1542 and encourage other women to do same. Julius Soubise (1754–1798) be freed Afro-Caribbean slave wey become popular fop for late eighteenth-century Britain. Julius Zoilos, enslave by Julius Caesar. After him get freedom, e shine for him city Aphrodisias after Caesar die. Jupiter Hammon (1711–before 1806), for 1761, become the first African-American writer wey dem publish for the present-day United States. Born for slavery, Hammon never get freedom. Dem dey consider am one of the founders of African-American literature. K Kösem Sultan (1589–1651), na slave concubine just like all di other pipo wey dey di Imperial Harem. Kunta Kinte (c. 1750–c. 1822), na character from di 1976 novel Roots: Di Saga of an American Family wey author Alex Haley base on one of him real ancestors. Kinte be man wey dey come from di Mandinka pipo, he grow for small village wey dem dey call Juffure for wetin we sabi as The Gambia, and dem raise am as Muslim before dem capture am and turn am slave for Virginia. Di historical accuracy of Haley's story get debate. Kodjo (c. 1803–1833), na Surinamese slave wey dem burn alive fit start di 1832 fire for Paramaribo, Dutch Suriname, maybe as way to show resistance. Kösem Sultan (1589–1651), na Ottoman enslaved woman, wey later become very powerful as wife, then mother and later grandmother of di Ottoman sultan during di 130-year wey dem dey call di Sultanate of Women. L Laurens de Graaf Lalla Balqis (1670–after 1721), na English woman wey dem capture and turn slave by Corsairs, dem include am for di harem of di Sultan of Morocco. Lamhatty, na Tawasa Indian wey dem capture and enslave by Creek; him escape. Lampegia (die after 730), Aquitanian noblewoman, wey Abd al-Rahman ibn Abd Allah al-Ghafiqi capture, wey in 730 take di Llivia Fortress, kill her husband Munuza and send her go as slave for di harem of Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik for Damascus. La Mulâtresse Solitude (1772–1802), na slave for di island of Guadeloupe wey dem free in 1794 when dem abolish slavery during di French Revolution. Dem execute am after she fight for freedom when slavery come back because Napoleon in 1802. Laurens de Graaf (c. 1653–1704), na Dutch pirate, mercenary, and naval officer, wey dem enslave by Spanish slave traders when dem capture am for wetin we dey call Netherlands, and dem carry am go di Canary Islands to work for plantation before 1674. Lear Green (around 1839–1860), one African-American woman from Maryland wey run go freedom for New York by fitting inside box make dem carry am. Leo Africanus (1494–1554), one Moor wey born for Granada, dem carry am go Morocco in 1498 because of Spanish wahala. As adult, he dey do diplomatic work. Crusaders catch am for Middle East, dem carry am go Rome make he be slave and convert to Christianity. Later, he get him freedom back and live him life for Tunis. Leofgifu, wey be dairy maid, na one enslaved woman for Anglo-Saxon England, dem mention am for her freedom paper. Leoflaed, another enslaved woman for Anglo-Saxon England, man buy her freedom wey describe her as “kinswoman.” Leonor de Mendoza, enslaved woman for colonial Mexico wey wan marry Tomás Ortega wey be slave for another master; when her master put Tomás for prison, she go church court beg make dem help, dem even threaten say if him no free Tomás, e go fit face excommunication. Letitia Munson (around 1820–after 1882), na midwife wey don come out from slavery, dem don free her for doing illegal abortion for Canada. Lewis Adams (1842–1905), man wey don free from slavery, wey co-found Tuskegee Institute, now Tuskegee University for Alabama. Lewis Hayden (1811–1889), na African-American man from Kentucky, later dem elect am for Massachusetts General Court. Lilliam Williams, settler from Tennessee wey Creek catch while she dey pregnant. Creek adopt her pikin (wey she name Molly and dem name Esnahatchee); dem keep the girl when Williams arrange her freedom. Liol, one Chinese man wey dem carry as slave by Mongol bannerman Soosar. E get semi-independent status for dem. In 1735, him pikin Fuji try claim say him and him brother be Manchus but e no work. Lorenzo de Apapis (around 1501–1586), priest and notary from Gozitan wey dey slavery during 1551 Ottoman attack for Gozo. Dem ransom am and free am by 1553. Lott Cary (about 1780–1828), wey dem born am as African-American slave for Virginia, buy im freedom around 1813, move go Liberia for 1822, where e serve as colonial administrator.[1] Louis Hughes (1832–1913), African-American man wey run away from slavery, author, and businessman.[2] Lovisa von Burghausen (1698–1733), Swedish writer wey publish story of how dem enslave am for Russia after dem capture am during the Great Northern War. Lucius Agermus, freedman of Agrippina the Elder.[3] Lucius Aurelius Hermia, freedman butcher wey his tombstone dey praise im marriage with his fellow freedwoman Aurelia Philematium.[4] Lucius Cancrius Primigenius, freedman of Clemens for one inscription wey dey thank am for breaking spells wey dey affect the city.[5] Lucius of Campione, wey lose lawsuit for 8th century about man Toto wey claim ownership of am.[6] Lucy, di black woman wey John Lang enslave. Dem capture her by di Creek wen she dey 12 years and keep her as slave for Creek land, where she born slave children and grandchildren.[7] Lucy Ann (Berry) Delaney (1830–1891), former enslaved woman, daughter of Polly Berry. Lucy Higgs Nichols (1838–1915), wey escape slavery, serve as nurse for di Civil War, member of di Grand Army of di Republic. Lucy Terry (about 1733–1821), dem kidnap her for Africa and enslave her, dem carry am go British colony of Rhode Island. She later gain freedom and become poet. Luís Gama (1830–1882), wey born free for Brazil, illegally sell am into slavery as pikin, he regain freedom as adult and become lawyer wey free plenty people from slavery without asking for money, especially for di Netto Case. Lunsford Lane (1803–after 1870), na enslaved African-American guy wey dey North Carolina wey buy him freedom and him family too. Him write one slave story. Lyde, na woman wey dem free from slavery by Roman empress Livia. Lydia, na woman wey dem shoot when she try run away from her captor wey dey whip am. Supreme Court of North Carolina talk say na legal in 1830 (check North Carolina v. Mann). Lydia Carter, dey call am 'Little Osage Captive,' dem catch am among Cherokee. Na Lydia Carter go pay money come free am and she name her. Osage try take am back, but she fall sick and die. Lydia Polite, na mother of Robert Smalls. M Mikhail Shchepkin Macuncuzade Mustafa Efendi (wey born around 1550s), na Ottoman qadi and poet wey suffer for slavery for Malta after di ship wey e dey waka for capture by di Knights Hospitaller for 1597. Dem release am for 1600, and e write story about im captivity. Madison Hemings (1805–1877), na di pikin of Sally Hemings and Thomas Jefferson. Mae Louise Miller (1943–2014), American woman wey dey live for modern slavery (peonage) till 1961. Malgarida (wey born around 1488), black African woman and boyfriend of di conquistador Diego de Almagro. For 1536, she be di first non-indigenous woman wey enter di land wey we call Chile today. Malik Ambar, wey born for 1548 as Chapu, na im birth-name for Harar, Adal Sultanate wey dey Ethiopia today. Im come from di Maya ethnic group wey don disappear. As small pikin, im parents sell am for slavery. Mir Qasim Al Baghdadi, one of di people wey own am, convert Chapu come Islam and give am di name Ambar, after e sabi sey di boy get sharp brain. Malik waka go India as slave. For India, e create mercenary group wey reach 1500 men. Di group dey for di Deccan region and local kings dey hire dem. Malik become popular Prime Minister for Ahmadnagar Sultanate, show sey e sabi how to manage. E also dey regarded as pacesetter for guerilla warfare for di area. Dem dey credit am with managing tax collection for plenty for di Deccan, wey set di ground for future collections. Di Siddis of Gujarat dey respect am well. E match di strength of di Mughals and Adil Shah of Bijapur, lift di low status of di Nizam Shah. Margaret Himfi (before 1380–after 1408), na Hungarian woman wey dem carry go enslave by Ottoman bad guys for late 14th century. She later become slave mistress for one rich Venetian man for Crete, wey she born two daughters for. Margaret manage come back to Hungary for 1405. Margaret Morgan dey involved for Prigg v. Pennsylvania case wey United States Supreme Court rule say federal Fugitive Slave Act no go allow Pennsylvania law wey stop blacks from chop dey carry dem go slavery, an dem clear Edward Prigg case because of dat. Marguerite Duplessis (c. 1718–after 1740) na Pawnee woman wey dem enslave for Montreal wey, for 1740, try sue for her freedom but e no work. Marguerite Scypion (c. 1770s–after 1836) na African-Natchez woman wey born for slavery for St. Louis wey go sue for her freedom and eventually win am. Maria al-Qibtiyya (died 637), wey dem dey call “Maria the Copt” or sometimes Maria Qupthiya, na Copt woman wey dem send give Muhammad as gift from Muqawqis, one Byzantine big man, for 628, an she become Muhammad concubine. She be mama to Muhammad son Ibrahim wey die for small pikin age. Her sister, Sirin, sef go meet Muhammad. Muhammad give am to him guy Hassan ibn Thabit. Maria die five years after Muhammad die for 632. Maria (died 1716), na leader for slave uprising for Curaçao. Maria Boguslavka (17th century), na Ukrainian woman wey dem enslave for harem, she start help 30 Cossacks run away from slavery. Maria Guyomar de Pinha (1664–1728), na royal chef from Siam wey get Japanese-Portuguese blood. Maria Perkins, na enslave woman from Virginia wey write letter to her husband for 1852 say dem don sell their son away. Maria ter Meetelen (1704–after 1751), na Dutch writer wey tell her own slave story, dem carry her go enslave by pirates and later sell am to Sultan of Morocco. Her 1748 biography na important witness statement about life of former slave. Mariah Bell Winder McGavock Otey Reddick (she die 1922), as she be small girl, dem give am as wedding gift to Carrie Winder when she marry John McGavock for 1848 inside Terrebonne Parish, Louisiana. Mariah wey born for Mississippi as enslaved person, dem carry am go Franklin, Tennessee, where she spend plenty of her life. Dem match her with Harvey Otey after him first wife Phebe die. Dem get plenty pikin, including two set of twins, wey born into slavery. When Civil War start, dem send her go Montgomery make she dey far from Union lines and possible freedom. She don appear for three novels: Widow of the South and Orphan Mother wey Robert Hicks write and also for book wey her great-grandson William 'Damani' Keene and him wife Carole 'Ife' Keene write titled Clandestine: The Times and Secret Life of Mariah Otey Reddick. Marianna Malińska (she die after 1797), Polish serf and Royal Ballet Dancer, dem donates am to king of Poland by will. Marie (she die 1759), enslaved Cree woman wey get death sentence for Trois-Rivières, New France. Marie-Cessette Dumas, woman wey Marquis Antoine de la Pailleterie enslaved, she be mama of General Thomas-Alexandre Dumas, and grandmother of famous author Alexandre Dumas, père. Marie-Josèphe dite Angélique (she die 1734), black Portuguese enslaved woman wey dem try and convict, beat and hang because she set fire to her woman owner house, wey burn plenty of wetin dem dey call Old Montreal now. Marie Thérèse Metoyer, na planter and businesswoman wey dey Natchitoches, Louisiana after dem free her. Mark, one man from Massachusetts wey dey enslaved by Captain John Codman. Mark body dey display for chains for public near Charlestown, Massachusetts for twenty years. That gruesome display of him body dey popular well-well for that time, and na the place wey dem display Mark body make Paul Revere mention am as landmark for him 1798 account of him 1775 midnight ride. Martha Ann Erskine Ricks (1817–1901), na African-American wey dey born enslave for Tennessee, later she become Americo-Liberian wey sabi quilt. Marthe Franceschini (1755–1799), na Italian wey dem capture and enslave by Corsairs, enter Sultan of Morocco harem. Mary, wey be George Washington Carver mama. Mary (wey die 1838), na teenager wey dem hang for murder wey she do to Vienna Brinker, two-year-old girl wey she dey take care of. Mary Black, one of three enslave women wey dem charge for witchcraft during Salem witch trials for 1692. Mary Calhoun, white woman and cousin of John C. Calhoun wey dem kidnap by Cherokee. She no fit come back home. Mary Edmonson (1832–1853), with her sister Emily, dem try escape for 1848 wey dem dey call Pearl incident, but Henry Ward Beecher and him church gather money help free dem. Mary Eliza Smith, dem dey call 'slave' or 'former slave,' na common-law wife of Michael Morris Healy and mama of him pikin dem, wey include James Augustine Healy, Patrick Francis Healy, Michael A. Healy, and Eliza Healy. Mary Fields (c. 1832–1914): she be first African-American female wey dey carry mail for United States star route. Mary Mildred Williams, Nee Botts (born 1847), na the original 'Poster Child' wey dem use her picture push abolitionist cause by dey spread 'White Slavery' for 1855. Mary Prince (c. 1788–after 1833), her life story motivate anti-slavery movement for England. The Master of Morton and e first son of Clan Oliphant Chief, two Scottish noble wey dem exile from Scotland after 1582 Raid of Ruthven. Dem ship wey dem travel with vanish for sea, and dem talk say na Dutch ship catch dem. Last report be say dem dey enslave for Turkish ship for Mediterranean. Dem raise plaque for church for Algiers to remember dem. Masúd, dem buy am when e be pikin from Khál-i Akbar, wey be Báb uncle, Masúd go serve Bahá'u'lláh for Acre. Matilda McCrear (around 1857–1940), last person wey survive for US wey gree say Transatlantic slave trade no easy. Dem carry am go for slave ship Clotilda. Mende Nazer (born around 1982), Nuba woman wey dem capture for Darfur carry am from Sudan go London, later she get refugee status and write book wey title Slave: My True Story (2002). Menecrates of Tralles, na Greek doctor wey dey for 1st century BC. Metaneira, woman for ancient Greece wey dem talk say na Nicarete property, wey dey sell am for body. Michael Shiner (1805–1880), en slaved laborer, painter entrepreneur, community leader and diary writer for Washington Navy Yard. Miguel de Buría (around 1510–around 1555), na slave and rebel. Miguel Perez na the Spanish name of boy wey be Yojuane people, wey dey among 149 Yojuane women and children wey dem carry go as captive for 1759 when some Spanish and Apaches come attack their camp along Red River for northern Texas. Many of dem wey dem capture die from smallpox, the ones wey survive, dem go still enslave dem. Dem sell the boy to Spanish soldier wey give am that Spanish name. Perez become Hispanicized Indian for San Antonio but he still dey connect with his Yojuane people. For 1786, Perez go persuade the Yojuanes and their Tonkawa friends to fight Lipan Apache, wey he do am well. Mikhail Matinsky (1750–1820), Russian serf wey be scientist, dramatist, librettist and opera composer. Michał Rymiński (e don die after 1797), Polish serf wey be Royal Ballet Dancer, wey donate am to king of Poland by him will. Mikhail Shchepkin (1788–1863), Russian serf actor. Mikhail Shibanov, Russian serf painter wey dey active for 1780s. Mikhail Tikhanov (1789–1862), Russian serf artist. Mina Kolokolnikov (1708?–1775?), Russian serf painter and teacher. Mingo, di 15–16 years old boy wey Titsworth family use as slave for Tennessee, dem capture am for 1794 by Creeks when dem raid di house. Minerva (Anderson) Breedlove, na Madam C.J. Walker mama. Moses A. Hopkins (1846–1886), African-American diplomat, U.S. minister to Liberia. Murad Agha (c. 1480–c. 1556), Italy-born Ottoman eunuch and naval officer, wey turn Beylerbey of Tripoli. Mustapha Khaznadar (1817–1878), him be Christian Greek wey dem capture during 1822 Massacre of Chios, change am to Islam wey dem call am Mustapha, sell am for Constantinople to envoy of Husainid Dynasty. Him grow for Mustapha Bey family, later him son Ahmad I Bey. Him first be prince private treasurer before him become Ahmad state treasurer (khaznadar). Him rise to top offices for Tunisian state, marry Princess Lalla Kalthoum for 1839, turn lieutenant-general of di army, become bey for 1840 and de president of Grand Council from 1862 to 1878. Muyahid ibn Yusuf ibn Ali (11th century), na di leader of Saqaliba (slaves wey dem say be Slavic origin) for Dénia, Spain. As Caliphate of Córdoba dey fall, him and him followers rebel, free demself, control di city and establish di Taifa of Dénia, wey at di peak dey reach as far as di island of Majorca. N Nafisa al-Bayda, Egyptian investor wey dem dey call "white slave", na hin dey buy as concubine slave. Nancy, wey dem dey call Ann, na di plaintiff for di 1799 New Brunswick habeas corpus case R v Jones. Nancy Brown, Nancy Caffrey, na white captive wey Creek dey enslave. When trader John O'Reilly try to ransom her and Elsey Thompson, dem tell am say dem no capture dem to go back, but to work. Nanny of di Maroons, wey dem dey call Granny Nanny and Queen Nanny, na di leader of di Jamaican Maroons. Nat Turner (1800–1831), wey escape come lead revolt for Southampton County, Virginia. Nathan McMillian, wey as free man sue to make him pikin enter local "Croatan Indian" school, say e dey for all non-white pikin, and say him pikin get Croatan blood for their mama side. Nathaniel Booth (1826–1901), wey escape slavery for Virginia and settle for Lowell, Massachusetts. For 1851, di people of Lowell buy him freedom from slave hunters. Neaera, formerly enslaved woman and prostitute wey di Athenian Stephanus marry against di law around 340 BC, according to Demosthenes speech. Nero Hawley (1742–1817), wey be formerly enslaved freeperson wey serve for Continental Army during di American Revolutionary War, and dem bury am for Trumbull, Connecticut. Newport Gardner (1746–1826), na formerly enslaved freeperson for colonial Newport, Rhode Island. Ng Akew (died 1880), be Tanka enslaved woman for British Hong Kong wey famous for piracy scandal. Nicarete, na woman for ancient Greece, wey dem describe for Against Neaera di freedwoman of Charisius di Elean and him wife wey be cook Hippias, and as her dey own and sell several women around 340 BC. Saint Nino (c. 280–c. 332), na 4th-century Roman woman from Constantinople wey dem dey respect well well for bring Christianity come Georgia. Some account of her life talk say she originally come Georgia as slave wey dem kidnap from her homeland. Nurbanu Sultan (about 1525–1583), wey dem call Cecilia Venier-Baffo before, na enslaved noblewoman from Venice wey become the favorite wife of Ottoman sultan Selim II, and her wan dey very powerful as mother to sultan Murad III. O Omar ibn Said, Senegal scholar wey don dey slavery for North Carolina more than 50 years, around 1850. Oenomaus, Gallic gladiator wey lead slaves wey dey rebel during Third Servile War. Olaudah Equiano (c. 1745–1797), wey dem sabi as Gustavus Vassa, strong African-British writer wey dey fight for abolition, but dem no sure where e born. Omar ibn Said (1770–1864), writer and Islamic scholar wey come from Senegal wey dem carry go USA for 1807, spend di rest of im life for slavery. Onesimus, slave of Philemon from Colossae wey run away, meet St. Paul, and Paul change am. Paul send am back go Philemon with letter, wey be Epistle to Philemon. Ignatius of Antioch talk about an Onesimus wey be Bishop of Ephesus for early 2nd century, but nobody sure if na di same people. Onesimus, slave for colonial Boston wey help spread knowledge about smallpox inoculation. Onesimos Nesib (c. 1856–1931), Ethiopian wey Swedish missionaries buy out of slavery when e be pikin. E work with another former slave Aster Ganno to translate Bible into Oromo language. Oney Judge (1773–1848), wey dem enslave for Martha Washington family, and later for di First Lady, Judge dey work for Mount Vernon and all over as personal servant to Martha Washington until she escape for 1796 go Portsmouth New Hampshire. Ottobah Cugoano, wey dem sabi as John Stuart (c. 1757–after 1791), be abolitionist, political activist, and natural rights philosopher from West Africa wey dey active for Britain. Owen Fitzpen (c. 1582–1636), English merchant wey Barbary pirates carry capture for 1620 but escape later. Owen Breedlove, papa of Madam C.J. Walker. P Pallas, secretary wey dey work for Roman emperor Claudius. Pasion, na enslaved Athenian guy wey be banker. E later get dat rare chance for freedman to get citizen. Pata Seca (real name na Roque José Florêncio), wey come from Angola for 1828, dem capture am come Brazil as slave, na tall, strong guy: 2m18 tall plus over 140 kg weight. E dey work as breeding slave, e don born over 200 pikin. When dem cancel slavery for Brazil for 1888, e get land, wey e live with e wife and 9 children. Saint Patrick, dem kidnap am from Britain, enslave for Ireland, escape go Britain, come back to Ireland as missionary. Patsey (born around 1830), na enslaved African-American wey dey live for mid-1800s for South Carolina. Paul Jennings (1799–1874), na personal servant wey dem enslave under President James Madison during e White House time, e buy im freedom for 1845 from Daniel Webster. E publish di first White House memoir, 1865's A Colored Man's Reminiscences of James Madison. Paul Smith, na free black wey accuse di Cherokee headman Doublehead say e kidnap am and force am into bondage. Pedro Camejo (1790–1821), na Venezuelan soldier for di Venezuelan War of Independence. Peggy Margaret Titsworth, dem enslave am at 13 years for three years, after Creek raid for 1794 on her Tennessee home. Pete and Hannah Byrne, na freed slaves from Napoleon Bonaparte Byrne family wey travel from Missouri to California by land (six months journey) for 1859, dem leave di farm for Missouri carry six adults (including Pete & Hannah), di four Byrne children and cattle come settle for Berkeley, California. Pete and Hannah be di first blacks wey dey live for Berkeley and among di first African-Americans for California. Peter Salem (c. 1750–1816), African American wey born for slavery for Massachusetts, serve as soldier for American Revolutionary War. Petronia Justa, woman wey dey Herculaneum, sue her owner say she born after her mama don freedom; Vesuvius eruption preserve di court matter. Phaedo of Elis, wey dem capture for war, carry go Athens, force am to do prostitution, later become Socrates student wey free am, give him name to one Plato dialogue, Phaedo, and him be famous philosopher. Phaedrus (c. 15 BCE–c. 50 CE), Roman storyteller. Praskovia Kovalyova-Zhemchugova dress fine for Les mariages samnites by André Ernest Modeste Grétry. Phillis (die 1755), woman wey dey Massachusetts, enslave by Captain John Codman. She and her people plot to poison her owner as dem no fit take di wahala from their master, but dem burn am to death for 1755. Phillis Wheatley (1753–1784?), Colonial American poet, second published African-American poet and first African-American woman wey publish. Phoebe, woman wey dey slavery wey sue for her freedom for Tennessee, with her pikin Davy and Tom, say dem be descendants of one enslaved Indian woman wey prove say dem no suppose hold dem. Philocrates, wey dey slavery under Roman reformer Gaius Gracchus. He stay with him master when Gracchus dey run from him enemies, everybody don leave am. When dem reach one grove wey dey sacred to di Furies, Philocrates help Gracchus kill himself first before he take him own life, some talk say dem kill am after him refuse to let go him master body. Phormion, one enslaved man from Athens wey dey do banking. For him old age, dem give am rare honor of citizenship as free man. Pierre d'Espagnac, sometimes Pierre d'Espagnal (1650–1689), na French Jesuit missionary, dem enslave am by di Siamese. Pope Pius I (e die around 154), na Bishop for Rome from around 140 to 154, when dem dey reign under Roman emperor Antoninus Pius. E be brother to freedman Hermas, so e fit don be former slave too, but dem no talk am clear for di small records wey dey about e life. Pleasant Richardson, wey escape slavery become Union soldier plus property owner for Fincastle, Virginia. Polly, di subject of 1820 Indiana Supreme Court case Polly v. Lasselle, wey make all slaves wey dey Indiana go free. Polly Berry, wey dem also dey call Polly Crockett or Polly Wash, win freedom suit for 1843 for St. Louis, Missouri plus she free her daughter Lucy Ann Berry too. Politoria, wey get lead curse tablet for ancient Rome; na curse on Clodia Valeria Sophrone say make she no fit get Politoria into her power. E look like say she be slave-courtesan wey dey fear say dem go send am go brothel. Praskovia Kovalyova-Zhemchugova (1768–1803) na Russian serf actress plus soprano opera singer. Primus (1700–1791), wey Daniel Fowle from Portsmouth, New Hampshire enslave. Primus dey run di press for di New Hampshire Gazette wey be di oldest newspaper wey still dey print for America. Prince na di slave of Choctaw man wey name Richard Harkins. E vex say him owner no give di slaves Christmas celebration, Prince kill am sharply and dump di body for river for 1858. Prince Boston (born 1750), sue for him freedom and win for 1773 U.S. jury trial. Prince Estabrook (1741–1830), wey Benjamin Estabrook enslave; join fight for Continental Army and get wound for di Battle of Lexington and Concord. Prince Whipple (1750–1796), enslave by American General William Whipple. Prosper, na enslaved man wey dem murder for 1807 for Virgin Islands by him owner Arthur William Hodge, and Hodge go face trial and dem execute am for 1811, na di first case wey dem fit record like dat. One pregnant Thrall wey we no fit remember the name, dey run from her life for 11th-century Oslo, Hallvard Vebjørnsson carry am go hide for him boat. Dem people come attack dem, shoot dem with arrow, and both of dem die. Because of dat, dem make Hallvard saint and him be patron saint for Oslo. Publilius Syrus (fl. 85–43 BCE), na Latin writer wey sabi plenty for him wise sayings. E be Syrian wey dem carry come Italy as slave. Q Quamina Gladstone, him be Jack Gladstone papa and e dey involve for Demerara rebellion wey happen for 1823. Quassi van Timotebo or Kwasimukamba (1692–1787) na Surinam slave, wey don free and na Maroon hunter for Dutch Surinam. Him name dey for plant genus wey dem call Quassia. Quock Walker, wey dem dey call Kwaku or Quok Walker too, him sue and win him freedom for 1781 because of new Massachusetts Constitution (1780) wey talk say all men dem dey born free and equal. Qutb-ud-din Aybak or Qutbuddin Aibak (1150–1210), na Turk wey don suffer slavery before, become soldier, be first Sultan of Delhi, for India e start "slave dynasty". R Rachel, na the person wey dey the 1834 Rachel v. Walker case for Supreme Court of Missouri wey rule say U.S. Army officer go lose him slave if e carry the person go place wey slavery no dey allowed. Dis ruling come dey used as example for 1856 for Dred Scott v. Sandford case for U.S. Supreme Court. Rachel of Kittery, Maine (she die 1695), na enslaved woman wey her owner kill, and e case set legal example for New England. Rachel Knight (she die 1889), at first na enslaved by Newton Knight grandpapa, wey be popular Southern Unionist wey during American Civil War, e no gree Confederacy, wey dem dey call Free State of Jones. After the war, Rachel come get freedom with other slaves. By mid-1870s, Knight don separate from him wife, Serena, come marry Rachel. During this time, Knight grown son, Mat (from him first wife), come marry Rachel grown daughter, Fannie, from her previous relationship. Knight daughter, Molly, come marry Rachel son, Jeff, turns three interracial families for the community. Newton and Rachel Knight born plenty children before she die for 1889. Rebecca Huger, na enslaved woman wey General Benjamin F. Butler free for New Orleans, and dem talk for Harper's Weekly say she be white, come dey go school for freed slaves for Philadelphia. Richard Preston (around 1791–1861), e comot from slavery come be religious leader and abolitionist for Nova Scotia. Robert Blake, e get Medal of Honor as sailor during American Civil War, after e become 'contraband' (slaves wey Union forces free) come join. Robert Drury (1687–1743/1750), English sailor wey shipwreck for Madagascar island in 1702, e dey slave there till 1717. Robert J. Patterson (1809–1884), e run from slavery for Virginia come be restaurateur for Saint John, New Brunswick. Robert Smalls (1839–1915), e take charge of Confederate ship, carry the ship and enslaved people go freedom, make Union allow African Americans join; later e serve for South Carolina Senate before e enter U.S. House of Representatives wey represent South Carolina's 5th congressional district. Robin and Polly Holmes, na dem be plaintiffs for the 1853 Holmes v. Ford court case for Oregon Territory wey free their pikin dem. The verdict confirm say slavery no dey legal for that area as Organic Laws of Oregon talk when the place become U.S. territory. Rosina Downs, na enslaved woman wey General Benjamin F. Butler free for New Orleans, dem describe am for Harper's Weekly say she look white, and she come school for emancipated slaves for Philadelphia. Roustam Raza (1783–1845), na Napoleon Bonaparte's Armenian bodyguard. S Solomon Northup wey come from Twelve Years a Slave Sabuktigin (c. 942–997), full name Abu Mansur Sabuktigin, be small pikin wey dem carry go sell for slavery, but e rise come be general, then king wey start the Ghaznavid Empire for medieval Iran. Safiye Sultan (c. 1550 – c. 1619), na enslaved woman wey be Albanian, dem put am for harem of Ottoman sultan Murad III, and she be the mama of sultan Mehmed III. Salem Poor (1747–1802), na enslaved African-American man wey buy im freedom, and e be war hero during the American Revolutionary War. Sally Hemings (1773–1835), na mixed-race woman wey dem enslave by Thomas Jefferson, plenty people dey believe say she born six pikin for am, four of dem survive grow reach adult. Sally Miller or Salomé Müller (born c. 1814), na enslaved American woman wey file her freedom case for Louisiana based on say she dey claim say she be free German immigrant and indentured servant. Sally Seymour (died 1824), na American pastry chef and restaurateur, enslaved woman wey dem free and she come own her own slaves too. Salonia na di second wife of Cato di Elder. Salvius, wey dem sabi as Tryphon, be leader of di 104 BCE slave rebellion for Sicily wey dem call di Second Servile War. Sambo (died 1736), na enslaved boy wey enter Sunderland Point, near Lancaster, England, around 1736 from West Indies as captain servant. Dem bury am for grave wey no dey blessed inside one field near small village of Sunderland Point, Lancashire, England. Sambo, a black guy wey dey under Tiger King, one Lower Creek, wey tell traveler William Bartram say Sambo be him family property. Samson Rowlie (wey die after 1588), wey dem sabi as Hassan Aga, Chief Eunuch and Treasurer for Algiers. Samuel Benedict (1792–1854), wey born be African-American slave, later become free and waka go Liberia, where he turn politician and judge. Samuel Green (c. 1802–1877), one enslaved man wey buy him freedom and freedom for him loved ones, dey involve for Underground Railroad, and dem lock him up for 1857 because e carry Uncle Tom's Cabin. Samuel Ringgold Ward (1817–c. 1866), African-American wey dey fight for abolition and be journalist. Sandy Jenkins, na person wey dey enslave wey Frederick Douglass talk for him first autobiography. Sanker, na manservant wey dey work for Samuel R. Watkins, wey write "Co. Aytch" (1882), wey dey tell how him life be as soldier for the 1st Tennessee Infantry Regiment. Sarah Forbes Bonetta (1843–1880), na Egbado princess from Yoruba wey lose her people during fight, sell into slavery as small pikin, but Captain Frederick E. Forbes from Royal Navy come rescue am carry am go UK wey she con become goddaughter to Queen Victoria. Sarah Basset (die 1730), wey dey enslave for Bermuda; dem execute am for poison matter wey involve three people. Sarah Johnson (1844–1920), her life for the first president plantation dey published for book wey dem call "Sarah Johnson's Mount Vernon." Satrelanus, from Gaul, wey Ermedruda sell give Toto for Milan for 725. Scipio Africanus (around 1702–1720). Scipio Moorhead (fl. 1773–1775), na enslaved African-American artist. Scipio Vaughan (around 1784–around 1840), dem carry am komot from him place for Africa young, sell am go slavery for United States. E turn skilled artisan for Camden, South Carolina; manage get him freedom and inspire plenty of him pikin dem. Septimus Clarke (1787–1859), wey dem don enslave before, him turn e get success as farmer and leader for community for Nova Scotia. Servius Tullius, ancient King of Rome wey people talk sey e start life as slave (but some people dey argue this matter, both Romans and modern historians). Seymour Burr (1754/1762–1837), e fight for Continental Army for American Revolution. Shadrach Minkins (1814–1875), na fugitive wey slavery no fit catch, dem save am by abolitionists for Boston in 1850. Shaghab (dem don die 933), mother and double ruler of the eighteenth Abbasid Caliph al-Muqtadir. Silas Chandler (1838–1919), na man wey dey follow him enslavers for Confederate Army during American Civil War. Sojourner Truth (around 1797–1883), na abolitionist and women's rights activist. Solomon Bayley (1771–1839), write book for 1825 about him life as slave. Solomon Northup (1807–around 1863), na farmer, pro violinist, and free-born black man from New York wey dem lure go Washington, D.C., wey slavery dey legal, kidnap am and sell am for South. E dey enslaved for Louisiana from 1841 till dem rescue am and liberate am for 1853. Na author of Twelve Years a Slave. Solomon Flores, na enslaved man from northern Alabama. Sosias the Thracian, na enslaved Athenian man, later freedman, wey Nicias carry enslave, later rent am one thousand slaves for mining work. Spartacus (around 111–71 BCE), na gladiator and rebel leader during the Servile Revolt. Spendius be Campanian wey run come out from slavery, serve as Carthaginian mercenary for di First Punic War, den later be general for Mercenary War wey dem fight against Carthage. Stefan Holnicki (we no sabi when e die after 1797), Polish serf and Royal Ballet Dancer, don give plenty to di king of Poland by im will. Stephen Bishop (about 1821–1857), na mixed-race man wey dem hold for Kentucky, him dey known as one of di first explorers and guides for Mammoth Cave. Sue, na black woman wey James Brown enslave, dem capture am with plenty members for di Brown family and other slaves by Chickamaugas. When di warrior wey catch am threaten another captive, di other captor come threaten say dem go kill Sue for revenge. James' pikin Joseph later kidnap Sue, her children and grandchildren—total eight—for di revenge wey dey follow im captivity. Suhayb ar-Rumi (born around 587), wey people sabi as Suhayb ibn Sinan, na child wey dey enslave for Byzantine Empire, escape as young man go Mecca, come join Muhammad and become big friend for di early Muslim community. Sumayyah bint Khayyat (550–615), na woman wey dem enslave for Mecca; she be one of di first seven pipo wey convert to Islam by Prophet Muhammad early for him work. Dem torture am and kill am because of di new faith, she become di first Muslim Shahid. Squanto (1585–1622), wey dem also sabi as Tisquantum, na Native American from wetin dem dey call coastal Massachusetts now; dem capture am by English pirates and sell am as slave. Later, he free and return go New England, meet di Pilgrims for di Mayflower in 1621. Subh of Cordoba (940–999), na enslave concubine of a Caliph, na mother and regent of di next Caliph of Cordoba inside di 10th century. Suk-bin Choe (1670–1718), na consort of Sukjong of Joseon and mother of Yeongjo of Joseon. Surya Devi (we no sabi when she die, 715), na Indian princess wey dem enslave by Caliph Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik. T Taras Shevchenko Tatyana Shlykova Dem dey talk say na Terence portrait from Vatican Codex 3868. E fit be copy from 3rd-century original. Taras Shevchenko (1814–1861): Na di biggest Ukrainian poet, artist and illustrator wey come from serf family. E artist padi buy am freedom for 1838. Tatyana Shlykova (1773–1863), Russian serf wey be ballerina and opera singer. Thanadelthur (c. 1697–1717), woman from Chipewyan Dënesųłı̨ne nation wey help as guide and interpreter for Hudson's Bay Company. Thomas Fuller, African American man wey dey suffer for Virginia, dem sabi am for im math skills. Thomas Pellow (1704–1745), wey pirates from Barbary enslave, carry am go Morocco, dem select am and torture am by Ismail Ibn Sharif. E escape after 23 years, come back home to Cornwall. Thomas Peters (1738–1792), wey first be Thomas Potters, one of di founding fathers of Sierra Leone. Dem don enslave am before, e run come out from North Carolina during American Revolutionary War. Peters na Black Loyalist member of British Black Company of Pioneers, e become sergeant, settle down, and marry for Nova Scotia. E even recruit African settlers for Nova Scotia to colonize Sierra Leone, later become leader for Freetown. Thomas Sims (born 1834), African American man wey escape slavery for Georgia come Boston, Massachusetts, but dem catch am back under Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, but e escape go Boston again. Thomas-Alexandre Dumas (1762–1806), French general and papa of Alexandre Dumas. Thumal, administrator of justice for di eighteenth Abbasid Caliph al-Muqtadir. T. Aelius Dionysius, freedman for di late Roman Empire, wey create stela for himself, im wife, and Aelius Perseus, im fellow freedman, and dem and dem wey come after dem. T. Claudius Dionysius, him be freedman wey him freedwoman wife Claudia Prepontis build funeral altar for am. Di hands wey dem hold show say dem marry legit, na only after dem get dem freedom. Terence (c. 195/185–c. 159 BCE), full name Publius Terentius Afer, na Roman playwright and comic poet wey write before and maybe after him freedom. Tiberius Claudius Narcissus, na freedman wey dey serve as secretary to Roman emperor Claudius for 1st century. Tituba, na 17th-century Native American woman wey Samuel Parris from Danvers, Massachusetts enslave. She be di first person wey dem accuse of witchcraft during di 1692 Salem witch trials. Tomás Ortega, na enslaved man for colonial Mexico wey try marry Leonor de Mendoza, another woman wey dey under different master. When dat man lock Tomás, Leonor beg church court for help, dem threaten say if him no free Tomás, dem go excommunicate am. Titus Kent (1733–18??), him dey serve for di Samuel Kent family for Suffield Connecticut. Samuel Kent wey live from 1698–1772, wey write for him will say Titus go be Elihu Kent pikin. Revolutionary War records show say Titus serve for different regiments from 1775 to 1783. Toussaint L'Ouverture (1743–1803), na freedman wey lead di slave revolt wey bring Haiti independence. Tula (wey die 1795), na leader of di Curaçao Slave Revolt of 1795. Turgut Reis (1485–1565), wey dem sabi as Dragut, na famous admiral for Ottoman Navy wey Genoese capture for Corsica and force am work as galley slave for near four years. Finally, him fellow admiral Barbarossa come rescue am, wey lay siege to Genoa and secure Turgut Reis release for big ransom of 3,500 gold ducats. After dat, Turgut Reis continue him naval career (wey include di enslavement of plenty other people). == List of slaves == exaam57niv6b36aetx6wc55lvw8fq5e 69175 69173 2025-07-06T00:31:46Z Abdul-Rauf Moshie 1580 /* List of slaves */ 69175 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Slavery}} [[File:Livorno_Quattro_mori_monument_07.JPG|thumb|375x375px|One out of four statues wey dey show chained slaves for base of the Monument of the Four Moors for Livorno, Italy, wey dem fit be real slaves o.]] Slavery be one kind social-economic system wey people dey suffer: dem no get freedom and dem dey force to do work or service without pay. Dem people wey dey in dis condition, we dey call dem slaves or enslaved people. Dis na list of some important historical people wey don dey enslave for some time for dem life, we go arrange am from A to Z based on dem first name. * A * B * C * D * E * F * G * H * I * J * K * L * M * N * O * P * Q * R * S * T * U * V * W * X * Y * Z * See also A Abraham be enslaved black man wey dey carry message between frontier and Charles Town for war with Cherokee, wey fit free am. Abdul Rahman Ibrahima Sori (1762–1829), na prince from West Africa wey dem hold for United States for 40 years till President John Quincy Adams free am. Abram Petrovich Gannibal (1696–1781), dem adopt am by Russian czar Peter the Great, him be governor for Tallinn (Reval) (1742–1752) and general-en-chef (1759–1762) wey dey build sea forts and canals for Russia; e be great-grandpapa of Alexander Pushkin. See The Slave in European Art for him portraits. Absalom Jones (1746–1818), him don free hims [[File:Cabeza_de_Vaca_Portrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cabeza_de_Vaca_Portrait.jpg|right|thumb|235x235px|[[:en:Álvar_Núñez_Cabeza_de_Vaca|Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca]]]] elf, na abolitionist and clergyman – first ordained black priest of Episcopal Church. Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz (die 644), na Persian craftsman and captive wey kill second Islamic caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab (r. 634–644). Addas (7th century) na enslaved Christian boy wey dey live for Taif during Muhammad time, wey people talk say na him be first person from western Taif wey convert to Islam. Adriaan de Bruin (c. 1700–1766), wey dem call Tabo Jansz before, na enslaved servant for Dutch Republic wey turn free man for Hoorn, North Holland. Adam Brzeziński (1768 – after 1797), Polish serf and Royal Ballet Dancer, wey donate to king of Poland by will and testament. Aesop (c. 620–564 BCE), na Greek poet and author or transcriber for Aesop's Fables. Afanasy Grigoriev (1782–1868), na Russian serf and Neoclassical architect. Afrosinya (1699/1700–1748), na Russian serf, fit be Finnish captive, na enslaved mistress of Alexei Petrovich, Tsarevich of Russia. Agathoclia (shey die around 230), na martyr and patron saint for Mequinenza town for Spain. Alam al-Malika (shey die 1130), na singer wey dem catch as slave but rise become de prime minister and ruler for Zubayd, wey dey now Yemen. Alexina Morrison, na run away girl from slavery for Louisiana wey claim say she be kidnapped white pikin, she sue her master wey make people vex say dem go lynch am. Alfred "Teen" Blackburn (1842–1951), one of de last survivors of slavery for United States wey fit remember wetin happen. Alfred Francis Russ [[File:Aesop_pushkin01.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aesop_pushkin01.jpg|left|thumb|264x264px|[[:en:Aesop|Aesop]] in a [[:en:Hellenistic_art|Hellenistic]] statue claimed to be him, Art Collection of [[:en:Villa_Albani|Villa Albani]], Rome]] ell (1817–1884), na 10th President of Liberia. Alice Clifton (c. 1772–unknown), as slave pikin, she dey trial for infanticide matter for 1787. Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca (c. 1490–c. 1558), na Spanish explorer wey dem turn slave by Native Americans for Gulf Coast after e survive Narváez expedition wey scatter for 1527. Al-Khayzuran bint Atta (shey die 789), na Yemeni girl wey turn wife for Abbasid Caliph Al-Mahdi and mama to two Caliphs, Al-Hadi and Harun al-Rashid, wey dem sabi well well. Alp-Tegin (shey die 963), na member of nomadic Turks, dem carry am as slave small for Samanid court for Bukhara, later e come be army commander for Samanid Empire. Him son-in-law Sabuktigin later start Ghaznavid Empire. Amanda America Dickson (1849–1893), daughter of white planter David Dickson and Julia Frances Lewis, she be slave under Dickson's mama. Even though she dey legally enslaved till after Civil War, Amanda be her papa favorite and she inherit him $500,000 estate after him die for 1885. Ammar bin Yasir (570–657), one of di popular sahaba dem wey Abu Bakr free. Amos Fortune (1710–1801), African prince wey don suffer for United States for most of him life. Di children book wey talk about am, Amos Fortune, Free Man win Newbery Medal for 1951. Anarcha Westcott (c. 1828–unknown), black woman wey dey enslaved for di United States, she be among di women wey J. Marion Sims use do experiment. Portrait of Andrey Voronikhin. Engraving by V. A. Bobrov from di early 19th century. Andrey Voronikhin (1759–1814), Russian serf, architect and painter. Andrea Aguyar (died 1849), former enslaved black ma [[File:Voronikhin.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Voronikhin.jpg|right|thumb|297x297px|Portrait of [[:en:Andrey_Voronikhin|Andrey Voronikhin]]. Engraving by V. A. Bobrov from the beginning of the 19th century.]] n from Uruguay wey join Giuseppe Garibaldi during di Italian revolution for di Uruguayan Civil War of di 1840s and die for fight for di Roman Republic of 1849. Andrew Jackson Beard (1849–1921), inventor, him free at age 15 by di Emancipation Proclamation. Anna J. Cooper (1858–1964), author, educator, speaker and big African-American scholar. Anna Madgigine Jai Kingsley (1793–1870), woman wey dey enslaved then become planter and slave owner. Anna Williams, woman wey dey enslaved for Washington, D.C. wey go court win her freedom against di United States Court of Appeals. Annice (died 1828), dem execute her for murder five children. Annika Svahn (fl. 1714), Finnish woman wey Russian take away during di Great Northern War. She be vicar pikin for Joutseno, wey become popular victim for di wahala wey civilian dem suffer during di Russian occupation. Antarah ibn Shaddad (525–608), pre-Islamic Arab wey born from enslaved woman, him papa free am before battle, and he be poet too. Anthony Burns (1834–1862), na Baptist pre [[File:Петровское._Бюст_А.П._Ганнибала.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5._%D0%91%D1%8E%D1%81%D1%82_%D0%90.%D0%9F._%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0.jpg|right|thumb|263x263px|[[:en:Abram_Petrovich_Gannibal|Abram Petrovich Gannibal]], bust in [[:en:Petrovskoye,_Yaroslavl_Oblast|Petrovskoe]], [[:en:Russia|Russia]]]] acher wey escape slavery go Boston, but dem catch am again because Fugitive Slave Act wey dey 1850, den people wey no want am capture buy im freedom for Boston. Antonia Bonnelli (1786–1870), dem capture am and enslave am by Mikasuki tribe for Florida in 1802. António Corea, na European name wey dem give to Korean. Dem carry am go Italy, wey fit make am di first Korean wey step foot for Europe. Antón Guanche (15th century), na Guanche from Tenerife, dem capture am, enslave am, come return am go di island. Aqualtune Ezgondidu Mahamud da Silva Santos (died 1677), na princess of Kongo, mother of Ganga Zumba and grandmother of Zumbi dos Palmares. She lead 10,000 men during di Battle of Mbwila between Kingdom of Kongo and Kingdom of Portugal. Dem catch am by Portuguese forces, carry am go Brazil and sell am as slave. She start di slave settlement of Quilombo dos Palmares with her son Ganga Zumba. Archer Alexander (1810–1879), na model wey dem use for di slave wey dey di 1876 Emancipation Memorial sculpture. Abram Petrovich Gannibal, bust wey dey Petrovskoe, Russia. Archibald Grimké (1849–1930), born into slavery, son of white papa, become American lawyer, intellectual, journalist, diplomat and community leader. Arthur Crumpler (c. 1835–1910), escape slavery for Virginia, na di second husband of Dr. Rebecca Davis Lee Crumpler. Aster Ganno (c. 1872–1964), na young Ethiopian woman wey Italian Navy rescue from slave ship wey dey cross go Yemen. She go translate di Bible into Oromo language. Also she prepare literacy materials and spend di rest of her life as school teacher. Augustine Tolton (1854–1897), na di first black priest for di United States. Aurelia Philematium, na freedwoman wey her tombstone dey praise her marriage with her fellow freedman, Lucius Aurelius Hermia. Ayuba Suleiman Diallo (1701–1773), wey dem sabi as Job ben S [[File:William_Hoare_of_Bath_-_Portrait_of_Ayuba_Suleiman_Diallo,_(1701-1773).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:William_Hoare_of_Bath_-_Portrait_of_Ayuba_Suleiman_Diallo,_(1701-1773).jpg|left|thumb|Portrait of [[:en:Ayuba_Suleiman_Diallo|Ayuba Suleiman Diallo]] by [[:en:William_Hoare|William Hoare]] (1733)]] olomon, na Muslim wey come from Bundu state for West Africa. E dey suffer for two years for Maryland as slave, but dem free am for 1734. Later, e write hin story wey dem publish as one of di first slave narrative. B Baibars Baibars (1223–1277), wey dem dey call am Abu al-Futuh, na Kipchak Turk wey turn Mamluk sultan for Egypt and Syria. Balthild (c. 626–680), na Anglo-Saxon woman wey come from big family, dem sell am gree as small pikin, serve for Erchinoald house, wey be mayor for Neustria. After, she marry Clovis II, and later she be regent when her pikin Clotaire dey small. She stop dem wey dey trade Christian slaves and dey fight for freedom of children wey dem sell as slaves. Pope Nicholas I canonize am about 200 years after she die. Bass Reeves (1838–1910), na one of di first black Deputy U.S. Marshals for di west of di Mississippi River, wey don arrest over 3,000 bad guys and shoot fourteen outlaws for self-defense. Belinda Sutton (1713–179?), born for Ghana, she dey beg for support from her enslaver estate, wey be one early case for reparations and inspire future activism. Belinda Sutton petition, wey dem print again Bell (Belinda) (c. 1750–c. 1772), born for Bengal, dem carry her go Scotland as servant for East India Company nabob. Dem accuse am say she kill pikin, she dey beg make dem banish am and she turn “slave for life” and dem carry am go Virginia for 1772. She na di last person wey court for Britain call slave. Benjamin S. Turner (1825–1894), former slave wey be politician wey represent Alabama's 1st congressional district for United States House of Representatives. Him be di first African American wey don represent di state for Congress. Benkos Biohó, wey born for royal family of Bissagos Islands, dem kidnap am and enslave am. After dem carry am go Spanish New Granada for South America, him fit escape, help plenty other slaves escape too, and create di maroon community of San Basilio de Palenque. Di Governor Diego Pacheco Téllez-Girón Gómez de Sandoval of Cartagena betray am and hang am for 1621, but di community wey him build still dey live free till today. Betty Hemings (c. 1735–1807), na enslave mixed-race woman wey for colonial Virginia, wey for 1761 start dey be sex slave of her master, planter John Wayles, and she get six mixed-race children with am over 12 years, including Sally Hemings and James Hemings. Big Eyes (fl. 1540), na Wichita woman wey dem enslave by Tejas people before dem capture am and enslave am by conquistador Juan de Zaldívar. Bilichild (died 610), be queen of Austrasia through marriage to Theudebert II. Bilal ibn Ribah (580–640), wey dem free in 6th century. Him convert to Islam and be Muhammad's muezzin. Bill Richmond (1763–1829), wey born for America, dem free am and him become one of England's best boxers. Saint Brigid of Kildare as dem depict am for Saint Non's chapel, St Davids, Wales. Billy (born c. 1754), na man wey run come from John Tayloe II's plantation, dem charge am for treason against Virginia during American Revolutionary War. Him collect pardon after e talk say, as slave, him no be citizen, so e no fit commit treason against government wey him no dey owe loyalty to. Bissula (fl. 368) na Alemannic woman wey dem enslave, and she be inspiration for Roman poet Ausonius. Blanche Bruce (1841–1898) na di first and only former slave wey serve for United States Senate. Blandina (c. 162–177) be slave and Christian martyr for Roman Gaul. Di Bodmin manumissions na manuscript wey dey inside British Library, e keep names and details of slaves wey dem free for Bodmin (di main town for Cornwall back then) during 9th or 10th centuries. Booker T. Washington (1856–1915), born inside slavery, come be American educator, author and leader of African-American community after Civil War. Saint Brigid of Kildare, na major Irish Saint. Tradition say Brigid born for 451 AD for Faughart, just north of Dundalk for County Louth, Ireland. Her mama na Brocca, Pict slave wey Saint Patrick don baptize. Dem talk say her papa be Dubhthach, chieftain of Leinster. Dubthach wife force am sell Brigid's mama to druid when she carry belle. Brigid self born for slavery. Di small Brigid fit perform miracle, like healing and feeding di poor. At age ten, dem return am as household servant to her papa, where her charity make am dey give out hin things to anybody wey ask. For two Lives, Dubthach dey vex with her, he carry am go King of Leinster to sell her. While Dubthach dey talk with di king, Brigid don give away hin jeweled sword to beggar to change am for food to feed di family. Di king sabi her holiness well well and e make Dubthach free him daughter. After dat, she start her waka as popular nun. Brigitta Scherzenfeldt (1698–1733), Swedish wey dey write memoirs and teach weaving, she catch during di Great Northern War, carry go live as slave for di Kalmyk kingdom for Central Asia. Bussa wey born free man for West Africa, maybe Igbo pikin, dem catch am by African slave traders, sell am go Britain, transport am go Barbados (wey slavery don dey legal since 1661) for late 18th century as slave. C Charlotte Aïssé Cezayirli Gazi Hasan Pasha statue for Mersin Naval Museum Caenis, na woman wey don suffer as slave, she be secretary for Antonia Minor (emperor Claudius mama) plus Vespasian wey be Roman emperor. Caesar (c. 1737–1852), na di last slave wey fit get freedom for New York. E reach supercentenarian level, plus fit be di first person wey dem snap while dem dey alive in 1851. Caesar Nero Paul (c. 1741–1823), as small pikin, dem carry am from Africa come Exeter, New Hampshire, but e get freedom, start big New England family wey dey fight against slavery. Pope Callixtus I (died 223), na man wey don suffer as slave, pope from about 218 to about 223, during di time of Heliogabalus and Alexander Severus. Dem kill am for him Christian faith, now he be saint for Roman Catholic Church. Carlota (died 1844), she lead slave rebellion for Cuba for 1843–1844. Castus, na enslaved Gaul and one of di leaders for di Third Servile War wey get people wey dey fight for freedom. Catalina of Motril (fl. 1501–1531), she be bed servant for Catherine of Aragon when she marry Henry VIII for England. Cato (1786–1803), na man wey don suffer for Charleston, New York, wey kill twelve-year-old Mary Akins after e try rape am. Him confession show for di murder book of dat time. Cato, na African-American man wey serve as American Black Patriot spy and courier to gather info with him owner, Hercules Mulligan. Celia (died 1855), na woman wey dem catch and kill for di murder of Robert Newsom, her enslaver. During di trial, John Jameson argue say she kill am for self-defense to stop am from raping her. Cesar Picton (c. 1765–1831), na slave wey start for Senegal, later work as servant for England, come get money as coal merchant. Cevri Kalfa, one Georgian girl wey e dey for sultan harem for Istanbul, wey save Mahmud II life. Dem reward am wit big position haznedar usta, wey be chief treasurer for the imperial Harem. Cezayirli Gazi Hasan Pasha (1713–1790) na Georgian wey dem enslave for Ottoman Empire, wey rise become grand vizier, Kapudan Pasha, and army boss. Charity Folks (1757–1834), American slave wey born for Annapolis, Maryland, release from slavery for 1797 and later become property owner. Charles Deslondes, Haitian mulatto wey dey oversee other slaves for André plantation and leader of 1811 German Coast Uprising for Louisiana. Dem kill am terribly by the militia wey suppress the slave revolt. Charlotte Aïssé, (c. 1694–1733), French letter-writer, daughter of one Circassian chief, wey suffer for Ottoman Black Sea slave trade. Charlotte Dupuy (c. 1787/1790–c. 1866), wey dem dey call Lottie, file freedom suit for 1829 against her enslaver, Henry Clay, wey be Secretary of State, but she lose. Chica da Silva (c. 1732–1796), wey dem sabi as Xica da Silva, Brazilian courtesan wey become rich and powerful even though she born into slavery. Chloe Cooley (fl. 1793), wey dey enslave for Canada, her violent treatment and transport to US make Upper Canada pass 1793 Act Against Slavery. Christopher Shields (born 1774) na George Washington slave wey he keep am for Mount Vernon. The place wey he die and the year wey e happen no dey clear. Christophorus Plato Castanis, (born 1814) na runaway Greek slave from Chios. He journey come US with Samuel Gridley Howe and John Celivergos Zachos. Castanis be Greek-American author and lecturer. Çiçek Hatun (fl. 1453) na Greek girl wey dem capture when Constantinople fall and put as one of the concubine for Sultan Mehmet II harem. Clara Brown (around 1800–1885), she be one woman wey dem don enslave for Virginia. She come be community leader, give back for people wey don free during Colorado Gold Rush. Claudia Acte (1st century), na mistress for Roman emperor Nero. Pope Clement I (wey die for 100), na di fourth Pope for Catholic tradition. E fit dey freedman for Titus Flavius Clemens. Cleon (die 132 BC) na leader for di First Servile War. Colonel Tye (1753–1780), wey dem dey call Titus Cornelius, him don free, come be Black Loyalist soldier and guerrilla leader for di American Revolution. Crixus, na Gallic gladiator and military leader for di Third Servile War. Cudjoe Lewis (around 1840–1935), wey originally be Oluale Kossola, na di third-to-last survivor of di Transatlantic slave trade for USA. Dem carry am go di slave ship Clotilda. Cuffy (die 1763), na Akan man wey dem capture for him own West Africa, carry am go work for di plantations of di Dutch colony for Berbice wey dey Guyana today, and for 1763, him lead revolt wey get more than 2,500 slaves against di colonial regime. Today, him na national hero for Guyana. D Dred Scott wey no fit win im case for im freedom for United States Supreme Court for 1857. Dabitum, woman wey dem enslave for Old Babylonia wey sabi write letter about miscarriage. Daniel Bell (around 1802–1877) wey try for years make e and im family fit enjoy freedom. E help organize one big escape plan wey dem call "the Pearl incident" for Washington, D.C., for 1848. Dada Masiti (around 1810s–15 July 1919) poet, mystic and Islamic scholar. Dave Drake (around 1801–1876), wey people sabi am as Dave the Potter. Deborah Squash and im husband Harvey wey escape from George Washington Mount Vernon, join British for New York during American Revolutionary War, and dem carry dem go free in 1783. Denmark Vesey (around 1767–1822), one enslaved African-American man wey plan one big slave rebellion for United States wey dem leak the plans before e go happen. Dido Elizabeth Belle (1761–1804), wey born into slavery as the daughter of Maria Belle, one enslaved African woman for West Indies, and Sir John Lindsay, one Navy officer. Lindsay carry Belle go England for 1765, give im uncle William Murray, 1st Earl of Mansfield, and im wife Elizabeth to take care of am. Dem educate Belle, raise am as free gentlewoman for their Kenwood House with their niece, Lady Elizabeth Murray. Belle stay there for 30 years. For im will for 1793, Lord Mansfield confirm im freedom and give am money and annuity, make Belle heiress. Diego be one freedman wey dem don enslave before, and e dey close with di Elizabethan navigator Francis Drake. For March 1573, Drake raid Darien (for today Panama) and Maroons help am well – dem be Africans wey don run from Spanish slave owners and dem glad to help their English enemies. One of dem na Diego, wey sabi build ship well, and e follow Drake go England. For 1577, Queen Elizabeth send Drake make e start journey against di Spanish for di Pacific coast fit America – wey later turn as Drake waka go round di world – Diego again dey work under Drake; him sabi Spanish and English well well, so he fit be good interpreter when dem catch Spaniard or Portuguese wey dey speak Spanish. E be Drake's servant and dem dey pay am like di rest of di crew. Diego die while Drake ship dey cross di Pacific, wounds wey e get earlier for di journey. Drake dey feel bad for him death, as Diego don become him good friend. Diogenes of Sinope (c. 412–323 BCE), Greek philosopher wey pirates carry away and sell for Corinth. Diocletian (244–312), Emperor of Rome, some people talk say e born as slave of Senator Anullinus. Other talk say na Diocletian papa (we no sabi im name) wey be slave and free before him son, di future emperor, born. Dionysius I (die 1492), Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, dem don enslave am by di Ottomans after di Fall of Constantinople for 1453. Dolly Johnson (born late 1820s, die after 1887), African-American woman from Tennessee, wey President Andrew Johnson don enslave, later become small small-business owner. Dorota Sitańska (die after 1797), Polish serf and Royal Ballet Dancer, wey dem donate to di king of Poland by will and testament. Dred Scott (around 1799–1858), na one enslaved African-American guy wey dey Missouri wey carry case go court make e fit get freedom for one big trial, Scott v. Sandford, wey reach U.S. Supreme Court for 1857. E Florence, Lady Baker around 1875. Na Romanian wey dem enslave as orphan, Samuel Baker buy am, later marry am. Edward Mozingo Sr., (about 1649–1712), dem kidnap am from Africa when e dey like 10 years, sell am for slavery for Jamestown, Virginia. After e owner die, he sue for im freedom and win am. E marry poor white woman, Margaret Pierce Bayley (1645–1711) and together dem be dem wey start the Mozingo family for North America. Elijah Abel (1808–1884), wey born enslave for Maryland, people believe say e escape from slavery enter Underground Railroad go Canada. He join Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints early, na him dey among the first black wey get priesthood and the first black wey rise to elder and seventy rank. Elizabeth Marsh (1735–1785), na English woman wey corsairs capture and hold for slavery for Morocco. Edith Hern Fossett, na woman wey U.S. President Thomas Jefferson enslave, dem teach am to cook by French chef wey create French food for White House and Monticello. Elias Polk (1806–1886), na conservative political activist from 19th century. Eliezer of Damascus, na Abraham slave and trusted manager for im house in Hebrew Bible. Elieser be man wey dem enslave by Paulo de Pina family, Portuguese Jews wey move go Netherlands for 1610 to escape wahala and forced conversion for Portugal. E dey stay with the family for Amsterdam till e die for 1629, dem bury am for Beth Haim cemetery, wey be the oldest Jewish cemetery for Netherlands. E appear say dem don free am, whether officially or in practice, and e dey near equal level with the family wey own am for Portugal – show by fact say e attend the funeral of im master wife, Sara de Pina, and contribute six stuivers, and dem bury am alongside im (former) owners and Jacob Israel Belmonte, wey be the richest man for the community. Elieser don convert to Judaism and dem accept am as Jewish, true true if not, he for no dey buried for Jewish cemetery; dem fit give am the name 'Elieser' when dem convert am, e dey bring Eliezer from Damascus mind. Recently, members of Surinamese community for Netherlands don carry Elieser memory go high, dem put statue for am and dey do yearly pilgrimage go his grave wey dem call Elieser Day. Elisenda de Sant Climent (1220–1275), dem enslave am during slave raid for Mallorca and carry am go emir harem for Tunis. Eliza Hopewell, woman wey dey under Confederates spy Isabella Maria Boyd ('Belle Boyd'). For 1862, she help her owner do spy work, carry message go Confederate Army inside watch case wey dem hollow. Eliza Moore (1843–1948), one of the last African-American former slaves wey dey live for United States. Elizabeth Johnson Forby, mixed-race American woman wey dem enslave under President Andrew Johnson, daughter of Dolly Johnson. Elizabeth Key Grinstead (1630–after 1665), na the first woman wey get African blood for North America wey go court for her freedom and win. Key and her small pikin, John Grinstead, come free on July 21, 1656 for Virginia because her papa be Englishman and she be baptized Christian. Elizabeth Freeman (c. 1742–1829), wey dem dey call Bett and later Mum Bett, na among the first enslaved black people for Massachusetts wey fit file freedom suit and win, based on 1780 constitution wey rule slavery illegal. Elizabeth Hobbs Keckley (1818–1907), wey be popular as personal modiste and close friend of Mary Todd Lincoln, First Lady of the United States. Keckley write and publish autobiography, Behind the Scenes: Or, Thirty Years a Slave and Four Years in the White House (1868). Ellen Craft (1826–1891), light-skin wife of William Craft, wey escape from Georgia to Philadelphia, by acting like white woman and her slave, case wey become popular. Ellen More, enslaved woman wey them carry go royal Scottish court. Emilia Soares de Patrocinio (1805–1886) na Brazilian slave, slave owner and businesswoman. Emiline (23 years); Nancy (20); Lewis, Nancy brother (16); Edward, Emiline brother (13); Lewis and Edward, sons of Nancy (7); Ann, daughter of Nancy (5); and Amanda, daughter of Emiline (2), dem free for 1852 Lemmon v. New York court case after dem bring dem go New York from Virginia. Emily Edmonson (1835–1895), with her sister Mary, try escape for 1848 wey dem call Pearl incident, but Henry Ward Beecher and him church gather money to free dem. Enrique of Malacca, wey dem dey call Henry the Black, na slave and interpreter for Ferdinand Magellan and maybe the first person wey waka round the globe for Magellan's trip of 1519–1521. Epictetus (55–c. 135), ancient Greek stoic philosopher. Estevanico (1500–1539), wey dem dey call Esteban the Moor. He be slave of the Portuguese first, then become servant of the Spaniards. He be one of the only four wey survive the bad Narváez expedition, later na guide for search of the fabled Seven Cities of Gold and maybe the first African wey reach wetin be Arizona and New Mexico today. Eston Hemings (1808–1856), son of Sally Hemings and Thomas Jefferson. Eucharis, na Greek wey dem free, born Roman Licinia, dem describe am for him epitaph for 1st century AD as fourteen when she die, child actress and professional dancer. Eunus (him die for 132 BC), na slave wey come from Apamea for Syria, and him be leader for slave wahala for First Servile War wey happen for Roman province of Sicily. Eunus sabi gree people as prophet and wonder-worker. Him dey claim say him dey see visions and dey communicate with goddess Atargatis, wey dey popular for him place; he even fit connect am to Sicilian Demeter. Some prophecies wey he drop na say di rebel slaves go fit capture di city of Enna and say one day, he go be king. Euphemia (him die for 520s), na Empress of Byzantine Empire because she marry Justin I, she be slave before. Euphraios, na Athenian slave and banker. Exuperius and Zoe (dem die for 127), na Christian martyrs for 2nd century. Dem be married couple wey slave master in Pamphylia enslave. Dem kill dem with their sons, Cyriacus and Theodolus, because dem no wan join pagan rites when dem pikin born. Florence Johnson Smith be mixed-race American babe wey President Andrew Johnson carry go enslave, she be Dolly Johnson pikin. Fountain Hughes (1848–1957), dem interview am for June 1949 about him life by Library of Congress as part of Federal Writers' Project. Francis Bok (wey born 1979), na Dinka slave from South Sudan, now him dey fight for freedom and be author for United States. Francis Jackson (wey born between 1815 and 1820), him dey free from birth, but dem kidnap am for 1850 and sell am into slavery. Him finally get freedom for 1855 when case Francis Jackson v. John W. Deshazer end. Francis James Grimké (1850–1937), him be minister. Francisco Menéndez, na man wey dem enslave for South Carolina but e run go Spanish Florida, wey e serve for Spanish militia, even lead the garrison wey dem set for 1738 for Fort Mose. This place be the first legal free black community for wetin we dey call United States now. François Mackandal (wey die 1758), na Haitian Maroon leader. Frederick Douglass (1818–1895), him born for slavery for Maryland and run go Northeast for 1838, where e turn big-time abolitionist writer, speaker, and diplomat. Fyodor Slavyansky (1817–1876), na Russian serf painter. G Medical photo wey show Gordon back wey dem whip, plenty abolitionists dey share am to show how slavery dey be bad. Portrait of Gülnuş Sultan Gabriel Prosser (1776–1800), leader wey lead Virginia slave revolt. Gaius Furius Chresimus, ancient Roman. As him free man, e produce crops from him small farm wey people accuse am say him dey witch other people crop, but when him bring him farm tools for court, dem free am. Pliny the Elder talk say him story na proof say hard work be wetin matter for farming. Galatian de Sesse (16th century), knight from Aragon wey dey work for hospital and be Governor of Gozo wey dem enslave during 1551 Ottoman attack, e spend five years as galley slave before dem pay ransom and free am. Galeria Lysistrate (2nd century), mistress of Roman emperor Antoninus Pius. Ganga Zumba or Ganazumba (c. 1630–1678), one descendant of unknown Kongo king wey run away from slavery for Brazilian colonial and be first leader of runaway slave settlement wey be Quilombo dos Palmares. Gannicus, enslaved Celt wey be one of the leaders of rebel slaves during Third Servile War. Garafilia Mohalbi (1817–1830), Greek slave wey American merchant rescue and carry go Boston. She die young and inspire big art movement. Genghis Khan (c. 1162–1227), dem capture am after raid and make am slave for Taichiud. George Africanus (1763–1834), enslaved African man from Sierra Leone wey become successful businessman for Nottingham. George Edward Doney (1758–1809), Gambian man wey William Capell, 4th Earl of Essex enslave. George Colvocoresses (1816–1872), from Chios, Greece, come America come be captain for U.S. Navy, but small small dem carry am put for slavery when e be pikin. Colvos Passage dey named after am. George Freeman Bragg (1863–1940), wey born for slavery for North Carolina, later turn big Episcopal priest and social activist. George Lewis (1794–1811), wey dem dey call Slave George, na enslaved guy wey dem kill for Kentucky night of December 15–16, 1811. George Moses Horton (1797–1884), na di first African-American author; him first poetry book publish for North Carolina. George Washington Carver (c. 1864–1943), na African-American scientist, botanist, educator and inventor wey sabi to promote other crops like sweet potatoes and peanuts for South; him born for slavery for Missouri but dem free am as small pikin after American Civil War. George Griffin (1849–1897), born for slavery for Maryland but later dem free am; him be close person to Mark Twain. George W. Hayes (1847–1933), na court crier and politician for Ohio, mixed African American and Native American background, dem carry am put for slavery early for him life. Gerónimo de Aguilar (1489–1531), na Franciscan friar wey waka go Yucatán Peninsula for 1511 but dem shipwreck am and dem carry am for slavery by Mayans. Gosala, one ascetic teacher from ancient India – wey dey live same time (and dey compete) with Gautama Buddha – people talk say him born for slavery, and he become naked ascetic after him run from him bad captor, wey catch him cloth before e run. Gonzalo Guerrero (died 1536), na sailor from Palos, Spain, wey shipwreck for Yucatán Peninsula for 1511 and dem carry am for slavery by di local Maya. Gordon, wey dem dey call Whipped Peter, na enslaved African-American wey escape come Union Army camp from plantation near Baton Rouge, Louisiana for 1863. Di pictures wey dem take of Gordon back wey dem beat during medical check, dem publish am for Harper's Weekly, e show Northerners di wahala wey slavery dey cause. E make plenty free blacks want join di Union Army. Gülnuş Sultan (1642–1715) na Haseki Sultan for Ottoman Sultan Mehmed IV and Valide sultan for dia pikin Mustafa II and Ahmed III. Guðríður Símonardóttir (1598–1682) na Iceland woman wey some North African slavers (Barbary Pirates) carry go. Gustav Badin (wey die for 1822) na servant for royal Swedish court, originally na Danish slave. H Hurrem Sultan, be Eastern European slave girl wey Ottoman sultan Süleyman the Magnificent buy, marry am. Hababah, concubine of Caliph Yazid II. Hagar, biblical figure, Sarah own. Hannah Bond (weh dey born for 1830s), pen name Hannah Crafts, write The Bondwoman's Narrative after she gain freedom. E fit be di first novel wey African-American woman write, na di only novel wey woman wey run from slavery don write. Hark Olufs (1708–1754), Danish sailor, dem capture am by Algerian pirates. Dem sell am to di Bey of Constantine, and him become Commander in Chief for di Bey's cavalry. Dem release am for 1735. Harriet Balfour (c. 1818–1858), Surinam-born enslaved woman wey free for 1841 and move go Scotland. Harriet Evans Paine, (c. 1822–1917), Texas enslaved woman and later oral historian and storyteller. Harriet Hemings (1801–after 1822), daughter of Sally Hemings and Thomas Jefferson. Harriet Jacobs (1813–1897), author of Incidents in di Life of a Slave Girl. Harriet Powers (1837–1910), American folk artist, and quilter. Harriet Tubman (c. 1822–1913), dem dey call am 'Moses' because of di work wey she dey do to help other American slaves escape through di Underground Railroad. Harry, di plaintiff for di 1818 Harry v. Decker & Hopkins case wey di Supreme Court of Mississippi decide to free person from slavery just because him dey stay for free land. Harry Washington (wey die for 1800), dem dey call am Henry Washington, be slave wey George Washington dey own. Dem transport am go America as slave, and Washington buy am for 1763 to work on project wey go drain di Great Dismal Swamp. Hafsa Sultan (she die March 1534), na Selim I wife and di first real sultan of Ottoman Empire as Suleiman di Magnificent mama. Pipo sabi her background matter dey confuse, but some historians talk say she be slave. Helen Gloag (1750–1790), from Muthill, Perthshire, Scotland, become di Empress of Morocco as di harem slave for Morocco sultan. Henry Bibb (1815–1854), American writer and abolitionist wey born as slave. After e run come out from slavery to British Upper Canada, he start newspaper wey dey call The Voice of the Fugitive. E later come back to U.S. come dey lecture against slavery. Henry Highland Garnet (1815–1882), wey born African-American slave for Maryland, run from slavery for 1824, come become abolitionist and teacher. Hercules (born c. 1755), na di head cook wey George Washington enslave for him plantation, Mount Vernon. E run come gain him freedom for 1797, but him wife Alice and him three pikin still dey enslave. Hermas, wey write di book The Shepherd of Hermas and na Pope Pius I brother. Hernando de Escalante Fontaneda, been born for Cartagena, but e don dey enslave at 13 when di ship wey carry am go Spain for school sink for Florida. Calusa chief take am as slave and use am as translator until dem free am at 30. Horace King (1807–1885), American architect, engineer, and bridge builder, born into slavery for South Carolina plantation. Hümaşah Sultan (fl. 1647–1672) na di wife of Sultan Ibrahim for Ottoman Empire. Hurrem Sultan (c. 1504–1558), wey dem sabi as Roxelana, be Eastern European girl wey slave traders capture and sell to di Imperial Harem, become di chief consort and legal wife of Ottoman sultan Süleyman di Magnificent. Halime Sultan (about 1570–after 1639) be Valide Sultan wey dey rule alongside Ottoman Empire. Handan Sultan (about 1568–1605) too be Valide Sultan and her dey act as regent for the Ottomans. I İbrahim Pasha Ivan Argunov. Self-portrait (late 1750s). İbrahim Pasha (about 1495 – 1536), na first Grand Vizier wey Suleiman the Magnificent appoint. E be Greek by birth, at six years old, dem sell am as slave to Ottoman palace for future sultans, where e meet Suleiman wey dey same age. Icelus Marcianus, na slave and later free guy for Roman emperor Galba for 1st century CE. E be one of three men wey dey control the emperor well well, make Galba no dey popular. Ida B. Wells (1862–1931), na big African-American activist wey born into slavery, but later she dey fight against lynching and fit cancel am. For 1909, she co-found National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). Imma, na Northumbrian noble wey knock for battle and later sabi act like peasant, so say captors no go kill am. Him behavior show say him no be real peasant, and dem sell am into slavery. Isabel de Solís (fl. 1485), na enslaved Castilian concubine for Abu l-Hasan Ali, Sultan of Granada. Isabella Gibbons (1826–1890), become schoolteacher for Virginia after dem liberate am for 1865. Isfandíyár, na enslaved servant for Bahá'u'lláh's house for Tehran, Isfandíyár die for Mazandaran. Israel Jefferson (about 1800–after 1873), wey people sabi as Israel Gillette before 1844, born into slavery for Monticello, Thomas Jefferson estate, and work as domestic servant near Jefferson for many years. Ivan Bolotnikov (1565–1608), na fugitive kholop (enslaved for Russia) and leader of Bolotnikov rebellion for 1606–1607. Ivan Argunov (1729–1802), na Russian serf painter, one of the founders of Russian school of portrait painting. J Jean Parisot de Valette St. Josephine Margaret Bakhita, F.D.C.C. Jack Gladstone, di leader wey lead di Demerara rebellion for 1823. Jackey Wright, na enslaved American woman wey sue for im freedom for di popular 1806 Virginia case, Hudgins v. Wright. Di Virginia Supreme Court talk say Wright look white and Native American, but di lower court under George Wythe dey try arrange say everybody fit be free, no matter di race. Jacob Notaras (fl. 1453), na Byzantine nobleman wey dem carry as slave by Sultan Mehmed di Conqueror when Constantinople fall. Jaja of Opobo (1821–1891), dem sell am around age 12 as slave for di Kingdom of Bonny wey dey Nigeria now. From young, di guy don show say e sabi business, so e find im way come out from slavery, become rich merchant prince and start di Opobo city-state, but British colonizers wey e wan challenge come end im career. James Armistead Lafayette (1760–1830), na enslaved African-American man wey serve di Continental Army for di American Revolutionary War as double agent. James Baugh, na enslaved American wey sue for im freedom because im mama granmama na Indian. James Hemings (1765–1801), na mixed-race American wey dem enslave later free am by Thomas Jefferson. E be di older brother of Sally Hemings and half-brother of Jefferson wife, Martha Wayles Skelton Jefferson, through dia papa John Wayles. James Leander Cathcart (1767–1843), diplomat and sailor wey sabi tell story about 11 years wey e dey enslave for Algiers and e do some big diplomatic work while for slavery. James Poovey (born c. 1769), Philadelphian wey dem enslave am from birth, but e find freedom through peaceful resistance. James M. Priest (1819–1883), 6th Vice President of Liberia, wey born inside slavery for Kentucky. James Somersett, man wey dey enslave for colonial America, escape for England in 1771 with help of Beta British people, wey lead to the big case Somerset v Stewart, wey change the slavery matter for Britain, but not for dem colonies. James W. C. Pennington (c. 1807–1870), African-American writer and abolitionist. Jan Ernst Matzeliger (1852–1889), Surinamese-American wey invent shoe making. Jane Johnson (1814/1827–1872), she gain freedom on July 18, 1855, with her two small pikin while dem dey Philadelphia with her owner. William Still and Passmore Williamson help am, dem be abolitionists for Pennsylvania Anti-Slavery Society. Jean Amilcar (c. 1781–1793), Senegalese son of Marie Antoinette. Jean-Jacques Dessalines (1758–1806), leader of Haitian Revolution and first leader of independent Haiti. Jean Marteilhe (1684–1777), French Huguenot wey be slave narrator, him be galley slave. Jean Saint Malo (died 1784), leader of runaway slaves (maroon colony) for Spanish Louisiana and he name dey for Saint Malo, Louisiana. Jean Parisot de Valette (1495–1568), knight of the Order of Saint John, wey dem capture and make galley slave for 1541 by Barbary pirates. After about one year, dem free am and him later become Grandmaster of the Order. Jefferson F. Long (1836–1901), first former slave wey serve for United States Congress and first African American wey represent Georgia for Congress. Jeffrey Hudson (1619–c. 1682), na English court guy wey spend 25 years for North Africa as slave. Jehan Alard (fl. 1580), na French Huguenot wey dey serve as galley slave for Italy, dem catch am for Inquisition. Jehu Grant (c. 1752–1840), na veteran from Revolutionary War. Jeremiah Haralson (1846–Unknown), na former slave and politician wey represent Alabama for House of Representatives during 44th Congress. Jermain Wesley Loguen (1813–1872), na African-American wey run away from slavery, be abolitionist, bishop of the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church, and e write slave narrative. Jim Cuff or Jim Crow be physically disabled African man wey people talk say e fit dey St. Louis, Cincinnati, or Pittsburgh, e song and dance inspire the blackface song 'Jump Jim Crow' wey white comedian Thomas D. Rice bring come. Rice popular creation make Jim Crow turn bad name for blacks, later dem use am for dem segregation laws. Jim Henson, na African wey escape slavery and publish im memoirs, Broken Shackles, for Canada. Joana da Gama (c. 1520–1586), na Portuguese maid-of-honor and writer. Joe, na man wey William B. Travis, one of the Texian commanders for Battle of Alamo enslaved. After dem lose, Mexican General Santa Anna spare Joe, hoping say e go fit convince other slaves for Texas to support Mexican government instead of Texian rebels. After that, Joe and some survivors go Gonzales, dem encourage dem to talk about the battle and tell Texian forces say Santa Anna army no fit beat. John Axouch (1087–1150), na Seljuk Turk wey dem capture as pikin by Byzantine Empire, dem free am and raise am for di imperial house as John II Komnenos wey go be emperor future friend. When him take over, dem put am for di army command and e be di emperor only close pal and confidant. John Boston (c. 1832–after 1880), na former slave wey dey represent Darlington County for South Carolina House during di Reconstruction era. Him dey involved for community work and, as minister, him start di Lamar Colored Methodist Church for 1865. By 1880, him don turn farmer. John 'Lit' Fleming, born for slavery for Virginia but later move go Edmundson, Arkansas with him papa and siblings. E go move go Memphis, Tennessee, and be part owner of di newspaper Memphis Free Speech with activist Ida B. Wells-Barnett. John Munroe Brazealle, with him mama, dem case dey Hinds v. Brazealle (1838), for di Supreme Court of Mississippi, wey deny di legality and inheritance rights for Mississippi for manumission wey Elisha Brazealle, wey dey Ohio, do to free dem. John Brown (c. 1810–1876), wey escape and write about di conditions for di Deep South of United States. John Casor, na di first person wey dey enslaved as result of civil case for di Thirteen Colonies (Virginia Colony, 1655). John Ezzidio (c. 1810–1872), na enslaved Nigerian man wey turn successful politician and businessman for Sierra Leone. John Adams Hyman (1840-1891), na former slave and politician wey serve for di North Carolina Senate and later be di first African American to represent di state for Congress. John Jea (born 1773), na enslaved African-American man wey popular for him 1811 autobiography, The Life, History, and Unparalleled Sufferings of John Jea, di African Preacher. John Joyce wey dem born am for slavery for Maryland, serve for United States Navy, do plenty work after, and kill shopkeeper, Sarah Cross; him life and crime dey for murder stories wey dem dey talk for him time. John R. Jewitt (1783–1821), small English man wey dey make armor, spend three years as prisoner for Maquinna of the Nuu-chah-nulth people for Pacific coast wey dey for Canada now. John R. Lynch (1847–1939), former slave and politician wey serve for Mississippi House of Representatives, be the first African American wey lead state legislative chamber. Later he go serve for United States House of Representatives and write The Facts of Reconstruction to answer dem wey dey talk bad about Reconstruction time policies. John Punch (fl. 1630s, live 1640), na enslaved African man wey dey for Virginia Colony for 17th century. For July 1640, Virginia Governor's Council punish am to serve for him whole life because e run go Maryland. Historians dey call Punch the 'first official slave for the English colonies,' and him case na the 'first time dem make slavery forever for the Chesapeake.' Historians also sabi say this one be the first legal line wey dem draw between Europeans and Africans for the colony, and na important step for slavery matter for United States. John S. Jacobs (1815–1873), wey dem born into slavery for North Carolina, escape, become abolitionist speaker and write slave memoir. Him be brother of famous author Harriet Jacobs. John Smith (1580–1631), English soldier, sailor, and author wey everybody sabi for him role wey help Jamestown colony survive for Virginia. Smith dey captured by Crimean Tatars for 1602 while him dey fight for Wallachia and dem make am slave for Ottoman Empire, but him escape come England by 1604. As Smith talk am: 'we all dey sell for slaves, like goat for market-place.' Jordan Anderson (1825–1907), wey people sabi well well for di letter wey he gree send to im old master when dem call am make he come back to serve dem. Jordan Winston Early (1814–after 1894) na American Methodist preacher wey get different blood, and dem write book about im life as slave. John White, na black boy wey Creeks capture for 1797, but he escape come back New Orleans, only to find Spanish people don carry am go back to slavery. John Ystumllyn, wey dem dey call Jac Du or Jack Black, na 18th-century Welsh gardener, di first Black person wey record well for North Wales. Jonathan Strong, na di person wey dem dey talk about one of di first legal cases wey concern slavery for Britain. José Antonio Aponte, na di leader of Aponte conspiracy. Joseph, na important person for Old Testament and Quran. Joseph Antonio Emidy (1775–1835), violinist wey born for Africa, die for Cornwall. Joseph Cinqué (1814–1879), wey dem know as Sengbe Pieh, na di leader of slave rebellion for di slave ship La Amistad and di case wey follow for Supreme Court, United States v. Amistad for 1839. Joseph Jackson Fuller (1825–1908), one of di earliest slaves wey gree free for Jamaica, at first under di partial freedoms of 1833 Slavery Abolition Act. Joseph Knight, wey succeed find im freedom through court case for Scotland in 1777, case wey make Scots law no go support slavery. Josephine Bakhita (c. 1869–1947), Sudanese-born Roman Catholic Canossian nun and saint. Joshua Glover, na fugitive wey slavery people chase am but abolitionists help am for Racine, Wisconsin in 1854. Josiah T. Walls (c. 1842–1905), former slave wey turn politician wey don serve for di two chambers of Florida State Legislature, na di first African American wey represent di state for Congress. Juan de Pareja (1606–1670), man wey Spanish artist Diego Velázquez enslave am. Velázquez teach am how to paint and free am for 1650. Juan Francisco Manzano (c. 1797–1854), Cuban poet. Juan Gros, free black soldier wey Upper Creek catch near Pensacola, sell am to white trader wey carry am go sell to Mitasuki chief Kinache, wey Spanish people come pay ransom for am. Juan Latino, dem dey call am "el negro Juan Latino", from Ethiopia, dem carry am go Spain when e small, e go school and become Latin professor for University of Granada, 16th-century Spain. Juan Ortiz, young nobleman from Andalucía wey Chief Ucita enslave for Florida to take revenge for wetin happen to am during the expedition. Juan Valiente (died 1553), black African slave wey get chance to be conquistador. E die during the battle of Tucapel against Mapuche people for Chile. Juana Ramírez (1790–1856), rebel soldier and heroine for Venezuelan War of Independence. Julia Chinn, enslave woman wey be octoroon and common-law wife to Richard Mentor Johnson, 9th Vice President of the United States. Julia Frances Lewis, mama to Amanda American Dickson through her owner’s son. Juliana, Guaraní woman from Paraguay, wey famous for kill her Spanish enslaver between 1538 and 1542 and encourage other women to do same. Julius Soubise (1754–1798) be freed Afro-Caribbean slave wey become popular fop for late eighteenth-century Britain. Julius Zoilos, enslave by Julius Caesar. After him get freedom, e shine for him city Aphrodisias after Caesar die. Jupiter Hammon (1711–before 1806), for 1761, become the first African-American writer wey dem publish for the present-day United States. Born for slavery, Hammon never get freedom. Dem dey consider am one of the founders of African-American literature. K Kösem Sultan (1589–1651), na slave concubine just like all di other pipo wey dey di Imperial Harem. Kunta Kinte (c. 1750–c. 1822), na character from di 1976 novel Roots: Di Saga of an American Family wey author Alex Haley base on one of him real ancestors. Kinte be man wey dey come from di Mandinka pipo, he grow for small village wey dem dey call Juffure for wetin we sabi as The Gambia, and dem raise am as Muslim before dem capture am and turn am slave for Virginia. Di historical accuracy of Haley's story get debate. Kodjo (c. 1803–1833), na Surinamese slave wey dem burn alive fit start di 1832 fire for Paramaribo, Dutch Suriname, maybe as way to show resistance. Kösem Sultan (1589–1651), na Ottoman enslaved woman, wey later become very powerful as wife, then mother and later grandmother of di Ottoman sultan during di 130-year wey dem dey call di Sultanate of Women. L Laurens de Graaf Lalla Balqis (1670–after 1721), na English woman wey dem capture and turn slave by Corsairs, dem include am for di harem of di Sultan of Morocco. Lamhatty, na Tawasa Indian wey dem capture and enslave by Creek; him escape. Lampegia (die after 730), Aquitanian noblewoman, wey Abd al-Rahman ibn Abd Allah al-Ghafiqi capture, wey in 730 take di Llivia Fortress, kill her husband Munuza and send her go as slave for di harem of Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik for Damascus. La Mulâtresse Solitude (1772–1802), na slave for di island of Guadeloupe wey dem free in 1794 when dem abolish slavery during di French Revolution. Dem execute am after she fight for freedom when slavery come back because Napoleon in 1802. Laurens de Graaf (c. 1653–1704), na Dutch pirate, mercenary, and naval officer, wey dem enslave by Spanish slave traders when dem capture am for wetin we dey call Netherlands, and dem carry am go di Canary Islands to work for plantation before 1674. Lear Green (around 1839–1860), one African-American woman from Maryland wey run go freedom for New York by fitting inside box make dem carry am. Leo Africanus (1494–1554), one Moor wey born for Granada, dem carry am go Morocco in 1498 because of Spanish wahala. As adult, he dey do diplomatic work. Crusaders catch am for Middle East, dem carry am go Rome make he be slave and convert to Christianity. Later, he get him freedom back and live him life for Tunis. Leofgifu, wey be dairy maid, na one enslaved woman for Anglo-Saxon England, dem mention am for her freedom paper. Leoflaed, another enslaved woman for Anglo-Saxon England, man buy her freedom wey describe her as “kinswoman.” Leonor de Mendoza, enslaved woman for colonial Mexico wey wan marry Tomás Ortega wey be slave for another master; when her master put Tomás for prison, she go church court beg make dem help, dem even threaten say if him no free Tomás, e go fit face excommunication. Letitia Munson (around 1820–after 1882), na midwife wey don come out from slavery, dem don free her for doing illegal abortion for Canada. Lewis Adams (1842–1905), man wey don free from slavery, wey co-found Tuskegee Institute, now Tuskegee University for Alabama. Lewis Hayden (1811–1889), na African-American man from Kentucky, later dem elect am for Massachusetts General Court. Lilliam Williams, settler from Tennessee wey Creek catch while she dey pregnant. Creek adopt her pikin (wey she name Molly and dem name Esnahatchee); dem keep the girl when Williams arrange her freedom. Liol, one Chinese man wey dem carry as slave by Mongol bannerman Soosar. E get semi-independent status for dem. In 1735, him pikin Fuji try claim say him and him brother be Manchus but e no work. Lorenzo de Apapis (around 1501–1586), priest and notary from Gozitan wey dey slavery during 1551 Ottoman attack for Gozo. Dem ransom am and free am by 1553. Lott Cary (about 1780–1828), wey dem born am as African-American slave for Virginia, buy im freedom around 1813, move go Liberia for 1822, where e serve as colonial administrator.[1] Louis Hughes (1832–1913), African-American man wey run away from slavery, author, and businessman.[2] Lovisa von Burghausen (1698–1733), Swedish writer wey publish story of how dem enslave am for Russia after dem capture am during the Great Northern War. Lucius Agermus, freedman of Agrippina the Elder.[3] Lucius Aurelius Hermia, freedman butcher wey his tombstone dey praise im marriage with his fellow freedwoman Aurelia Philematium.[4] Lucius Cancrius Primigenius, freedman of Clemens for one inscription wey dey thank am for breaking spells wey dey affect the city.[5] Lucius of Campione, wey lose lawsuit for 8th century about man Toto wey claim ownership of am.[6] Lucy, di black woman wey John Lang enslave. Dem capture her by di Creek wen she dey 12 years and keep her as slave for Creek land, where she born slave children and grandchildren.[7] Lucy Ann (Berry) Delaney (1830–1891), former enslaved woman, daughter of Polly Berry. Lucy Higgs Nichols (1838–1915), wey escape slavery, serve as nurse for di Civil War, member of di Grand Army of di Republic. Lucy Terry (about 1733–1821), dem kidnap her for Africa and enslave her, dem carry am go British colony of Rhode Island. She later gain freedom and become poet. Luís Gama (1830–1882), wey born free for Brazil, illegally sell am into slavery as pikin, he regain freedom as adult and become lawyer wey free plenty people from slavery without asking for money, especially for di Netto Case. Lunsford Lane (1803–after 1870), na enslaved African-American guy wey dey North Carolina wey buy him freedom and him family too. Him write one slave story. Lyde, na woman wey dem free from slavery by Roman empress Livia. Lydia, na woman wey dem shoot when she try run away from her captor wey dey whip am. Supreme Court of North Carolina talk say na legal in 1830 (check North Carolina v. Mann). Lydia Carter, dey call am 'Little Osage Captive,' dem catch am among Cherokee. Na Lydia Carter go pay money come free am and she name her. Osage try take am back, but she fall sick and die. Lydia Polite, na mother of Robert Smalls. M Mikhail Shchepkin Macuncuzade Mustafa Efendi (wey born around 1550s), na Ottoman qadi and poet wey suffer for slavery for Malta after di ship wey e dey waka for capture by di Knights Hospitaller for 1597. Dem release am for 1600, and e write story about im captivity. Madison Hemings (1805–1877), na di pikin of Sally Hemings and Thomas Jefferson. Mae Louise Miller (1943–2014), American woman wey dey live for modern slavery (peonage) till 1961. Malgarida (wey born around 1488), black African woman and boyfriend of di conquistador Diego de Almagro. For 1536, she be di first non-indigenous woman wey enter di land wey we call Chile today. Malik Ambar, wey born for 1548 as Chapu, na im birth-name for Harar, Adal Sultanate wey dey Ethiopia today. Im come from di Maya ethnic group wey don disappear. As small pikin, im parents sell am for slavery. Mir Qasim Al Baghdadi, one of di people wey own am, convert Chapu come Islam and give am di name Ambar, after e sabi sey di boy get sharp brain. Malik waka go India as slave. For India, e create mercenary group wey reach 1500 men. Di group dey for di Deccan region and local kings dey hire dem. Malik become popular Prime Minister for Ahmadnagar Sultanate, show sey e sabi how to manage. E also dey regarded as pacesetter for guerilla warfare for di area. Dem dey credit am with managing tax collection for plenty for di Deccan, wey set di ground for future collections. Di Siddis of Gujarat dey respect am well. E match di strength of di Mughals and Adil Shah of Bijapur, lift di low status of di Nizam Shah. Margaret Himfi (before 1380–after 1408), na Hungarian woman wey dem carry go enslave by Ottoman bad guys for late 14th century. She later become slave mistress for one rich Venetian man for Crete, wey she born two daughters for. Margaret manage come back to Hungary for 1405. Margaret Morgan dey involved for Prigg v. Pennsylvania case wey United States Supreme Court rule say federal Fugitive Slave Act no go allow Pennsylvania law wey stop blacks from chop dey carry dem go slavery, an dem clear Edward Prigg case because of dat. Marguerite Duplessis (c. 1718–after 1740) na Pawnee woman wey dem enslave for Montreal wey, for 1740, try sue for her freedom but e no work. Marguerite Scypion (c. 1770s–after 1836) na African-Natchez woman wey born for slavery for St. Louis wey go sue for her freedom and eventually win am. Maria al-Qibtiyya (died 637), wey dem dey call “Maria the Copt” or sometimes Maria Qupthiya, na Copt woman wey dem send give Muhammad as gift from Muqawqis, one Byzantine big man, for 628, an she become Muhammad concubine. She be mama to Muhammad son Ibrahim wey die for small pikin age. Her sister, Sirin, sef go meet Muhammad. Muhammad give am to him guy Hassan ibn Thabit. Maria die five years after Muhammad die for 632. Maria (died 1716), na leader for slave uprising for Curaçao. Maria Boguslavka (17th century), na Ukrainian woman wey dem enslave for harem, she start help 30 Cossacks run away from slavery. Maria Guyomar de Pinha (1664–1728), na royal chef from Siam wey get Japanese-Portuguese blood. Maria Perkins, na enslave woman from Virginia wey write letter to her husband for 1852 say dem don sell their son away. Maria ter Meetelen (1704–after 1751), na Dutch writer wey tell her own slave story, dem carry her go enslave by pirates and later sell am to Sultan of Morocco. Her 1748 biography na important witness statement about life of former slave. Mariah Bell Winder McGavock Otey Reddick (she die 1922), as she be small girl, dem give am as wedding gift to Carrie Winder when she marry John McGavock for 1848 inside Terrebonne Parish, Louisiana. Mariah wey born for Mississippi as enslaved person, dem carry am go Franklin, Tennessee, where she spend plenty of her life. Dem match her with Harvey Otey after him first wife Phebe die. Dem get plenty pikin, including two set of twins, wey born into slavery. When Civil War start, dem send her go Montgomery make she dey far from Union lines and possible freedom. She don appear for three novels: Widow of the South and Orphan Mother wey Robert Hicks write and also for book wey her great-grandson William 'Damani' Keene and him wife Carole 'Ife' Keene write titled Clandestine: The Times and Secret Life of Mariah Otey Reddick. Marianna Malińska (she die after 1797), Polish serf and Royal Ballet Dancer, dem donates am to king of Poland by will. Marie (she die 1759), enslaved Cree woman wey get death sentence for Trois-Rivières, New France. Marie-Cessette Dumas, woman wey Marquis Antoine de la Pailleterie enslaved, she be mama of General Thomas-Alexandre Dumas, and grandmother of famous author Alexandre Dumas, père. Marie-Josèphe dite Angélique (she die 1734), black Portuguese enslaved woman wey dem try and convict, beat and hang because she set fire to her woman owner house, wey burn plenty of wetin dem dey call Old Montreal now. Marie Thérèse Metoyer, na planter and businesswoman wey dey Natchitoches, Louisiana after dem free her. Mark, one man from Massachusetts wey dey enslaved by Captain John Codman. Mark body dey display for chains for public near Charlestown, Massachusetts for twenty years. That gruesome display of him body dey popular well-well for that time, and na the place wey dem display Mark body make Paul Revere mention am as landmark for him 1798 account of him 1775 midnight ride. Martha Ann Erskine Ricks (1817–1901), na African-American wey dey born enslave for Tennessee, later she become Americo-Liberian wey sabi quilt. Marthe Franceschini (1755–1799), na Italian wey dem capture and enslave by Corsairs, enter Sultan of Morocco harem. Mary, wey be George Washington Carver mama. Mary (wey die 1838), na teenager wey dem hang for murder wey she do to Vienna Brinker, two-year-old girl wey she dey take care of. Mary Black, one of three enslave women wey dem charge for witchcraft during Salem witch trials for 1692. Mary Calhoun, white woman and cousin of John C. Calhoun wey dem kidnap by Cherokee. She no fit come back home. Mary Edmonson (1832–1853), with her sister Emily, dem try escape for 1848 wey dem dey call Pearl incident, but Henry Ward Beecher and him church gather money help free dem. Mary Eliza Smith, dem dey call 'slave' or 'former slave,' na common-law wife of Michael Morris Healy and mama of him pikin dem, wey include James Augustine Healy, Patrick Francis Healy, Michael A. Healy, and Eliza Healy. Mary Fields (c. 1832–1914): she be first African-American female wey dey carry mail for United States star route. Mary Mildred Williams, Nee Botts (born 1847), na the original 'Poster Child' wey dem use her picture push abolitionist cause by dey spread 'White Slavery' for 1855. Mary Prince (c. 1788–after 1833), her life story motivate anti-slavery movement for England. The Master of Morton and e first son of Clan Oliphant Chief, two Scottish noble wey dem exile from Scotland after 1582 Raid of Ruthven. Dem ship wey dem travel with vanish for sea, and dem talk say na Dutch ship catch dem. Last report be say dem dey enslave for Turkish ship for Mediterranean. Dem raise plaque for church for Algiers to remember dem. Masúd, dem buy am when e be pikin from Khál-i Akbar, wey be Báb uncle, Masúd go serve Bahá'u'lláh for Acre. Matilda McCrear (around 1857–1940), last person wey survive for US wey gree say Transatlantic slave trade no easy. Dem carry am go for slave ship Clotilda. Mende Nazer (born around 1982), Nuba woman wey dem capture for Darfur carry am from Sudan go London, later she get refugee status and write book wey title Slave: My True Story (2002). Menecrates of Tralles, na Greek doctor wey dey for 1st century BC. Metaneira, woman for ancient Greece wey dem talk say na Nicarete property, wey dey sell am for body. Michael Shiner (1805–1880), en slaved laborer, painter entrepreneur, community leader and diary writer for Washington Navy Yard. Miguel de Buría (around 1510–around 1555), na slave and rebel. Miguel Perez na the Spanish name of boy wey be Yojuane people, wey dey among 149 Yojuane women and children wey dem carry go as captive for 1759 when some Spanish and Apaches come attack their camp along Red River for northern Texas. Many of dem wey dem capture die from smallpox, the ones wey survive, dem go still enslave dem. Dem sell the boy to Spanish soldier wey give am that Spanish name. Perez become Hispanicized Indian for San Antonio but he still dey connect with his Yojuane people. For 1786, Perez go persuade the Yojuanes and their Tonkawa friends to fight Lipan Apache, wey he do am well. Mikhail Matinsky (1750–1820), Russian serf wey be scientist, dramatist, librettist and opera composer. Michał Rymiński (e don die after 1797), Polish serf wey be Royal Ballet Dancer, wey donate am to king of Poland by him will. Mikhail Shchepkin (1788–1863), Russian serf actor. Mikhail Shibanov, Russian serf painter wey dey active for 1780s. Mikhail Tikhanov (1789–1862), Russian serf artist. Mina Kolokolnikov (1708?–1775?), Russian serf painter and teacher. Mingo, di 15–16 years old boy wey Titsworth family use as slave for Tennessee, dem capture am for 1794 by Creeks when dem raid di house. Minerva (Anderson) Breedlove, na Madam C.J. Walker mama. Moses A. Hopkins (1846–1886), African-American diplomat, U.S. minister to Liberia. Murad Agha (c. 1480–c. 1556), Italy-born Ottoman eunuch and naval officer, wey turn Beylerbey of Tripoli. Mustapha Khaznadar (1817–1878), him be Christian Greek wey dem capture during 1822 Massacre of Chios, change am to Islam wey dem call am Mustapha, sell am for Constantinople to envoy of Husainid Dynasty. Him grow for Mustapha Bey family, later him son Ahmad I Bey. Him first be prince private treasurer before him become Ahmad state treasurer (khaznadar). Him rise to top offices for Tunisian state, marry Princess Lalla Kalthoum for 1839, turn lieutenant-general of di army, become bey for 1840 and de president of Grand Council from 1862 to 1878. Muyahid ibn Yusuf ibn Ali (11th century), na di leader of Saqaliba (slaves wey dem say be Slavic origin) for Dénia, Spain. As Caliphate of Córdoba dey fall, him and him followers rebel, free demself, control di city and establish di Taifa of Dénia, wey at di peak dey reach as far as di island of Majorca. N Nafisa al-Bayda, Egyptian investor wey dem dey call "white slave", na hin dey buy as concubine slave. Nancy, wey dem dey call Ann, na di plaintiff for di 1799 New Brunswick habeas corpus case R v Jones. Nancy Brown, Nancy Caffrey, na white captive wey Creek dey enslave. When trader John O'Reilly try to ransom her and Elsey Thompson, dem tell am say dem no capture dem to go back, but to work. Nanny of di Maroons, wey dem dey call Granny Nanny and Queen Nanny, na di leader of di Jamaican Maroons. Nat Turner (1800–1831), wey escape come lead revolt for Southampton County, Virginia. Nathan McMillian, wey as free man sue to make him pikin enter local "Croatan Indian" school, say e dey for all non-white pikin, and say him pikin get Croatan blood for their mama side. Nathaniel Booth (1826–1901), wey escape slavery for Virginia and settle for Lowell, Massachusetts. For 1851, di people of Lowell buy him freedom from slave hunters. Neaera, formerly enslaved woman and prostitute wey di Athenian Stephanus marry against di law around 340 BC, according to Demosthenes speech. Nero Hawley (1742–1817), wey be formerly enslaved freeperson wey serve for Continental Army during di American Revolutionary War, and dem bury am for Trumbull, Connecticut. Newport Gardner (1746–1826), na formerly enslaved freeperson for colonial Newport, Rhode Island. Ng Akew (died 1880), be Tanka enslaved woman for British Hong Kong wey famous for piracy scandal. Nicarete, na woman for ancient Greece, wey dem describe for Against Neaera di freedwoman of Charisius di Elean and him wife wey be cook Hippias, and as her dey own and sell several women around 340 BC. Saint Nino (c. 280–c. 332), na 4th-century Roman woman from Constantinople wey dem dey respect well well for bring Christianity come Georgia. Some account of her life talk say she originally come Georgia as slave wey dem kidnap from her homeland. Nurbanu Sultan (about 1525–1583), wey dem call Cecilia Venier-Baffo before, na enslaved noblewoman from Venice wey become the favorite wife of Ottoman sultan Selim II, and her wan dey very powerful as mother to sultan Murad III. O Omar ibn Said, Senegal scholar wey don dey slavery for North Carolina more than 50 years, around 1850. Oenomaus, Gallic gladiator wey lead slaves wey dey rebel during Third Servile War. Olaudah Equiano (c. 1745–1797), wey dem sabi as Gustavus Vassa, strong African-British writer wey dey fight for abolition, but dem no sure where e born. Omar ibn Said (1770–1864), writer and Islamic scholar wey come from Senegal wey dem carry go USA for 1807, spend di rest of im life for slavery. Onesimus, slave of Philemon from Colossae wey run away, meet St. Paul, and Paul change am. Paul send am back go Philemon with letter, wey be Epistle to Philemon. Ignatius of Antioch talk about an Onesimus wey be Bishop of Ephesus for early 2nd century, but nobody sure if na di same people. Onesimus, slave for colonial Boston wey help spread knowledge about smallpox inoculation. Onesimos Nesib (c. 1856–1931), Ethiopian wey Swedish missionaries buy out of slavery when e be pikin. E work with another former slave Aster Ganno to translate Bible into Oromo language. Oney Judge (1773–1848), wey dem enslave for Martha Washington family, and later for di First Lady, Judge dey work for Mount Vernon and all over as personal servant to Martha Washington until she escape for 1796 go Portsmouth New Hampshire. Ottobah Cugoano, wey dem sabi as John Stuart (c. 1757–after 1791), be abolitionist, political activist, and natural rights philosopher from West Africa wey dey active for Britain. Owen Fitzpen (c. 1582–1636), English merchant wey Barbary pirates carry capture for 1620 but escape later. Owen Breedlove, papa of Madam C.J. Walker. P Pallas, secretary wey dey work for Roman emperor Claudius. Pasion, na enslaved Athenian guy wey be banker. E later get dat rare chance for freedman to get citizen. Pata Seca (real name na Roque José Florêncio), wey come from Angola for 1828, dem capture am come Brazil as slave, na tall, strong guy: 2m18 tall plus over 140 kg weight. E dey work as breeding slave, e don born over 200 pikin. When dem cancel slavery for Brazil for 1888, e get land, wey e live with e wife and 9 children. Saint Patrick, dem kidnap am from Britain, enslave for Ireland, escape go Britain, come back to Ireland as missionary. Patsey (born around 1830), na enslaved African-American wey dey live for mid-1800s for South Carolina. Paul Jennings (1799–1874), na personal servant wey dem enslave under President James Madison during e White House time, e buy im freedom for 1845 from Daniel Webster. E publish di first White House memoir, 1865's A Colored Man's Reminiscences of James Madison. Paul Smith, na free black wey accuse di Cherokee headman Doublehead say e kidnap am and force am into bondage. Pedro Camejo (1790–1821), na Venezuelan soldier for di Venezuelan War of Independence. Peggy Margaret Titsworth, dem enslave am at 13 years for three years, after Creek raid for 1794 on her Tennessee home. Pete and Hannah Byrne, na freed slaves from Napoleon Bonaparte Byrne family wey travel from Missouri to California by land (six months journey) for 1859, dem leave di farm for Missouri carry six adults (including Pete & Hannah), di four Byrne children and cattle come settle for Berkeley, California. Pete and Hannah be di first blacks wey dey live for Berkeley and among di first African-Americans for California. Peter Salem (c. 1750–1816), African American wey born for slavery for Massachusetts, serve as soldier for American Revolutionary War. Petronia Justa, woman wey dey Herculaneum, sue her owner say she born after her mama don freedom; Vesuvius eruption preserve di court matter. Phaedo of Elis, wey dem capture for war, carry go Athens, force am to do prostitution, later become Socrates student wey free am, give him name to one Plato dialogue, Phaedo, and him be famous philosopher. Phaedrus (c. 15 BCE–c. 50 CE), Roman storyteller. Praskovia Kovalyova-Zhemchugova dress fine for Les mariages samnites by André Ernest Modeste Grétry. Phillis (die 1755), woman wey dey Massachusetts, enslave by Captain John Codman. She and her people plot to poison her owner as dem no fit take di wahala from their master, but dem burn am to death for 1755. Phillis Wheatley (1753–1784?), Colonial American poet, second published African-American poet and first African-American woman wey publish. Phoebe, woman wey dey slavery wey sue for her freedom for Tennessee, with her pikin Davy and Tom, say dem be descendants of one enslaved Indian woman wey prove say dem no suppose hold dem. Philocrates, wey dey slavery under Roman reformer Gaius Gracchus. He stay with him master when Gracchus dey run from him enemies, everybody don leave am. When dem reach one grove wey dey sacred to di Furies, Philocrates help Gracchus kill himself first before he take him own life, some talk say dem kill am after him refuse to let go him master body. Phormion, one enslaved man from Athens wey dey do banking. For him old age, dem give am rare honor of citizenship as free man. Pierre d'Espagnac, sometimes Pierre d'Espagnal (1650–1689), na French Jesuit missionary, dem enslave am by di Siamese. Pope Pius I (e die around 154), na Bishop for Rome from around 140 to 154, when dem dey reign under Roman emperor Antoninus Pius. E be brother to freedman Hermas, so e fit don be former slave too, but dem no talk am clear for di small records wey dey about e life. Pleasant Richardson, wey escape slavery become Union soldier plus property owner for Fincastle, Virginia. Polly, di subject of 1820 Indiana Supreme Court case Polly v. Lasselle, wey make all slaves wey dey Indiana go free. Polly Berry, wey dem also dey call Polly Crockett or Polly Wash, win freedom suit for 1843 for St. Louis, Missouri plus she free her daughter Lucy Ann Berry too. Politoria, wey get lead curse tablet for ancient Rome; na curse on Clodia Valeria Sophrone say make she no fit get Politoria into her power. E look like say she be slave-courtesan wey dey fear say dem go send am go brothel. Praskovia Kovalyova-Zhemchugova (1768–1803) na Russian serf actress plus soprano opera singer. Primus (1700–1791), wey Daniel Fowle from Portsmouth, New Hampshire enslave. Primus dey run di press for di New Hampshire Gazette wey be di oldest newspaper wey still dey print for America. Prince na di slave of Choctaw man wey name Richard Harkins. E vex say him owner no give di slaves Christmas celebration, Prince kill am sharply and dump di body for river for 1858. Prince Boston (born 1750), sue for him freedom and win for 1773 U.S. jury trial. Prince Estabrook (1741–1830), wey Benjamin Estabrook enslave; join fight for Continental Army and get wound for di Battle of Lexington and Concord. Prince Whipple (1750–1796), enslave by American General William Whipple. Prosper, na enslaved man wey dem murder for 1807 for Virgin Islands by him owner Arthur William Hodge, and Hodge go face trial and dem execute am for 1811, na di first case wey dem fit record like dat. One pregnant Thrall wey we no fit remember the name, dey run from her life for 11th-century Oslo, Hallvard Vebjørnsson carry am go hide for him boat. Dem people come attack dem, shoot dem with arrow, and both of dem die. Because of dat, dem make Hallvard saint and him be patron saint for Oslo. Publilius Syrus (fl. 85–43 BCE), na Latin writer wey sabi plenty for him wise sayings. E be Syrian wey dem carry come Italy as slave. Q Quamina Gladstone, him be Jack Gladstone papa and e dey involve for Demerara rebellion wey happen for 1823. Quassi van Timotebo or Kwasimukamba (1692–1787) na Surinam slave, wey don free and na Maroon hunter for Dutch Surinam. Him name dey for plant genus wey dem call Quassia. Quock Walker, wey dem dey call Kwaku or Quok Walker too, him sue and win him freedom for 1781 because of new Massachusetts Constitution (1780) wey talk say all men dem dey born free and equal. Qutb-ud-din Aybak or Qutbuddin Aibak (1150–1210), na Turk wey don suffer slavery before, become soldier, be first Sultan of Delhi, for India e start "slave dynasty". R Rachel, na the person wey dey the 1834 Rachel v. Walker case for Supreme Court of Missouri wey rule say U.S. Army officer go lose him slave if e carry the person go place wey slavery no dey allowed. Dis ruling come dey used as example for 1856 for Dred Scott v. Sandford case for U.S. Supreme Court. Rachel of Kittery, Maine (she die 1695), na enslaved woman wey her owner kill, and e case set legal example for New England. Rachel Knight (she die 1889), at first na enslaved by Newton Knight grandpapa, wey be popular Southern Unionist wey during American Civil War, e no gree Confederacy, wey dem dey call Free State of Jones. After the war, Rachel come get freedom with other slaves. By mid-1870s, Knight don separate from him wife, Serena, come marry Rachel. During this time, Knight grown son, Mat (from him first wife), come marry Rachel grown daughter, Fannie, from her previous relationship. Knight daughter, Molly, come marry Rachel son, Jeff, turns three interracial families for the community. Newton and Rachel Knight born plenty children before she die for 1889. Rebecca Huger, na enslaved woman wey General Benjamin F. Butler free for New Orleans, and dem talk for Harper's Weekly say she be white, come dey go school for freed slaves for Philadelphia. Richard Preston (around 1791–1861), e comot from slavery come be religious leader and abolitionist for Nova Scotia. Robert Blake, e get Medal of Honor as sailor during American Civil War, after e become 'contraband' (slaves wey Union forces free) come join. Robert Drury (1687–1743/1750), English sailor wey shipwreck for Madagascar island in 1702, e dey slave there till 1717. Robert J. Patterson (1809–1884), e run from slavery for Virginia come be restaurateur for Saint John, New Brunswick. Robert Smalls (1839–1915), e take charge of Confederate ship, carry the ship and enslaved people go freedom, make Union allow African Americans join; later e serve for South Carolina Senate before e enter U.S. House of Representatives wey represent South Carolina's 5th congressional district. Robin and Polly Holmes, na dem be plaintiffs for the 1853 Holmes v. Ford court case for Oregon Territory wey free their pikin dem. The verdict confirm say slavery no dey legal for that area as Organic Laws of Oregon talk when the place become U.S. territory. Rosina Downs, na enslaved woman wey General Benjamin F. Butler free for New Orleans, dem describe am for Harper's Weekly say she look white, and she come school for emancipated slaves for Philadelphia. Roustam Raza (1783–1845), na Napoleon Bonaparte's Armenian bodyguard. S Solomon Northup wey come from Twelve Years a Slave Sabuktigin (c. 942–997), full name Abu Mansur Sabuktigin, be small pikin wey dem carry go sell for slavery, but e rise come be general, then king wey start the Ghaznavid Empire for medieval Iran. Safiye Sultan (c. 1550 – c. 1619), na enslaved woman wey be Albanian, dem put am for harem of Ottoman sultan Murad III, and she be the mama of sultan Mehmed III. Salem Poor (1747–1802), na enslaved African-American man wey buy im freedom, and e be war hero during the American Revolutionary War. Sally Hemings (1773–1835), na mixed-race woman wey dem enslave by Thomas Jefferson, plenty people dey believe say she born six pikin for am, four of dem survive grow reach adult. Sally Miller or Salomé Müller (born c. 1814), na enslaved American woman wey file her freedom case for Louisiana based on say she dey claim say she be free German immigrant and indentured servant. Sally Seymour (died 1824), na American pastry chef and restaurateur, enslaved woman wey dem free and she come own her own slaves too. Salonia na di second wife of Cato di Elder. Salvius, wey dem sabi as Tryphon, be leader of di 104 BCE slave rebellion for Sicily wey dem call di Second Servile War. Sambo (died 1736), na enslaved boy wey enter Sunderland Point, near Lancaster, England, around 1736 from West Indies as captain servant. Dem bury am for grave wey no dey blessed inside one field near small village of Sunderland Point, Lancashire, England. Sambo, a black guy wey dey under Tiger King, one Lower Creek, wey tell traveler William Bartram say Sambo be him family property. Samson Rowlie (wey die after 1588), wey dem sabi as Hassan Aga, Chief Eunuch and Treasurer for Algiers. Samuel Benedict (1792–1854), wey born be African-American slave, later become free and waka go Liberia, where he turn politician and judge. Samuel Green (c. 1802–1877), one enslaved man wey buy him freedom and freedom for him loved ones, dey involve for Underground Railroad, and dem lock him up for 1857 because e carry Uncle Tom's Cabin. Samuel Ringgold Ward (1817–c. 1866), African-American wey dey fight for abolition and be journalist. Sandy Jenkins, na person wey dey enslave wey Frederick Douglass talk for him first autobiography. Sanker, na manservant wey dey work for Samuel R. Watkins, wey write "Co. Aytch" (1882), wey dey tell how him life be as soldier for the 1st Tennessee Infantry Regiment. Sarah Forbes Bonetta (1843–1880), na Egbado princess from Yoruba wey lose her people during fight, sell into slavery as small pikin, but Captain Frederick E. Forbes from Royal Navy come rescue am carry am go UK wey she con become goddaughter to Queen Victoria. Sarah Basset (die 1730), wey dey enslave for Bermuda; dem execute am for poison matter wey involve three people. Sarah Johnson (1844–1920), her life for the first president plantation dey published for book wey dem call "Sarah Johnson's Mount Vernon." Satrelanus, from Gaul, wey Ermedruda sell give Toto for Milan for 725. Scipio Africanus (around 1702–1720). Scipio Moorhead (fl. 1773–1775), na enslaved African-American artist. Scipio Vaughan (around 1784–around 1840), dem carry am komot from him place for Africa young, sell am go slavery for United States. E turn skilled artisan for Camden, South Carolina; manage get him freedom and inspire plenty of him pikin dem. Septimus Clarke (1787–1859), wey dem don enslave before, him turn e get success as farmer and leader for community for Nova Scotia. Servius Tullius, ancient King of Rome wey people talk sey e start life as slave (but some people dey argue this matter, both Romans and modern historians). Seymour Burr (1754/1762–1837), e fight for Continental Army for American Revolution. Shadrach Minkins (1814–1875), na fugitive wey slavery no fit catch, dem save am by abolitionists for Boston in 1850. Shaghab (dem don die 933), mother and double ruler of the eighteenth Abbasid Caliph al-Muqtadir. Silas Chandler (1838–1919), na man wey dey follow him enslavers for Confederate Army during American Civil War. Sojourner Truth (around 1797–1883), na abolitionist and women's rights activist. Solomon Bayley (1771–1839), write book for 1825 about him life as slave. Solomon Northup (1807–around 1863), na farmer, pro violinist, and free-born black man from New York wey dem lure go Washington, D.C., wey slavery dey legal, kidnap am and sell am for South. E dey enslaved for Louisiana from 1841 till dem rescue am and liberate am for 1853. Na author of Twelve Years a Slave. Solomon Flores, na enslaved man from northern Alabama. Sosias the Thracian, na enslaved Athenian man, later freedman, wey Nicias carry enslave, later rent am one thousand slaves for mining work. Spartacus (around 111–71 BCE), na gladiator and rebel leader during the Servile Revolt. Spendius be Campanian wey run come out from slavery, serve as Carthaginian mercenary for di First Punic War, den later be general for Mercenary War wey dem fight against Carthage. Stefan Holnicki (we no sabi when e die after 1797), Polish serf and Royal Ballet Dancer, don give plenty to di king of Poland by im will. Stephen Bishop (about 1821–1857), na mixed-race man wey dem hold for Kentucky, him dey known as one of di first explorers and guides for Mammoth Cave. Sue, na black woman wey James Brown enslave, dem capture am with plenty members for di Brown family and other slaves by Chickamaugas. When di warrior wey catch am threaten another captive, di other captor come threaten say dem go kill Sue for revenge. James' pikin Joseph later kidnap Sue, her children and grandchildren—total eight—for di revenge wey dey follow im captivity. Suhayb ar-Rumi (born around 587), wey people sabi as Suhayb ibn Sinan, na child wey dey enslave for Byzantine Empire, escape as young man go Mecca, come join Muhammad and become big friend for di early Muslim community. Sumayyah bint Khayyat (550–615), na woman wey dem enslave for Mecca; she be one of di first seven pipo wey convert to Islam by Prophet Muhammad early for him work. Dem torture am and kill am because of di new faith, she become di first Muslim Shahid. Squanto (1585–1622), wey dem also sabi as Tisquantum, na Native American from wetin dem dey call coastal Massachusetts now; dem capture am by English pirates and sell am as slave. Later, he free and return go New England, meet di Pilgrims for di Mayflower in 1621. Subh of Cordoba (940–999), na enslave concubine of a Caliph, na mother and regent of di next Caliph of Cordoba inside di 10th century. Suk-bin Choe (1670–1718), na consort of Sukjong of Joseon and mother of Yeongjo of Joseon. Surya Devi (we no sabi when she die, 715), na Indian princess wey dem enslave by Caliph Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik. T Taras Shevchenko Tatyana Shlykova Dem dey talk say na Terence portrait from Vatican Codex 3868. E fit be copy from 3rd-century original. Taras Shevchenko (1814–1861): Na di biggest Ukrainian poet, artist and illustrator wey come from serf family. E artist padi buy am freedom for 1838. Tatyana Shlykova (1773–1863), Russian serf wey be ballerina and opera singer. Thanadelthur (c. 1697–1717), woman from Chipewyan Dënesųłı̨ne nation wey help as guide and interpreter for Hudson's Bay Company. Thomas Fuller, African American man wey dey suffer for Virginia, dem sabi am for im math skills. Thomas Pellow (1704–1745), wey pirates from Barbary enslave, carry am go Morocco, dem select am and torture am by Ismail Ibn Sharif. E escape after 23 years, come back home to Cornwall. Thomas Peters (1738–1792), wey first be Thomas Potters, one of di founding fathers of Sierra Leone. Dem don enslave am before, e run come out from North Carolina during American Revolutionary War. Peters na Black Loyalist member of British Black Company of Pioneers, e become sergeant, settle down, and marry for Nova Scotia. E even recruit African settlers for Nova Scotia to colonize Sierra Leone, later become leader for Freetown. Thomas Sims (born 1834), African American man wey escape slavery for Georgia come Boston, Massachusetts, but dem catch am back under Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, but e escape go Boston again. Thomas-Alexandre Dumas (1762–1806), French general and papa of Alexandre Dumas. Thumal, administrator of justice for di eighteenth Abbasid Caliph al-Muqtadir. T. Aelius Dionysius, freedman for di late Roman Empire, wey create stela for himself, im wife, and Aelius Perseus, im fellow freedman, and dem and dem wey come after dem. T. Claudius Dionysius, him be freedman wey him freedwoman wife Claudia Prepontis build funeral altar for am. Di hands wey dem hold show say dem marry legit, na only after dem get dem freedom. Terence (c. 195/185–c. 159 BCE), full name Publius Terentius Afer, na Roman playwright and comic poet wey write before and maybe after him freedom. Tiberius Claudius Narcissus, na freedman wey dey serve as secretary to Roman emperor Claudius for 1st century. Tituba, na 17th-century Native American woman wey Samuel Parris from Danvers, Massachusetts enslave. She be di first person wey dem accuse of witchcraft during di 1692 Salem witch trials. Tomás Ortega, na enslaved man for colonial Mexico wey try marry Leonor de Mendoza, another woman wey dey under different master. When dat man lock Tomás, Leonor beg church court for help, dem threaten say if him no free Tomás, dem go excommunicate am. Titus Kent (1733–18??), him dey serve for di Samuel Kent family for Suffield Connecticut. Samuel Kent wey live from 1698–1772, wey write for him will say Titus go be Elihu Kent pikin. Revolutionary War records show say Titus serve for different regiments from 1775 to 1783. Toussaint L'Ouverture (1743–1803), na freedman wey lead di slave revolt wey bring Haiti independence. Tula (wey die 1795), na leader of di Curaçao Slave Revolt of 1795. Turgut Reis (1485–1565), wey dem sabi as Dragut, na famous admiral for Ottoman Navy wey Genoese capture for Corsica and force am work as galley slave for near four years. Finally, him fellow admiral Barbarossa come rescue am, wey lay siege to Genoa and secure Turgut Reis release for big ransom of 3,500 gold ducats. After dat, Turgut Reis continue him naval career (wey include di enslavement of plenty other people). U Ukawsaw Gronniosaw (1705–1775), wey dem sabi as James Albert, na freedman wey turn writer. Him autobiography be di first one wey African publish for Britain. Ursula Granger (1738–1800), na woman wey Thomas Jefferson enslave, she be cook, dairymaid, laundress, and wet nurse. Dem dey call am di "Queen of Monticello". V Vasily Tropinin Vincent de Paul Vasily Tropinin (1776–1857), na Russian serf wey sabi paint. Venture Smith (1729–1805), na African wey dem capture as pikin, carry am go American colonies as slave. When e grow, e buy im freedom and im family too – im wife Meg and di pikin dem: Hannah, Solomon and Cuff. Di schoolteacher wey write im story, na person wey e talk to for im old age. Venus Vance (died c. 1850), na enslaved American woman wey live and work for Mira Margaret Baird Vance plantation. Di Vestmenn ("West Men" for Old Norse, wey dey point to di Irish) be group of Irish slaves wey Hjörleifr Hróðmarsson carry go Iceland. E no treat dem well, so dem kill am and run go one group of islands. Ingólfur Arnarson, Hjörleifur's blood brother, chase dem come kill all of dem. Though we no sabi their individual names, dem memory still dey for Iceland geography, di islands wey dem seek refuge dey known as "Vestmannaeyjar": "Islands of di West Men" (i.e. of di Irish). Vincent de Paul (1581–1660), na French priest wey dem dey honor as saint for di Catholic Church. Dem capture am by Turkish pirates, sell am as slave, but e come free for 1607. Vindicius, na ancient Roman slave wey find out Tarquin's plan to take back power. == List of slaves == 3g6cpyyqdb1zxa9du1dzcqpcvcjt5kz 69176 69175 2025-07-06T00:33:51Z Abdul-Rauf Moshie 1580 /* List of slaves */ 69176 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Slavery}} [[File:Livorno_Quattro_mori_monument_07.JPG|thumb|375x375px|One out of four statues wey dey show chained slaves for base of the Monument of the Four Moors for Livorno, Italy, wey dem fit be real slaves o.]] Slavery be one kind social-economic system wey people dey suffer: dem no get freedom and dem dey force to do work or service without pay. Dem people wey dey in dis condition, we dey call dem slaves or enslaved people. Dis na list of some important historical people wey don dey enslave for some time for dem life, we go arrange am from A to Z based on dem first name. * A * B * C * D * E * F * G * H * I * J * K * L * M * N * O * P * Q * R * S * T * U * V * W * X * Y * Z * See also A Abraham be enslaved black man wey dey carry message between frontier and Charles Town for war with Cherokee, wey fit free am. Abdul Rahman Ibrahima Sori (1762–1829), na prince from West Africa wey dem hold for United States for 40 years till President John Quincy Adams free am. Abram Petrovich Gannibal (1696–1781), dem adopt am by Russian czar Peter the Great, him be governor for Tallinn (Reval) (1742–1752) and general-en-chef (1759–1762) wey dey build sea forts and canals for Russia; e be great-grandpapa of Alexander Pushkin. See The Slave in European Art for him portraits. Absalom Jones (1746–1818), him don free hims [[File:Cabeza_de_Vaca_Portrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cabeza_de_Vaca_Portrait.jpg|right|thumb|235x235px|[[:en:Álvar_Núñez_Cabeza_de_Vaca|Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca]]]] elf, na abolitionist and clergyman – first ordained black priest of Episcopal Church. Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz (die 644), na Persian craftsman and captive wey kill second Islamic caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab (r. 634–644). Addas (7th century) na enslaved Christian boy wey dey live for Taif during Muhammad time, wey people talk say na him be first person from western Taif wey convert to Islam. Adriaan de Bruin (c. 1700–1766), wey dem call Tabo Jansz before, na enslaved servant for Dutch Republic wey turn free man for Hoorn, North Holland. Adam Brzeziński (1768 – after 1797), Polish serf and Royal Ballet Dancer, wey donate to king of Poland by will and testament. Aesop (c. 620–564 BCE), na Greek poet and author or transcriber for Aesop's Fables. Afanasy Grigoriev (1782–1868), na Russian serf and Neoclassical architect. Afrosinya (1699/1700–1748), na Russian serf, fit be Finnish captive, na enslaved mistress of Alexei Petrovich, Tsarevich of Russia. Agathoclia (shey die around 230), na martyr and patron saint for Mequinenza town for Spain. Alam al-Malika (shey die 1130), na singer wey dem catch as slave but rise become de prime minister and ruler for Zubayd, wey dey now Yemen. Alexina Morrison, na run away girl from slavery for Louisiana wey claim say she be kidnapped white pikin, she sue her master wey make people vex say dem go lynch am. Alfred "Teen" Blackburn (1842–1951), one of de last survivors of slavery for United States wey fit remember wetin happen. Alfred Francis Russ [[File:Aesop_pushkin01.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aesop_pushkin01.jpg|left|thumb|264x264px|[[:en:Aesop|Aesop]] in a [[:en:Hellenistic_art|Hellenistic]] statue claimed to be him, Art Collection of [[:en:Villa_Albani|Villa Albani]], Rome]] ell (1817–1884), na 10th President of Liberia. Alice Clifton (c. 1772–unknown), as slave pikin, she dey trial for infanticide matter for 1787. Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca (c. 1490–c. 1558), na Spanish explorer wey dem turn slave by Native Americans for Gulf Coast after e survive Narváez expedition wey scatter for 1527. Al-Khayzuran bint Atta (shey die 789), na Yemeni girl wey turn wife for Abbasid Caliph Al-Mahdi and mama to two Caliphs, Al-Hadi and Harun al-Rashid, wey dem sabi well well. Alp-Tegin (shey die 963), na member of nomadic Turks, dem carry am as slave small for Samanid court for Bukhara, later e come be army commander for Samanid Empire. Him son-in-law Sabuktigin later start Ghaznavid Empire. Amanda America Dickson (1849–1893), daughter of white planter David Dickson and Julia Frances Lewis, she be slave under Dickson's mama. Even though she dey legally enslaved till after Civil War, Amanda be her papa favorite and she inherit him $500,000 estate after him die for 1885. Ammar bin Yasir (570–657), one of di popular sahaba dem wey Abu Bakr free. Amos Fortune (1710–1801), African prince wey don suffer for United States for most of him life. Di children book wey talk about am, Amos Fortune, Free Man win Newbery Medal for 1951. Anarcha Westcott (c. 1828–unknown), black woman wey dey enslaved for di United States, she be among di women wey J. Marion Sims use do experiment. Portrait of Andrey Voronikhin. Engraving by V. A. Bobrov from di early 19th century. Andrey Voronikhin (1759–1814), Russian serf, architect and painter. Andrea Aguyar (died 1849), former enslaved black ma [[File:Voronikhin.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Voronikhin.jpg|right|thumb|297x297px|Portrait of [[:en:Andrey_Voronikhin|Andrey Voronikhin]]. Engraving by V. A. Bobrov from the beginning of the 19th century.]] n from Uruguay wey join Giuseppe Garibaldi during di Italian revolution for di Uruguayan Civil War of di 1840s and die for fight for di Roman Republic of 1849. Andrew Jackson Beard (1849–1921), inventor, him free at age 15 by di Emancipation Proclamation. Anna J. Cooper (1858–1964), author, educator, speaker and big African-American scholar. Anna Madgigine Jai Kingsley (1793–1870), woman wey dey enslaved then become planter and slave owner. Anna Williams, woman wey dey enslaved for Washington, D.C. wey go court win her freedom against di United States Court of Appeals. Annice (died 1828), dem execute her for murder five children. Annika Svahn (fl. 1714), Finnish woman wey Russian take away during di Great Northern War. She be vicar pikin for Joutseno, wey become popular victim for di wahala wey civilian dem suffer during di Russian occupation. Antarah ibn Shaddad (525–608), pre-Islamic Arab wey born from enslaved woman, him papa free am before battle, and he be poet too. Anthony Burns (1834–1862), na Baptist pre [[File:Петровское._Бюст_А.П._Ганнибала.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5._%D0%91%D1%8E%D1%81%D1%82_%D0%90.%D0%9F._%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0.jpg|right|thumb|263x263px|[[:en:Abram_Petrovich_Gannibal|Abram Petrovich Gannibal]], bust in [[:en:Petrovskoye,_Yaroslavl_Oblast|Petrovskoe]], [[:en:Russia|Russia]]]] acher wey escape slavery go Boston, but dem catch am again because Fugitive Slave Act wey dey 1850, den people wey no want am capture buy im freedom for Boston. Antonia Bonnelli (1786–1870), dem capture am and enslave am by Mikasuki tribe for Florida in 1802. António Corea, na European name wey dem give to Korean. Dem carry am go Italy, wey fit make am di first Korean wey step foot for Europe. Antón Guanche (15th century), na Guanche from Tenerife, dem capture am, enslave am, come return am go di island. Aqualtune Ezgondidu Mahamud da Silva Santos (died 1677), na princess of Kongo, mother of Ganga Zumba and grandmother of Zumbi dos Palmares. She lead 10,000 men during di Battle of Mbwila between Kingdom of Kongo and Kingdom of Portugal. Dem catch am by Portuguese forces, carry am go Brazil and sell am as slave. She start di slave settlement of Quilombo dos Palmares with her son Ganga Zumba. Archer Alexander (1810–1879), na model wey dem use for di slave wey dey di 1876 Emancipation Memorial sculpture. Abram Petrovich Gannibal, bust wey dey Petrovskoe, Russia. Archibald Grimké (1849–1930), born into slavery, son of white papa, become American lawyer, intellectual, journalist, diplomat and community leader. Arthur Crumpler (c. 1835–1910), escape slavery for Virginia, na di second husband of Dr. Rebecca Davis Lee Crumpler. Aster Ganno (c. 1872–1964), na young Ethiopian woman wey Italian Navy rescue from slave ship wey dey cross go Yemen. She go translate di Bible into Oromo language. Also she prepare literacy materials and spend di rest of her life as school teacher. Augustine Tolton (1854–1897), na di first black priest for di United States. Aurelia Philematium, na freedwoman wey her tombstone dey praise her marriage with her fellow freedman, Lucius Aurelius Hermia. Ayuba Suleiman Diallo (1701–1773), wey dem sabi as Job ben S [[File:William_Hoare_of_Bath_-_Portrait_of_Ayuba_Suleiman_Diallo,_(1701-1773).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:William_Hoare_of_Bath_-_Portrait_of_Ayuba_Suleiman_Diallo,_(1701-1773).jpg|left|thumb|Portrait of [[:en:Ayuba_Suleiman_Diallo|Ayuba Suleiman Diallo]] by [[:en:William_Hoare|William Hoare]] (1733)]] olomon, na Muslim wey come from Bundu state for West Africa. E dey suffer for two years for Maryland as slave, but dem free am for 1734. Later, e write hin story wey dem publish as one of di first slave narrative. B Baibars Baibars (1223–1277), wey dem dey call am Abu al-Futuh, na Kipchak Turk wey turn Mamluk sultan for Egypt and Syria. Balthild (c. 626–680), na Anglo-Saxon woman wey come from big family, dem sell am gree as small pikin, serve for Erchinoald house, wey be mayor for Neustria. After, she marry Clovis II, and later she be regent when her pikin Clotaire dey small. She stop dem wey dey trade Christian slaves and dey fight for freedom of children wey dem sell as slaves. Pope Nicholas I canonize am about 200 years after she die. Bass Reeves (1838–1910), na one of di first black Deputy U.S. Marshals for di west of di Mississippi River, wey don arrest over 3,000 bad guys and shoot fourteen outlaws for self-defense. Belinda Sutton (1713–179?), born for Ghana, she dey beg for support from her enslaver estate, wey be one early case for reparations and inspire future activism. Belinda Sutton petition, wey dem print again Bell (Belinda) (c. 1750–c. 1772), born for Bengal, dem carry her go Scotland as servant for East India Company nabob. Dem accuse am say she kill pikin, she dey beg make dem banish am and she turn “slave for life” and dem carry am go Virginia for 1772. She na di last person wey court for Britain call slave. Benjamin S. Turner (1825–1894), former slave wey be politician wey represent Alabama's 1st congressional district for United States House of Representatives. Him be di first African American wey don represent di state for Congress. Benkos Biohó, wey born for royal family of Bissagos Islands, dem kidnap am and enslave am. After dem carry am go Spanish New Granada for South America, him fit escape, help plenty other slaves escape too, and create di maroon community of San Basilio de Palenque. Di Governor Diego Pacheco Téllez-Girón Gómez de Sandoval of Cartagena betray am and hang am for 1621, but di community wey him build still dey live free till today. Betty Hemings (c. 1735–1807), na enslave mixed-race woman wey for colonial Virginia, wey for 1761 start dey be sex slave of her master, planter John Wayles, and she get six mixed-race children with am over 12 years, including Sally Hemings and James Hemings. Big Eyes (fl. 1540), na Wichita woman wey dem enslave by Tejas people before dem capture am and enslave am by conquistador Juan de Zaldívar. Bilichild (died 610), be queen of Austrasia through marriage to Theudebert II. Bilal ibn Ribah (580–640), wey dem free in 6th century. Him convert to Islam and be Muhammad's muezzin. Bill Richmond (1763–1829), wey born for America, dem free am and him become one of England's best boxers. Saint Brigid of Kildare as dem depict am for Saint Non's chapel, St Davids, Wales. Billy (born c. 1754), na man wey run come from John Tayloe II's plantation, dem charge am for treason against Virginia during American Revolutionary War. Him collect pardon after e talk say, as slave, him no be citizen, so e no fit commit treason against government wey him no dey owe loyalty to. Bissula (fl. 368) na Alemannic woman wey dem enslave, and she be inspiration for Roman poet Ausonius. Blanche Bruce (1841–1898) na di first and only former slave wey serve for United States Senate. Blandina (c. 162–177) be slave and Christian martyr for Roman Gaul. Di Bodmin manumissions na manuscript wey dey inside British Library, e keep names and details of slaves wey dem free for Bodmin (di main town for Cornwall back then) during 9th or 10th centuries. Booker T. Washington (1856–1915), born inside slavery, come be American educator, author and leader of African-American community after Civil War. Saint Brigid of Kildare, na major Irish Saint. Tradition say Brigid born for 451 AD for Faughart, just north of Dundalk for County Louth, Ireland. Her mama na Brocca, Pict slave wey Saint Patrick don baptize. Dem talk say her papa be Dubhthach, chieftain of Leinster. Dubthach wife force am sell Brigid's mama to druid when she carry belle. Brigid self born for slavery. Di small Brigid fit perform miracle, like healing and feeding di poor. At age ten, dem return am as household servant to her papa, where her charity make am dey give out hin things to anybody wey ask. For two Lives, Dubthach dey vex with her, he carry am go King of Leinster to sell her. While Dubthach dey talk with di king, Brigid don give away hin jeweled sword to beggar to change am for food to feed di family. Di king sabi her holiness well well and e make Dubthach free him daughter. After dat, she start her waka as popular nun. Brigitta Scherzenfeldt (1698–1733), Swedish wey dey write memoirs and teach weaving, she catch during di Great Northern War, carry go live as slave for di Kalmyk kingdom for Central Asia. Bussa wey born free man for West Africa, maybe Igbo pikin, dem catch am by African slave traders, sell am go Britain, transport am go Barbados (wey slavery don dey legal since 1661) for late 18th century as slave. C Charlotte Aïssé Cezayirli Gazi Hasan Pasha statue for Mersin Naval Museum Caenis, na woman wey don suffer as slave, she be secretary for Antonia Minor (emperor Claudius mama) plus Vespasian wey be Roman emperor. Caesar (c. 1737–1852), na di last slave wey fit get freedom for New York. E reach supercentenarian level, plus fit be di first person wey dem snap while dem dey alive in 1851. Caesar Nero Paul (c. 1741–1823), as small pikin, dem carry am from Africa come Exeter, New Hampshire, but e get freedom, start big New England family wey dey fight against slavery. Pope Callixtus I (died 223), na man wey don suffer as slave, pope from about 218 to about 223, during di time of Heliogabalus and Alexander Severus. Dem kill am for him Christian faith, now he be saint for Roman Catholic Church. Carlota (died 1844), she lead slave rebellion for Cuba for 1843–1844. Castus, na enslaved Gaul and one of di leaders for di Third Servile War wey get people wey dey fight for freedom. Catalina of Motril (fl. 1501–1531), she be bed servant for Catherine of Aragon when she marry Henry VIII for England. Cato (1786–1803), na man wey don suffer for Charleston, New York, wey kill twelve-year-old Mary Akins after e try rape am. Him confession show for di murder book of dat time. Cato, na African-American man wey serve as American Black Patriot spy and courier to gather info with him owner, Hercules Mulligan. Celia (died 1855), na woman wey dem catch and kill for di murder of Robert Newsom, her enslaver. During di trial, John Jameson argue say she kill am for self-defense to stop am from raping her. Cesar Picton (c. 1765–1831), na slave wey start for Senegal, later work as servant for England, come get money as coal merchant. Cevri Kalfa, one Georgian girl wey e dey for sultan harem for Istanbul, wey save Mahmud II life. Dem reward am wit big position haznedar usta, wey be chief treasurer for the imperial Harem. Cezayirli Gazi Hasan Pasha (1713–1790) na Georgian wey dem enslave for Ottoman Empire, wey rise become grand vizier, Kapudan Pasha, and army boss. Charity Folks (1757–1834), American slave wey born for Annapolis, Maryland, release from slavery for 1797 and later become property owner. Charles Deslondes, Haitian mulatto wey dey oversee other slaves for André plantation and leader of 1811 German Coast Uprising for Louisiana. Dem kill am terribly by the militia wey suppress the slave revolt. Charlotte Aïssé, (c. 1694–1733), French letter-writer, daughter of one Circassian chief, wey suffer for Ottoman Black Sea slave trade. Charlotte Dupuy (c. 1787/1790–c. 1866), wey dem dey call Lottie, file freedom suit for 1829 against her enslaver, Henry Clay, wey be Secretary of State, but she lose. Chica da Silva (c. 1732–1796), wey dem sabi as Xica da Silva, Brazilian courtesan wey become rich and powerful even though she born into slavery. Chloe Cooley (fl. 1793), wey dey enslave for Canada, her violent treatment and transport to US make Upper Canada pass 1793 Act Against Slavery. Christopher Shields (born 1774) na George Washington slave wey he keep am for Mount Vernon. The place wey he die and the year wey e happen no dey clear. Christophorus Plato Castanis, (born 1814) na runaway Greek slave from Chios. He journey come US with Samuel Gridley Howe and John Celivergos Zachos. Castanis be Greek-American author and lecturer. Çiçek Hatun (fl. 1453) na Greek girl wey dem capture when Constantinople fall and put as one of the concubine for Sultan Mehmet II harem. Clara Brown (around 1800–1885), she be one woman wey dem don enslave for Virginia. She come be community leader, give back for people wey don free during Colorado Gold Rush. Claudia Acte (1st century), na mistress for Roman emperor Nero. Pope Clement I (wey die for 100), na di fourth Pope for Catholic tradition. E fit dey freedman for Titus Flavius Clemens. Cleon (die 132 BC) na leader for di First Servile War. Colonel Tye (1753–1780), wey dem dey call Titus Cornelius, him don free, come be Black Loyalist soldier and guerrilla leader for di American Revolution. Crixus, na Gallic gladiator and military leader for di Third Servile War. Cudjoe Lewis (around 1840–1935), wey originally be Oluale Kossola, na di third-to-last survivor of di Transatlantic slave trade for USA. Dem carry am go di slave ship Clotilda. Cuffy (die 1763), na Akan man wey dem capture for him own West Africa, carry am go work for di plantations of di Dutch colony for Berbice wey dey Guyana today, and for 1763, him lead revolt wey get more than 2,500 slaves against di colonial regime. Today, him na national hero for Guyana. D Dred Scott wey no fit win im case for im freedom for United States Supreme Court for 1857. Dabitum, woman wey dem enslave for Old Babylonia wey sabi write letter about miscarriage. Daniel Bell (around 1802–1877) wey try for years make e and im family fit enjoy freedom. E help organize one big escape plan wey dem call "the Pearl incident" for Washington, D.C., for 1848. Dada Masiti (around 1810s–15 July 1919) poet, mystic and Islamic scholar. Dave Drake (around 1801–1876), wey people sabi am as Dave the Potter. Deborah Squash and im husband Harvey wey escape from George Washington Mount Vernon, join British for New York during American Revolutionary War, and dem carry dem go free in 1783. Denmark Vesey (around 1767–1822), one enslaved African-American man wey plan one big slave rebellion for United States wey dem leak the plans before e go happen. Dido Elizabeth Belle (1761–1804), wey born into slavery as the daughter of Maria Belle, one enslaved African woman for West Indies, and Sir John Lindsay, one Navy officer. Lindsay carry Belle go England for 1765, give im uncle William Murray, 1st Earl of Mansfield, and im wife Elizabeth to take care of am. Dem educate Belle, raise am as free gentlewoman for their Kenwood House with their niece, Lady Elizabeth Murray. Belle stay there for 30 years. For im will for 1793, Lord Mansfield confirm im freedom and give am money and annuity, make Belle heiress. Diego be one freedman wey dem don enslave before, and e dey close with di Elizabethan navigator Francis Drake. For March 1573, Drake raid Darien (for today Panama) and Maroons help am well – dem be Africans wey don run from Spanish slave owners and dem glad to help their English enemies. One of dem na Diego, wey sabi build ship well, and e follow Drake go England. For 1577, Queen Elizabeth send Drake make e start journey against di Spanish for di Pacific coast fit America – wey later turn as Drake waka go round di world – Diego again dey work under Drake; him sabi Spanish and English well well, so he fit be good interpreter when dem catch Spaniard or Portuguese wey dey speak Spanish. E be Drake's servant and dem dey pay am like di rest of di crew. Diego die while Drake ship dey cross di Pacific, wounds wey e get earlier for di journey. Drake dey feel bad for him death, as Diego don become him good friend. Diogenes of Sinope (c. 412–323 BCE), Greek philosopher wey pirates carry away and sell for Corinth. Diocletian (244–312), Emperor of Rome, some people talk say e born as slave of Senator Anullinus. Other talk say na Diocletian papa (we no sabi im name) wey be slave and free before him son, di future emperor, born. Dionysius I (die 1492), Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, dem don enslave am by di Ottomans after di Fall of Constantinople for 1453. Dolly Johnson (born late 1820s, die after 1887), African-American woman from Tennessee, wey President Andrew Johnson don enslave, later become small small-business owner. Dorota Sitańska (die after 1797), Polish serf and Royal Ballet Dancer, wey dem donate to di king of Poland by will and testament. Dred Scott (around 1799–1858), na one enslaved African-American guy wey dey Missouri wey carry case go court make e fit get freedom for one big trial, Scott v. Sandford, wey reach U.S. Supreme Court for 1857. E Florence, Lady Baker around 1875. Na Romanian wey dem enslave as orphan, Samuel Baker buy am, later marry am. Edward Mozingo Sr., (about 1649–1712), dem kidnap am from Africa when e dey like 10 years, sell am for slavery for Jamestown, Virginia. After e owner die, he sue for im freedom and win am. E marry poor white woman, Margaret Pierce Bayley (1645–1711) and together dem be dem wey start the Mozingo family for North America. Elijah Abel (1808–1884), wey born enslave for Maryland, people believe say e escape from slavery enter Underground Railroad go Canada. He join Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints early, na him dey among the first black wey get priesthood and the first black wey rise to elder and seventy rank. Elizabeth Marsh (1735–1785), na English woman wey corsairs capture and hold for slavery for Morocco. Edith Hern Fossett, na woman wey U.S. President Thomas Jefferson enslave, dem teach am to cook by French chef wey create French food for White House and Monticello. Elias Polk (1806–1886), na conservative political activist from 19th century. Eliezer of Damascus, na Abraham slave and trusted manager for im house in Hebrew Bible. Elieser be man wey dem enslave by Paulo de Pina family, Portuguese Jews wey move go Netherlands for 1610 to escape wahala and forced conversion for Portugal. E dey stay with the family for Amsterdam till e die for 1629, dem bury am for Beth Haim cemetery, wey be the oldest Jewish cemetery for Netherlands. E appear say dem don free am, whether officially or in practice, and e dey near equal level with the family wey own am for Portugal – show by fact say e attend the funeral of im master wife, Sara de Pina, and contribute six stuivers, and dem bury am alongside im (former) owners and Jacob Israel Belmonte, wey be the richest man for the community. Elieser don convert to Judaism and dem accept am as Jewish, true true if not, he for no dey buried for Jewish cemetery; dem fit give am the name 'Elieser' when dem convert am, e dey bring Eliezer from Damascus mind. Recently, members of Surinamese community for Netherlands don carry Elieser memory go high, dem put statue for am and dey do yearly pilgrimage go his grave wey dem call Elieser Day. Elisenda de Sant Climent (1220–1275), dem enslave am during slave raid for Mallorca and carry am go emir harem for Tunis. Eliza Hopewell, woman wey dey under Confederates spy Isabella Maria Boyd ('Belle Boyd'). For 1862, she help her owner do spy work, carry message go Confederate Army inside watch case wey dem hollow. Eliza Moore (1843–1948), one of the last African-American former slaves wey dey live for United States. Elizabeth Johnson Forby, mixed-race American woman wey dem enslave under President Andrew Johnson, daughter of Dolly Johnson. Elizabeth Key Grinstead (1630–after 1665), na the first woman wey get African blood for North America wey go court for her freedom and win. Key and her small pikin, John Grinstead, come free on July 21, 1656 for Virginia because her papa be Englishman and she be baptized Christian. Elizabeth Freeman (c. 1742–1829), wey dem dey call Bett and later Mum Bett, na among the first enslaved black people for Massachusetts wey fit file freedom suit and win, based on 1780 constitution wey rule slavery illegal. Elizabeth Hobbs Keckley (1818–1907), wey be popular as personal modiste and close friend of Mary Todd Lincoln, First Lady of the United States. Keckley write and publish autobiography, Behind the Scenes: Or, Thirty Years a Slave and Four Years in the White House (1868). Ellen Craft (1826–1891), light-skin wife of William Craft, wey escape from Georgia to Philadelphia, by acting like white woman and her slave, case wey become popular. Ellen More, enslaved woman wey them carry go royal Scottish court. Emilia Soares de Patrocinio (1805–1886) na Brazilian slave, slave owner and businesswoman. Emiline (23 years); Nancy (20); Lewis, Nancy brother (16); Edward, Emiline brother (13); Lewis and Edward, sons of Nancy (7); Ann, daughter of Nancy (5); and Amanda, daughter of Emiline (2), dem free for 1852 Lemmon v. New York court case after dem bring dem go New York from Virginia. Emily Edmonson (1835–1895), with her sister Mary, try escape for 1848 wey dem call Pearl incident, but Henry Ward Beecher and him church gather money to free dem. Enrique of Malacca, wey dem dey call Henry the Black, na slave and interpreter for Ferdinand Magellan and maybe the first person wey waka round the globe for Magellan's trip of 1519–1521. Epictetus (55–c. 135), ancient Greek stoic philosopher. Estevanico (1500–1539), wey dem dey call Esteban the Moor. He be slave of the Portuguese first, then become servant of the Spaniards. He be one of the only four wey survive the bad Narváez expedition, later na guide for search of the fabled Seven Cities of Gold and maybe the first African wey reach wetin be Arizona and New Mexico today. Eston Hemings (1808–1856), son of Sally Hemings and Thomas Jefferson. Eucharis, na Greek wey dem free, born Roman Licinia, dem describe am for him epitaph for 1st century AD as fourteen when she die, child actress and professional dancer. Eunus (him die for 132 BC), na slave wey come from Apamea for Syria, and him be leader for slave wahala for First Servile War wey happen for Roman province of Sicily. Eunus sabi gree people as prophet and wonder-worker. Him dey claim say him dey see visions and dey communicate with goddess Atargatis, wey dey popular for him place; he even fit connect am to Sicilian Demeter. Some prophecies wey he drop na say di rebel slaves go fit capture di city of Enna and say one day, he go be king. Euphemia (him die for 520s), na Empress of Byzantine Empire because she marry Justin I, she be slave before. Euphraios, na Athenian slave and banker. Exuperius and Zoe (dem die for 127), na Christian martyrs for 2nd century. Dem be married couple wey slave master in Pamphylia enslave. Dem kill dem with their sons, Cyriacus and Theodolus, because dem no wan join pagan rites when dem pikin born. Florence Johnson Smith be mixed-race American babe wey President Andrew Johnson carry go enslave, she be Dolly Johnson pikin. Fountain Hughes (1848–1957), dem interview am for June 1949 about him life by Library of Congress as part of Federal Writers' Project. Francis Bok (wey born 1979), na Dinka slave from South Sudan, now him dey fight for freedom and be author for United States. Francis Jackson (wey born between 1815 and 1820), him dey free from birth, but dem kidnap am for 1850 and sell am into slavery. Him finally get freedom for 1855 when case Francis Jackson v. John W. Deshazer end. Francis James Grimké (1850–1937), him be minister. Francisco Menéndez, na man wey dem enslave for South Carolina but e run go Spanish Florida, wey e serve for Spanish militia, even lead the garrison wey dem set for 1738 for Fort Mose. This place be the first legal free black community for wetin we dey call United States now. François Mackandal (wey die 1758), na Haitian Maroon leader. Frederick Douglass (1818–1895), him born for slavery for Maryland and run go Northeast for 1838, where e turn big-time abolitionist writer, speaker, and diplomat. Fyodor Slavyansky (1817–1876), na Russian serf painter. G Medical photo wey show Gordon back wey dem whip, plenty abolitionists dey share am to show how slavery dey be bad. Portrait of Gülnuş Sultan Gabriel Prosser (1776–1800), leader wey lead Virginia slave revolt. Gaius Furius Chresimus, ancient Roman. As him free man, e produce crops from him small farm wey people accuse am say him dey witch other people crop, but when him bring him farm tools for court, dem free am. Pliny the Elder talk say him story na proof say hard work be wetin matter for farming. Galatian de Sesse (16th century), knight from Aragon wey dey work for hospital and be Governor of Gozo wey dem enslave during 1551 Ottoman attack, e spend five years as galley slave before dem pay ransom and free am. Galeria Lysistrate (2nd century), mistress of Roman emperor Antoninus Pius. Ganga Zumba or Ganazumba (c. 1630–1678), one descendant of unknown Kongo king wey run away from slavery for Brazilian colonial and be first leader of runaway slave settlement wey be Quilombo dos Palmares. Gannicus, enslaved Celt wey be one of the leaders of rebel slaves during Third Servile War. Garafilia Mohalbi (1817–1830), Greek slave wey American merchant rescue and carry go Boston. She die young and inspire big art movement. Genghis Khan (c. 1162–1227), dem capture am after raid and make am slave for Taichiud. George Africanus (1763–1834), enslaved African man from Sierra Leone wey become successful businessman for Nottingham. George Edward Doney (1758–1809), Gambian man wey William Capell, 4th Earl of Essex enslave. George Colvocoresses (1816–1872), from Chios, Greece, come America come be captain for U.S. Navy, but small small dem carry am put for slavery when e be pikin. Colvos Passage dey named after am. George Freeman Bragg (1863–1940), wey born for slavery for North Carolina, later turn big Episcopal priest and social activist. George Lewis (1794–1811), wey dem dey call Slave George, na enslaved guy wey dem kill for Kentucky night of December 15–16, 1811. George Moses Horton (1797–1884), na di first African-American author; him first poetry book publish for North Carolina. George Washington Carver (c. 1864–1943), na African-American scientist, botanist, educator and inventor wey sabi to promote other crops like sweet potatoes and peanuts for South; him born for slavery for Missouri but dem free am as small pikin after American Civil War. George Griffin (1849–1897), born for slavery for Maryland but later dem free am; him be close person to Mark Twain. George W. Hayes (1847–1933), na court crier and politician for Ohio, mixed African American and Native American background, dem carry am put for slavery early for him life. Gerónimo de Aguilar (1489–1531), na Franciscan friar wey waka go Yucatán Peninsula for 1511 but dem shipwreck am and dem carry am for slavery by Mayans. Gosala, one ascetic teacher from ancient India – wey dey live same time (and dey compete) with Gautama Buddha – people talk say him born for slavery, and he become naked ascetic after him run from him bad captor, wey catch him cloth before e run. Gonzalo Guerrero (died 1536), na sailor from Palos, Spain, wey shipwreck for Yucatán Peninsula for 1511 and dem carry am for slavery by di local Maya. Gordon, wey dem dey call Whipped Peter, na enslaved African-American wey escape come Union Army camp from plantation near Baton Rouge, Louisiana for 1863. Di pictures wey dem take of Gordon back wey dem beat during medical check, dem publish am for Harper's Weekly, e show Northerners di wahala wey slavery dey cause. E make plenty free blacks want join di Union Army. Gülnuş Sultan (1642–1715) na Haseki Sultan for Ottoman Sultan Mehmed IV and Valide sultan for dia pikin Mustafa II and Ahmed III. Guðríður Símonardóttir (1598–1682) na Iceland woman wey some North African slavers (Barbary Pirates) carry go. Gustav Badin (wey die for 1822) na servant for royal Swedish court, originally na Danish slave. H Hurrem Sultan, be Eastern European slave girl wey Ottoman sultan Süleyman the Magnificent buy, marry am. Hababah, concubine of Caliph Yazid II. Hagar, biblical figure, Sarah own. Hannah Bond (weh dey born for 1830s), pen name Hannah Crafts, write The Bondwoman's Narrative after she gain freedom. E fit be di first novel wey African-American woman write, na di only novel wey woman wey run from slavery don write. Hark Olufs (1708–1754), Danish sailor, dem capture am by Algerian pirates. Dem sell am to di Bey of Constantine, and him become Commander in Chief for di Bey's cavalry. Dem release am for 1735. Harriet Balfour (c. 1818–1858), Surinam-born enslaved woman wey free for 1841 and move go Scotland. Harriet Evans Paine, (c. 1822–1917), Texas enslaved woman and later oral historian and storyteller. Harriet Hemings (1801–after 1822), daughter of Sally Hemings and Thomas Jefferson. Harriet Jacobs (1813–1897), author of Incidents in di Life of a Slave Girl. Harriet Powers (1837–1910), American folk artist, and quilter. Harriet Tubman (c. 1822–1913), dem dey call am 'Moses' because of di work wey she dey do to help other American slaves escape through di Underground Railroad. Harry, di plaintiff for di 1818 Harry v. Decker & Hopkins case wey di Supreme Court of Mississippi decide to free person from slavery just because him dey stay for free land. Harry Washington (wey die for 1800), dem dey call am Henry Washington, be slave wey George Washington dey own. Dem transport am go America as slave, and Washington buy am for 1763 to work on project wey go drain di Great Dismal Swamp. Hafsa Sultan (she die March 1534), na Selim I wife and di first real sultan of Ottoman Empire as Suleiman di Magnificent mama. Pipo sabi her background matter dey confuse, but some historians talk say she be slave. Helen Gloag (1750–1790), from Muthill, Perthshire, Scotland, become di Empress of Morocco as di harem slave for Morocco sultan. Henry Bibb (1815–1854), American writer and abolitionist wey born as slave. After e run come out from slavery to British Upper Canada, he start newspaper wey dey call The Voice of the Fugitive. E later come back to U.S. come dey lecture against slavery. Henry Highland Garnet (1815–1882), wey born African-American slave for Maryland, run from slavery for 1824, come become abolitionist and teacher. Hercules (born c. 1755), na di head cook wey George Washington enslave for him plantation, Mount Vernon. E run come gain him freedom for 1797, but him wife Alice and him three pikin still dey enslave. Hermas, wey write di book The Shepherd of Hermas and na Pope Pius I brother. Hernando de Escalante Fontaneda, been born for Cartagena, but e don dey enslave at 13 when di ship wey carry am go Spain for school sink for Florida. Calusa chief take am as slave and use am as translator until dem free am at 30. Horace King (1807–1885), American architect, engineer, and bridge builder, born into slavery for South Carolina plantation. Hümaşah Sultan (fl. 1647–1672) na di wife of Sultan Ibrahim for Ottoman Empire. Hurrem Sultan (c. 1504–1558), wey dem sabi as Roxelana, be Eastern European girl wey slave traders capture and sell to di Imperial Harem, become di chief consort and legal wife of Ottoman sultan Süleyman di Magnificent. Halime Sultan (about 1570–after 1639) be Valide Sultan wey dey rule alongside Ottoman Empire. Handan Sultan (about 1568–1605) too be Valide Sultan and her dey act as regent for the Ottomans. I İbrahim Pasha Ivan Argunov. Self-portrait (late 1750s). İbrahim Pasha (about 1495 – 1536), na first Grand Vizier wey Suleiman the Magnificent appoint. E be Greek by birth, at six years old, dem sell am as slave to Ottoman palace for future sultans, where e meet Suleiman wey dey same age. Icelus Marcianus, na slave and later free guy for Roman emperor Galba for 1st century CE. E be one of three men wey dey control the emperor well well, make Galba no dey popular. Ida B. Wells (1862–1931), na big African-American activist wey born into slavery, but later she dey fight against lynching and fit cancel am. For 1909, she co-found National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). Imma, na Northumbrian noble wey knock for battle and later sabi act like peasant, so say captors no go kill am. Him behavior show say him no be real peasant, and dem sell am into slavery. Isabel de Solís (fl. 1485), na enslaved Castilian concubine for Abu l-Hasan Ali, Sultan of Granada. Isabella Gibbons (1826–1890), become schoolteacher for Virginia after dem liberate am for 1865. Isfandíyár, na enslaved servant for Bahá'u'lláh's house for Tehran, Isfandíyár die for Mazandaran. Israel Jefferson (about 1800–after 1873), wey people sabi as Israel Gillette before 1844, born into slavery for Monticello, Thomas Jefferson estate, and work as domestic servant near Jefferson for many years. Ivan Bolotnikov (1565–1608), na fugitive kholop (enslaved for Russia) and leader of Bolotnikov rebellion for 1606–1607. Ivan Argunov (1729–1802), na Russian serf painter, one of the founders of Russian school of portrait painting. J Jean Parisot de Valette St. Josephine Margaret Bakhita, F.D.C.C. Jack Gladstone, di leader wey lead di Demerara rebellion for 1823. Jackey Wright, na enslaved American woman wey sue for im freedom for di popular 1806 Virginia case, Hudgins v. Wright. Di Virginia Supreme Court talk say Wright look white and Native American, but di lower court under George Wythe dey try arrange say everybody fit be free, no matter di race. Jacob Notaras (fl. 1453), na Byzantine nobleman wey dem carry as slave by Sultan Mehmed di Conqueror when Constantinople fall. Jaja of Opobo (1821–1891), dem sell am around age 12 as slave for di Kingdom of Bonny wey dey Nigeria now. From young, di guy don show say e sabi business, so e find im way come out from slavery, become rich merchant prince and start di Opobo city-state, but British colonizers wey e wan challenge come end im career. James Armistead Lafayette (1760–1830), na enslaved African-American man wey serve di Continental Army for di American Revolutionary War as double agent. James Baugh, na enslaved American wey sue for im freedom because im mama granmama na Indian. James Hemings (1765–1801), na mixed-race American wey dem enslave later free am by Thomas Jefferson. E be di older brother of Sally Hemings and half-brother of Jefferson wife, Martha Wayles Skelton Jefferson, through dia papa John Wayles. James Leander Cathcart (1767–1843), diplomat and sailor wey sabi tell story about 11 years wey e dey enslave for Algiers and e do some big diplomatic work while for slavery. James Poovey (born c. 1769), Philadelphian wey dem enslave am from birth, but e find freedom through peaceful resistance. James M. Priest (1819–1883), 6th Vice President of Liberia, wey born inside slavery for Kentucky. James Somersett, man wey dey enslave for colonial America, escape for England in 1771 with help of Beta British people, wey lead to the big case Somerset v Stewart, wey change the slavery matter for Britain, but not for dem colonies. James W. C. Pennington (c. 1807–1870), African-American writer and abolitionist. Jan Ernst Matzeliger (1852–1889), Surinamese-American wey invent shoe making. Jane Johnson (1814/1827–1872), she gain freedom on July 18, 1855, with her two small pikin while dem dey Philadelphia with her owner. William Still and Passmore Williamson help am, dem be abolitionists for Pennsylvania Anti-Slavery Society. Jean Amilcar (c. 1781–1793), Senegalese son of Marie Antoinette. Jean-Jacques Dessalines (1758–1806), leader of Haitian Revolution and first leader of independent Haiti. Jean Marteilhe (1684–1777), French Huguenot wey be slave narrator, him be galley slave. Jean Saint Malo (died 1784), leader of runaway slaves (maroon colony) for Spanish Louisiana and he name dey for Saint Malo, Louisiana. Jean Parisot de Valette (1495–1568), knight of the Order of Saint John, wey dem capture and make galley slave for 1541 by Barbary pirates. After about one year, dem free am and him later become Grandmaster of the Order. Jefferson F. Long (1836–1901), first former slave wey serve for United States Congress and first African American wey represent Georgia for Congress. Jeffrey Hudson (1619–c. 1682), na English court guy wey spend 25 years for North Africa as slave. Jehan Alard (fl. 1580), na French Huguenot wey dey serve as galley slave for Italy, dem catch am for Inquisition. Jehu Grant (c. 1752–1840), na veteran from Revolutionary War. Jeremiah Haralson (1846–Unknown), na former slave and politician wey represent Alabama for House of Representatives during 44th Congress. Jermain Wesley Loguen (1813–1872), na African-American wey run away from slavery, be abolitionist, bishop of the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church, and e write slave narrative. Jim Cuff or Jim Crow be physically disabled African man wey people talk say e fit dey St. Louis, Cincinnati, or Pittsburgh, e song and dance inspire the blackface song 'Jump Jim Crow' wey white comedian Thomas D. Rice bring come. Rice popular creation make Jim Crow turn bad name for blacks, later dem use am for dem segregation laws. Jim Henson, na African wey escape slavery and publish im memoirs, Broken Shackles, for Canada. Joana da Gama (c. 1520–1586), na Portuguese maid-of-honor and writer. Joe, na man wey William B. Travis, one of the Texian commanders for Battle of Alamo enslaved. After dem lose, Mexican General Santa Anna spare Joe, hoping say e go fit convince other slaves for Texas to support Mexican government instead of Texian rebels. After that, Joe and some survivors go Gonzales, dem encourage dem to talk about the battle and tell Texian forces say Santa Anna army no fit beat. John Axouch (1087–1150), na Seljuk Turk wey dem capture as pikin by Byzantine Empire, dem free am and raise am for di imperial house as John II Komnenos wey go be emperor future friend. When him take over, dem put am for di army command and e be di emperor only close pal and confidant. John Boston (c. 1832–after 1880), na former slave wey dey represent Darlington County for South Carolina House during di Reconstruction era. Him dey involved for community work and, as minister, him start di Lamar Colored Methodist Church for 1865. By 1880, him don turn farmer. John 'Lit' Fleming, born for slavery for Virginia but later move go Edmundson, Arkansas with him papa and siblings. E go move go Memphis, Tennessee, and be part owner of di newspaper Memphis Free Speech with activist Ida B. Wells-Barnett. John Munroe Brazealle, with him mama, dem case dey Hinds v. Brazealle (1838), for di Supreme Court of Mississippi, wey deny di legality and inheritance rights for Mississippi for manumission wey Elisha Brazealle, wey dey Ohio, do to free dem. John Brown (c. 1810–1876), wey escape and write about di conditions for di Deep South of United States. John Casor, na di first person wey dey enslaved as result of civil case for di Thirteen Colonies (Virginia Colony, 1655). John Ezzidio (c. 1810–1872), na enslaved Nigerian man wey turn successful politician and businessman for Sierra Leone. John Adams Hyman (1840-1891), na former slave and politician wey serve for di North Carolina Senate and later be di first African American to represent di state for Congress. John Jea (born 1773), na enslaved African-American man wey popular for him 1811 autobiography, The Life, History, and Unparalleled Sufferings of John Jea, di African Preacher. John Joyce wey dem born am for slavery for Maryland, serve for United States Navy, do plenty work after, and kill shopkeeper, Sarah Cross; him life and crime dey for murder stories wey dem dey talk for him time. John R. Jewitt (1783–1821), small English man wey dey make armor, spend three years as prisoner for Maquinna of the Nuu-chah-nulth people for Pacific coast wey dey for Canada now. John R. Lynch (1847–1939), former slave and politician wey serve for Mississippi House of Representatives, be the first African American wey lead state legislative chamber. Later he go serve for United States House of Representatives and write The Facts of Reconstruction to answer dem wey dey talk bad about Reconstruction time policies. John Punch (fl. 1630s, live 1640), na enslaved African man wey dey for Virginia Colony for 17th century. For July 1640, Virginia Governor's Council punish am to serve for him whole life because e run go Maryland. Historians dey call Punch the 'first official slave for the English colonies,' and him case na the 'first time dem make slavery forever for the Chesapeake.' Historians also sabi say this one be the first legal line wey dem draw between Europeans and Africans for the colony, and na important step for slavery matter for United States. John S. Jacobs (1815–1873), wey dem born into slavery for North Carolina, escape, become abolitionist speaker and write slave memoir. Him be brother of famous author Harriet Jacobs. John Smith (1580–1631), English soldier, sailor, and author wey everybody sabi for him role wey help Jamestown colony survive for Virginia. Smith dey captured by Crimean Tatars for 1602 while him dey fight for Wallachia and dem make am slave for Ottoman Empire, but him escape come England by 1604. As Smith talk am: 'we all dey sell for slaves, like goat for market-place.' Jordan Anderson (1825–1907), wey people sabi well well for di letter wey he gree send to im old master when dem call am make he come back to serve dem. Jordan Winston Early (1814–after 1894) na American Methodist preacher wey get different blood, and dem write book about im life as slave. John White, na black boy wey Creeks capture for 1797, but he escape come back New Orleans, only to find Spanish people don carry am go back to slavery. John Ystumllyn, wey dem dey call Jac Du or Jack Black, na 18th-century Welsh gardener, di first Black person wey record well for North Wales. Jonathan Strong, na di person wey dem dey talk about one of di first legal cases wey concern slavery for Britain. José Antonio Aponte, na di leader of Aponte conspiracy. Joseph, na important person for Old Testament and Quran. Joseph Antonio Emidy (1775–1835), violinist wey born for Africa, die for Cornwall. Joseph Cinqué (1814–1879), wey dem know as Sengbe Pieh, na di leader of slave rebellion for di slave ship La Amistad and di case wey follow for Supreme Court, United States v. Amistad for 1839. Joseph Jackson Fuller (1825–1908), one of di earliest slaves wey gree free for Jamaica, at first under di partial freedoms of 1833 Slavery Abolition Act. Joseph Knight, wey succeed find im freedom through court case for Scotland in 1777, case wey make Scots law no go support slavery. Josephine Bakhita (c. 1869–1947), Sudanese-born Roman Catholic Canossian nun and saint. Joshua Glover, na fugitive wey slavery people chase am but abolitionists help am for Racine, Wisconsin in 1854. Josiah T. Walls (c. 1842–1905), former slave wey turn politician wey don serve for di two chambers of Florida State Legislature, na di first African American wey represent di state for Congress. Juan de Pareja (1606–1670), man wey Spanish artist Diego Velázquez enslave am. Velázquez teach am how to paint and free am for 1650. Juan Francisco Manzano (c. 1797–1854), Cuban poet. Juan Gros, free black soldier wey Upper Creek catch near Pensacola, sell am to white trader wey carry am go sell to Mitasuki chief Kinache, wey Spanish people come pay ransom for am. Juan Latino, dem dey call am "el negro Juan Latino", from Ethiopia, dem carry am go Spain when e small, e go school and become Latin professor for University of Granada, 16th-century Spain. Juan Ortiz, young nobleman from Andalucía wey Chief Ucita enslave for Florida to take revenge for wetin happen to am during the expedition. Juan Valiente (died 1553), black African slave wey get chance to be conquistador. E die during the battle of Tucapel against Mapuche people for Chile. Juana Ramírez (1790–1856), rebel soldier and heroine for Venezuelan War of Independence. Julia Chinn, enslave woman wey be octoroon and common-law wife to Richard Mentor Johnson, 9th Vice President of the United States. Julia Frances Lewis, mama to Amanda American Dickson through her owner’s son. Juliana, Guaraní woman from Paraguay, wey famous for kill her Spanish enslaver between 1538 and 1542 and encourage other women to do same. Julius Soubise (1754–1798) be freed Afro-Caribbean slave wey become popular fop for late eighteenth-century Britain. Julius Zoilos, enslave by Julius Caesar. After him get freedom, e shine for him city Aphrodisias after Caesar die. Jupiter Hammon (1711–before 1806), for 1761, become the first African-American writer wey dem publish for the present-day United States. Born for slavery, Hammon never get freedom. Dem dey consider am one of the founders of African-American literature. K Kösem Sultan (1589–1651), na slave concubine just like all di other pipo wey dey di Imperial Harem. Kunta Kinte (c. 1750–c. 1822), na character from di 1976 novel Roots: Di Saga of an American Family wey author Alex Haley base on one of him real ancestors. Kinte be man wey dey come from di Mandinka pipo, he grow for small village wey dem dey call Juffure for wetin we sabi as The Gambia, and dem raise am as Muslim before dem capture am and turn am slave for Virginia. Di historical accuracy of Haley's story get debate. Kodjo (c. 1803–1833), na Surinamese slave wey dem burn alive fit start di 1832 fire for Paramaribo, Dutch Suriname, maybe as way to show resistance. Kösem Sultan (1589–1651), na Ottoman enslaved woman, wey later become very powerful as wife, then mother and later grandmother of di Ottoman sultan during di 130-year wey dem dey call di Sultanate of Women. L Laurens de Graaf Lalla Balqis (1670–after 1721), na English woman wey dem capture and turn slave by Corsairs, dem include am for di harem of di Sultan of Morocco. Lamhatty, na Tawasa Indian wey dem capture and enslave by Creek; him escape. Lampegia (die after 730), Aquitanian noblewoman, wey Abd al-Rahman ibn Abd Allah al-Ghafiqi capture, wey in 730 take di Llivia Fortress, kill her husband Munuza and send her go as slave for di harem of Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik for Damascus. La Mulâtresse Solitude (1772–1802), na slave for di island of Guadeloupe wey dem free in 1794 when dem abolish slavery during di French Revolution. Dem execute am after she fight for freedom when slavery come back because Napoleon in 1802. Laurens de Graaf (c. 1653–1704), na Dutch pirate, mercenary, and naval officer, wey dem enslave by Spanish slave traders when dem capture am for wetin we dey call Netherlands, and dem carry am go di Canary Islands to work for plantation before 1674. Lear Green (around 1839–1860), one African-American woman from Maryland wey run go freedom for New York by fitting inside box make dem carry am. Leo Africanus (1494–1554), one Moor wey born for Granada, dem carry am go Morocco in 1498 because of Spanish wahala. As adult, he dey do diplomatic work. Crusaders catch am for Middle East, dem carry am go Rome make he be slave and convert to Christianity. Later, he get him freedom back and live him life for Tunis. Leofgifu, wey be dairy maid, na one enslaved woman for Anglo-Saxon England, dem mention am for her freedom paper. Leoflaed, another enslaved woman for Anglo-Saxon England, man buy her freedom wey describe her as “kinswoman.” Leonor de Mendoza, enslaved woman for colonial Mexico wey wan marry Tomás Ortega wey be slave for another master; when her master put Tomás for prison, she go church court beg make dem help, dem even threaten say if him no free Tomás, e go fit face excommunication. Letitia Munson (around 1820–after 1882), na midwife wey don come out from slavery, dem don free her for doing illegal abortion for Canada. Lewis Adams (1842–1905), man wey don free from slavery, wey co-found Tuskegee Institute, now Tuskegee University for Alabama. Lewis Hayden (1811–1889), na African-American man from Kentucky, later dem elect am for Massachusetts General Court. Lilliam Williams, settler from Tennessee wey Creek catch while she dey pregnant. Creek adopt her pikin (wey she name Molly and dem name Esnahatchee); dem keep the girl when Williams arrange her freedom. Liol, one Chinese man wey dem carry as slave by Mongol bannerman Soosar. E get semi-independent status for dem. In 1735, him pikin Fuji try claim say him and him brother be Manchus but e no work. Lorenzo de Apapis (around 1501–1586), priest and notary from Gozitan wey dey slavery during 1551 Ottoman attack for Gozo. Dem ransom am and free am by 1553. Lott Cary (about 1780–1828), wey dem born am as African-American slave for Virginia, buy im freedom around 1813, move go Liberia for 1822, where e serve as colonial administrator.[1] Louis Hughes (1832–1913), African-American man wey run away from slavery, author, and businessman.[2] Lovisa von Burghausen (1698–1733), Swedish writer wey publish story of how dem enslave am for Russia after dem capture am during the Great Northern War. Lucius Agermus, freedman of Agrippina the Elder.[3] Lucius Aurelius Hermia, freedman butcher wey his tombstone dey praise im marriage with his fellow freedwoman Aurelia Philematium.[4] Lucius Cancrius Primigenius, freedman of Clemens for one inscription wey dey thank am for breaking spells wey dey affect the city.[5] Lucius of Campione, wey lose lawsuit for 8th century about man Toto wey claim ownership of am.[6] Lucy, di black woman wey John Lang enslave. Dem capture her by di Creek wen she dey 12 years and keep her as slave for Creek land, where she born slave children and grandchildren.[7] Lucy Ann (Berry) Delaney (1830–1891), former enslaved woman, daughter of Polly Berry. Lucy Higgs Nichols (1838–1915), wey escape slavery, serve as nurse for di Civil War, member of di Grand Army of di Republic. Lucy Terry (about 1733–1821), dem kidnap her for Africa and enslave her, dem carry am go British colony of Rhode Island. She later gain freedom and become poet. Luís Gama (1830–1882), wey born free for Brazil, illegally sell am into slavery as pikin, he regain freedom as adult and become lawyer wey free plenty people from slavery without asking for money, especially for di Netto Case. Lunsford Lane (1803–after 1870), na enslaved African-American guy wey dey North Carolina wey buy him freedom and him family too. Him write one slave story. Lyde, na woman wey dem free from slavery by Roman empress Livia. Lydia, na woman wey dem shoot when she try run away from her captor wey dey whip am. Supreme Court of North Carolina talk say na legal in 1830 (check North Carolina v. Mann). Lydia Carter, dey call am 'Little Osage Captive,' dem catch am among Cherokee. Na Lydia Carter go pay money come free am and she name her. Osage try take am back, but she fall sick and die. Lydia Polite, na mother of Robert Smalls. M Mikhail Shchepkin Macuncuzade Mustafa Efendi (wey born around 1550s), na Ottoman qadi and poet wey suffer for slavery for Malta after di ship wey e dey waka for capture by di Knights Hospitaller for 1597. Dem release am for 1600, and e write story about im captivity. Madison Hemings (1805–1877), na di pikin of Sally Hemings and Thomas Jefferson. Mae Louise Miller (1943–2014), American woman wey dey live for modern slavery (peonage) till 1961. Malgarida (wey born around 1488), black African woman and boyfriend of di conquistador Diego de Almagro. For 1536, she be di first non-indigenous woman wey enter di land wey we call Chile today. Malik Ambar, wey born for 1548 as Chapu, na im birth-name for Harar, Adal Sultanate wey dey Ethiopia today. Im come from di Maya ethnic group wey don disappear. As small pikin, im parents sell am for slavery. Mir Qasim Al Baghdadi, one of di people wey own am, convert Chapu come Islam and give am di name Ambar, after e sabi sey di boy get sharp brain. Malik waka go India as slave. For India, e create mercenary group wey reach 1500 men. Di group dey for di Deccan region and local kings dey hire dem. Malik become popular Prime Minister for Ahmadnagar Sultanate, show sey e sabi how to manage. E also dey regarded as pacesetter for guerilla warfare for di area. Dem dey credit am with managing tax collection for plenty for di Deccan, wey set di ground for future collections. Di Siddis of Gujarat dey respect am well. E match di strength of di Mughals and Adil Shah of Bijapur, lift di low status of di Nizam Shah. Margaret Himfi (before 1380–after 1408), na Hungarian woman wey dem carry go enslave by Ottoman bad guys for late 14th century. She later become slave mistress for one rich Venetian man for Crete, wey she born two daughters for. Margaret manage come back to Hungary for 1405. Margaret Morgan dey involved for Prigg v. Pennsylvania case wey United States Supreme Court rule say federal Fugitive Slave Act no go allow Pennsylvania law wey stop blacks from chop dey carry dem go slavery, an dem clear Edward Prigg case because of dat. Marguerite Duplessis (c. 1718–after 1740) na Pawnee woman wey dem enslave for Montreal wey, for 1740, try sue for her freedom but e no work. Marguerite Scypion (c. 1770s–after 1836) na African-Natchez woman wey born for slavery for St. Louis wey go sue for her freedom and eventually win am. Maria al-Qibtiyya (died 637), wey dem dey call “Maria the Copt” or sometimes Maria Qupthiya, na Copt woman wey dem send give Muhammad as gift from Muqawqis, one Byzantine big man, for 628, an she become Muhammad concubine. She be mama to Muhammad son Ibrahim wey die for small pikin age. Her sister, Sirin, sef go meet Muhammad. Muhammad give am to him guy Hassan ibn Thabit. Maria die five years after Muhammad die for 632. Maria (died 1716), na leader for slave uprising for Curaçao. Maria Boguslavka (17th century), na Ukrainian woman wey dem enslave for harem, she start help 30 Cossacks run away from slavery. Maria Guyomar de Pinha (1664–1728), na royal chef from Siam wey get Japanese-Portuguese blood. Maria Perkins, na enslave woman from Virginia wey write letter to her husband for 1852 say dem don sell their son away. Maria ter Meetelen (1704–after 1751), na Dutch writer wey tell her own slave story, dem carry her go enslave by pirates and later sell am to Sultan of Morocco. Her 1748 biography na important witness statement about life of former slave. Mariah Bell Winder McGavock Otey Reddick (she die 1922), as she be small girl, dem give am as wedding gift to Carrie Winder when she marry John McGavock for 1848 inside Terrebonne Parish, Louisiana. Mariah wey born for Mississippi as enslaved person, dem carry am go Franklin, Tennessee, where she spend plenty of her life. Dem match her with Harvey Otey after him first wife Phebe die. Dem get plenty pikin, including two set of twins, wey born into slavery. When Civil War start, dem send her go Montgomery make she dey far from Union lines and possible freedom. She don appear for three novels: Widow of the South and Orphan Mother wey Robert Hicks write and also for book wey her great-grandson William 'Damani' Keene and him wife Carole 'Ife' Keene write titled Clandestine: The Times and Secret Life of Mariah Otey Reddick. Marianna Malińska (she die after 1797), Polish serf and Royal Ballet Dancer, dem donates am to king of Poland by will. Marie (she die 1759), enslaved Cree woman wey get death sentence for Trois-Rivières, New France. Marie-Cessette Dumas, woman wey Marquis Antoine de la Pailleterie enslaved, she be mama of General Thomas-Alexandre Dumas, and grandmother of famous author Alexandre Dumas, père. Marie-Josèphe dite Angélique (she die 1734), black Portuguese enslaved woman wey dem try and convict, beat and hang because she set fire to her woman owner house, wey burn plenty of wetin dem dey call Old Montreal now. Marie Thérèse Metoyer, na planter and businesswoman wey dey Natchitoches, Louisiana after dem free her. Mark, one man from Massachusetts wey dey enslaved by Captain John Codman. Mark body dey display for chains for public near Charlestown, Massachusetts for twenty years. That gruesome display of him body dey popular well-well for that time, and na the place wey dem display Mark body make Paul Revere mention am as landmark for him 1798 account of him 1775 midnight ride. Martha Ann Erskine Ricks (1817–1901), na African-American wey dey born enslave for Tennessee, later she become Americo-Liberian wey sabi quilt. Marthe Franceschini (1755–1799), na Italian wey dem capture and enslave by Corsairs, enter Sultan of Morocco harem. Mary, wey be George Washington Carver mama. Mary (wey die 1838), na teenager wey dem hang for murder wey she do to Vienna Brinker, two-year-old girl wey she dey take care of. Mary Black, one of three enslave women wey dem charge for witchcraft during Salem witch trials for 1692. Mary Calhoun, white woman and cousin of John C. Calhoun wey dem kidnap by Cherokee. She no fit come back home. Mary Edmonson (1832–1853), with her sister Emily, dem try escape for 1848 wey dem dey call Pearl incident, but Henry Ward Beecher and him church gather money help free dem. Mary Eliza Smith, dem dey call 'slave' or 'former slave,' na common-law wife of Michael Morris Healy and mama of him pikin dem, wey include James Augustine Healy, Patrick Francis Healy, Michael A. Healy, and Eliza Healy. Mary Fields (c. 1832–1914): she be first African-American female wey dey carry mail for United States star route. Mary Mildred Williams, Nee Botts (born 1847), na the original 'Poster Child' wey dem use her picture push abolitionist cause by dey spread 'White Slavery' for 1855. Mary Prince (c. 1788–after 1833), her life story motivate anti-slavery movement for England. The Master of Morton and e first son of Clan Oliphant Chief, two Scottish noble wey dem exile from Scotland after 1582 Raid of Ruthven. Dem ship wey dem travel with vanish for sea, and dem talk say na Dutch ship catch dem. Last report be say dem dey enslave for Turkish ship for Mediterranean. Dem raise plaque for church for Algiers to remember dem. Masúd, dem buy am when e be pikin from Khál-i Akbar, wey be Báb uncle, Masúd go serve Bahá'u'lláh for Acre. Matilda McCrear (around 1857–1940), last person wey survive for US wey gree say Transatlantic slave trade no easy. Dem carry am go for slave ship Clotilda. Mende Nazer (born around 1982), Nuba woman wey dem capture for Darfur carry am from Sudan go London, later she get refugee status and write book wey title Slave: My True Story (2002). Menecrates of Tralles, na Greek doctor wey dey for 1st century BC. Metaneira, woman for ancient Greece wey dem talk say na Nicarete property, wey dey sell am for body. Michael Shiner (1805–1880), en slaved laborer, painter entrepreneur, community leader and diary writer for Washington Navy Yard. Miguel de Buría (around 1510–around 1555), na slave and rebel. Miguel Perez na the Spanish name of boy wey be Yojuane people, wey dey among 149 Yojuane women and children wey dem carry go as captive for 1759 when some Spanish and Apaches come attack their camp along Red River for northern Texas. Many of dem wey dem capture die from smallpox, the ones wey survive, dem go still enslave dem. Dem sell the boy to Spanish soldier wey give am that Spanish name. Perez become Hispanicized Indian for San Antonio but he still dey connect with his Yojuane people. For 1786, Perez go persuade the Yojuanes and their Tonkawa friends to fight Lipan Apache, wey he do am well. Mikhail Matinsky (1750–1820), Russian serf wey be scientist, dramatist, librettist and opera composer. Michał Rymiński (e don die after 1797), Polish serf wey be Royal Ballet Dancer, wey donate am to king of Poland by him will. Mikhail Shchepkin (1788–1863), Russian serf actor. Mikhail Shibanov, Russian serf painter wey dey active for 1780s. Mikhail Tikhanov (1789–1862), Russian serf artist. Mina Kolokolnikov (1708?–1775?), Russian serf painter and teacher. Mingo, di 15–16 years old boy wey Titsworth family use as slave for Tennessee, dem capture am for 1794 by Creeks when dem raid di house. Minerva (Anderson) Breedlove, na Madam C.J. Walker mama. Moses A. Hopkins (1846–1886), African-American diplomat, U.S. minister to Liberia. Murad Agha (c. 1480–c. 1556), Italy-born Ottoman eunuch and naval officer, wey turn Beylerbey of Tripoli. Mustapha Khaznadar (1817–1878), him be Christian Greek wey dem capture during 1822 Massacre of Chios, change am to Islam wey dem call am Mustapha, sell am for Constantinople to envoy of Husainid Dynasty. Him grow for Mustapha Bey family, later him son Ahmad I Bey. Him first be prince private treasurer before him become Ahmad state treasurer (khaznadar). Him rise to top offices for Tunisian state, marry Princess Lalla Kalthoum for 1839, turn lieutenant-general of di army, become bey for 1840 and de president of Grand Council from 1862 to 1878. Muyahid ibn Yusuf ibn Ali (11th century), na di leader of Saqaliba (slaves wey dem say be Slavic origin) for Dénia, Spain. As Caliphate of Córdoba dey fall, him and him followers rebel, free demself, control di city and establish di Taifa of Dénia, wey at di peak dey reach as far as di island of Majorca. N Nafisa al-Bayda, Egyptian investor wey dem dey call "white slave", na hin dey buy as concubine slave. Nancy, wey dem dey call Ann, na di plaintiff for di 1799 New Brunswick habeas corpus case R v Jones. Nancy Brown, Nancy Caffrey, na white captive wey Creek dey enslave. When trader John O'Reilly try to ransom her and Elsey Thompson, dem tell am say dem no capture dem to go back, but to work. Nanny of di Maroons, wey dem dey call Granny Nanny and Queen Nanny, na di leader of di Jamaican Maroons. Nat Turner (1800–1831), wey escape come lead revolt for Southampton County, Virginia. Nathan McMillian, wey as free man sue to make him pikin enter local "Croatan Indian" school, say e dey for all non-white pikin, and say him pikin get Croatan blood for their mama side. Nathaniel Booth (1826–1901), wey escape slavery for Virginia and settle for Lowell, Massachusetts. For 1851, di people of Lowell buy him freedom from slave hunters. Neaera, formerly enslaved woman and prostitute wey di Athenian Stephanus marry against di law around 340 BC, according to Demosthenes speech. Nero Hawley (1742–1817), wey be formerly enslaved freeperson wey serve for Continental Army during di American Revolutionary War, and dem bury am for Trumbull, Connecticut. Newport Gardner (1746–1826), na formerly enslaved freeperson for colonial Newport, Rhode Island. Ng Akew (died 1880), be Tanka enslaved woman for British Hong Kong wey famous for piracy scandal. Nicarete, na woman for ancient Greece, wey dem describe for Against Neaera di freedwoman of Charisius di Elean and him wife wey be cook Hippias, and as her dey own and sell several women around 340 BC. Saint Nino (c. 280–c. 332), na 4th-century Roman woman from Constantinople wey dem dey respect well well for bring Christianity come Georgia. Some account of her life talk say she originally come Georgia as slave wey dem kidnap from her homeland. Nurbanu Sultan (about 1525–1583), wey dem call Cecilia Venier-Baffo before, na enslaved noblewoman from Venice wey become the favorite wife of Ottoman sultan Selim II, and her wan dey very powerful as mother to sultan Murad III. O Omar ibn Said, Senegal scholar wey don dey slavery for North Carolina more than 50 years, around 1850. Oenomaus, Gallic gladiator wey lead slaves wey dey rebel during Third Servile War. Olaudah Equiano (c. 1745–1797), wey dem sabi as Gustavus Vassa, strong African-British writer wey dey fight for abolition, but dem no sure where e born. Omar ibn Said (1770–1864), writer and Islamic scholar wey come from Senegal wey dem carry go USA for 1807, spend di rest of im life for slavery. Onesimus, slave of Philemon from Colossae wey run away, meet St. Paul, and Paul change am. Paul send am back go Philemon with letter, wey be Epistle to Philemon. Ignatius of Antioch talk about an Onesimus wey be Bishop of Ephesus for early 2nd century, but nobody sure if na di same people. Onesimus, slave for colonial Boston wey help spread knowledge about smallpox inoculation. Onesimos Nesib (c. 1856–1931), Ethiopian wey Swedish missionaries buy out of slavery when e be pikin. E work with another former slave Aster Ganno to translate Bible into Oromo language. Oney Judge (1773–1848), wey dem enslave for Martha Washington family, and later for di First Lady, Judge dey work for Mount Vernon and all over as personal servant to Martha Washington until she escape for 1796 go Portsmouth New Hampshire. Ottobah Cugoano, wey dem sabi as John Stuart (c. 1757–after 1791), be abolitionist, political activist, and natural rights philosopher from West Africa wey dey active for Britain. Owen Fitzpen (c. 1582–1636), English merchant wey Barbary pirates carry capture for 1620 but escape later. Owen Breedlove, papa of Madam C.J. Walker. P Pallas, secretary wey dey work for Roman emperor Claudius. Pasion, na enslaved Athenian guy wey be banker. E later get dat rare chance for freedman to get citizen. Pata Seca (real name na Roque José Florêncio), wey come from Angola for 1828, dem capture am come Brazil as slave, na tall, strong guy: 2m18 tall plus over 140 kg weight. E dey work as breeding slave, e don born over 200 pikin. When dem cancel slavery for Brazil for 1888, e get land, wey e live with e wife and 9 children. Saint Patrick, dem kidnap am from Britain, enslave for Ireland, escape go Britain, come back to Ireland as missionary. Patsey (born around 1830), na enslaved African-American wey dey live for mid-1800s for South Carolina. Paul Jennings (1799–1874), na personal servant wey dem enslave under President James Madison during e White House time, e buy im freedom for 1845 from Daniel Webster. E publish di first White House memoir, 1865's A Colored Man's Reminiscences of James Madison. Paul Smith, na free black wey accuse di Cherokee headman Doublehead say e kidnap am and force am into bondage. Pedro Camejo (1790–1821), na Venezuelan soldier for di Venezuelan War of Independence. Peggy Margaret Titsworth, dem enslave am at 13 years for three years, after Creek raid for 1794 on her Tennessee home. Pete and Hannah Byrne, na freed slaves from Napoleon Bonaparte Byrne family wey travel from Missouri to California by land (six months journey) for 1859, dem leave di farm for Missouri carry six adults (including Pete & Hannah), di four Byrne children and cattle come settle for Berkeley, California. Pete and Hannah be di first blacks wey dey live for Berkeley and among di first African-Americans for California. Peter Salem (c. 1750–1816), African American wey born for slavery for Massachusetts, serve as soldier for American Revolutionary War. Petronia Justa, woman wey dey Herculaneum, sue her owner say she born after her mama don freedom; Vesuvius eruption preserve di court matter. Phaedo of Elis, wey dem capture for war, carry go Athens, force am to do prostitution, later become Socrates student wey free am, give him name to one Plato dialogue, Phaedo, and him be famous philosopher. Phaedrus (c. 15 BCE–c. 50 CE), Roman storyteller. Praskovia Kovalyova-Zhemchugova dress fine for Les mariages samnites by André Ernest Modeste Grétry. Phillis (die 1755), woman wey dey Massachusetts, enslave by Captain John Codman. She and her people plot to poison her owner as dem no fit take di wahala from their master, but dem burn am to death for 1755. Phillis Wheatley (1753–1784?), Colonial American poet, second published African-American poet and first African-American woman wey publish. Phoebe, woman wey dey slavery wey sue for her freedom for Tennessee, with her pikin Davy and Tom, say dem be descendants of one enslaved Indian woman wey prove say dem no suppose hold dem. Philocrates, wey dey slavery under Roman reformer Gaius Gracchus. He stay with him master when Gracchus dey run from him enemies, everybody don leave am. When dem reach one grove wey dey sacred to di Furies, Philocrates help Gracchus kill himself first before he take him own life, some talk say dem kill am after him refuse to let go him master body. Phormion, one enslaved man from Athens wey dey do banking. For him old age, dem give am rare honor of citizenship as free man. Pierre d'Espagnac, sometimes Pierre d'Espagnal (1650–1689), na French Jesuit missionary, dem enslave am by di Siamese. Pope Pius I (e die around 154), na Bishop for Rome from around 140 to 154, when dem dey reign under Roman emperor Antoninus Pius. E be brother to freedman Hermas, so e fit don be former slave too, but dem no talk am clear for di small records wey dey about e life. Pleasant Richardson, wey escape slavery become Union soldier plus property owner for Fincastle, Virginia. Polly, di subject of 1820 Indiana Supreme Court case Polly v. Lasselle, wey make all slaves wey dey Indiana go free. Polly Berry, wey dem also dey call Polly Crockett or Polly Wash, win freedom suit for 1843 for St. Louis, Missouri plus she free her daughter Lucy Ann Berry too. Politoria, wey get lead curse tablet for ancient Rome; na curse on Clodia Valeria Sophrone say make she no fit get Politoria into her power. E look like say she be slave-courtesan wey dey fear say dem go send am go brothel. Praskovia Kovalyova-Zhemchugova (1768–1803) na Russian serf actress plus soprano opera singer. Primus (1700–1791), wey Daniel Fowle from Portsmouth, New Hampshire enslave. Primus dey run di press for di New Hampshire Gazette wey be di oldest newspaper wey still dey print for America. Prince na di slave of Choctaw man wey name Richard Harkins. E vex say him owner no give di slaves Christmas celebration, Prince kill am sharply and dump di body for river for 1858. Prince Boston (born 1750), sue for him freedom and win for 1773 U.S. jury trial. Prince Estabrook (1741–1830), wey Benjamin Estabrook enslave; join fight for Continental Army and get wound for di Battle of Lexington and Concord. Prince Whipple (1750–1796), enslave by American General William Whipple. Prosper, na enslaved man wey dem murder for 1807 for Virgin Islands by him owner Arthur William Hodge, and Hodge go face trial and dem execute am for 1811, na di first case wey dem fit record like dat. One pregnant Thrall wey we no fit remember the name, dey run from her life for 11th-century Oslo, Hallvard Vebjørnsson carry am go hide for him boat. Dem people come attack dem, shoot dem with arrow, and both of dem die. Because of dat, dem make Hallvard saint and him be patron saint for Oslo. Publilius Syrus (fl. 85–43 BCE), na Latin writer wey sabi plenty for him wise sayings. E be Syrian wey dem carry come Italy as slave. Q Quamina Gladstone, him be Jack Gladstone papa and e dey involve for Demerara rebellion wey happen for 1823. Quassi van Timotebo or Kwasimukamba (1692–1787) na Surinam slave, wey don free and na Maroon hunter for Dutch Surinam. Him name dey for plant genus wey dem call Quassia. Quock Walker, wey dem dey call Kwaku or Quok Walker too, him sue and win him freedom for 1781 because of new Massachusetts Constitution (1780) wey talk say all men dem dey born free and equal. Qutb-ud-din Aybak or Qutbuddin Aibak (1150–1210), na Turk wey don suffer slavery before, become soldier, be first Sultan of Delhi, for India e start "slave dynasty". R Rachel, na the person wey dey the 1834 Rachel v. Walker case for Supreme Court of Missouri wey rule say U.S. Army officer go lose him slave if e carry the person go place wey slavery no dey allowed. Dis ruling come dey used as example for 1856 for Dred Scott v. Sandford case for U.S. Supreme Court. Rachel of Kittery, Maine (she die 1695), na enslaved woman wey her owner kill, and e case set legal example for New England. Rachel Knight (she die 1889), at first na enslaved by Newton Knight grandpapa, wey be popular Southern Unionist wey during American Civil War, e no gree Confederacy, wey dem dey call Free State of Jones. After the war, Rachel come get freedom with other slaves. By mid-1870s, Knight don separate from him wife, Serena, come marry Rachel. During this time, Knight grown son, Mat (from him first wife), come marry Rachel grown daughter, Fannie, from her previous relationship. Knight daughter, Molly, come marry Rachel son, Jeff, turns three interracial families for the community. Newton and Rachel Knight born plenty children before she die for 1889. Rebecca Huger, na enslaved woman wey General Benjamin F. Butler free for New Orleans, and dem talk for Harper's Weekly say she be white, come dey go school for freed slaves for Philadelphia. Richard Preston (around 1791–1861), e comot from slavery come be religious leader and abolitionist for Nova Scotia. Robert Blake, e get Medal of Honor as sailor during American Civil War, after e become 'contraband' (slaves wey Union forces free) come join. Robert Drury (1687–1743/1750), English sailor wey shipwreck for Madagascar island in 1702, e dey slave there till 1717. Robert J. Patterson (1809–1884), e run from slavery for Virginia come be restaurateur for Saint John, New Brunswick. Robert Smalls (1839–1915), e take charge of Confederate ship, carry the ship and enslaved people go freedom, make Union allow African Americans join; later e serve for South Carolina Senate before e enter U.S. House of Representatives wey represent South Carolina's 5th congressional district. Robin and Polly Holmes, na dem be plaintiffs for the 1853 Holmes v. Ford court case for Oregon Territory wey free their pikin dem. The verdict confirm say slavery no dey legal for that area as Organic Laws of Oregon talk when the place become U.S. territory. Rosina Downs, na enslaved woman wey General Benjamin F. Butler free for New Orleans, dem describe am for Harper's Weekly say she look white, and she come school for emancipated slaves for Philadelphia. Roustam Raza (1783–1845), na Napoleon Bonaparte's Armenian bodyguard. S Solomon Northup wey come from Twelve Years a Slave Sabuktigin (c. 942–997), full name Abu Mansur Sabuktigin, be small pikin wey dem carry go sell for slavery, but e rise come be general, then king wey start the Ghaznavid Empire for medieval Iran. Safiye Sultan (c. 1550 – c. 1619), na enslaved woman wey be Albanian, dem put am for harem of Ottoman sultan Murad III, and she be the mama of sultan Mehmed III. Salem Poor (1747–1802), na enslaved African-American man wey buy im freedom, and e be war hero during the American Revolutionary War. Sally Hemings (1773–1835), na mixed-race woman wey dem enslave by Thomas Jefferson, plenty people dey believe say she born six pikin for am, four of dem survive grow reach adult. Sally Miller or Salomé Müller (born c. 1814), na enslaved American woman wey file her freedom case for Louisiana based on say she dey claim say she be free German immigrant and indentured servant. Sally Seymour (died 1824), na American pastry chef and restaurateur, enslaved woman wey dem free and she come own her own slaves too. Salonia na di second wife of Cato di Elder. Salvius, wey dem sabi as Tryphon, be leader of di 104 BCE slave rebellion for Sicily wey dem call di Second Servile War. Sambo (died 1736), na enslaved boy wey enter Sunderland Point, near Lancaster, England, around 1736 from West Indies as captain servant. Dem bury am for grave wey no dey blessed inside one field near small village of Sunderland Point, Lancashire, England. Sambo, a black guy wey dey under Tiger King, one Lower Creek, wey tell traveler William Bartram say Sambo be him family property. Samson Rowlie (wey die after 1588), wey dem sabi as Hassan Aga, Chief Eunuch and Treasurer for Algiers. Samuel Benedict (1792–1854), wey born be African-American slave, later become free and waka go Liberia, where he turn politician and judge. Samuel Green (c. 1802–1877), one enslaved man wey buy him freedom and freedom for him loved ones, dey involve for Underground Railroad, and dem lock him up for 1857 because e carry Uncle Tom's Cabin. Samuel Ringgold Ward (1817–c. 1866), African-American wey dey fight for abolition and be journalist. Sandy Jenkins, na person wey dey enslave wey Frederick Douglass talk for him first autobiography. Sanker, na manservant wey dey work for Samuel R. Watkins, wey write "Co. Aytch" (1882), wey dey tell how him life be as soldier for the 1st Tennessee Infantry Regiment. Sarah Forbes Bonetta (1843–1880), na Egbado princess from Yoruba wey lose her people during fight, sell into slavery as small pikin, but Captain Frederick E. Forbes from Royal Navy come rescue am carry am go UK wey she con become goddaughter to Queen Victoria. Sarah Basset (die 1730), wey dey enslave for Bermuda; dem execute am for poison matter wey involve three people. Sarah Johnson (1844–1920), her life for the first president plantation dey published for book wey dem call "Sarah Johnson's Mount Vernon." Satrelanus, from Gaul, wey Ermedruda sell give Toto for Milan for 725. Scipio Africanus (around 1702–1720). Scipio Moorhead (fl. 1773–1775), na enslaved African-American artist. Scipio Vaughan (around 1784–around 1840), dem carry am komot from him place for Africa young, sell am go slavery for United States. E turn skilled artisan for Camden, South Carolina; manage get him freedom and inspire plenty of him pikin dem. Septimus Clarke (1787–1859), wey dem don enslave before, him turn e get success as farmer and leader for community for Nova Scotia. Servius Tullius, ancient King of Rome wey people talk sey e start life as slave (but some people dey argue this matter, both Romans and modern historians). Seymour Burr (1754/1762–1837), e fight for Continental Army for American Revolution. Shadrach Minkins (1814–1875), na fugitive wey slavery no fit catch, dem save am by abolitionists for Boston in 1850. Shaghab (dem don die 933), mother and double ruler of the eighteenth Abbasid Caliph al-Muqtadir. Silas Chandler (1838–1919), na man wey dey follow him enslavers for Confederate Army during American Civil War. Sojourner Truth (around 1797–1883), na abolitionist and women's rights activist. Solomon Bayley (1771–1839), write book for 1825 about him life as slave. Solomon Northup (1807–around 1863), na farmer, pro violinist, and free-born black man from New York wey dem lure go Washington, D.C., wey slavery dey legal, kidnap am and sell am for South. E dey enslaved for Louisiana from 1841 till dem rescue am and liberate am for 1853. Na author of Twelve Years a Slave. Solomon Flores, na enslaved man from northern Alabama. Sosias the Thracian, na enslaved Athenian man, later freedman, wey Nicias carry enslave, later rent am one thousand slaves for mining work. Spartacus (around 111–71 BCE), na gladiator and rebel leader during the Servile Revolt. Spendius be Campanian wey run come out from slavery, serve as Carthaginian mercenary for di First Punic War, den later be general for Mercenary War wey dem fight against Carthage. Stefan Holnicki (we no sabi when e die after 1797), Polish serf and Royal Ballet Dancer, don give plenty to di king of Poland by im will. Stephen Bishop (about 1821–1857), na mixed-race man wey dem hold for Kentucky, him dey known as one of di first explorers and guides for Mammoth Cave. Sue, na black woman wey James Brown enslave, dem capture am with plenty members for di Brown family and other slaves by Chickamaugas. When di warrior wey catch am threaten another captive, di other captor come threaten say dem go kill Sue for revenge. James' pikin Joseph later kidnap Sue, her children and grandchildren—total eight—for di revenge wey dey follow im captivity. Suhayb ar-Rumi (born around 587), wey people sabi as Suhayb ibn Sinan, na child wey dey enslave for Byzantine Empire, escape as young man go Mecca, come join Muhammad and become big friend for di early Muslim community. Sumayyah bint Khayyat (550–615), na woman wey dem enslave for Mecca; she be one of di first seven pipo wey convert to Islam by Prophet Muhammad early for him work. Dem torture am and kill am because of di new faith, she become di first Muslim Shahid. Squanto (1585–1622), wey dem also sabi as Tisquantum, na Native American from wetin dem dey call coastal Massachusetts now; dem capture am by English pirates and sell am as slave. Later, he free and return go New England, meet di Pilgrims for di Mayflower in 1621. Subh of Cordoba (940–999), na enslave concubine of a Caliph, na mother and regent of di next Caliph of Cordoba inside di 10th century. Suk-bin Choe (1670–1718), na consort of Sukjong of Joseon and mother of Yeongjo of Joseon. Surya Devi (we no sabi when she die, 715), na Indian princess wey dem enslave by Caliph Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik. T Taras Shevchenko Tatyana Shlykova Dem dey talk say na Terence portrait from Vatican Codex 3868. E fit be copy from 3rd-century original. Taras Shevchenko (1814–1861): Na di biggest Ukrainian poet, artist and illustrator wey come from serf family. E artist padi buy am freedom for 1838. Tatyana Shlykova (1773–1863), Russian serf wey be ballerina and opera singer. Thanadelthur (c. 1697–1717), woman from Chipewyan Dënesųłı̨ne nation wey help as guide and interpreter for Hudson's Bay Company. Thomas Fuller, African American man wey dey suffer for Virginia, dem sabi am for im math skills. Thomas Pellow (1704–1745), wey pirates from Barbary enslave, carry am go Morocco, dem select am and torture am by Ismail Ibn Sharif. E escape after 23 years, come back home to Cornwall. Thomas Peters (1738–1792), wey first be Thomas Potters, one of di founding fathers of Sierra Leone. Dem don enslave am before, e run come out from North Carolina during American Revolutionary War. Peters na Black Loyalist member of British Black Company of Pioneers, e become sergeant, settle down, and marry for Nova Scotia. E even recruit African settlers for Nova Scotia to colonize Sierra Leone, later become leader for Freetown. Thomas Sims (born 1834), African American man wey escape slavery for Georgia come Boston, Massachusetts, but dem catch am back under Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, but e escape go Boston again. Thomas-Alexandre Dumas (1762–1806), French general and papa of Alexandre Dumas. Thumal, administrator of justice for di eighteenth Abbasid Caliph al-Muqtadir. T. Aelius Dionysius, freedman for di late Roman Empire, wey create stela for himself, im wife, and Aelius Perseus, im fellow freedman, and dem and dem wey come after dem. T. Claudius Dionysius, him be freedman wey him freedwoman wife Claudia Prepontis build funeral altar for am. Di hands wey dem hold show say dem marry legit, na only after dem get dem freedom. Terence (c. 195/185–c. 159 BCE), full name Publius Terentius Afer, na Roman playwright and comic poet wey write before and maybe after him freedom. Tiberius Claudius Narcissus, na freedman wey dey serve as secretary to Roman emperor Claudius for 1st century. Tituba, na 17th-century Native American woman wey Samuel Parris from Danvers, Massachusetts enslave. She be di first person wey dem accuse of witchcraft during di 1692 Salem witch trials. Tomás Ortega, na enslaved man for colonial Mexico wey try marry Leonor de Mendoza, another woman wey dey under different master. When dat man lock Tomás, Leonor beg church court for help, dem threaten say if him no free Tomás, dem go excommunicate am. Titus Kent (1733–18??), him dey serve for di Samuel Kent family for Suffield Connecticut. Samuel Kent wey live from 1698–1772, wey write for him will say Titus go be Elihu Kent pikin. Revolutionary War records show say Titus serve for different regiments from 1775 to 1783. Toussaint L'Ouverture (1743–1803), na freedman wey lead di slave revolt wey bring Haiti independence. Tula (wey die 1795), na leader of di Curaçao Slave Revolt of 1795. Turgut Reis (1485–1565), wey dem sabi as Dragut, na famous admiral for Ottoman Navy wey Genoese capture for Corsica and force am work as galley slave for near four years. Finally, him fellow admiral Barbarossa come rescue am, wey lay siege to Genoa and secure Turgut Reis release for big ransom of 3,500 gold ducats. After dat, Turgut Reis continue him naval career (wey include di enslavement of plenty other people). U Ukawsaw Gronniosaw (1705–1775), wey dem sabi as James Albert, na freedman wey turn writer. Him autobiography be di first one wey African publish for Britain. Ursula Granger (1738–1800), na woman wey Thomas Jefferson enslave, she be cook, dairymaid, laundress, and wet nurse. Dem dey call am di "Queen of Monticello". V Vasily Tropinin Vincent de Paul Vasily Tropinin (1776–1857), na Russian serf wey sabi paint. Venture Smith (1729–1805), na African wey dem capture as pikin, carry am go American colonies as slave. When e grow, e buy im freedom and im family too – im wife Meg and di pikin dem: Hannah, Solomon and Cuff. Di schoolteacher wey write im story, na person wey e talk to for im old age. Venus Vance (died c. 1850), na enslaved American woman wey live and work for Mira Margaret Baird Vance plantation. Di Vestmenn ("West Men" for Old Norse, wey dey point to di Irish) be group of Irish slaves wey Hjörleifr Hróðmarsson carry go Iceland. E no treat dem well, so dem kill am and run go one group of islands. Ingólfur Arnarson, Hjörleifur's blood brother, chase dem come kill all of dem. Though we no sabi their individual names, dem memory still dey for Iceland geography, di islands wey dem seek refuge dey known as "Vestmannaeyjar": "Islands of di West Men" (i.e. of di Irish). Vincent de Paul (1581–1660), na French priest wey dem dey honor as saint for di Catholic Church. Dem capture am by Turkish pirates, sell am as slave, but e come free for 1607. Vindicius, na ancient Roman slave wey find out Tarquin's plan to take back power. Vibia Calybeni, na freedwoman for late Roman Empire wey weirdly call herself madam for im tombstone. Virginia Boyd, na enslaved American woman wey write letter to R.C. Ballard, dey beg make dem no sell am with her pikin for strangers. Ballard wan sell am die as Judge Samuel Boyd, di children papa, tell am make e hide her existence from im family. Violet Ludlow, na American woman wey don sell into slavery plenty times even though she dey claim say she be free white woman. Virginia Demetricia (1842–after 1867), na enslaved Aruban wey dem sabi say she be heroine wey dey fight against slavery. Vitalis, ancient enslaved Roman. One inscription dey talk about enslaved boy, Iucundus, as son of Gryphus and Vitalis. Volumnia Cytheris, na enslaved and later freedwoman for ancient Rome. She be actress and courtesan, her lovers include Brutus, Mark Antony, and Cornelius Gallus; how she reject Gallus dey inspire Virgil's tenth Eclogue. W Photograph of Wes Brady, ex-slave, wey dem snap for Marshall, Texas, for 1937 as part of Federal Writers' Project Slave Narrative Collection. Wes Brady (born 1849), from Marshall, Texas, dey among di Federal Writers' Project Slave Narrative Collection. West Ford (c. 1784–1863), wey George Washington enslave and serve as caretaker for Mount Vernon. Him dey claim say he be Washington biological son. William Ansah Sessarakoo (c. 1736–1770), African prince wey suffer for transatlantic slave trade, get freedom, and later become slave trader himself. William Beverly Nash (1822–1888), na North Carolina state senator. William Ellison (1790–1861), na enslaved man wey mixed race and after him gain freedom, him too become slaveholder wey dey produce cotton. William Gardner (born 1759), na man wey James Madison enslave wey Madison sell into indentured servitude for seven years before him dey free and dey work as merchant's agent. == List of slaves == tu3aa3a977sy10oxezr42d4s0f91w0b 69177 69176 2025-07-06T00:34:41Z Abdul-Rauf Moshie 1580 /* List of slaves */ 69177 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Slavery}} [[File:Livorno_Quattro_mori_monument_07.JPG|thumb|375x375px|One out of four statues wey dey show chained slaves for base of the Monument of the Four Moors for Livorno, Italy, wey dem fit be real slaves o.]] Slavery be one kind social-economic system wey people dey suffer: dem no get freedom and dem dey force to do work or service without pay. Dem people wey dey in dis condition, we dey call dem slaves or enslaved people. Dis na list of some important historical people wey don dey enslave for some time for dem life, we go arrange am from A to Z based on dem first name. * A * B * C * D * E * F * G * H * I * J * K * L * M * N * O * P * Q * R * S * T * U * V * W * X * Y * Z * See also A Abraham be enslaved black man wey dey carry message between frontier and Charles Town for war with Cherokee, wey fit free am. Abdul Rahman Ibrahima Sori (1762–1829), na prince from West Africa wey dem hold for United States for 40 years till President John Quincy Adams free am. Abram Petrovich Gannibal (1696–1781), dem adopt am by Russian czar Peter the Great, him be governor for Tallinn (Reval) (1742–1752) and general-en-chef (1759–1762) wey dey build sea forts and canals for Russia; e be great-grandpapa of Alexander Pushkin. See The Slave in European Art for him portraits. Absalom Jones (1746–1818), him don free hims [[File:Cabeza_de_Vaca_Portrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cabeza_de_Vaca_Portrait.jpg|right|thumb|235x235px|[[:en:Álvar_Núñez_Cabeza_de_Vaca|Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca]]]] elf, na abolitionist and clergyman – first ordained black priest of Episcopal Church. Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz (die 644), na Persian craftsman and captive wey kill second Islamic caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab (r. 634–644). Addas (7th century) na enslaved Christian boy wey dey live for Taif during Muhammad time, wey people talk say na him be first person from western Taif wey convert to Islam. Adriaan de Bruin (c. 1700–1766), wey dem call Tabo Jansz before, na enslaved servant for Dutch Republic wey turn free man for Hoorn, North Holland. Adam Brzeziński (1768 – after 1797), Polish serf and Royal Ballet Dancer, wey donate to king of Poland by will and testament. Aesop (c. 620–564 BCE), na Greek poet and author or transcriber for Aesop's Fables. Afanasy Grigoriev (1782–1868), na Russian serf and Neoclassical architect. Afrosinya (1699/1700–1748), na Russian serf, fit be Finnish captive, na enslaved mistress of Alexei Petrovich, Tsarevich of Russia. Agathoclia (shey die around 230), na martyr and patron saint for Mequinenza town for Spain. Alam al-Malika (shey die 1130), na singer wey dem catch as slave but rise become de prime minister and ruler for Zubayd, wey dey now Yemen. Alexina Morrison, na run away girl from slavery for Louisiana wey claim say she be kidnapped white pikin, she sue her master wey make people vex say dem go lynch am. Alfred "Teen" Blackburn (1842–1951), one of de last survivors of slavery for United States wey fit remember wetin happen. Alfred Francis Russ [[File:Aesop_pushkin01.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aesop_pushkin01.jpg|left|thumb|264x264px|[[:en:Aesop|Aesop]] in a [[:en:Hellenistic_art|Hellenistic]] statue claimed to be him, Art Collection of [[:en:Villa_Albani|Villa Albani]], Rome]] ell (1817–1884), na 10th President of Liberia. Alice Clifton (c. 1772–unknown), as slave pikin, she dey trial for infanticide matter for 1787. Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca (c. 1490–c. 1558), na Spanish explorer wey dem turn slave by Native Americans for Gulf Coast after e survive Narváez expedition wey scatter for 1527. Al-Khayzuran bint Atta (shey die 789), na Yemeni girl wey turn wife for Abbasid Caliph Al-Mahdi and mama to two Caliphs, Al-Hadi and Harun al-Rashid, wey dem sabi well well. Alp-Tegin (shey die 963), na member of nomadic Turks, dem carry am as slave small for Samanid court for Bukhara, later e come be army commander for Samanid Empire. Him son-in-law Sabuktigin later start Ghaznavid Empire. Amanda America Dickson (1849–1893), daughter of white planter David Dickson and Julia Frances Lewis, she be slave under Dickson's mama. Even though she dey legally enslaved till after Civil War, Amanda be her papa favorite and she inherit him $500,000 estate after him die for 1885. Ammar bin Yasir (570–657), one of di popular sahaba dem wey Abu Bakr free. Amos Fortune (1710–1801), African prince wey don suffer for United States for most of him life. Di children book wey talk about am, Amos Fortune, Free Man win Newbery Medal for 1951. Anarcha Westcott (c. 1828–unknown), black woman wey dey enslaved for di United States, she be among di women wey J. Marion Sims use do experiment. Portrait of Andrey Voronikhin. Engraving by V. A. Bobrov from di early 19th century. Andrey Voronikhin (1759–1814), Russian serf, architect and painter. Andrea Aguyar (died 1849), former enslaved black ma [[File:Voronikhin.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Voronikhin.jpg|right|thumb|297x297px|Portrait of [[:en:Andrey_Voronikhin|Andrey Voronikhin]]. Engraving by V. A. Bobrov from the beginning of the 19th century.]] n from Uruguay wey join Giuseppe Garibaldi during di Italian revolution for di Uruguayan Civil War of di 1840s and die for fight for di Roman Republic of 1849. Andrew Jackson Beard (1849–1921), inventor, him free at age 15 by di Emancipation Proclamation. Anna J. Cooper (1858–1964), author, educator, speaker and big African-American scholar. Anna Madgigine Jai Kingsley (1793–1870), woman wey dey enslaved then become planter and slave owner. Anna Williams, woman wey dey enslaved for Washington, D.C. wey go court win her freedom against di United States Court of Appeals. Annice (died 1828), dem execute her for murder five children. Annika Svahn (fl. 1714), Finnish woman wey Russian take away during di Great Northern War. She be vicar pikin for Joutseno, wey become popular victim for di wahala wey civilian dem suffer during di Russian occupation. Antarah ibn Shaddad (525–608), pre-Islamic Arab wey born from enslaved woman, him papa free am before battle, and he be poet too. Anthony Burns (1834–1862), na Baptist pre [[File:Петровское._Бюст_А.П._Ганнибала.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5._%D0%91%D1%8E%D1%81%D1%82_%D0%90.%D0%9F._%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0.jpg|right|thumb|263x263px|[[:en:Abram_Petrovich_Gannibal|Abram Petrovich Gannibal]], bust in [[:en:Petrovskoye,_Yaroslavl_Oblast|Petrovskoe]], [[:en:Russia|Russia]]]] acher wey escape slavery go Boston, but dem catch am again because Fugitive Slave Act wey dey 1850, den people wey no want am capture buy im freedom for Boston. Antonia Bonnelli (1786–1870), dem capture am and enslave am by Mikasuki tribe for Florida in 1802. António Corea, na European name wey dem give to Korean. Dem carry am go Italy, wey fit make am di first Korean wey step foot for Europe. Antón Guanche (15th century), na Guanche from Tenerife, dem capture am, enslave am, come return am go di island. Aqualtune Ezgondidu Mahamud da Silva Santos (died 1677), na princess of Kongo, mother of Ganga Zumba and grandmother of Zumbi dos Palmares. She lead 10,000 men during di Battle of Mbwila between Kingdom of Kongo and Kingdom of Portugal. Dem catch am by Portuguese forces, carry am go Brazil and sell am as slave. She start di slave settlement of Quilombo dos Palmares with her son Ganga Zumba. Archer Alexander (1810–1879), na model wey dem use for di slave wey dey di 1876 Emancipation Memorial sculpture. Abram Petrovich Gannibal, bust wey dey Petrovskoe, Russia. Archibald Grimké (1849–1930), born into slavery, son of white papa, become American lawyer, intellectual, journalist, diplomat and community leader. Arthur Crumpler (c. 1835–1910), escape slavery for Virginia, na di second husband of Dr. Rebecca Davis Lee Crumpler. Aster Ganno (c. 1872–1964), na young Ethiopian woman wey Italian Navy rescue from slave ship wey dey cross go Yemen. She go translate di Bible into Oromo language. Also she prepare literacy materials and spend di rest of her life as school teacher. Augustine Tolton (1854–1897), na di first black priest for di United States. Aurelia Philematium, na freedwoman wey her tombstone dey praise her marriage with her fellow freedman, Lucius Aurelius Hermia. Ayuba Suleiman Diallo (1701–1773), wey dem sabi as Job ben S [[File:William_Hoare_of_Bath_-_Portrait_of_Ayuba_Suleiman_Diallo,_(1701-1773).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:William_Hoare_of_Bath_-_Portrait_of_Ayuba_Suleiman_Diallo,_(1701-1773).jpg|left|thumb|Portrait of [[:en:Ayuba_Suleiman_Diallo|Ayuba Suleiman Diallo]] by [[:en:William_Hoare|William Hoare]] (1733)]] olomon, na Muslim wey come from Bundu state for West Africa. E dey suffer for two years for Maryland as slave, but dem free am for 1734. Later, e write hin story wey dem publish as one of di first slave narrative. B Baibars Baibars (1223–1277), wey dem dey call am Abu al-Futuh, na Kipchak Turk wey turn Mamluk sultan for Egypt and Syria. Balthild (c. 626–680), na Anglo-Saxon woman wey come from big family, dem sell am gree as small pikin, serve for Erchinoald house, wey be mayor for Neustria. After, she marry Clovis II, and later she be regent when her pikin Clotaire dey small. She stop dem wey dey trade Christian slaves and dey fight for freedom of children wey dem sell as slaves. Pope Nicholas I canonize am about 200 years after she die. Bass Reeves (1838–1910), na one of di first black Deputy U.S. Marshals for di west of di Mississippi River, wey don arrest over 3,000 bad guys and shoot fourteen outlaws for self-defense. Belinda Sutton (1713–179?), born for Ghana, she dey beg for support from her enslaver estate, wey be one early case for reparations and inspire future activism. Belinda Sutton petition, wey dem print again Bell (Belinda) (c. 1750–c. 1772), born for Bengal, dem carry her go Scotland as servant for East India Company nabob. Dem accuse am say she kill pikin, she dey beg make dem banish am and she turn “slave for life” and dem carry am go Virginia for 1772. She na di last person wey court for Britain call slave. Benjamin S. Turner (1825–1894), former slave wey be politician wey represent Alabama's 1st congressional district for United States House of Representatives. Him be di first African American wey don represent di state for Congress. Benkos Biohó, wey born for royal family of Bissagos Islands, dem kidnap am and enslave am. After dem carry am go Spanish New Granada for South America, him fit escape, help plenty other slaves escape too, and create di maroon community of San Basilio de Palenque. Di Governor Diego Pacheco Téllez-Girón Gómez de Sandoval of Cartagena betray am and hang am for 1621, but di community wey him build still dey live free till today. Betty Hemings (c. 1735–1807), na enslave mixed-race woman wey for colonial Virginia, wey for 1761 start dey be sex slave of her master, planter John Wayles, and she get six mixed-race children with am over 12 years, including Sally Hemings and James Hemings. Big Eyes (fl. 1540), na Wichita woman wey dem enslave by Tejas people before dem capture am and enslave am by conquistador Juan de Zaldívar. Bilichild (died 610), be queen of Austrasia through marriage to Theudebert II. Bilal ibn Ribah (580–640), wey dem free in 6th century. Him convert to Islam and be Muhammad's muezzin. Bill Richmond (1763–1829), wey born for America, dem free am and him become one of England's best boxers. Saint Brigid of Kildare as dem depict am for Saint Non's chapel, St Davids, Wales. Billy (born c. 1754), na man wey run come from John Tayloe II's plantation, dem charge am for treason against Virginia during American Revolutionary War. Him collect pardon after e talk say, as slave, him no be citizen, so e no fit commit treason against government wey him no dey owe loyalty to. Bissula (fl. 368) na Alemannic woman wey dem enslave, and she be inspiration for Roman poet Ausonius. Blanche Bruce (1841–1898) na di first and only former slave wey serve for United States Senate. Blandina (c. 162–177) be slave and Christian martyr for Roman Gaul. Di Bodmin manumissions na manuscript wey dey inside British Library, e keep names and details of slaves wey dem free for Bodmin (di main town for Cornwall back then) during 9th or 10th centuries. Booker T. Washington (1856–1915), born inside slavery, come be American educator, author and leader of African-American community after Civil War. Saint Brigid of Kildare, na major Irish Saint. Tradition say Brigid born for 451 AD for Faughart, just north of Dundalk for County Louth, Ireland. Her mama na Brocca, Pict slave wey Saint Patrick don baptize. Dem talk say her papa be Dubhthach, chieftain of Leinster. Dubthach wife force am sell Brigid's mama to druid when she carry belle. Brigid self born for slavery. Di small Brigid fit perform miracle, like healing and feeding di poor. At age ten, dem return am as household servant to her papa, where her charity make am dey give out hin things to anybody wey ask. For two Lives, Dubthach dey vex with her, he carry am go King of Leinster to sell her. While Dubthach dey talk with di king, Brigid don give away hin jeweled sword to beggar to change am for food to feed di family. Di king sabi her holiness well well and e make Dubthach free him daughter. After dat, she start her waka as popular nun. Brigitta Scherzenfeldt (1698–1733), Swedish wey dey write memoirs and teach weaving, she catch during di Great Northern War, carry go live as slave for di Kalmyk kingdom for Central Asia. Bussa wey born free man for West Africa, maybe Igbo pikin, dem catch am by African slave traders, sell am go Britain, transport am go Barbados (wey slavery don dey legal since 1661) for late 18th century as slave. C Charlotte Aïssé Cezayirli Gazi Hasan Pasha statue for Mersin Naval Museum Caenis, na woman wey don suffer as slave, she be secretary for Antonia Minor (emperor Claudius mama) plus Vespasian wey be Roman emperor. Caesar (c. 1737–1852), na di last slave wey fit get freedom for New York. E reach supercentenarian level, plus fit be di first person wey dem snap while dem dey alive in 1851. Caesar Nero Paul (c. 1741–1823), as small pikin, dem carry am from Africa come Exeter, New Hampshire, but e get freedom, start big New England family wey dey fight against slavery. Pope Callixtus I (died 223), na man wey don suffer as slave, pope from about 218 to about 223, during di time of Heliogabalus and Alexander Severus. Dem kill am for him Christian faith, now he be saint for Roman Catholic Church. Carlota (died 1844), she lead slave rebellion for Cuba for 1843–1844. Castus, na enslaved Gaul and one of di leaders for di Third Servile War wey get people wey dey fight for freedom. Catalina of Motril (fl. 1501–1531), she be bed servant for Catherine of Aragon when she marry Henry VIII for England. Cato (1786–1803), na man wey don suffer for Charleston, New York, wey kill twelve-year-old Mary Akins after e try rape am. Him confession show for di murder book of dat time. Cato, na African-American man wey serve as American Black Patriot spy and courier to gather info with him owner, Hercules Mulligan. Celia (died 1855), na woman wey dem catch and kill for di murder of Robert Newsom, her enslaver. During di trial, John Jameson argue say she kill am for self-defense to stop am from raping her. Cesar Picton (c. 1765–1831), na slave wey start for Senegal, later work as servant for England, come get money as coal merchant. Cevri Kalfa, one Georgian girl wey e dey for sultan harem for Istanbul, wey save Mahmud II life. Dem reward am wit big position haznedar usta, wey be chief treasurer for the imperial Harem. Cezayirli Gazi Hasan Pasha (1713–1790) na Georgian wey dem enslave for Ottoman Empire, wey rise become grand vizier, Kapudan Pasha, and army boss. Charity Folks (1757–1834), American slave wey born for Annapolis, Maryland, release from slavery for 1797 and later become property owner. Charles Deslondes, Haitian mulatto wey dey oversee other slaves for André plantation and leader of 1811 German Coast Uprising for Louisiana. Dem kill am terribly by the militia wey suppress the slave revolt. Charlotte Aïssé, (c. 1694–1733), French letter-writer, daughter of one Circassian chief, wey suffer for Ottoman Black Sea slave trade. Charlotte Dupuy (c. 1787/1790–c. 1866), wey dem dey call Lottie, file freedom suit for 1829 against her enslaver, Henry Clay, wey be Secretary of State, but she lose. Chica da Silva (c. 1732–1796), wey dem sabi as Xica da Silva, Brazilian courtesan wey become rich and powerful even though she born into slavery. Chloe Cooley (fl. 1793), wey dey enslave for Canada, her violent treatment and transport to US make Upper Canada pass 1793 Act Against Slavery. Christopher Shields (born 1774) na George Washington slave wey he keep am for Mount Vernon. The place wey he die and the year wey e happen no dey clear. Christophorus Plato Castanis, (born 1814) na runaway Greek slave from Chios. He journey come US with Samuel Gridley Howe and John Celivergos Zachos. Castanis be Greek-American author and lecturer. Çiçek Hatun (fl. 1453) na Greek girl wey dem capture when Constantinople fall and put as one of the concubine for Sultan Mehmet II harem. Clara Brown (around 1800–1885), she be one woman wey dem don enslave for Virginia. She come be community leader, give back for people wey don free during Colorado Gold Rush. Claudia Acte (1st century), na mistress for Roman emperor Nero. Pope Clement I (wey die for 100), na di fourth Pope for Catholic tradition. E fit dey freedman for Titus Flavius Clemens. Cleon (die 132 BC) na leader for di First Servile War. Colonel Tye (1753–1780), wey dem dey call Titus Cornelius, him don free, come be Black Loyalist soldier and guerrilla leader for di American Revolution. Crixus, na Gallic gladiator and military leader for di Third Servile War. Cudjoe Lewis (around 1840–1935), wey originally be Oluale Kossola, na di third-to-last survivor of di Transatlantic slave trade for USA. Dem carry am go di slave ship Clotilda. Cuffy (die 1763), na Akan man wey dem capture for him own West Africa, carry am go work for di plantations of di Dutch colony for Berbice wey dey Guyana today, and for 1763, him lead revolt wey get more than 2,500 slaves against di colonial regime. Today, him na national hero for Guyana. D Dred Scott wey no fit win im case for im freedom for United States Supreme Court for 1857. Dabitum, woman wey dem enslave for Old Babylonia wey sabi write letter about miscarriage. Daniel Bell (around 1802–1877) wey try for years make e and im family fit enjoy freedom. E help organize one big escape plan wey dem call "the Pearl incident" for Washington, D.C., for 1848. Dada Masiti (around 1810s–15 July 1919) poet, mystic and Islamic scholar. Dave Drake (around 1801–1876), wey people sabi am as Dave the Potter. Deborah Squash and im husband Harvey wey escape from George Washington Mount Vernon, join British for New York during American Revolutionary War, and dem carry dem go free in 1783. Denmark Vesey (around 1767–1822), one enslaved African-American man wey plan one big slave rebellion for United States wey dem leak the plans before e go happen. Dido Elizabeth Belle (1761–1804), wey born into slavery as the daughter of Maria Belle, one enslaved African woman for West Indies, and Sir John Lindsay, one Navy officer. Lindsay carry Belle go England for 1765, give im uncle William Murray, 1st Earl of Mansfield, and im wife Elizabeth to take care of am. Dem educate Belle, raise am as free gentlewoman for their Kenwood House with their niece, Lady Elizabeth Murray. Belle stay there for 30 years. For im will for 1793, Lord Mansfield confirm im freedom and give am money and annuity, make Belle heiress. Diego be one freedman wey dem don enslave before, and e dey close with di Elizabethan navigator Francis Drake. For March 1573, Drake raid Darien (for today Panama) and Maroons help am well – dem be Africans wey don run from Spanish slave owners and dem glad to help their English enemies. One of dem na Diego, wey sabi build ship well, and e follow Drake go England. For 1577, Queen Elizabeth send Drake make e start journey against di Spanish for di Pacific coast fit America – wey later turn as Drake waka go round di world – Diego again dey work under Drake; him sabi Spanish and English well well, so he fit be good interpreter when dem catch Spaniard or Portuguese wey dey speak Spanish. E be Drake's servant and dem dey pay am like di rest of di crew. Diego die while Drake ship dey cross di Pacific, wounds wey e get earlier for di journey. Drake dey feel bad for him death, as Diego don become him good friend. Diogenes of Sinope (c. 412–323 BCE), Greek philosopher wey pirates carry away and sell for Corinth. Diocletian (244–312), Emperor of Rome, some people talk say e born as slave of Senator Anullinus. Other talk say na Diocletian papa (we no sabi im name) wey be slave and free before him son, di future emperor, born. Dionysius I (die 1492), Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, dem don enslave am by di Ottomans after di Fall of Constantinople for 1453. Dolly Johnson (born late 1820s, die after 1887), African-American woman from Tennessee, wey President Andrew Johnson don enslave, later become small small-business owner. Dorota Sitańska (die after 1797), Polish serf and Royal Ballet Dancer, wey dem donate to di king of Poland by will and testament. Dred Scott (around 1799–1858), na one enslaved African-American guy wey dey Missouri wey carry case go court make e fit get freedom for one big trial, Scott v. Sandford, wey reach U.S. Supreme Court for 1857. E Florence, Lady Baker around 1875. Na Romanian wey dem enslave as orphan, Samuel Baker buy am, later marry am. Edward Mozingo Sr., (about 1649–1712), dem kidnap am from Africa when e dey like 10 years, sell am for slavery for Jamestown, Virginia. After e owner die, he sue for im freedom and win am. E marry poor white woman, Margaret Pierce Bayley (1645–1711) and together dem be dem wey start the Mozingo family for North America. Elijah Abel (1808–1884), wey born enslave for Maryland, people believe say e escape from slavery enter Underground Railroad go Canada. He join Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints early, na him dey among the first black wey get priesthood and the first black wey rise to elder and seventy rank. Elizabeth Marsh (1735–1785), na English woman wey corsairs capture and hold for slavery for Morocco. Edith Hern Fossett, na woman wey U.S. President Thomas Jefferson enslave, dem teach am to cook by French chef wey create French food for White House and Monticello. Elias Polk (1806–1886), na conservative political activist from 19th century. Eliezer of Damascus, na Abraham slave and trusted manager for im house in Hebrew Bible. Elieser be man wey dem enslave by Paulo de Pina family, Portuguese Jews wey move go Netherlands for 1610 to escape wahala and forced conversion for Portugal. E dey stay with the family for Amsterdam till e die for 1629, dem bury am for Beth Haim cemetery, wey be the oldest Jewish cemetery for Netherlands. E appear say dem don free am, whether officially or in practice, and e dey near equal level with the family wey own am for Portugal – show by fact say e attend the funeral of im master wife, Sara de Pina, and contribute six stuivers, and dem bury am alongside im (former) owners and Jacob Israel Belmonte, wey be the richest man for the community. Elieser don convert to Judaism and dem accept am as Jewish, true true if not, he for no dey buried for Jewish cemetery; dem fit give am the name 'Elieser' when dem convert am, e dey bring Eliezer from Damascus mind. Recently, members of Surinamese community for Netherlands don carry Elieser memory go high, dem put statue for am and dey do yearly pilgrimage go his grave wey dem call Elieser Day. Elisenda de Sant Climent (1220–1275), dem enslave am during slave raid for Mallorca and carry am go emir harem for Tunis. Eliza Hopewell, woman wey dey under Confederates spy Isabella Maria Boyd ('Belle Boyd'). For 1862, she help her owner do spy work, carry message go Confederate Army inside watch case wey dem hollow. Eliza Moore (1843–1948), one of the last African-American former slaves wey dey live for United States. Elizabeth Johnson Forby, mixed-race American woman wey dem enslave under President Andrew Johnson, daughter of Dolly Johnson. Elizabeth Key Grinstead (1630–after 1665), na the first woman wey get African blood for North America wey go court for her freedom and win. Key and her small pikin, John Grinstead, come free on July 21, 1656 for Virginia because her papa be Englishman and she be baptized Christian. Elizabeth Freeman (c. 1742–1829), wey dem dey call Bett and later Mum Bett, na among the first enslaved black people for Massachusetts wey fit file freedom suit and win, based on 1780 constitution wey rule slavery illegal. Elizabeth Hobbs Keckley (1818–1907), wey be popular as personal modiste and close friend of Mary Todd Lincoln, First Lady of the United States. Keckley write and publish autobiography, Behind the Scenes: Or, Thirty Years a Slave and Four Years in the White House (1868). Ellen Craft (1826–1891), light-skin wife of William Craft, wey escape from Georgia to Philadelphia, by acting like white woman and her slave, case wey become popular. Ellen More, enslaved woman wey them carry go royal Scottish court. Emilia Soares de Patrocinio (1805–1886) na Brazilian slave, slave owner and businesswoman. Emiline (23 years); Nancy (20); Lewis, Nancy brother (16); Edward, Emiline brother (13); Lewis and Edward, sons of Nancy (7); Ann, daughter of Nancy (5); and Amanda, daughter of Emiline (2), dem free for 1852 Lemmon v. New York court case after dem bring dem go New York from Virginia. Emily Edmonson (1835–1895), with her sister Mary, try escape for 1848 wey dem call Pearl incident, but Henry Ward Beecher and him church gather money to free dem. Enrique of Malacca, wey dem dey call Henry the Black, na slave and interpreter for Ferdinand Magellan and maybe the first person wey waka round the globe for Magellan's trip of 1519–1521. Epictetus (55–c. 135), ancient Greek stoic philosopher. Estevanico (1500–1539), wey dem dey call Esteban the Moor. He be slave of the Portuguese first, then become servant of the Spaniards. He be one of the only four wey survive the bad Narváez expedition, later na guide for search of the fabled Seven Cities of Gold and maybe the first African wey reach wetin be Arizona and New Mexico today. Eston Hemings (1808–1856), son of Sally Hemings and Thomas Jefferson. Eucharis, na Greek wey dem free, born Roman Licinia, dem describe am for him epitaph for 1st century AD as fourteen when she die, child actress and professional dancer. Eunus (him die for 132 BC), na slave wey come from Apamea for Syria, and him be leader for slave wahala for First Servile War wey happen for Roman province of Sicily. Eunus sabi gree people as prophet and wonder-worker. Him dey claim say him dey see visions and dey communicate with goddess Atargatis, wey dey popular for him place; he even fit connect am to Sicilian Demeter. Some prophecies wey he drop na say di rebel slaves go fit capture di city of Enna and say one day, he go be king. Euphemia (him die for 520s), na Empress of Byzantine Empire because she marry Justin I, she be slave before. Euphraios, na Athenian slave and banker. Exuperius and Zoe (dem die for 127), na Christian martyrs for 2nd century. Dem be married couple wey slave master in Pamphylia enslave. Dem kill dem with their sons, Cyriacus and Theodolus, because dem no wan join pagan rites when dem pikin born. Florence Johnson Smith be mixed-race American babe wey President Andrew Johnson carry go enslave, she be Dolly Johnson pikin. Fountain Hughes (1848–1957), dem interview am for June 1949 about him life by Library of Congress as part of Federal Writers' Project. Francis Bok (wey born 1979), na Dinka slave from South Sudan, now him dey fight for freedom and be author for United States. Francis Jackson (wey born between 1815 and 1820), him dey free from birth, but dem kidnap am for 1850 and sell am into slavery. Him finally get freedom for 1855 when case Francis Jackson v. John W. Deshazer end. Francis James Grimké (1850–1937), him be minister. Francisco Menéndez, na man wey dem enslave for South Carolina but e run go Spanish Florida, wey e serve for Spanish militia, even lead the garrison wey dem set for 1738 for Fort Mose. This place be the first legal free black community for wetin we dey call United States now. François Mackandal (wey die 1758), na Haitian Maroon leader. Frederick Douglass (1818–1895), him born for slavery for Maryland and run go Northeast for 1838, where e turn big-time abolitionist writer, speaker, and diplomat. Fyodor Slavyansky (1817–1876), na Russian serf painter. G Medical photo wey show Gordon back wey dem whip, plenty abolitionists dey share am to show how slavery dey be bad. Portrait of Gülnuş Sultan Gabriel Prosser (1776–1800), leader wey lead Virginia slave revolt. Gaius Furius Chresimus, ancient Roman. As him free man, e produce crops from him small farm wey people accuse am say him dey witch other people crop, but when him bring him farm tools for court, dem free am. Pliny the Elder talk say him story na proof say hard work be wetin matter for farming. Galatian de Sesse (16th century), knight from Aragon wey dey work for hospital and be Governor of Gozo wey dem enslave during 1551 Ottoman attack, e spend five years as galley slave before dem pay ransom and free am. Galeria Lysistrate (2nd century), mistress of Roman emperor Antoninus Pius. Ganga Zumba or Ganazumba (c. 1630–1678), one descendant of unknown Kongo king wey run away from slavery for Brazilian colonial and be first leader of runaway slave settlement wey be Quilombo dos Palmares. Gannicus, enslaved Celt wey be one of the leaders of rebel slaves during Third Servile War. Garafilia Mohalbi (1817–1830), Greek slave wey American merchant rescue and carry go Boston. She die young and inspire big art movement. Genghis Khan (c. 1162–1227), dem capture am after raid and make am slave for Taichiud. George Africanus (1763–1834), enslaved African man from Sierra Leone wey become successful businessman for Nottingham. George Edward Doney (1758–1809), Gambian man wey William Capell, 4th Earl of Essex enslave. George Colvocoresses (1816–1872), from Chios, Greece, come America come be captain for U.S. Navy, but small small dem carry am put for slavery when e be pikin. Colvos Passage dey named after am. George Freeman Bragg (1863–1940), wey born for slavery for North Carolina, later turn big Episcopal priest and social activist. George Lewis (1794–1811), wey dem dey call Slave George, na enslaved guy wey dem kill for Kentucky night of December 15–16, 1811. George Moses Horton (1797–1884), na di first African-American author; him first poetry book publish for North Carolina. George Washington Carver (c. 1864–1943), na African-American scientist, botanist, educator and inventor wey sabi to promote other crops like sweet potatoes and peanuts for South; him born for slavery for Missouri but dem free am as small pikin after American Civil War. George Griffin (1849–1897), born for slavery for Maryland but later dem free am; him be close person to Mark Twain. George W. Hayes (1847–1933), na court crier and politician for Ohio, mixed African American and Native American background, dem carry am put for slavery early for him life. Gerónimo de Aguilar (1489–1531), na Franciscan friar wey waka go Yucatán Peninsula for 1511 but dem shipwreck am and dem carry am for slavery by Mayans. Gosala, one ascetic teacher from ancient India – wey dey live same time (and dey compete) with Gautama Buddha – people talk say him born for slavery, and he become naked ascetic after him run from him bad captor, wey catch him cloth before e run. Gonzalo Guerrero (died 1536), na sailor from Palos, Spain, wey shipwreck for Yucatán Peninsula for 1511 and dem carry am for slavery by di local Maya. Gordon, wey dem dey call Whipped Peter, na enslaved African-American wey escape come Union Army camp from plantation near Baton Rouge, Louisiana for 1863. Di pictures wey dem take of Gordon back wey dem beat during medical check, dem publish am for Harper's Weekly, e show Northerners di wahala wey slavery dey cause. E make plenty free blacks want join di Union Army. Gülnuş Sultan (1642–1715) na Haseki Sultan for Ottoman Sultan Mehmed IV and Valide sultan for dia pikin Mustafa II and Ahmed III. Guðríður Símonardóttir (1598–1682) na Iceland woman wey some North African slavers (Barbary Pirates) carry go. Gustav Badin (wey die for 1822) na servant for royal Swedish court, originally na Danish slave. H Hurrem Sultan, be Eastern European slave girl wey Ottoman sultan Süleyman the Magnificent buy, marry am. Hababah, concubine of Caliph Yazid II. Hagar, biblical figure, Sarah own. Hannah Bond (weh dey born for 1830s), pen name Hannah Crafts, write The Bondwoman's Narrative after she gain freedom. E fit be di first novel wey African-American woman write, na di only novel wey woman wey run from slavery don write. Hark Olufs (1708–1754), Danish sailor, dem capture am by Algerian pirates. Dem sell am to di Bey of Constantine, and him become Commander in Chief for di Bey's cavalry. Dem release am for 1735. Harriet Balfour (c. 1818–1858), Surinam-born enslaved woman wey free for 1841 and move go Scotland. Harriet Evans Paine, (c. 1822–1917), Texas enslaved woman and later oral historian and storyteller. Harriet Hemings (1801–after 1822), daughter of Sally Hemings and Thomas Jefferson. Harriet Jacobs (1813–1897), author of Incidents in di Life of a Slave Girl. Harriet Powers (1837–1910), American folk artist, and quilter. Harriet Tubman (c. 1822–1913), dem dey call am 'Moses' because of di work wey she dey do to help other American slaves escape through di Underground Railroad. Harry, di plaintiff for di 1818 Harry v. Decker & Hopkins case wey di Supreme Court of Mississippi decide to free person from slavery just because him dey stay for free land. Harry Washington (wey die for 1800), dem dey call am Henry Washington, be slave wey George Washington dey own. Dem transport am go America as slave, and Washington buy am for 1763 to work on project wey go drain di Great Dismal Swamp. Hafsa Sultan (she die March 1534), na Selim I wife and di first real sultan of Ottoman Empire as Suleiman di Magnificent mama. Pipo sabi her background matter dey confuse, but some historians talk say she be slave. Helen Gloag (1750–1790), from Muthill, Perthshire, Scotland, become di Empress of Morocco as di harem slave for Morocco sultan. Henry Bibb (1815–1854), American writer and abolitionist wey born as slave. After e run come out from slavery to British Upper Canada, he start newspaper wey dey call The Voice of the Fugitive. E later come back to U.S. come dey lecture against slavery. Henry Highland Garnet (1815–1882), wey born African-American slave for Maryland, run from slavery for 1824, come become abolitionist and teacher. Hercules (born c. 1755), na di head cook wey George Washington enslave for him plantation, Mount Vernon. E run come gain him freedom for 1797, but him wife Alice and him three pikin still dey enslave. Hermas, wey write di book The Shepherd of Hermas and na Pope Pius I brother. Hernando de Escalante Fontaneda, been born for Cartagena, but e don dey enslave at 13 when di ship wey carry am go Spain for school sink for Florida. Calusa chief take am as slave and use am as translator until dem free am at 30. Horace King (1807–1885), American architect, engineer, and bridge builder, born into slavery for South Carolina plantation. Hümaşah Sultan (fl. 1647–1672) na di wife of Sultan Ibrahim for Ottoman Empire. Hurrem Sultan (c. 1504–1558), wey dem sabi as Roxelana, be Eastern European girl wey slave traders capture and sell to di Imperial Harem, become di chief consort and legal wife of Ottoman sultan Süleyman di Magnificent. Halime Sultan (about 1570–after 1639) be Valide Sultan wey dey rule alongside Ottoman Empire. Handan Sultan (about 1568–1605) too be Valide Sultan and her dey act as regent for the Ottomans. I İbrahim Pasha Ivan Argunov. Self-portrait (late 1750s). İbrahim Pasha (about 1495 – 1536), na first Grand Vizier wey Suleiman the Magnificent appoint. E be Greek by birth, at six years old, dem sell am as slave to Ottoman palace for future sultans, where e meet Suleiman wey dey same age. Icelus Marcianus, na slave and later free guy for Roman emperor Galba for 1st century CE. E be one of three men wey dey control the emperor well well, make Galba no dey popular. Ida B. Wells (1862–1931), na big African-American activist wey born into slavery, but later she dey fight against lynching and fit cancel am. For 1909, she co-found National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). Imma, na Northumbrian noble wey knock for battle and later sabi act like peasant, so say captors no go kill am. Him behavior show say him no be real peasant, and dem sell am into slavery. Isabel de Solís (fl. 1485), na enslaved Castilian concubine for Abu l-Hasan Ali, Sultan of Granada. Isabella Gibbons (1826–1890), become schoolteacher for Virginia after dem liberate am for 1865. Isfandíyár, na enslaved servant for Bahá'u'lláh's house for Tehran, Isfandíyár die for Mazandaran. Israel Jefferson (about 1800–after 1873), wey people sabi as Israel Gillette before 1844, born into slavery for Monticello, Thomas Jefferson estate, and work as domestic servant near Jefferson for many years. Ivan Bolotnikov (1565–1608), na fugitive kholop (enslaved for Russia) and leader of Bolotnikov rebellion for 1606–1607. Ivan Argunov (1729–1802), na Russian serf painter, one of the founders of Russian school of portrait painting. J Jean Parisot de Valette St. Josephine Margaret Bakhita, F.D.C.C. Jack Gladstone, di leader wey lead di Demerara rebellion for 1823. Jackey Wright, na enslaved American woman wey sue for im freedom for di popular 1806 Virginia case, Hudgins v. Wright. Di Virginia Supreme Court talk say Wright look white and Native American, but di lower court under George Wythe dey try arrange say everybody fit be free, no matter di race. Jacob Notaras (fl. 1453), na Byzantine nobleman wey dem carry as slave by Sultan Mehmed di Conqueror when Constantinople fall. Jaja of Opobo (1821–1891), dem sell am around age 12 as slave for di Kingdom of Bonny wey dey Nigeria now. From young, di guy don show say e sabi business, so e find im way come out from slavery, become rich merchant prince and start di Opobo city-state, but British colonizers wey e wan challenge come end im career. James Armistead Lafayette (1760–1830), na enslaved African-American man wey serve di Continental Army for di American Revolutionary War as double agent. James Baugh, na enslaved American wey sue for im freedom because im mama granmama na Indian. James Hemings (1765–1801), na mixed-race American wey dem enslave later free am by Thomas Jefferson. E be di older brother of Sally Hemings and half-brother of Jefferson wife, Martha Wayles Skelton Jefferson, through dia papa John Wayles. James Leander Cathcart (1767–1843), diplomat and sailor wey sabi tell story about 11 years wey e dey enslave for Algiers and e do some big diplomatic work while for slavery. James Poovey (born c. 1769), Philadelphian wey dem enslave am from birth, but e find freedom through peaceful resistance. James M. Priest (1819–1883), 6th Vice President of Liberia, wey born inside slavery for Kentucky. James Somersett, man wey dey enslave for colonial America, escape for England in 1771 with help of Beta British people, wey lead to the big case Somerset v Stewart, wey change the slavery matter for Britain, but not for dem colonies. James W. C. Pennington (c. 1807–1870), African-American writer and abolitionist. Jan Ernst Matzeliger (1852–1889), Surinamese-American wey invent shoe making. Jane Johnson (1814/1827–1872), she gain freedom on July 18, 1855, with her two small pikin while dem dey Philadelphia with her owner. William Still and Passmore Williamson help am, dem be abolitionists for Pennsylvania Anti-Slavery Society. Jean Amilcar (c. 1781–1793), Senegalese son of Marie Antoinette. Jean-Jacques Dessalines (1758–1806), leader of Haitian Revolution and first leader of independent Haiti. Jean Marteilhe (1684–1777), French Huguenot wey be slave narrator, him be galley slave. Jean Saint Malo (died 1784), leader of runaway slaves (maroon colony) for Spanish Louisiana and he name dey for Saint Malo, Louisiana. Jean Parisot de Valette (1495–1568), knight of the Order of Saint John, wey dem capture and make galley slave for 1541 by Barbary pirates. After about one year, dem free am and him later become Grandmaster of the Order. Jefferson F. Long (1836–1901), first former slave wey serve for United States Congress and first African American wey represent Georgia for Congress. Jeffrey Hudson (1619–c. 1682), na English court guy wey spend 25 years for North Africa as slave. Jehan Alard (fl. 1580), na French Huguenot wey dey serve as galley slave for Italy, dem catch am for Inquisition. Jehu Grant (c. 1752–1840), na veteran from Revolutionary War. Jeremiah Haralson (1846–Unknown), na former slave and politician wey represent Alabama for House of Representatives during 44th Congress. Jermain Wesley Loguen (1813–1872), na African-American wey run away from slavery, be abolitionist, bishop of the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church, and e write slave narrative. Jim Cuff or Jim Crow be physically disabled African man wey people talk say e fit dey St. Louis, Cincinnati, or Pittsburgh, e song and dance inspire the blackface song 'Jump Jim Crow' wey white comedian Thomas D. Rice bring come. Rice popular creation make Jim Crow turn bad name for blacks, later dem use am for dem segregation laws. Jim Henson, na African wey escape slavery and publish im memoirs, Broken Shackles, for Canada. Joana da Gama (c. 1520–1586), na Portuguese maid-of-honor and writer. Joe, na man wey William B. Travis, one of the Texian commanders for Battle of Alamo enslaved. After dem lose, Mexican General Santa Anna spare Joe, hoping say e go fit convince other slaves for Texas to support Mexican government instead of Texian rebels. After that, Joe and some survivors go Gonzales, dem encourage dem to talk about the battle and tell Texian forces say Santa Anna army no fit beat. John Axouch (1087–1150), na Seljuk Turk wey dem capture as pikin by Byzantine Empire, dem free am and raise am for di imperial house as John II Komnenos wey go be emperor future friend. When him take over, dem put am for di army command and e be di emperor only close pal and confidant. John Boston (c. 1832–after 1880), na former slave wey dey represent Darlington County for South Carolina House during di Reconstruction era. Him dey involved for community work and, as minister, him start di Lamar Colored Methodist Church for 1865. By 1880, him don turn farmer. John 'Lit' Fleming, born for slavery for Virginia but later move go Edmundson, Arkansas with him papa and siblings. E go move go Memphis, Tennessee, and be part owner of di newspaper Memphis Free Speech with activist Ida B. Wells-Barnett. John Munroe Brazealle, with him mama, dem case dey Hinds v. Brazealle (1838), for di Supreme Court of Mississippi, wey deny di legality and inheritance rights for Mississippi for manumission wey Elisha Brazealle, wey dey Ohio, do to free dem. John Brown (c. 1810–1876), wey escape and write about di conditions for di Deep South of United States. John Casor, na di first person wey dey enslaved as result of civil case for di Thirteen Colonies (Virginia Colony, 1655). John Ezzidio (c. 1810–1872), na enslaved Nigerian man wey turn successful politician and businessman for Sierra Leone. John Adams Hyman (1840-1891), na former slave and politician wey serve for di North Carolina Senate and later be di first African American to represent di state for Congress. John Jea (born 1773), na enslaved African-American man wey popular for him 1811 autobiography, The Life, History, and Unparalleled Sufferings of John Jea, di African Preacher. John Joyce wey dem born am for slavery for Maryland, serve for United States Navy, do plenty work after, and kill shopkeeper, Sarah Cross; him life and crime dey for murder stories wey dem dey talk for him time. John R. Jewitt (1783–1821), small English man wey dey make armor, spend three years as prisoner for Maquinna of the Nuu-chah-nulth people for Pacific coast wey dey for Canada now. John R. Lynch (1847–1939), former slave and politician wey serve for Mississippi House of Representatives, be the first African American wey lead state legislative chamber. Later he go serve for United States House of Representatives and write The Facts of Reconstruction to answer dem wey dey talk bad about Reconstruction time policies. John Punch (fl. 1630s, live 1640), na enslaved African man wey dey for Virginia Colony for 17th century. For July 1640, Virginia Governor's Council punish am to serve for him whole life because e run go Maryland. Historians dey call Punch the 'first official slave for the English colonies,' and him case na the 'first time dem make slavery forever for the Chesapeake.' Historians also sabi say this one be the first legal line wey dem draw between Europeans and Africans for the colony, and na important step for slavery matter for United States. John S. Jacobs (1815–1873), wey dem born into slavery for North Carolina, escape, become abolitionist speaker and write slave memoir. Him be brother of famous author Harriet Jacobs. John Smith (1580–1631), English soldier, sailor, and author wey everybody sabi for him role wey help Jamestown colony survive for Virginia. Smith dey captured by Crimean Tatars for 1602 while him dey fight for Wallachia and dem make am slave for Ottoman Empire, but him escape come England by 1604. As Smith talk am: 'we all dey sell for slaves, like goat for market-place.' Jordan Anderson (1825–1907), wey people sabi well well for di letter wey he gree send to im old master when dem call am make he come back to serve dem. Jordan Winston Early (1814–after 1894) na American Methodist preacher wey get different blood, and dem write book about im life as slave. John White, na black boy wey Creeks capture for 1797, but he escape come back New Orleans, only to find Spanish people don carry am go back to slavery. John Ystumllyn, wey dem dey call Jac Du or Jack Black, na 18th-century Welsh gardener, di first Black person wey record well for North Wales. Jonathan Strong, na di person wey dem dey talk about one of di first legal cases wey concern slavery for Britain. José Antonio Aponte, na di leader of Aponte conspiracy. Joseph, na important person for Old Testament and Quran. Joseph Antonio Emidy (1775–1835), violinist wey born for Africa, die for Cornwall. Joseph Cinqué (1814–1879), wey dem know as Sengbe Pieh, na di leader of slave rebellion for di slave ship La Amistad and di case wey follow for Supreme Court, United States v. Amistad for 1839. Joseph Jackson Fuller (1825–1908), one of di earliest slaves wey gree free for Jamaica, at first under di partial freedoms of 1833 Slavery Abolition Act. Joseph Knight, wey succeed find im freedom through court case for Scotland in 1777, case wey make Scots law no go support slavery. Josephine Bakhita (c. 1869–1947), Sudanese-born Roman Catholic Canossian nun and saint. Joshua Glover, na fugitive wey slavery people chase am but abolitionists help am for Racine, Wisconsin in 1854. Josiah T. Walls (c. 1842–1905), former slave wey turn politician wey don serve for di two chambers of Florida State Legislature, na di first African American wey represent di state for Congress. Juan de Pareja (1606–1670), man wey Spanish artist Diego Velázquez enslave am. Velázquez teach am how to paint and free am for 1650. Juan Francisco Manzano (c. 1797–1854), Cuban poet. Juan Gros, free black soldier wey Upper Creek catch near Pensacola, sell am to white trader wey carry am go sell to Mitasuki chief Kinache, wey Spanish people come pay ransom for am. Juan Latino, dem dey call am "el negro Juan Latino", from Ethiopia, dem carry am go Spain when e small, e go school and become Latin professor for University of Granada, 16th-century Spain. Juan Ortiz, young nobleman from Andalucía wey Chief Ucita enslave for Florida to take revenge for wetin happen to am during the expedition. Juan Valiente (died 1553), black African slave wey get chance to be conquistador. E die during the battle of Tucapel against Mapuche people for Chile. Juana Ramírez (1790–1856), rebel soldier and heroine for Venezuelan War of Independence. Julia Chinn, enslave woman wey be octoroon and common-law wife to Richard Mentor Johnson, 9th Vice President of the United States. Julia Frances Lewis, mama to Amanda American Dickson through her owner’s son. Juliana, Guaraní woman from Paraguay, wey famous for kill her Spanish enslaver between 1538 and 1542 and encourage other women to do same. Julius Soubise (1754–1798) be freed Afro-Caribbean slave wey become popular fop for late eighteenth-century Britain. Julius Zoilos, enslave by Julius Caesar. After him get freedom, e shine for him city Aphrodisias after Caesar die. Jupiter Hammon (1711–before 1806), for 1761, become the first African-American writer wey dem publish for the present-day United States. Born for slavery, Hammon never get freedom. Dem dey consider am one of the founders of African-American literature. K Kösem Sultan (1589–1651), na slave concubine just like all di other pipo wey dey di Imperial Harem. Kunta Kinte (c. 1750–c. 1822), na character from di 1976 novel Roots: Di Saga of an American Family wey author Alex Haley base on one of him real ancestors. Kinte be man wey dey come from di Mandinka pipo, he grow for small village wey dem dey call Juffure for wetin we sabi as The Gambia, and dem raise am as Muslim before dem capture am and turn am slave for Virginia. Di historical accuracy of Haley's story get debate. Kodjo (c. 1803–1833), na Surinamese slave wey dem burn alive fit start di 1832 fire for Paramaribo, Dutch Suriname, maybe as way to show resistance. Kösem Sultan (1589–1651), na Ottoman enslaved woman, wey later become very powerful as wife, then mother and later grandmother of di Ottoman sultan during di 130-year wey dem dey call di Sultanate of Women. L Laurens de Graaf Lalla Balqis (1670–after 1721), na English woman wey dem capture and turn slave by Corsairs, dem include am for di harem of di Sultan of Morocco. Lamhatty, na Tawasa Indian wey dem capture and enslave by Creek; him escape. Lampegia (die after 730), Aquitanian noblewoman, wey Abd al-Rahman ibn Abd Allah al-Ghafiqi capture, wey in 730 take di Llivia Fortress, kill her husband Munuza and send her go as slave for di harem of Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik for Damascus. La Mulâtresse Solitude (1772–1802), na slave for di island of Guadeloupe wey dem free in 1794 when dem abolish slavery during di French Revolution. Dem execute am after she fight for freedom when slavery come back because Napoleon in 1802. Laurens de Graaf (c. 1653–1704), na Dutch pirate, mercenary, and naval officer, wey dem enslave by Spanish slave traders when dem capture am for wetin we dey call Netherlands, and dem carry am go di Canary Islands to work for plantation before 1674. Lear Green (around 1839–1860), one African-American woman from Maryland wey run go freedom for New York by fitting inside box make dem carry am. Leo Africanus (1494–1554), one Moor wey born for Granada, dem carry am go Morocco in 1498 because of Spanish wahala. As adult, he dey do diplomatic work. Crusaders catch am for Middle East, dem carry am go Rome make he be slave and convert to Christianity. Later, he get him freedom back and live him life for Tunis. Leofgifu, wey be dairy maid, na one enslaved woman for Anglo-Saxon England, dem mention am for her freedom paper. Leoflaed, another enslaved woman for Anglo-Saxon England, man buy her freedom wey describe her as “kinswoman.” Leonor de Mendoza, enslaved woman for colonial Mexico wey wan marry Tomás Ortega wey be slave for another master; when her master put Tomás for prison, she go church court beg make dem help, dem even threaten say if him no free Tomás, e go fit face excommunication. Letitia Munson (around 1820–after 1882), na midwife wey don come out from slavery, dem don free her for doing illegal abortion for Canada. Lewis Adams (1842–1905), man wey don free from slavery, wey co-found Tuskegee Institute, now Tuskegee University for Alabama. Lewis Hayden (1811–1889), na African-American man from Kentucky, later dem elect am for Massachusetts General Court. Lilliam Williams, settler from Tennessee wey Creek catch while she dey pregnant. Creek adopt her pikin (wey she name Molly and dem name Esnahatchee); dem keep the girl when Williams arrange her freedom. Liol, one Chinese man wey dem carry as slave by Mongol bannerman Soosar. E get semi-independent status for dem. In 1735, him pikin Fuji try claim say him and him brother be Manchus but e no work. Lorenzo de Apapis (around 1501–1586), priest and notary from Gozitan wey dey slavery during 1551 Ottoman attack for Gozo. Dem ransom am and free am by 1553. Lott Cary (about 1780–1828), wey dem born am as African-American slave for Virginia, buy im freedom around 1813, move go Liberia for 1822, where e serve as colonial administrator.[1] Louis Hughes (1832–1913), African-American man wey run away from slavery, author, and businessman.[2] Lovisa von Burghausen (1698–1733), Swedish writer wey publish story of how dem enslave am for Russia after dem capture am during the Great Northern War. Lucius Agermus, freedman of Agrippina the Elder.[3] Lucius Aurelius Hermia, freedman butcher wey his tombstone dey praise im marriage with his fellow freedwoman Aurelia Philematium.[4] Lucius Cancrius Primigenius, freedman of Clemens for one inscription wey dey thank am for breaking spells wey dey affect the city.[5] Lucius of Campione, wey lose lawsuit for 8th century about man Toto wey claim ownership of am.[6] Lucy, di black woman wey John Lang enslave. Dem capture her by di Creek wen she dey 12 years and keep her as slave for Creek land, where she born slave children and grandchildren.[7] Lucy Ann (Berry) Delaney (1830–1891), former enslaved woman, daughter of Polly Berry. Lucy Higgs Nichols (1838–1915), wey escape slavery, serve as nurse for di Civil War, member of di Grand Army of di Republic. Lucy Terry (about 1733–1821), dem kidnap her for Africa and enslave her, dem carry am go British colony of Rhode Island. She later gain freedom and become poet. Luís Gama (1830–1882), wey born free for Brazil, illegally sell am into slavery as pikin, he regain freedom as adult and become lawyer wey free plenty people from slavery without asking for money, especially for di Netto Case. Lunsford Lane (1803–after 1870), na enslaved African-American guy wey dey North Carolina wey buy him freedom and him family too. Him write one slave story. Lyde, na woman wey dem free from slavery by Roman empress Livia. Lydia, na woman wey dem shoot when she try run away from her captor wey dey whip am. Supreme Court of North Carolina talk say na legal in 1830 (check North Carolina v. Mann). Lydia Carter, dey call am 'Little Osage Captive,' dem catch am among Cherokee. Na Lydia Carter go pay money come free am and she name her. Osage try take am back, but she fall sick and die. Lydia Polite, na mother of Robert Smalls. M Mikhail Shchepkin Macuncuzade Mustafa Efendi (wey born around 1550s), na Ottoman qadi and poet wey suffer for slavery for Malta after di ship wey e dey waka for capture by di Knights Hospitaller for 1597. Dem release am for 1600, and e write story about im captivity. Madison Hemings (1805–1877), na di pikin of Sally Hemings and Thomas Jefferson. Mae Louise Miller (1943–2014), American woman wey dey live for modern slavery (peonage) till 1961. Malgarida (wey born around 1488), black African woman and boyfriend of di conquistador Diego de Almagro. For 1536, she be di first non-indigenous woman wey enter di land wey we call Chile today. Malik Ambar, wey born for 1548 as Chapu, na im birth-name for Harar, Adal Sultanate wey dey Ethiopia today. Im come from di Maya ethnic group wey don disappear. As small pikin, im parents sell am for slavery. Mir Qasim Al Baghdadi, one of di people wey own am, convert Chapu come Islam and give am di name Ambar, after e sabi sey di boy get sharp brain. Malik waka go India as slave. For India, e create mercenary group wey reach 1500 men. Di group dey for di Deccan region and local kings dey hire dem. Malik become popular Prime Minister for Ahmadnagar Sultanate, show sey e sabi how to manage. E also dey regarded as pacesetter for guerilla warfare for di area. Dem dey credit am with managing tax collection for plenty for di Deccan, wey set di ground for future collections. Di Siddis of Gujarat dey respect am well. E match di strength of di Mughals and Adil Shah of Bijapur, lift di low status of di Nizam Shah. Margaret Himfi (before 1380–after 1408), na Hungarian woman wey dem carry go enslave by Ottoman bad guys for late 14th century. She later become slave mistress for one rich Venetian man for Crete, wey she born two daughters for. Margaret manage come back to Hungary for 1405. Margaret Morgan dey involved for Prigg v. Pennsylvania case wey United States Supreme Court rule say federal Fugitive Slave Act no go allow Pennsylvania law wey stop blacks from chop dey carry dem go slavery, an dem clear Edward Prigg case because of dat. Marguerite Duplessis (c. 1718–after 1740) na Pawnee woman wey dem enslave for Montreal wey, for 1740, try sue for her freedom but e no work. Marguerite Scypion (c. 1770s–after 1836) na African-Natchez woman wey born for slavery for St. Louis wey go sue for her freedom and eventually win am. Maria al-Qibtiyya (died 637), wey dem dey call “Maria the Copt” or sometimes Maria Qupthiya, na Copt woman wey dem send give Muhammad as gift from Muqawqis, one Byzantine big man, for 628, an she become Muhammad concubine. She be mama to Muhammad son Ibrahim wey die for small pikin age. Her sister, Sirin, sef go meet Muhammad. Muhammad give am to him guy Hassan ibn Thabit. Maria die five years after Muhammad die for 632. Maria (died 1716), na leader for slave uprising for Curaçao. Maria Boguslavka (17th century), na Ukrainian woman wey dem enslave for harem, she start help 30 Cossacks run away from slavery. Maria Guyomar de Pinha (1664–1728), na royal chef from Siam wey get Japanese-Portuguese blood. Maria Perkins, na enslave woman from Virginia wey write letter to her husband for 1852 say dem don sell their son away. Maria ter Meetelen (1704–after 1751), na Dutch writer wey tell her own slave story, dem carry her go enslave by pirates and later sell am to Sultan of Morocco. Her 1748 biography na important witness statement about life of former slave. Mariah Bell Winder McGavock Otey Reddick (she die 1922), as she be small girl, dem give am as wedding gift to Carrie Winder when she marry John McGavock for 1848 inside Terrebonne Parish, Louisiana. Mariah wey born for Mississippi as enslaved person, dem carry am go Franklin, Tennessee, where she spend plenty of her life. Dem match her with Harvey Otey after him first wife Phebe die. Dem get plenty pikin, including two set of twins, wey born into slavery. When Civil War start, dem send her go Montgomery make she dey far from Union lines and possible freedom. She don appear for three novels: Widow of the South and Orphan Mother wey Robert Hicks write and also for book wey her great-grandson William 'Damani' Keene and him wife Carole 'Ife' Keene write titled Clandestine: The Times and Secret Life of Mariah Otey Reddick. Marianna Malińska (she die after 1797), Polish serf and Royal Ballet Dancer, dem donates am to king of Poland by will. Marie (she die 1759), enslaved Cree woman wey get death sentence for Trois-Rivières, New France. Marie-Cessette Dumas, woman wey Marquis Antoine de la Pailleterie enslaved, she be mama of General Thomas-Alexandre Dumas, and grandmother of famous author Alexandre Dumas, père. Marie-Josèphe dite Angélique (she die 1734), black Portuguese enslaved woman wey dem try and convict, beat and hang because she set fire to her woman owner house, wey burn plenty of wetin dem dey call Old Montreal now. Marie Thérèse Metoyer, na planter and businesswoman wey dey Natchitoches, Louisiana after dem free her. Mark, one man from Massachusetts wey dey enslaved by Captain John Codman. Mark body dey display for chains for public near Charlestown, Massachusetts for twenty years. That gruesome display of him body dey popular well-well for that time, and na the place wey dem display Mark body make Paul Revere mention am as landmark for him 1798 account of him 1775 midnight ride. Martha Ann Erskine Ricks (1817–1901), na African-American wey dey born enslave for Tennessee, later she become Americo-Liberian wey sabi quilt. Marthe Franceschini (1755–1799), na Italian wey dem capture and enslave by Corsairs, enter Sultan of Morocco harem. Mary, wey be George Washington Carver mama. Mary (wey die 1838), na teenager wey dem hang for murder wey she do to Vienna Brinker, two-year-old girl wey she dey take care of. Mary Black, one of three enslave women wey dem charge for witchcraft during Salem witch trials for 1692. Mary Calhoun, white woman and cousin of John C. Calhoun wey dem kidnap by Cherokee. She no fit come back home. Mary Edmonson (1832–1853), with her sister Emily, dem try escape for 1848 wey dem dey call Pearl incident, but Henry Ward Beecher and him church gather money help free dem. Mary Eliza Smith, dem dey call 'slave' or 'former slave,' na common-law wife of Michael Morris Healy and mama of him pikin dem, wey include James Augustine Healy, Patrick Francis Healy, Michael A. Healy, and Eliza Healy. Mary Fields (c. 1832–1914): she be first African-American female wey dey carry mail for United States star route. Mary Mildred Williams, Nee Botts (born 1847), na the original 'Poster Child' wey dem use her picture push abolitionist cause by dey spread 'White Slavery' for 1855. Mary Prince (c. 1788–after 1833), her life story motivate anti-slavery movement for England. The Master of Morton and e first son of Clan Oliphant Chief, two Scottish noble wey dem exile from Scotland after 1582 Raid of Ruthven. Dem ship wey dem travel with vanish for sea, and dem talk say na Dutch ship catch dem. Last report be say dem dey enslave for Turkish ship for Mediterranean. Dem raise plaque for church for Algiers to remember dem. Masúd, dem buy am when e be pikin from Khál-i Akbar, wey be Báb uncle, Masúd go serve Bahá'u'lláh for Acre. Matilda McCrear (around 1857–1940), last person wey survive for US wey gree say Transatlantic slave trade no easy. Dem carry am go for slave ship Clotilda. Mende Nazer (born around 1982), Nuba woman wey dem capture for Darfur carry am from Sudan go London, later she get refugee status and write book wey title Slave: My True Story (2002). Menecrates of Tralles, na Greek doctor wey dey for 1st century BC. Metaneira, woman for ancient Greece wey dem talk say na Nicarete property, wey dey sell am for body. Michael Shiner (1805–1880), en slaved laborer, painter entrepreneur, community leader and diary writer for Washington Navy Yard. Miguel de Buría (around 1510–around 1555), na slave and rebel. Miguel Perez na the Spanish name of boy wey be Yojuane people, wey dey among 149 Yojuane women and children wey dem carry go as captive for 1759 when some Spanish and Apaches come attack their camp along Red River for northern Texas. Many of dem wey dem capture die from smallpox, the ones wey survive, dem go still enslave dem. Dem sell the boy to Spanish soldier wey give am that Spanish name. Perez become Hispanicized Indian for San Antonio but he still dey connect with his Yojuane people. For 1786, Perez go persuade the Yojuanes and their Tonkawa friends to fight Lipan Apache, wey he do am well. Mikhail Matinsky (1750–1820), Russian serf wey be scientist, dramatist, librettist and opera composer. Michał Rymiński (e don die after 1797), Polish serf wey be Royal Ballet Dancer, wey donate am to king of Poland by him will. Mikhail Shchepkin (1788–1863), Russian serf actor. Mikhail Shibanov, Russian serf painter wey dey active for 1780s. Mikhail Tikhanov (1789–1862), Russian serf artist. Mina Kolokolnikov (1708?–1775?), Russian serf painter and teacher. Mingo, di 15–16 years old boy wey Titsworth family use as slave for Tennessee, dem capture am for 1794 by Creeks when dem raid di house. Minerva (Anderson) Breedlove, na Madam C.J. Walker mama. Moses A. Hopkins (1846–1886), African-American diplomat, U.S. minister to Liberia. Murad Agha (c. 1480–c. 1556), Italy-born Ottoman eunuch and naval officer, wey turn Beylerbey of Tripoli. Mustapha Khaznadar (1817–1878), him be Christian Greek wey dem capture during 1822 Massacre of Chios, change am to Islam wey dem call am Mustapha, sell am for Constantinople to envoy of Husainid Dynasty. Him grow for Mustapha Bey family, later him son Ahmad I Bey. Him first be prince private treasurer before him become Ahmad state treasurer (khaznadar). Him rise to top offices for Tunisian state, marry Princess Lalla Kalthoum for 1839, turn lieutenant-general of di army, become bey for 1840 and de president of Grand Council from 1862 to 1878. Muyahid ibn Yusuf ibn Ali (11th century), na di leader of Saqaliba (slaves wey dem say be Slavic origin) for Dénia, Spain. As Caliphate of Córdoba dey fall, him and him followers rebel, free demself, control di city and establish di Taifa of Dénia, wey at di peak dey reach as far as di island of Majorca. N Nafisa al-Bayda, Egyptian investor wey dem dey call "white slave", na hin dey buy as concubine slave. Nancy, wey dem dey call Ann, na di plaintiff for di 1799 New Brunswick habeas corpus case R v Jones. Nancy Brown, Nancy Caffrey, na white captive wey Creek dey enslave. When trader John O'Reilly try to ransom her and Elsey Thompson, dem tell am say dem no capture dem to go back, but to work. Nanny of di Maroons, wey dem dey call Granny Nanny and Queen Nanny, na di leader of di Jamaican Maroons. Nat Turner (1800–1831), wey escape come lead revolt for Southampton County, Virginia. Nathan McMillian, wey as free man sue to make him pikin enter local "Croatan Indian" school, say e dey for all non-white pikin, and say him pikin get Croatan blood for their mama side. Nathaniel Booth (1826–1901), wey escape slavery for Virginia and settle for Lowell, Massachusetts. For 1851, di people of Lowell buy him freedom from slave hunters. Neaera, formerly enslaved woman and prostitute wey di Athenian Stephanus marry against di law around 340 BC, according to Demosthenes speech. Nero Hawley (1742–1817), wey be formerly enslaved freeperson wey serve for Continental Army during di American Revolutionary War, and dem bury am for Trumbull, Connecticut. Newport Gardner (1746–1826), na formerly enslaved freeperson for colonial Newport, Rhode Island. Ng Akew (died 1880), be Tanka enslaved woman for British Hong Kong wey famous for piracy scandal. Nicarete, na woman for ancient Greece, wey dem describe for Against Neaera di freedwoman of Charisius di Elean and him wife wey be cook Hippias, and as her dey own and sell several women around 340 BC. Saint Nino (c. 280–c. 332), na 4th-century Roman woman from Constantinople wey dem dey respect well well for bring Christianity come Georgia. Some account of her life talk say she originally come Georgia as slave wey dem kidnap from her homeland. Nurbanu Sultan (about 1525–1583), wey dem call Cecilia Venier-Baffo before, na enslaved noblewoman from Venice wey become the favorite wife of Ottoman sultan Selim II, and her wan dey very powerful as mother to sultan Murad III. O Omar ibn Said, Senegal scholar wey don dey slavery for North Carolina more than 50 years, around 1850. Oenomaus, Gallic gladiator wey lead slaves wey dey rebel during Third Servile War. Olaudah Equiano (c. 1745–1797), wey dem sabi as Gustavus Vassa, strong African-British writer wey dey fight for abolition, but dem no sure where e born. Omar ibn Said (1770–1864), writer and Islamic scholar wey come from Senegal wey dem carry go USA for 1807, spend di rest of im life for slavery. Onesimus, slave of Philemon from Colossae wey run away, meet St. Paul, and Paul change am. Paul send am back go Philemon with letter, wey be Epistle to Philemon. Ignatius of Antioch talk about an Onesimus wey be Bishop of Ephesus for early 2nd century, but nobody sure if na di same people. Onesimus, slave for colonial Boston wey help spread knowledge about smallpox inoculation. Onesimos Nesib (c. 1856–1931), Ethiopian wey Swedish missionaries buy out of slavery when e be pikin. E work with another former slave Aster Ganno to translate Bible into Oromo language. Oney Judge (1773–1848), wey dem enslave for Martha Washington family, and later for di First Lady, Judge dey work for Mount Vernon and all over as personal servant to Martha Washington until she escape for 1796 go Portsmouth New Hampshire. Ottobah Cugoano, wey dem sabi as John Stuart (c. 1757–after 1791), be abolitionist, political activist, and natural rights philosopher from West Africa wey dey active for Britain. Owen Fitzpen (c. 1582–1636), English merchant wey Barbary pirates carry capture for 1620 but escape later. Owen Breedlove, papa of Madam C.J. Walker. P Pallas, secretary wey dey work for Roman emperor Claudius. Pasion, na enslaved Athenian guy wey be banker. E later get dat rare chance for freedman to get citizen. Pata Seca (real name na Roque José Florêncio), wey come from Angola for 1828, dem capture am come Brazil as slave, na tall, strong guy: 2m18 tall plus over 140 kg weight. E dey work as breeding slave, e don born over 200 pikin. When dem cancel slavery for Brazil for 1888, e get land, wey e live with e wife and 9 children. Saint Patrick, dem kidnap am from Britain, enslave for Ireland, escape go Britain, come back to Ireland as missionary. Patsey (born around 1830), na enslaved African-American wey dey live for mid-1800s for South Carolina. Paul Jennings (1799–1874), na personal servant wey dem enslave under President James Madison during e White House time, e buy im freedom for 1845 from Daniel Webster. E publish di first White House memoir, 1865's A Colored Man's Reminiscences of James Madison. Paul Smith, na free black wey accuse di Cherokee headman Doublehead say e kidnap am and force am into bondage. Pedro Camejo (1790–1821), na Venezuelan soldier for di Venezuelan War of Independence. Peggy Margaret Titsworth, dem enslave am at 13 years for three years, after Creek raid for 1794 on her Tennessee home. Pete and Hannah Byrne, na freed slaves from Napoleon Bonaparte Byrne family wey travel from Missouri to California by land (six months journey) for 1859, dem leave di farm for Missouri carry six adults (including Pete & Hannah), di four Byrne children and cattle come settle for Berkeley, California. Pete and Hannah be di first blacks wey dey live for Berkeley and among di first African-Americans for California. Peter Salem (c. 1750–1816), African American wey born for slavery for Massachusetts, serve as soldier for American Revolutionary War. Petronia Justa, woman wey dey Herculaneum, sue her owner say she born after her mama don freedom; Vesuvius eruption preserve di court matter. Phaedo of Elis, wey dem capture for war, carry go Athens, force am to do prostitution, later become Socrates student wey free am, give him name to one Plato dialogue, Phaedo, and him be famous philosopher. Phaedrus (c. 15 BCE–c. 50 CE), Roman storyteller. Praskovia Kovalyova-Zhemchugova dress fine for Les mariages samnites by André Ernest Modeste Grétry. Phillis (die 1755), woman wey dey Massachusetts, enslave by Captain John Codman. She and her people plot to poison her owner as dem no fit take di wahala from their master, but dem burn am to death for 1755. Phillis Wheatley (1753–1784?), Colonial American poet, second published African-American poet and first African-American woman wey publish. Phoebe, woman wey dey slavery wey sue for her freedom for Tennessee, with her pikin Davy and Tom, say dem be descendants of one enslaved Indian woman wey prove say dem no suppose hold dem. Philocrates, wey dey slavery under Roman reformer Gaius Gracchus. He stay with him master when Gracchus dey run from him enemies, everybody don leave am. When dem reach one grove wey dey sacred to di Furies, Philocrates help Gracchus kill himself first before he take him own life, some talk say dem kill am after him refuse to let go him master body. Phormion, one enslaved man from Athens wey dey do banking. For him old age, dem give am rare honor of citizenship as free man. Pierre d'Espagnac, sometimes Pierre d'Espagnal (1650–1689), na French Jesuit missionary, dem enslave am by di Siamese. Pope Pius I (e die around 154), na Bishop for Rome from around 140 to 154, when dem dey reign under Roman emperor Antoninus Pius. E be brother to freedman Hermas, so e fit don be former slave too, but dem no talk am clear for di small records wey dey about e life. Pleasant Richardson, wey escape slavery become Union soldier plus property owner for Fincastle, Virginia. Polly, di subject of 1820 Indiana Supreme Court case Polly v. Lasselle, wey make all slaves wey dey Indiana go free. Polly Berry, wey dem also dey call Polly Crockett or Polly Wash, win freedom suit for 1843 for St. Louis, Missouri plus she free her daughter Lucy Ann Berry too. Politoria, wey get lead curse tablet for ancient Rome; na curse on Clodia Valeria Sophrone say make she no fit get Politoria into her power. E look like say she be slave-courtesan wey dey fear say dem go send am go brothel. Praskovia Kovalyova-Zhemchugova (1768–1803) na Russian serf actress plus soprano opera singer. Primus (1700–1791), wey Daniel Fowle from Portsmouth, New Hampshire enslave. Primus dey run di press for di New Hampshire Gazette wey be di oldest newspaper wey still dey print for America. Prince na di slave of Choctaw man wey name Richard Harkins. E vex say him owner no give di slaves Christmas celebration, Prince kill am sharply and dump di body for river for 1858. Prince Boston (born 1750), sue for him freedom and win for 1773 U.S. jury trial. Prince Estabrook (1741–1830), wey Benjamin Estabrook enslave; join fight for Continental Army and get wound for di Battle of Lexington and Concord. Prince Whipple (1750–1796), enslave by American General William Whipple. Prosper, na enslaved man wey dem murder for 1807 for Virgin Islands by him owner Arthur William Hodge, and Hodge go face trial and dem execute am for 1811, na di first case wey dem fit record like dat. One pregnant Thrall wey we no fit remember the name, dey run from her life for 11th-century Oslo, Hallvard Vebjørnsson carry am go hide for him boat. Dem people come attack dem, shoot dem with arrow, and both of dem die. Because of dat, dem make Hallvard saint and him be patron saint for Oslo. Publilius Syrus (fl. 85–43 BCE), na Latin writer wey sabi plenty for him wise sayings. E be Syrian wey dem carry come Italy as slave. Q Quamina Gladstone, him be Jack Gladstone papa and e dey involve for Demerara rebellion wey happen for 1823. Quassi van Timotebo or Kwasimukamba (1692–1787) na Surinam slave, wey don free and na Maroon hunter for Dutch Surinam. Him name dey for plant genus wey dem call Quassia. Quock Walker, wey dem dey call Kwaku or Quok Walker too, him sue and win him freedom for 1781 because of new Massachusetts Constitution (1780) wey talk say all men dem dey born free and equal. Qutb-ud-din Aybak or Qutbuddin Aibak (1150–1210), na Turk wey don suffer slavery before, become soldier, be first Sultan of Delhi, for India e start "slave dynasty". R Rachel, na the person wey dey the 1834 Rachel v. Walker case for Supreme Court of Missouri wey rule say U.S. Army officer go lose him slave if e carry the person go place wey slavery no dey allowed. Dis ruling come dey used as example for 1856 for Dred Scott v. Sandford case for U.S. Supreme Court. Rachel of Kittery, Maine (she die 1695), na enslaved woman wey her owner kill, and e case set legal example for New England. Rachel Knight (she die 1889), at first na enslaved by Newton Knight grandpapa, wey be popular Southern Unionist wey during American Civil War, e no gree Confederacy, wey dem dey call Free State of Jones. After the war, Rachel come get freedom with other slaves. By mid-1870s, Knight don separate from him wife, Serena, come marry Rachel. During this time, Knight grown son, Mat (from him first wife), come marry Rachel grown daughter, Fannie, from her previous relationship. Knight daughter, Molly, come marry Rachel son, Jeff, turns three interracial families for the community. Newton and Rachel Knight born plenty children before she die for 1889. Rebecca Huger, na enslaved woman wey General Benjamin F. Butler free for New Orleans, and dem talk for Harper's Weekly say she be white, come dey go school for freed slaves for Philadelphia. Richard Preston (around 1791–1861), e comot from slavery come be religious leader and abolitionist for Nova Scotia. Robert Blake, e get Medal of Honor as sailor during American Civil War, after e become 'contraband' (slaves wey Union forces free) come join. Robert Drury (1687–1743/1750), English sailor wey shipwreck for Madagascar island in 1702, e dey slave there till 1717. Robert J. Patterson (1809–1884), e run from slavery for Virginia come be restaurateur for Saint John, New Brunswick. Robert Smalls (1839–1915), e take charge of Confederate ship, carry the ship and enslaved people go freedom, make Union allow African Americans join; later e serve for South Carolina Senate before e enter U.S. House of Representatives wey represent South Carolina's 5th congressional district. Robin and Polly Holmes, na dem be plaintiffs for the 1853 Holmes v. Ford court case for Oregon Territory wey free their pikin dem. The verdict confirm say slavery no dey legal for that area as Organic Laws of Oregon talk when the place become U.S. territory. Rosina Downs, na enslaved woman wey General Benjamin F. Butler free for New Orleans, dem describe am for Harper's Weekly say she look white, and she come school for emancipated slaves for Philadelphia. Roustam Raza (1783–1845), na Napoleon Bonaparte's Armenian bodyguard. S Solomon Northup wey come from Twelve Years a Slave Sabuktigin (c. 942–997), full name Abu Mansur Sabuktigin, be small pikin wey dem carry go sell for slavery, but e rise come be general, then king wey start the Ghaznavid Empire for medieval Iran. Safiye Sultan (c. 1550 – c. 1619), na enslaved woman wey be Albanian, dem put am for harem of Ottoman sultan Murad III, and she be the mama of sultan Mehmed III. Salem Poor (1747–1802), na enslaved African-American man wey buy im freedom, and e be war hero during the American Revolutionary War. Sally Hemings (1773–1835), na mixed-race woman wey dem enslave by Thomas Jefferson, plenty people dey believe say she born six pikin for am, four of dem survive grow reach adult. Sally Miller or Salomé Müller (born c. 1814), na enslaved American woman wey file her freedom case for Louisiana based on say she dey claim say she be free German immigrant and indentured servant. Sally Seymour (died 1824), na American pastry chef and restaurateur, enslaved woman wey dem free and she come own her own slaves too. Salonia na di second wife of Cato di Elder. Salvius, wey dem sabi as Tryphon, be leader of di 104 BCE slave rebellion for Sicily wey dem call di Second Servile War. Sambo (died 1736), na enslaved boy wey enter Sunderland Point, near Lancaster, England, around 1736 from West Indies as captain servant. Dem bury am for grave wey no dey blessed inside one field near small village of Sunderland Point, Lancashire, England. Sambo, a black guy wey dey under Tiger King, one Lower Creek, wey tell traveler William Bartram say Sambo be him family property. Samson Rowlie (wey die after 1588), wey dem sabi as Hassan Aga, Chief Eunuch and Treasurer for Algiers. Samuel Benedict (1792–1854), wey born be African-American slave, later become free and waka go Liberia, where he turn politician and judge. Samuel Green (c. 1802–1877), one enslaved man wey buy him freedom and freedom for him loved ones, dey involve for Underground Railroad, and dem lock him up for 1857 because e carry Uncle Tom's Cabin. Samuel Ringgold Ward (1817–c. 1866), African-American wey dey fight for abolition and be journalist. Sandy Jenkins, na person wey dey enslave wey Frederick Douglass talk for him first autobiography. Sanker, na manservant wey dey work for Samuel R. Watkins, wey write "Co. Aytch" (1882), wey dey tell how him life be as soldier for the 1st Tennessee Infantry Regiment. Sarah Forbes Bonetta (1843–1880), na Egbado princess from Yoruba wey lose her people during fight, sell into slavery as small pikin, but Captain Frederick E. Forbes from Royal Navy come rescue am carry am go UK wey she con become goddaughter to Queen Victoria. Sarah Basset (die 1730), wey dey enslave for Bermuda; dem execute am for poison matter wey involve three people. Sarah Johnson (1844–1920), her life for the first president plantation dey published for book wey dem call "Sarah Johnson's Mount Vernon." Satrelanus, from Gaul, wey Ermedruda sell give Toto for Milan for 725. Scipio Africanus (around 1702–1720). Scipio Moorhead (fl. 1773–1775), na enslaved African-American artist. Scipio Vaughan (around 1784–around 1840), dem carry am komot from him place for Africa young, sell am go slavery for United States. E turn skilled artisan for Camden, South Carolina; manage get him freedom and inspire plenty of him pikin dem. Septimus Clarke (1787–1859), wey dem don enslave before, him turn e get success as farmer and leader for community for Nova Scotia. Servius Tullius, ancient King of Rome wey people talk sey e start life as slave (but some people dey argue this matter, both Romans and modern historians). Seymour Burr (1754/1762–1837), e fight for Continental Army for American Revolution. Shadrach Minkins (1814–1875), na fugitive wey slavery no fit catch, dem save am by abolitionists for Boston in 1850. Shaghab (dem don die 933), mother and double ruler of the eighteenth Abbasid Caliph al-Muqtadir. Silas Chandler (1838–1919), na man wey dey follow him enslavers for Confederate Army during American Civil War. Sojourner Truth (around 1797–1883), na abolitionist and women's rights activist. Solomon Bayley (1771–1839), write book for 1825 about him life as slave. Solomon Northup (1807–around 1863), na farmer, pro violinist, and free-born black man from New York wey dem lure go Washington, D.C., wey slavery dey legal, kidnap am and sell am for South. E dey enslaved for Louisiana from 1841 till dem rescue am and liberate am for 1853. Na author of Twelve Years a Slave. Solomon Flores, na enslaved man from northern Alabama. Sosias the Thracian, na enslaved Athenian man, later freedman, wey Nicias carry enslave, later rent am one thousand slaves for mining work. Spartacus (around 111–71 BCE), na gladiator and rebel leader during the Servile Revolt. Spendius be Campanian wey run come out from slavery, serve as Carthaginian mercenary for di First Punic War, den later be general for Mercenary War wey dem fight against Carthage. Stefan Holnicki (we no sabi when e die after 1797), Polish serf and Royal Ballet Dancer, don give plenty to di king of Poland by im will. Stephen Bishop (about 1821–1857), na mixed-race man wey dem hold for Kentucky, him dey known as one of di first explorers and guides for Mammoth Cave. Sue, na black woman wey James Brown enslave, dem capture am with plenty members for di Brown family and other slaves by Chickamaugas. When di warrior wey catch am threaten another captive, di other captor come threaten say dem go kill Sue for revenge. James' pikin Joseph later kidnap Sue, her children and grandchildren—total eight—for di revenge wey dey follow im captivity. Suhayb ar-Rumi (born around 587), wey people sabi as Suhayb ibn Sinan, na child wey dey enslave for Byzantine Empire, escape as young man go Mecca, come join Muhammad and become big friend for di early Muslim community. Sumayyah bint Khayyat (550–615), na woman wey dem enslave for Mecca; she be one of di first seven pipo wey convert to Islam by Prophet Muhammad early for him work. Dem torture am and kill am because of di new faith, she become di first Muslim Shahid. Squanto (1585–1622), wey dem also sabi as Tisquantum, na Native American from wetin dem dey call coastal Massachusetts now; dem capture am by English pirates and sell am as slave. Later, he free and return go New England, meet di Pilgrims for di Mayflower in 1621. Subh of Cordoba (940–999), na enslave concubine of a Caliph, na mother and regent of di next Caliph of Cordoba inside di 10th century. Suk-bin Choe (1670–1718), na consort of Sukjong of Joseon and mother of Yeongjo of Joseon. Surya Devi (we no sabi when she die, 715), na Indian princess wey dem enslave by Caliph Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik. T Taras Shevchenko Tatyana Shlykova Dem dey talk say na Terence portrait from Vatican Codex 3868. E fit be copy from 3rd-century original. Taras Shevchenko (1814–1861): Na di biggest Ukrainian poet, artist and illustrator wey come from serf family. E artist padi buy am freedom for 1838. Tatyana Shlykova (1773–1863), Russian serf wey be ballerina and opera singer. Thanadelthur (c. 1697–1717), woman from Chipewyan Dënesųłı̨ne nation wey help as guide and interpreter for Hudson's Bay Company. Thomas Fuller, African American man wey dey suffer for Virginia, dem sabi am for im math skills. Thomas Pellow (1704–1745), wey pirates from Barbary enslave, carry am go Morocco, dem select am and torture am by Ismail Ibn Sharif. E escape after 23 years, come back home to Cornwall. Thomas Peters (1738–1792), wey first be Thomas Potters, one of di founding fathers of Sierra Leone. Dem don enslave am before, e run come out from North Carolina during American Revolutionary War. Peters na Black Loyalist member of British Black Company of Pioneers, e become sergeant, settle down, and marry for Nova Scotia. E even recruit African settlers for Nova Scotia to colonize Sierra Leone, later become leader for Freetown. Thomas Sims (born 1834), African American man wey escape slavery for Georgia come Boston, Massachusetts, but dem catch am back under Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, but e escape go Boston again. Thomas-Alexandre Dumas (1762–1806), French general and papa of Alexandre Dumas. Thumal, administrator of justice for di eighteenth Abbasid Caliph al-Muqtadir. T. Aelius Dionysius, freedman for di late Roman Empire, wey create stela for himself, im wife, and Aelius Perseus, im fellow freedman, and dem and dem wey come after dem. T. Claudius Dionysius, him be freedman wey him freedwoman wife Claudia Prepontis build funeral altar for am. Di hands wey dem hold show say dem marry legit, na only after dem get dem freedom. Terence (c. 195/185–c. 159 BCE), full name Publius Terentius Afer, na Roman playwright and comic poet wey write before and maybe after him freedom. Tiberius Claudius Narcissus, na freedman wey dey serve as secretary to Roman emperor Claudius for 1st century. Tituba, na 17th-century Native American woman wey Samuel Parris from Danvers, Massachusetts enslave. She be di first person wey dem accuse of witchcraft during di 1692 Salem witch trials. Tomás Ortega, na enslaved man for colonial Mexico wey try marry Leonor de Mendoza, another woman wey dey under different master. When dat man lock Tomás, Leonor beg church court for help, dem threaten say if him no free Tomás, dem go excommunicate am. Titus Kent (1733–18??), him dey serve for di Samuel Kent family for Suffield Connecticut. Samuel Kent wey live from 1698–1772, wey write for him will say Titus go be Elihu Kent pikin. Revolutionary War records show say Titus serve for different regiments from 1775 to 1783. Toussaint L'Ouverture (1743–1803), na freedman wey lead di slave revolt wey bring Haiti independence. Tula (wey die 1795), na leader of di Curaçao Slave Revolt of 1795. Turgut Reis (1485–1565), wey dem sabi as Dragut, na famous admiral for Ottoman Navy wey Genoese capture for Corsica and force am work as galley slave for near four years. Finally, him fellow admiral Barbarossa come rescue am, wey lay siege to Genoa and secure Turgut Reis release for big ransom of 3,500 gold ducats. After dat, Turgut Reis continue him naval career (wey include di enslavement of plenty other people). U Ukawsaw Gronniosaw (1705–1775), wey dem sabi as James Albert, na freedman wey turn writer. Him autobiography be di first one wey African publish for Britain. Ursula Granger (1738–1800), na woman wey Thomas Jefferson enslave, she be cook, dairymaid, laundress, and wet nurse. Dem dey call am di "Queen of Monticello". V Vasily Tropinin Vincent de Paul Vasily Tropinin (1776–1857), na Russian serf wey sabi paint. Venture Smith (1729–1805), na African wey dem capture as pikin, carry am go American colonies as slave. When e grow, e buy im freedom and im family too – im wife Meg and di pikin dem: Hannah, Solomon and Cuff. Di schoolteacher wey write im story, na person wey e talk to for im old age. Venus Vance (died c. 1850), na enslaved American woman wey live and work for Mira Margaret Baird Vance plantation. Di Vestmenn ("West Men" for Old Norse, wey dey point to di Irish) be group of Irish slaves wey Hjörleifr Hróðmarsson carry go Iceland. E no treat dem well, so dem kill am and run go one group of islands. Ingólfur Arnarson, Hjörleifur's blood brother, chase dem come kill all of dem. Though we no sabi their individual names, dem memory still dey for Iceland geography, di islands wey dem seek refuge dey known as "Vestmannaeyjar": "Islands of di West Men" (i.e. of di Irish). Vincent de Paul (1581–1660), na French priest wey dem dey honor as saint for di Catholic Church. Dem capture am by Turkish pirates, sell am as slave, but e come free for 1607. Vindicius, na ancient Roman slave wey find out Tarquin's plan to take back power. Vibia Calybeni, na freedwoman for late Roman Empire wey weirdly call herself madam for im tombstone. Virginia Boyd, na enslaved American woman wey write letter to R.C. Ballard, dey beg make dem no sell am with her pikin for strangers. Ballard wan sell am die as Judge Samuel Boyd, di children papa, tell am make e hide her existence from im family. Violet Ludlow, na American woman wey don sell into slavery plenty times even though she dey claim say she be free white woman. Virginia Demetricia (1842–after 1867), na enslaved Aruban wey dem sabi say she be heroine wey dey fight against slavery. Vitalis, ancient enslaved Roman. One inscription dey talk about enslaved boy, Iucundus, as son of Gryphus and Vitalis. Volumnia Cytheris, na enslaved and later freedwoman for ancient Rome. She be actress and courtesan, her lovers include Brutus, Mark Antony, and Cornelius Gallus; how she reject Gallus dey inspire Virgil's tenth Eclogue. W Photograph of Wes Brady, ex-slave, wey dem snap for Marshall, Texas, for 1937 as part of Federal Writers' Project Slave Narrative Collection. Wes Brady (born 1849), from Marshall, Texas, dey among di Federal Writers' Project Slave Narrative Collection. West Ford (c. 1784–1863), wey George Washington enslave and serve as caretaker for Mount Vernon. Him dey claim say he be Washington biological son. William Ansah Sessarakoo (c. 1736–1770), African prince wey suffer for transatlantic slave trade, get freedom, and later become slave trader himself. William Beverly Nash (1822–1888), na North Carolina state senator. William Ellison (1790–1861), na enslaved man wey mixed race and after him gain freedom, him too become slaveholder wey dey produce cotton. William Gardner (born 1759), na man wey James Madison enslave wey Madison sell into indentured servitude for seven years before him dey free and dey work as merchant's agent. William Henry wey dem dey call 'Jerry', na man wey escape slavery for Missouri but dem catch am for Syracuse, New York for 1851 before some abolitionists come rescue am from Fugitive Slave Law wahala. William A. Jackson, na man wey Jefferson Davis keep as slave wey run come out for 1861 with plenty military gist about Confederate forces. William Andrew Johnson, mixed-race American wey President Andrew Johnson, Dolly Johnson son carry come as slave. William D. Gibbons (1825–1886), na domestic servant wey later become African Baptist minister after dem free am. William Dorsey Swann (1860–1925), wey born into slavery for Maryland, later become LGBT activist and di first person wey fit self-identify as drag queen. William Jones na slave wey Ulysses S. Grant acquire from him father-in-law for 1858. Jones dey thirty-five years old when dem carry am come. Even though Grant no be abolitionist, he no dey fit force slave to work. For March 1859, Grant free William with manumission deed, wey fit worth $1,000, when he need money. Di case of William Jones catch plenty historians eye, and e dey enter debate about Grant attitude to slavery. William Lee (1750–1828), na man wey George Washington keep as personal servant during di American Revolutionary War, and na di only person wey Washington free from slavery by im will. William Okeley na Englishman wey Algerian pirates capture keep as slave. William Wells Brown (c. 1814–1884), na African-American writer wey escape from slavery for 1834. Wilson Chinn, na African American wey dey for 1863 photo as 'branded slave.' == List of slaves == ohuta5asq8n807ji6or8yqjqv0sww24 69178 69177 2025-07-06T00:36:55Z Abdul-Rauf Moshie 1580 /* List of slaves */ 69178 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Slavery}} [[File:Livorno_Quattro_mori_monument_07.JPG|thumb|375x375px|One out of four statues wey dey show chained slaves for base of the Monument of the Four Moors for Livorno, Italy, wey dem fit be real slaves o.]] Slavery be one kind social-economic system wey people dey suffer: dem no get freedom and dem dey force to do work or service without pay. Dem people wey dey in dis condition, we dey call dem slaves or enslaved people. Dis na list of some important historical people wey don dey enslave for some time for dem life, we go arrange am from A to Z based on dem first name. * A * B * C * D * E * F * G * H * I * J * K * L * M * N * O * P * Q * R * S * T * U * V * W * X * Y * Z * See also A Abraham be enslaved black man wey dey carry message between frontier and Charles Town for war with Cherokee, wey fit free am. Abdul Rahman Ibrahima Sori (1762–1829), na prince from West Africa wey dem hold for United States for 40 years till President John Quincy Adams free am. Abram Petrovich Gannibal (1696–1781), dem adopt am by Russian czar Peter the Great, him be governor for Tallinn (Reval) (1742–1752) and general-en-chef (1759–1762) wey dey build sea forts and canals for Russia; e be great-grandpapa of Alexander Pushkin. See The Slave in European Art for him portraits. Absalom Jones (1746–1818), him don free hims [[File:Cabeza_de_Vaca_Portrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cabeza_de_Vaca_Portrait.jpg|right|thumb|235x235px|[[:en:Álvar_Núñez_Cabeza_de_Vaca|Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca]]]] elf, na abolitionist and clergyman – first ordained black priest of Episcopal Church. Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz (die 644), na Persian craftsman and captive wey kill second Islamic caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab (r. 634–644). Addas (7th century) na enslaved Christian boy wey dey live for Taif during Muhammad time, wey people talk say na him be first person from western Taif wey convert to Islam. Adriaan de Bruin (c. 1700–1766), wey dem call Tabo Jansz before, na enslaved servant for Dutch Republic wey turn free man for Hoorn, North Holland. Adam Brzeziński (1768 – after 1797), Polish serf and Royal Ballet Dancer, wey donate to king of Poland by will and testament. Aesop (c. 620–564 BCE), na Greek poet and author or transcriber for Aesop's Fables. Afanasy Grigoriev (1782–1868), na Russian serf and Neoclassical architect. Afrosinya (1699/1700–1748), na Russian serf, fit be Finnish captive, na enslaved mistress of Alexei Petrovich, Tsarevich of Russia. Agathoclia (shey die around 230), na martyr and patron saint for Mequinenza town for Spain. Alam al-Malika (shey die 1130), na singer wey dem catch as slave but rise become de prime minister and ruler for Zubayd, wey dey now Yemen. Alexina Morrison, na run away girl from slavery for Louisiana wey claim say she be kidnapped white pikin, she sue her master wey make people vex say dem go lynch am. Alfred "Teen" Blackburn (1842–1951), one of de last survivors of slavery for United States wey fit remember wetin happen. Alfred Francis Russ [[File:Aesop_pushkin01.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aesop_pushkin01.jpg|left|thumb|264x264px|[[:en:Aesop|Aesop]] in a [[:en:Hellenistic_art|Hellenistic]] statue claimed to be him, Art Collection of [[:en:Villa_Albani|Villa Albani]], Rome]] ell (1817–1884), na 10th President of Liberia. Alice Clifton (c. 1772–unknown), as slave pikin, she dey trial for infanticide matter for 1787. Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca (c. 1490–c. 1558), na Spanish explorer wey dem turn slave by Native Americans for Gulf Coast after e survive Narváez expedition wey scatter for 1527. Al-Khayzuran bint Atta (shey die 789), na Yemeni girl wey turn wife for Abbasid Caliph Al-Mahdi and mama to two Caliphs, Al-Hadi and Harun al-Rashid, wey dem sabi well well. Alp-Tegin (shey die 963), na member of nomadic Turks, dem carry am as slave small for Samanid court for Bukhara, later e come be army commander for Samanid Empire. Him son-in-law Sabuktigin later start Ghaznavid Empire. Amanda America Dickson (1849–1893), daughter of white planter David Dickson and Julia Frances Lewis, she be slave under Dickson's mama. Even though she dey legally enslaved till after Civil War, Amanda be her papa favorite and she inherit him $500,000 estate after him die for 1885. Ammar bin Yasir (570–657), one of di popular sahaba dem wey Abu Bakr free. Amos Fortune (1710–1801), African prince wey don suffer for United States for most of him life. Di children book wey talk about am, Amos Fortune, Free Man win Newbery Medal for 1951. Anarcha Westcott (c. 1828–unknown), black woman wey dey enslaved for di United States, she be among di women wey J. Marion Sims use do experiment. Portrait of Andrey Voronikhin. Engraving by V. A. Bobrov from di early 19th century. Andrey Voronikhin (1759–1814), Russian serf, architect and painter. Andrea Aguyar (died 1849), former enslaved black ma [[File:Voronikhin.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Voronikhin.jpg|right|thumb|297x297px|Portrait of [[:en:Andrey_Voronikhin|Andrey Voronikhin]]. Engraving by V. A. Bobrov from the beginning of the 19th century.]] n from Uruguay wey join Giuseppe Garibaldi during di Italian revolution for di Uruguayan Civil War of di 1840s and die for fight for di Roman Republic of 1849. Andrew Jackson Beard (1849–1921), inventor, him free at age 15 by di Emancipation Proclamation. Anna J. Cooper (1858–1964), author, educator, speaker and big African-American scholar. Anna Madgigine Jai Kingsley (1793–1870), woman wey dey enslaved then become planter and slave owner. Anna Williams, woman wey dey enslaved for Washington, D.C. wey go court win her freedom against di United States Court of Appeals. Annice (died 1828), dem execute her for murder five children. Annika Svahn (fl. 1714), Finnish woman wey Russian take away during di Great Northern War. She be vicar pikin for Joutseno, wey become popular victim for di wahala wey civilian dem suffer during di Russian occupation. Antarah ibn Shaddad (525–608), pre-Islamic Arab wey born from enslaved woman, him papa free am before battle, and he be poet too. Anthony Burns (1834–1862), na Baptist pre [[File:Петровское._Бюст_А.П._Ганнибала.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5._%D0%91%D1%8E%D1%81%D1%82_%D0%90.%D0%9F._%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0.jpg|right|thumb|263x263px|[[:en:Abram_Petrovich_Gannibal|Abram Petrovich Gannibal]], bust in [[:en:Petrovskoye,_Yaroslavl_Oblast|Petrovskoe]], [[:en:Russia|Russia]]]] acher wey escape slavery go Boston, but dem catch am again because Fugitive Slave Act wey dey 1850, den people wey no want am capture buy im freedom for Boston. Antonia Bonnelli (1786–1870), dem capture am and enslave am by Mikasuki tribe for Florida in 1802. António Corea, na European name wey dem give to Korean. Dem carry am go Italy, wey fit make am di first Korean wey step foot for Europe. Antón Guanche (15th century), na Guanche from Tenerife, dem capture am, enslave am, come return am go di island. Aqualtune Ezgondidu Mahamud da Silva Santos (died 1677), na princess of Kongo, mother of Ganga Zumba and grandmother of Zumbi dos Palmares. She lead 10,000 men during di Battle of Mbwila between Kingdom of Kongo and Kingdom of Portugal. Dem catch am by Portuguese forces, carry am go Brazil and sell am as slave. She start di slave settlement of Quilombo dos Palmares with her son Ganga Zumba. Archer Alexander (1810–1879), na model wey dem use for di slave wey dey di 1876 Emancipation Memorial sculpture. Abram Petrovich Gannibal, bust wey dey Petrovskoe, Russia. Archibald Grimké (1849–1930), born into slavery, son of white papa, become American lawyer, intellectual, journalist, diplomat and community leader. Arthur Crumpler (c. 1835–1910), escape slavery for Virginia, na di second husband of Dr. Rebecca Davis Lee Crumpler. Aster Ganno (c. 1872–1964), na young Ethiopian woman wey Italian Navy rescue from slave ship wey dey cross go Yemen. She go translate di Bible into Oromo language. Also she prepare literacy materials and spend di rest of her life as school teacher. Augustine Tolton (1854–1897), na di first black priest for di United States. Aurelia Philematium, na freedwoman wey her tombstone dey praise her marriage with her fellow freedman, Lucius Aurelius Hermia. Ayuba Suleiman Diallo (1701–1773), wey dem sabi as Job ben S [[File:William_Hoare_of_Bath_-_Portrait_of_Ayuba_Suleiman_Diallo,_(1701-1773).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:William_Hoare_of_Bath_-_Portrait_of_Ayuba_Suleiman_Diallo,_(1701-1773).jpg|left|thumb|Portrait of [[:en:Ayuba_Suleiman_Diallo|Ayuba Suleiman Diallo]] by [[:en:William_Hoare|William Hoare]] (1733)]] olomon, na Muslim wey come from Bundu state for West Africa. E dey suffer for two years for Maryland as slave, but dem free am for 1734. Later, e write hin story wey dem publish as one of di first slave narrative. B Baibars Baibars (1223–1277), wey dem dey call am Abu al-Futuh, na Kipchak Turk wey turn Mamluk sultan for Egypt and Syria. Balthild (c. 626–680), na Anglo-Saxon woman wey come from big family, dem sell am gree as small pikin, serve for Erchinoald house, wey be mayor for Neustria. After, she marry Clovis II, and later she be regent when her pikin Clotaire dey small. She stop dem wey dey trade Christian slaves and dey fight for freedom of children wey dem sell as slaves. Pope Nicholas I canonize am about 200 years after she die. Bass Reeves (1838–1910), na one of di first black Deputy U.S. Marshals for di west of di Mississippi River, wey don arrest over 3,000 bad guys and shoot fourteen outlaws for self-defense. Belinda Sutton (1713–179?), born for Ghana, she dey beg for support from her enslaver estate, wey be one early case for reparations and inspire future activism. Belinda Sutton petition, wey dem print again Bell (Belinda) (c. 1750–c. 1772), born for Bengal, dem carry her go Scotland as servant for East India Company nabob. Dem accuse am say she kill pikin, she dey beg make dem banish am and she turn “slave for life” and dem carry am go Virginia for 1772. She na di last person wey court for Britain call slave. Benjamin S. Turner (1825–1894), former slave wey be politician wey represent Alabama's 1st congressional district for United States House of Representatives. Him be di first African American wey don represent di state for Congress. Benkos Biohó, wey born for royal family of Bissagos Islands, dem kidnap am and enslave am. After dem carry am go Spanish New Granada for South America, him fit escape, help plenty other slaves escape too, and create di maroon community of San Basilio de Palenque. Di Governor Diego Pacheco Téllez-Girón Gómez de Sandoval of Cartagena betray am and hang am for 1621, but di community wey him build still dey live free till today. Betty Hemings (c. 1735–1807), na enslave mixed-race woman wey for colonial Virginia, wey for 1761 start dey be sex slave of her master, planter John Wayles, and she get six mixed-race children with am over 12 years, including Sally Hemings and James Hemings. Big Eyes (fl. 1540), na Wichita woman wey dem enslave by Tejas people before dem capture am and enslave am by conquistador Juan de Zaldívar. Bilichild (died 610), be queen of Austrasia through marriage to Theudebert II. Bilal ibn Ribah (580–640), wey dem free in 6th century. Him convert to Islam and be Muhammad's muezzin. Bill Richmond (1763–1829), wey born for America, dem free am and him become one of England's best boxers. Saint Brigid of Kildare as dem depict am for Saint Non's chapel, St Davids, Wales. Billy (born c. 1754), na man wey run come from John Tayloe II's plantation, dem charge am for treason against Virginia during American Revolutionary War. Him collect pardon after e talk say, as slave, him no be citizen, so e no fit commit treason against government wey him no dey owe loyalty to. Bissula (fl. 368) na Alemannic woman wey dem enslave, and she be inspiration for Roman poet Ausonius. Blanche Bruce (1841–1898) na di first and only former slave wey serve for United States Senate. Blandina (c. 162–177) be slave and Christian martyr for Roman Gaul. Di Bodmin manumissions na manuscript wey dey inside British Library, e keep names and details of slaves wey dem free for Bodmin (di main town for Cornwall back then) during 9th or 10th centuries. Booker T. Washington (1856–1915), born inside slavery, come be American educator, author and leader of African-American community after Civil War. Saint Brigid of Kildare, na major Irish Saint. Tradition say Brigid born for 451 AD for Faughart, just north of Dundalk for County Louth, Ireland. Her mama na Brocca, Pict slave wey Saint Patrick don baptize. Dem talk say her papa be Dubhthach, chieftain of Leinster. Dubthach wife force am sell Brigid's mama to druid when she carry belle. Brigid self born for slavery. Di small Brigid fit perform miracle, like healing and feeding di poor. At age ten, dem return am as household servant to her papa, where her charity make am dey give out hin things to anybody wey ask. For two Lives, Dubthach dey vex with her, he carry am go King of Leinster to sell her. While Dubthach dey talk with di king, Brigid don give away hin jeweled sword to beggar to change am for food to feed di family. Di king sabi her holiness well well and e make Dubthach free him daughter. After dat, she start her waka as popular nun. Brigitta Scherzenfeldt (1698–1733), Swedish wey dey write memoirs and teach weaving, she catch during di Great Northern War, carry go live as slave for di Kalmyk kingdom for Central Asia. Bussa wey born free man for West Africa, maybe Igbo pikin, dem catch am by African slave traders, sell am go Britain, transport am go Barbados (wey slavery don dey legal since 1661) for late 18th century as slave. C Charlotte Aïssé Cezayirli Gazi Hasan Pasha statue for Mersin Naval Museum Caenis, na woman wey don suffer as slave, she be secretary for Antonia Minor (emperor Claudius mama) plus Vespasian wey be Roman emperor. Caesar (c. 1737–1852), na di last slave wey fit get freedom for New York. E reach supercentenarian level, plus fit be di first person wey dem snap while dem dey alive in 1851. Caesar Nero Paul (c. 1741–1823), as small pikin, dem carry am from Africa come Exeter, New Hampshire, but e get freedom, start big New England family wey dey fight against slavery. Pope Callixtus I (died 223), na man wey don suffer as slave, pope from about 218 to about 223, during di time of Heliogabalus and Alexander Severus. Dem kill am for him Christian faith, now he be saint for Roman Catholic Church. Carlota (died 1844), she lead slave rebellion for Cuba for 1843–1844. Castus, na enslaved Gaul and one of di leaders for di Third Servile War wey get people wey dey fight for freedom. Catalina of Motril (fl. 1501–1531), she be bed servant for Catherine of Aragon when she marry Henry VIII for England. Cato (1786–1803), na man wey don suffer for Charleston, New York, wey kill twelve-year-old Mary Akins after e try rape am. Him confession show for di murder book of dat time. Cato, na African-American man wey serve as American Black Patriot spy and courier to gather info with him owner, Hercules Mulligan. Celia (died 1855), na woman wey dem catch and kill for di murder of Robert Newsom, her enslaver. During di trial, John Jameson argue say she kill am for self-defense to stop am from raping her. Cesar Picton (c. 1765–1831), na slave wey start for Senegal, later work as servant for England, come get money as coal merchant. Cevri Kalfa, one Georgian girl wey e dey for sultan harem for Istanbul, wey save Mahmud II life. Dem reward am wit big position haznedar usta, wey be chief treasurer for the imperial Harem. Cezayirli Gazi Hasan Pasha (1713–1790) na Georgian wey dem enslave for Ottoman Empire, wey rise become grand vizier, Kapudan Pasha, and army boss. Charity Folks (1757–1834), American slave wey born for Annapolis, Maryland, release from slavery for 1797 and later become property owner. Charles Deslondes, Haitian mulatto wey dey oversee other slaves for André plantation and leader of 1811 German Coast Uprising for Louisiana. Dem kill am terribly by the militia wey suppress the slave revolt. Charlotte Aïssé, (c. 1694–1733), French letter-writer, daughter of one Circassian chief, wey suffer for Ottoman Black Sea slave trade. Charlotte Dupuy (c. 1787/1790–c. 1866), wey dem dey call Lottie, file freedom suit for 1829 against her enslaver, Henry Clay, wey be Secretary of State, but she lose. Chica da Silva (c. 1732–1796), wey dem sabi as Xica da Silva, Brazilian courtesan wey become rich and powerful even though she born into slavery. Chloe Cooley (fl. 1793), wey dey enslave for Canada, her violent treatment and transport to US make Upper Canada pass 1793 Act Against Slavery. Christopher Shields (born 1774) na George Washington slave wey he keep am for Mount Vernon. The place wey he die and the year wey e happen no dey clear. Christophorus Plato Castanis, (born 1814) na runaway Greek slave from Chios. He journey come US with Samuel Gridley Howe and John Celivergos Zachos. Castanis be Greek-American author and lecturer. Çiçek Hatun (fl. 1453) na Greek girl wey dem capture when Constantinople fall and put as one of the concubine for Sultan Mehmet II harem. Clara Brown (around 1800–1885), she be one woman wey dem don enslave for Virginia. She come be community leader, give back for people wey don free during Colorado Gold Rush. Claudia Acte (1st century), na mistress for Roman emperor Nero. Pope Clement I (wey die for 100), na di fourth Pope for Catholic tradition. E fit dey freedman for Titus Flavius Clemens. Cleon (die 132 BC) na leader for di First Servile War. Colonel Tye (1753–1780), wey dem dey call Titus Cornelius, him don free, come be Black Loyalist soldier and guerrilla leader for di American Revolution. Crixus, na Gallic gladiator and military leader for di Third Servile War. Cudjoe Lewis (around 1840–1935), wey originally be Oluale Kossola, na di third-to-last survivor of di Transatlantic slave trade for USA. Dem carry am go di slave ship Clotilda. Cuffy (die 1763), na Akan man wey dem capture for him own West Africa, carry am go work for di plantations of di Dutch colony for Berbice wey dey Guyana today, and for 1763, him lead revolt wey get more than 2,500 slaves against di colonial regime. Today, him na national hero for Guyana. D Dred Scott wey no fit win im case for im freedom for United States Supreme Court for 1857. Dabitum, woman wey dem enslave for Old Babylonia wey sabi write letter about miscarriage. Daniel Bell (around 1802–1877) wey try for years make e and im family fit enjoy freedom. E help organize one big escape plan wey dem call "the Pearl incident" for Washington, D.C., for 1848. Dada Masiti (around 1810s–15 July 1919) poet, mystic and Islamic scholar. Dave Drake (around 1801–1876), wey people sabi am as Dave the Potter. Deborah Squash and im husband Harvey wey escape from George Washington Mount Vernon, join British for New York during American Revolutionary War, and dem carry dem go free in 1783. Denmark Vesey (around 1767–1822), one enslaved African-American man wey plan one big slave rebellion for United States wey dem leak the plans before e go happen. Dido Elizabeth Belle (1761–1804), wey born into slavery as the daughter of Maria Belle, one enslaved African woman for West Indies, and Sir John Lindsay, one Navy officer. Lindsay carry Belle go England for 1765, give im uncle William Murray, 1st Earl of Mansfield, and im wife Elizabeth to take care of am. Dem educate Belle, raise am as free gentlewoman for their Kenwood House with their niece, Lady Elizabeth Murray. Belle stay there for 30 years. For im will for 1793, Lord Mansfield confirm im freedom and give am money and annuity, make Belle heiress. Diego be one freedman wey dem don enslave before, and e dey close with di Elizabethan navigator Francis Drake. For March 1573, Drake raid Darien (for today Panama) and Maroons help am well – dem be Africans wey don run from Spanish slave owners and dem glad to help their English enemies. One of dem na Diego, wey sabi build ship well, and e follow Drake go England. For 1577, Queen Elizabeth send Drake make e start journey against di Spanish for di Pacific coast fit America – wey later turn as Drake waka go round di world – Diego again dey work under Drake; him sabi Spanish and English well well, so he fit be good interpreter when dem catch Spaniard or Portuguese wey dey speak Spanish. E be Drake's servant and dem dey pay am like di rest of di crew. Diego die while Drake ship dey cross di Pacific, wounds wey e get earlier for di journey. Drake dey feel bad for him death, as Diego don become him good friend. Diogenes of Sinope (c. 412–323 BCE), Greek philosopher wey pirates carry away and sell for Corinth. Diocletian (244–312), Emperor of Rome, some people talk say e born as slave of Senator Anullinus. Other talk say na Diocletian papa (we no sabi im name) wey be slave and free before him son, di future emperor, born. Dionysius I (die 1492), Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, dem don enslave am by di Ottomans after di Fall of Constantinople for 1453. Dolly Johnson (born late 1820s, die after 1887), African-American woman from Tennessee, wey President Andrew Johnson don enslave, later become small small-business owner. Dorota Sitańska (die after 1797), Polish serf and Royal Ballet Dancer, wey dem donate to di king of Poland by will and testament. Dred Scott (around 1799–1858), na one enslaved African-American guy wey dey Missouri wey carry case go court make e fit get freedom for one big trial, Scott v. Sandford, wey reach U.S. Supreme Court for 1857. E Florence, Lady Baker around 1875. Na Romanian wey dem enslave as orphan, Samuel Baker buy am, later marry am. Edward Mozingo Sr., (about 1649–1712), dem kidnap am from Africa when e dey like 10 years, sell am for slavery for Jamestown, Virginia. After e owner die, he sue for im freedom and win am. E marry poor white woman, Margaret Pierce Bayley (1645–1711) and together dem be dem wey start the Mozingo family for North America. Elijah Abel (1808–1884), wey born enslave for Maryland, people believe say e escape from slavery enter Underground Railroad go Canada. He join Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints early, na him dey among the first black wey get priesthood and the first black wey rise to elder and seventy rank. Elizabeth Marsh (1735–1785), na English woman wey corsairs capture and hold for slavery for Morocco. Edith Hern Fossett, na woman wey U.S. President Thomas Jefferson enslave, dem teach am to cook by French chef wey create French food for White House and Monticello. Elias Polk (1806–1886), na conservative political activist from 19th century. Eliezer of Damascus, na Abraham slave and trusted manager for im house in Hebrew Bible. Elieser be man wey dem enslave by Paulo de Pina family, Portuguese Jews wey move go Netherlands for 1610 to escape wahala and forced conversion for Portugal. E dey stay with the family for Amsterdam till e die for 1629, dem bury am for Beth Haim cemetery, wey be the oldest Jewish cemetery for Netherlands. E appear say dem don free am, whether officially or in practice, and e dey near equal level with the family wey own am for Portugal – show by fact say e attend the funeral of im master wife, Sara de Pina, and contribute six stuivers, and dem bury am alongside im (former) owners and Jacob Israel Belmonte, wey be the richest man for the community. Elieser don convert to Judaism and dem accept am as Jewish, true true if not, he for no dey buried for Jewish cemetery; dem fit give am the name 'Elieser' when dem convert am, e dey bring Eliezer from Damascus mind. Recently, members of Surinamese community for Netherlands don carry Elieser memory go high, dem put statue for am and dey do yearly pilgrimage go his grave wey dem call Elieser Day. Elisenda de Sant Climent (1220–1275), dem enslave am during slave raid for Mallorca and carry am go emir harem for Tunis. Eliza Hopewell, woman wey dey under Confederates spy Isabella Maria Boyd ('Belle Boyd'). For 1862, she help her owner do spy work, carry message go Confederate Army inside watch case wey dem hollow. Eliza Moore (1843–1948), one of the last African-American former slaves wey dey live for United States. Elizabeth Johnson Forby, mixed-race American woman wey dem enslave under President Andrew Johnson, daughter of Dolly Johnson. Elizabeth Key Grinstead (1630–after 1665), na the first woman wey get African blood for North America wey go court for her freedom and win. Key and her small pikin, John Grinstead, come free on July 21, 1656 for Virginia because her papa be Englishman and she be baptized Christian. Elizabeth Freeman (c. 1742–1829), wey dem dey call Bett and later Mum Bett, na among the first enslaved black people for Massachusetts wey fit file freedom suit and win, based on 1780 constitution wey rule slavery illegal. Elizabeth Hobbs Keckley (1818–1907), wey be popular as personal modiste and close friend of Mary Todd Lincoln, First Lady of the United States. Keckley write and publish autobiography, Behind the Scenes: Or, Thirty Years a Slave and Four Years in the White House (1868). Ellen Craft (1826–1891), light-skin wife of William Craft, wey escape from Georgia to Philadelphia, by acting like white woman and her slave, case wey become popular. Ellen More, enslaved woman wey them carry go royal Scottish court. Emilia Soares de Patrocinio (1805–1886) na Brazilian slave, slave owner and businesswoman. Emiline (23 years); Nancy (20); Lewis, Nancy brother (16); Edward, Emiline brother (13); Lewis and Edward, sons of Nancy (7); Ann, daughter of Nancy (5); and Amanda, daughter of Emiline (2), dem free for 1852 Lemmon v. New York court case after dem bring dem go New York from Virginia. Emily Edmonson (1835–1895), with her sister Mary, try escape for 1848 wey dem call Pearl incident, but Henry Ward Beecher and him church gather money to free dem. Enrique of Malacca, wey dem dey call Henry the Black, na slave and interpreter for Ferdinand Magellan and maybe the first person wey waka round the globe for Magellan's trip of 1519–1521. Epictetus (55–c. 135), ancient Greek stoic philosopher. Estevanico (1500–1539), wey dem dey call Esteban the Moor. He be slave of the Portuguese first, then become servant of the Spaniards. He be one of the only four wey survive the bad Narváez expedition, later na guide for search of the fabled Seven Cities of Gold and maybe the first African wey reach wetin be Arizona and New Mexico today. Eston Hemings (1808–1856), son of Sally Hemings and Thomas Jefferson. Eucharis, na Greek wey dem free, born Roman Licinia, dem describe am for him epitaph for 1st century AD as fourteen when she die, child actress and professional dancer. Eunus (him die for 132 BC), na slave wey come from Apamea for Syria, and him be leader for slave wahala for First Servile War wey happen for Roman province of Sicily. Eunus sabi gree people as prophet and wonder-worker. Him dey claim say him dey see visions and dey communicate with goddess Atargatis, wey dey popular for him place; he even fit connect am to Sicilian Demeter. Some prophecies wey he drop na say di rebel slaves go fit capture di city of Enna and say one day, he go be king. Euphemia (him die for 520s), na Empress of Byzantine Empire because she marry Justin I, she be slave before. Euphraios, na Athenian slave and banker. Exuperius and Zoe (dem die for 127), na Christian martyrs for 2nd century. Dem be married couple wey slave master in Pamphylia enslave. Dem kill dem with their sons, Cyriacus and Theodolus, because dem no wan join pagan rites when dem pikin born. Florence Johnson Smith be mixed-race American babe wey President Andrew Johnson carry go enslave, she be Dolly Johnson pikin. Fountain Hughes (1848–1957), dem interview am for June 1949 about him life by Library of Congress as part of Federal Writers' Project. Francis Bok (wey born 1979), na Dinka slave from South Sudan, now him dey fight for freedom and be author for United States. Francis Jackson (wey born between 1815 and 1820), him dey free from birth, but dem kidnap am for 1850 and sell am into slavery. Him finally get freedom for 1855 when case Francis Jackson v. John W. Deshazer end. Francis James Grimké (1850–1937), him be minister. Francisco Menéndez, na man wey dem enslave for South Carolina but e run go Spanish Florida, wey e serve for Spanish militia, even lead the garrison wey dem set for 1738 for Fort Mose. This place be the first legal free black community for wetin we dey call United States now. François Mackandal (wey die 1758), na Haitian Maroon leader. Frederick Douglass (1818–1895), him born for slavery for Maryland and run go Northeast for 1838, where e turn big-time abolitionist writer, speaker, and diplomat. Fyodor Slavyansky (1817–1876), na Russian serf painter. G Medical photo wey show Gordon back wey dem whip, plenty abolitionists dey share am to show how slavery dey be bad. Portrait of Gülnuş Sultan Gabriel Prosser (1776–1800), leader wey lead Virginia slave revolt. Gaius Furius Chresimus, ancient Roman. As him free man, e produce crops from him small farm wey people accuse am say him dey witch other people crop, but when him bring him farm tools for court, dem free am. Pliny the Elder talk say him story na proof say hard work be wetin matter for farming. Galatian de Sesse (16th century), knight from Aragon wey dey work for hospital and be Governor of Gozo wey dem enslave during 1551 Ottoman attack, e spend five years as galley slave before dem pay ransom and free am. Galeria Lysistrate (2nd century), mistress of Roman emperor Antoninus Pius. Ganga Zumba or Ganazumba (c. 1630–1678), one descendant of unknown Kongo king wey run away from slavery for Brazilian colonial and be first leader of runaway slave settlement wey be Quilombo dos Palmares. Gannicus, enslaved Celt wey be one of the leaders of rebel slaves during Third Servile War. Garafilia Mohalbi (1817–1830), Greek slave wey American merchant rescue and carry go Boston. She die young and inspire big art movement. Genghis Khan (c. 1162–1227), dem capture am after raid and make am slave for Taichiud. George Africanus (1763–1834), enslaved African man from Sierra Leone wey become successful businessman for Nottingham. George Edward Doney (1758–1809), Gambian man wey William Capell, 4th Earl of Essex enslave. George Colvocoresses (1816–1872), from Chios, Greece, come America come be captain for U.S. Navy, but small small dem carry am put for slavery when e be pikin. Colvos Passage dey named after am. George Freeman Bragg (1863–1940), wey born for slavery for North Carolina, later turn big Episcopal priest and social activist. George Lewis (1794–1811), wey dem dey call Slave George, na enslaved guy wey dem kill for Kentucky night of December 15–16, 1811. George Moses Horton (1797–1884), na di first African-American author; him first poetry book publish for North Carolina. George Washington Carver (c. 1864–1943), na African-American scientist, botanist, educator and inventor wey sabi to promote other crops like sweet potatoes and peanuts for South; him born for slavery for Missouri but dem free am as small pikin after American Civil War. George Griffin (1849–1897), born for slavery for Maryland but later dem free am; him be close person to Mark Twain. George W. Hayes (1847–1933), na court crier and politician for Ohio, mixed African American and Native American background, dem carry am put for slavery early for him life. Gerónimo de Aguilar (1489–1531), na Franciscan friar wey waka go Yucatán Peninsula for 1511 but dem shipwreck am and dem carry am for slavery by Mayans. Gosala, one ascetic teacher from ancient India – wey dey live same time (and dey compete) with Gautama Buddha – people talk say him born for slavery, and he become naked ascetic after him run from him bad captor, wey catch him cloth before e run. Gonzalo Guerrero (died 1536), na sailor from Palos, Spain, wey shipwreck for Yucatán Peninsula for 1511 and dem carry am for slavery by di local Maya. Gordon, wey dem dey call Whipped Peter, na enslaved African-American wey escape come Union Army camp from plantation near Baton Rouge, Louisiana for 1863. Di pictures wey dem take of Gordon back wey dem beat during medical check, dem publish am for Harper's Weekly, e show Northerners di wahala wey slavery dey cause. E make plenty free blacks want join di Union Army. Gülnuş Sultan (1642–1715) na Haseki Sultan for Ottoman Sultan Mehmed IV and Valide sultan for dia pikin Mustafa II and Ahmed III. Guðríður Símonardóttir (1598–1682) na Iceland woman wey some North African slavers (Barbary Pirates) carry go. Gustav Badin (wey die for 1822) na servant for royal Swedish court, originally na Danish slave. H Hurrem Sultan, be Eastern European slave girl wey Ottoman sultan Süleyman the Magnificent buy, marry am. Hababah, concubine of Caliph Yazid II. Hagar, biblical figure, Sarah own. Hannah Bond (weh dey born for 1830s), pen name Hannah Crafts, write The Bondwoman's Narrative after she gain freedom. E fit be di first novel wey African-American woman write, na di only novel wey woman wey run from slavery don write. Hark Olufs (1708–1754), Danish sailor, dem capture am by Algerian pirates. Dem sell am to di Bey of Constantine, and him become Commander in Chief for di Bey's cavalry. Dem release am for 1735. Harriet Balfour (c. 1818–1858), Surinam-born enslaved woman wey free for 1841 and move go Scotland. Harriet Evans Paine, (c. 1822–1917), Texas enslaved woman and later oral historian and storyteller. Harriet Hemings (1801–after 1822), daughter of Sally Hemings and Thomas Jefferson. Harriet Jacobs (1813–1897), author of Incidents in di Life of a Slave Girl. Harriet Powers (1837–1910), American folk artist, and quilter. Harriet Tubman (c. 1822–1913), dem dey call am 'Moses' because of di work wey she dey do to help other American slaves escape through di Underground Railroad. Harry, di plaintiff for di 1818 Harry v. Decker & Hopkins case wey di Supreme Court of Mississippi decide to free person from slavery just because him dey stay for free land. Harry Washington (wey die for 1800), dem dey call am Henry Washington, be slave wey George Washington dey own. Dem transport am go America as slave, and Washington buy am for 1763 to work on project wey go drain di Great Dismal Swamp. Hafsa Sultan (she die March 1534), na Selim I wife and di first real sultan of Ottoman Empire as Suleiman di Magnificent mama. Pipo sabi her background matter dey confuse, but some historians talk say she be slave. Helen Gloag (1750–1790), from Muthill, Perthshire, Scotland, become di Empress of Morocco as di harem slave for Morocco sultan. Henry Bibb (1815–1854), American writer and abolitionist wey born as slave. After e run come out from slavery to British Upper Canada, he start newspaper wey dey call The Voice of the Fugitive. E later come back to U.S. come dey lecture against slavery. Henry Highland Garnet (1815–1882), wey born African-American slave for Maryland, run from slavery for 1824, come become abolitionist and teacher. Hercules (born c. 1755), na di head cook wey George Washington enslave for him plantation, Mount Vernon. E run come gain him freedom for 1797, but him wife Alice and him three pikin still dey enslave. Hermas, wey write di book The Shepherd of Hermas and na Pope Pius I brother. Hernando de Escalante Fontaneda, been born for Cartagena, but e don dey enslave at 13 when di ship wey carry am go Spain for school sink for Florida. Calusa chief take am as slave and use am as translator until dem free am at 30. Horace King (1807–1885), American architect, engineer, and bridge builder, born into slavery for South Carolina plantation. Hümaşah Sultan (fl. 1647–1672) na di wife of Sultan Ibrahim for Ottoman Empire. Hurrem Sultan (c. 1504–1558), wey dem sabi as Roxelana, be Eastern European girl wey slave traders capture and sell to di Imperial Harem, become di chief consort and legal wife of Ottoman sultan Süleyman di Magnificent. Halime Sultan (about 1570–after 1639) be Valide Sultan wey dey rule alongside Ottoman Empire. Handan Sultan (about 1568–1605) too be Valide Sultan and her dey act as regent for the Ottomans. I İbrahim Pasha Ivan Argunov. Self-portrait (late 1750s). İbrahim Pasha (about 1495 – 1536), na first Grand Vizier wey Suleiman the Magnificent appoint. E be Greek by birth, at six years old, dem sell am as slave to Ottoman palace for future sultans, where e meet Suleiman wey dey same age. Icelus Marcianus, na slave and later free guy for Roman emperor Galba for 1st century CE. E be one of three men wey dey control the emperor well well, make Galba no dey popular. Ida B. Wells (1862–1931), na big African-American activist wey born into slavery, but later she dey fight against lynching and fit cancel am. For 1909, she co-found National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). Imma, na Northumbrian noble wey knock for battle and later sabi act like peasant, so say captors no go kill am. Him behavior show say him no be real peasant, and dem sell am into slavery. Isabel de Solís (fl. 1485), na enslaved Castilian concubine for Abu l-Hasan Ali, Sultan of Granada. Isabella Gibbons (1826–1890), become schoolteacher for Virginia after dem liberate am for 1865. Isfandíyár, na enslaved servant for Bahá'u'lláh's house for Tehran, Isfandíyár die for Mazandaran. Israel Jefferson (about 1800–after 1873), wey people sabi as Israel Gillette before 1844, born into slavery for Monticello, Thomas Jefferson estate, and work as domestic servant near Jefferson for many years. Ivan Bolotnikov (1565–1608), na fugitive kholop (enslaved for Russia) and leader of Bolotnikov rebellion for 1606–1607. Ivan Argunov (1729–1802), na Russian serf painter, one of the founders of Russian school of portrait painting. J Jean Parisot de Valette St. Josephine Margaret Bakhita, F.D.C.C. Jack Gladstone, di leader wey lead di Demerara rebellion for 1823. Jackey Wright, na enslaved American woman wey sue for im freedom for di popular 1806 Virginia case, Hudgins v. Wright. Di Virginia Supreme Court talk say Wright look white and Native American, but di lower court under George Wythe dey try arrange say everybody fit be free, no matter di race. Jacob Notaras (fl. 1453), na Byzantine nobleman wey dem carry as slave by Sultan Mehmed di Conqueror when Constantinople fall. Jaja of Opobo (1821–1891), dem sell am around age 12 as slave for di Kingdom of Bonny wey dey Nigeria now. From young, di guy don show say e sabi business, so e find im way come out from slavery, become rich merchant prince and start di Opobo city-state, but British colonizers wey e wan challenge come end im career. James Armistead Lafayette (1760–1830), na enslaved African-American man wey serve di Continental Army for di American Revolutionary War as double agent. James Baugh, na enslaved American wey sue for im freedom because im mama granmama na Indian. James Hemings (1765–1801), na mixed-race American wey dem enslave later free am by Thomas Jefferson. E be di older brother of Sally Hemings and half-brother of Jefferson wife, Martha Wayles Skelton Jefferson, through dia papa John Wayles. James Leander Cathcart (1767–1843), diplomat and sailor wey sabi tell story about 11 years wey e dey enslave for Algiers and e do some big diplomatic work while for slavery. James Poovey (born c. 1769), Philadelphian wey dem enslave am from birth, but e find freedom through peaceful resistance. James M. Priest (1819–1883), 6th Vice President of Liberia, wey born inside slavery for Kentucky. James Somersett, man wey dey enslave for colonial America, escape for England in 1771 with help of Beta British people, wey lead to the big case Somerset v Stewart, wey change the slavery matter for Britain, but not for dem colonies. James W. C. Pennington (c. 1807–1870), African-American writer and abolitionist. Jan Ernst Matzeliger (1852–1889), Surinamese-American wey invent shoe making. Jane Johnson (1814/1827–1872), she gain freedom on July 18, 1855, with her two small pikin while dem dey Philadelphia with her owner. William Still and Passmore Williamson help am, dem be abolitionists for Pennsylvania Anti-Slavery Society. Jean Amilcar (c. 1781–1793), Senegalese son of Marie Antoinette. Jean-Jacques Dessalines (1758–1806), leader of Haitian Revolution and first leader of independent Haiti. Jean Marteilhe (1684–1777), French Huguenot wey be slave narrator, him be galley slave. Jean Saint Malo (died 1784), leader of runaway slaves (maroon colony) for Spanish Louisiana and he name dey for Saint Malo, Louisiana. Jean Parisot de Valette (1495–1568), knight of the Order of Saint John, wey dem capture and make galley slave for 1541 by Barbary pirates. After about one year, dem free am and him later become Grandmaster of the Order. Jefferson F. Long (1836–1901), first former slave wey serve for United States Congress and first African American wey represent Georgia for Congress. Jeffrey Hudson (1619–c. 1682), na English court guy wey spend 25 years for North Africa as slave. Jehan Alard (fl. 1580), na French Huguenot wey dey serve as galley slave for Italy, dem catch am for Inquisition. Jehu Grant (c. 1752–1840), na veteran from Revolutionary War. Jeremiah Haralson (1846–Unknown), na former slave and politician wey represent Alabama for House of Representatives during 44th Congress. Jermain Wesley Loguen (1813–1872), na African-American wey run away from slavery, be abolitionist, bishop of the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church, and e write slave narrative. Jim Cuff or Jim Crow be physically disabled African man wey people talk say e fit dey St. Louis, Cincinnati, or Pittsburgh, e song and dance inspire the blackface song 'Jump Jim Crow' wey white comedian Thomas D. Rice bring come. Rice popular creation make Jim Crow turn bad name for blacks, later dem use am for dem segregation laws. Jim Henson, na African wey escape slavery and publish im memoirs, Broken Shackles, for Canada. Joana da Gama (c. 1520–1586), na Portuguese maid-of-honor and writer. Joe, na man wey William B. Travis, one of the Texian commanders for Battle of Alamo enslaved. After dem lose, Mexican General Santa Anna spare Joe, hoping say e go fit convince other slaves for Texas to support Mexican government instead of Texian rebels. After that, Joe and some survivors go Gonzales, dem encourage dem to talk about the battle and tell Texian forces say Santa Anna army no fit beat. John Axouch (1087–1150), na Seljuk Turk wey dem capture as pikin by Byzantine Empire, dem free am and raise am for di imperial house as John II Komnenos wey go be emperor future friend. When him take over, dem put am for di army command and e be di emperor only close pal and confidant. John Boston (c. 1832–after 1880), na former slave wey dey represent Darlington County for South Carolina House during di Reconstruction era. Him dey involved for community work and, as minister, him start di Lamar Colored Methodist Church for 1865. By 1880, him don turn farmer. John 'Lit' Fleming, born for slavery for Virginia but later move go Edmundson, Arkansas with him papa and siblings. E go move go Memphis, Tennessee, and be part owner of di newspaper Memphis Free Speech with activist Ida B. Wells-Barnett. John Munroe Brazealle, with him mama, dem case dey Hinds v. Brazealle (1838), for di Supreme Court of Mississippi, wey deny di legality and inheritance rights for Mississippi for manumission wey Elisha Brazealle, wey dey Ohio, do to free dem. John Brown (c. 1810–1876), wey escape and write about di conditions for di Deep South of United States. John Casor, na di first person wey dey enslaved as result of civil case for di Thirteen Colonies (Virginia Colony, 1655). John Ezzidio (c. 1810–1872), na enslaved Nigerian man wey turn successful politician and businessman for Sierra Leone. John Adams Hyman (1840-1891), na former slave and politician wey serve for di North Carolina Senate and later be di first African American to represent di state for Congress. John Jea (born 1773), na enslaved African-American man wey popular for him 1811 autobiography, The Life, History, and Unparalleled Sufferings of John Jea, di African Preacher. John Joyce wey dem born am for slavery for Maryland, serve for United States Navy, do plenty work after, and kill shopkeeper, Sarah Cross; him life and crime dey for murder stories wey dem dey talk for him time. John R. Jewitt (1783–1821), small English man wey dey make armor, spend three years as prisoner for Maquinna of the Nuu-chah-nulth people for Pacific coast wey dey for Canada now. John R. Lynch (1847–1939), former slave and politician wey serve for Mississippi House of Representatives, be the first African American wey lead state legislative chamber. Later he go serve for United States House of Representatives and write The Facts of Reconstruction to answer dem wey dey talk bad about Reconstruction time policies. John Punch (fl. 1630s, live 1640), na enslaved African man wey dey for Virginia Colony for 17th century. For July 1640, Virginia Governor's Council punish am to serve for him whole life because e run go Maryland. Historians dey call Punch the 'first official slave for the English colonies,' and him case na the 'first time dem make slavery forever for the Chesapeake.' Historians also sabi say this one be the first legal line wey dem draw between Europeans and Africans for the colony, and na important step for slavery matter for United States. John S. Jacobs (1815–1873), wey dem born into slavery for North Carolina, escape, become abolitionist speaker and write slave memoir. Him be brother of famous author Harriet Jacobs. John Smith (1580–1631), English soldier, sailor, and author wey everybody sabi for him role wey help Jamestown colony survive for Virginia. Smith dey captured by Crimean Tatars for 1602 while him dey fight for Wallachia and dem make am slave for Ottoman Empire, but him escape come England by 1604. As Smith talk am: 'we all dey sell for slaves, like goat for market-place.' Jordan Anderson (1825–1907), wey people sabi well well for di letter wey he gree send to im old master when dem call am make he come back to serve dem. Jordan Winston Early (1814–after 1894) na American Methodist preacher wey get different blood, and dem write book about im life as slave. John White, na black boy wey Creeks capture for 1797, but he escape come back New Orleans, only to find Spanish people don carry am go back to slavery. John Ystumllyn, wey dem dey call Jac Du or Jack Black, na 18th-century Welsh gardener, di first Black person wey record well for North Wales. Jonathan Strong, na di person wey dem dey talk about one of di first legal cases wey concern slavery for Britain. José Antonio Aponte, na di leader of Aponte conspiracy. Joseph, na important person for Old Testament and Quran. Joseph Antonio Emidy (1775–1835), violinist wey born for Africa, die for Cornwall. Joseph Cinqué (1814–1879), wey dem know as Sengbe Pieh, na di leader of slave rebellion for di slave ship La Amistad and di case wey follow for Supreme Court, United States v. Amistad for 1839. Joseph Jackson Fuller (1825–1908), one of di earliest slaves wey gree free for Jamaica, at first under di partial freedoms of 1833 Slavery Abolition Act. Joseph Knight, wey succeed find im freedom through court case for Scotland in 1777, case wey make Scots law no go support slavery. Josephine Bakhita (c. 1869–1947), Sudanese-born Roman Catholic Canossian nun and saint. Joshua Glover, na fugitive wey slavery people chase am but abolitionists help am for Racine, Wisconsin in 1854. Josiah T. Walls (c. 1842–1905), former slave wey turn politician wey don serve for di two chambers of Florida State Legislature, na di first African American wey represent di state for Congress. Juan de Pareja (1606–1670), man wey Spanish artist Diego Velázquez enslave am. Velázquez teach am how to paint and free am for 1650. Juan Francisco Manzano (c. 1797–1854), Cuban poet. Juan Gros, free black soldier wey Upper Creek catch near Pensacola, sell am to white trader wey carry am go sell to Mitasuki chief Kinache, wey Spanish people come pay ransom for am. Juan Latino, dem dey call am "el negro Juan Latino", from Ethiopia, dem carry am go Spain when e small, e go school and become Latin professor for University of Granada, 16th-century Spain. Juan Ortiz, young nobleman from Andalucía wey Chief Ucita enslave for Florida to take revenge for wetin happen to am during the expedition. Juan Valiente (died 1553), black African slave wey get chance to be conquistador. E die during the battle of Tucapel against Mapuche people for Chile. Juana Ramírez (1790–1856), rebel soldier and heroine for Venezuelan War of Independence. Julia Chinn, enslave woman wey be octoroon and common-law wife to Richard Mentor Johnson, 9th Vice President of the United States. Julia Frances Lewis, mama to Amanda American Dickson through her owner’s son. Juliana, Guaraní woman from Paraguay, wey famous for kill her Spanish enslaver between 1538 and 1542 and encourage other women to do same. Julius Soubise (1754–1798) be freed Afro-Caribbean slave wey become popular fop for late eighteenth-century Britain. Julius Zoilos, enslave by Julius Caesar. After him get freedom, e shine for him city Aphrodisias after Caesar die. Jupiter Hammon (1711–before 1806), for 1761, become the first African-American writer wey dem publish for the present-day United States. Born for slavery, Hammon never get freedom. Dem dey consider am one of the founders of African-American literature. K Kösem Sultan (1589–1651), na slave concubine just like all di other pipo wey dey di Imperial Harem. Kunta Kinte (c. 1750–c. 1822), na character from di 1976 novel Roots: Di Saga of an American Family wey author Alex Haley base on one of him real ancestors. Kinte be man wey dey come from di Mandinka pipo, he grow for small village wey dem dey call Juffure for wetin we sabi as The Gambia, and dem raise am as Muslim before dem capture am and turn am slave for Virginia. Di historical accuracy of Haley's story get debate. Kodjo (c. 1803–1833), na Surinamese slave wey dem burn alive fit start di 1832 fire for Paramaribo, Dutch Suriname, maybe as way to show resistance. Kösem Sultan (1589–1651), na Ottoman enslaved woman, wey later become very powerful as wife, then mother and later grandmother of di Ottoman sultan during di 130-year wey dem dey call di Sultanate of Women. L Laurens de Graaf Lalla Balqis (1670–after 1721), na English woman wey dem capture and turn slave by Corsairs, dem include am for di harem of di Sultan of Morocco. Lamhatty, na Tawasa Indian wey dem capture and enslave by Creek; him escape. Lampegia (die after 730), Aquitanian noblewoman, wey Abd al-Rahman ibn Abd Allah al-Ghafiqi capture, wey in 730 take di Llivia Fortress, kill her husband Munuza and send her go as slave for di harem of Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik for Damascus. La Mulâtresse Solitude (1772–1802), na slave for di island of Guadeloupe wey dem free in 1794 when dem abolish slavery during di French Revolution. Dem execute am after she fight for freedom when slavery come back because Napoleon in 1802. Laurens de Graaf (c. 1653–1704), na Dutch pirate, mercenary, and naval officer, wey dem enslave by Spanish slave traders when dem capture am for wetin we dey call Netherlands, and dem carry am go di Canary Islands to work for plantation before 1674. Lear Green (around 1839–1860), one African-American woman from Maryland wey run go freedom for New York by fitting inside box make dem carry am. Leo Africanus (1494–1554), one Moor wey born for Granada, dem carry am go Morocco in 1498 because of Spanish wahala. As adult, he dey do diplomatic work. Crusaders catch am for Middle East, dem carry am go Rome make he be slave and convert to Christianity. Later, he get him freedom back and live him life for Tunis. Leofgifu, wey be dairy maid, na one enslaved woman for Anglo-Saxon England, dem mention am for her freedom paper. Leoflaed, another enslaved woman for Anglo-Saxon England, man buy her freedom wey describe her as “kinswoman.” Leonor de Mendoza, enslaved woman for colonial Mexico wey wan marry Tomás Ortega wey be slave for another master; when her master put Tomás for prison, she go church court beg make dem help, dem even threaten say if him no free Tomás, e go fit face excommunication. Letitia Munson (around 1820–after 1882), na midwife wey don come out from slavery, dem don free her for doing illegal abortion for Canada. Lewis Adams (1842–1905), man wey don free from slavery, wey co-found Tuskegee Institute, now Tuskegee University for Alabama. Lewis Hayden (1811–1889), na African-American man from Kentucky, later dem elect am for Massachusetts General Court. Lilliam Williams, settler from Tennessee wey Creek catch while she dey pregnant. Creek adopt her pikin (wey she name Molly and dem name Esnahatchee); dem keep the girl when Williams arrange her freedom. Liol, one Chinese man wey dem carry as slave by Mongol bannerman Soosar. E get semi-independent status for dem. In 1735, him pikin Fuji try claim say him and him brother be Manchus but e no work. Lorenzo de Apapis (around 1501–1586), priest and notary from Gozitan wey dey slavery during 1551 Ottoman attack for Gozo. Dem ransom am and free am by 1553. Lott Cary (about 1780–1828), wey dem born am as African-American slave for Virginia, buy im freedom around 1813, move go Liberia for 1822, where e serve as colonial administrator.[1] Louis Hughes (1832–1913), African-American man wey run away from slavery, author, and businessman.[2] Lovisa von Burghausen (1698–1733), Swedish writer wey publish story of how dem enslave am for Russia after dem capture am during the Great Northern War. Lucius Agermus, freedman of Agrippina the Elder.[3] Lucius Aurelius Hermia, freedman butcher wey his tombstone dey praise im marriage with his fellow freedwoman Aurelia Philematium.[4] Lucius Cancrius Primigenius, freedman of Clemens for one inscription wey dey thank am for breaking spells wey dey affect the city.[5] Lucius of Campione, wey lose lawsuit for 8th century about man Toto wey claim ownership of am.[6] Lucy, di black woman wey John Lang enslave. Dem capture her by di Creek wen she dey 12 years and keep her as slave for Creek land, where she born slave children and grandchildren.[7] Lucy Ann (Berry) Delaney (1830–1891), former enslaved woman, daughter of Polly Berry. Lucy Higgs Nichols (1838–1915), wey escape slavery, serve as nurse for di Civil War, member of di Grand Army of di Republic. Lucy Terry (about 1733–1821), dem kidnap her for Africa and enslave her, dem carry am go British colony of Rhode Island. She later gain freedom and become poet. Luís Gama (1830–1882), wey born free for Brazil, illegally sell am into slavery as pikin, he regain freedom as adult and become lawyer wey free plenty people from slavery without asking for money, especially for di Netto Case. Lunsford Lane (1803–after 1870), na enslaved African-American guy wey dey North Carolina wey buy him freedom and him family too. Him write one slave story. Lyde, na woman wey dem free from slavery by Roman empress Livia. Lydia, na woman wey dem shoot when she try run away from her captor wey dey whip am. Supreme Court of North Carolina talk say na legal in 1830 (check North Carolina v. Mann). Lydia Carter, dey call am 'Little Osage Captive,' dem catch am among Cherokee. Na Lydia Carter go pay money come free am and she name her. Osage try take am back, but she fall sick and die. Lydia Polite, na mother of Robert Smalls. M Mikhail Shchepkin Macuncuzade Mustafa Efendi (wey born around 1550s), na Ottoman qadi and poet wey suffer for slavery for Malta after di ship wey e dey waka for capture by di Knights Hospitaller for 1597. Dem release am for 1600, and e write story about im captivity. Madison Hemings (1805–1877), na di pikin of Sally Hemings and Thomas Jefferson. Mae Louise Miller (1943–2014), American woman wey dey live for modern slavery (peonage) till 1961. Malgarida (wey born around 1488), black African woman and boyfriend of di conquistador Diego de Almagro. For 1536, she be di first non-indigenous woman wey enter di land wey we call Chile today. Malik Ambar, wey born for 1548 as Chapu, na im birth-name for Harar, Adal Sultanate wey dey Ethiopia today. Im come from di Maya ethnic group wey don disappear. As small pikin, im parents sell am for slavery. Mir Qasim Al Baghdadi, one of di people wey own am, convert Chapu come Islam and give am di name Ambar, after e sabi sey di boy get sharp brain. Malik waka go India as slave. For India, e create mercenary group wey reach 1500 men. Di group dey for di Deccan region and local kings dey hire dem. Malik become popular Prime Minister for Ahmadnagar Sultanate, show sey e sabi how to manage. E also dey regarded as pacesetter for guerilla warfare for di area. Dem dey credit am with managing tax collection for plenty for di Deccan, wey set di ground for future collections. Di Siddis of Gujarat dey respect am well. E match di strength of di Mughals and Adil Shah of Bijapur, lift di low status of di Nizam Shah. Margaret Himfi (before 1380–after 1408), na Hungarian woman wey dem carry go enslave by Ottoman bad guys for late 14th century. She later become slave mistress for one rich Venetian man for Crete, wey she born two daughters for. Margaret manage come back to Hungary for 1405. Margaret Morgan dey involved for Prigg v. Pennsylvania case wey United States Supreme Court rule say federal Fugitive Slave Act no go allow Pennsylvania law wey stop blacks from chop dey carry dem go slavery, an dem clear Edward Prigg case because of dat. Marguerite Duplessis (c. 1718–after 1740) na Pawnee woman wey dem enslave for Montreal wey, for 1740, try sue for her freedom but e no work. Marguerite Scypion (c. 1770s–after 1836) na African-Natchez woman wey born for slavery for St. Louis wey go sue for her freedom and eventually win am. Maria al-Qibtiyya (died 637), wey dem dey call “Maria the Copt” or sometimes Maria Qupthiya, na Copt woman wey dem send give Muhammad as gift from Muqawqis, one Byzantine big man, for 628, an she become Muhammad concubine. She be mama to Muhammad son Ibrahim wey die for small pikin age. Her sister, Sirin, sef go meet Muhammad. Muhammad give am to him guy Hassan ibn Thabit. Maria die five years after Muhammad die for 632. Maria (died 1716), na leader for slave uprising for Curaçao. Maria Boguslavka (17th century), na Ukrainian woman wey dem enslave for harem, she start help 30 Cossacks run away from slavery. Maria Guyomar de Pinha (1664–1728), na royal chef from Siam wey get Japanese-Portuguese blood. Maria Perkins, na enslave woman from Virginia wey write letter to her husband for 1852 say dem don sell their son away. Maria ter Meetelen (1704–after 1751), na Dutch writer wey tell her own slave story, dem carry her go enslave by pirates and later sell am to Sultan of Morocco. Her 1748 biography na important witness statement about life of former slave. Mariah Bell Winder McGavock Otey Reddick (she die 1922), as she be small girl, dem give am as wedding gift to Carrie Winder when she marry John McGavock for 1848 inside Terrebonne Parish, Louisiana. Mariah wey born for Mississippi as enslaved person, dem carry am go Franklin, Tennessee, where she spend plenty of her life. Dem match her with Harvey Otey after him first wife Phebe die. Dem get plenty pikin, including two set of twins, wey born into slavery. When Civil War start, dem send her go Montgomery make she dey far from Union lines and possible freedom. She don appear for three novels: Widow of the South and Orphan Mother wey Robert Hicks write and also for book wey her great-grandson William 'Damani' Keene and him wife Carole 'Ife' Keene write titled Clandestine: The Times and Secret Life of Mariah Otey Reddick. Marianna Malińska (she die after 1797), Polish serf and Royal Ballet Dancer, dem donates am to king of Poland by will. Marie (she die 1759), enslaved Cree woman wey get death sentence for Trois-Rivières, New France. Marie-Cessette Dumas, woman wey Marquis Antoine de la Pailleterie enslaved, she be mama of General Thomas-Alexandre Dumas, and grandmother of famous author Alexandre Dumas, père. Marie-Josèphe dite Angélique (she die 1734), black Portuguese enslaved woman wey dem try and convict, beat and hang because she set fire to her woman owner house, wey burn plenty of wetin dem dey call Old Montreal now. Marie Thérèse Metoyer, na planter and businesswoman wey dey Natchitoches, Louisiana after dem free her. Mark, one man from Massachusetts wey dey enslaved by Captain John Codman. Mark body dey display for chains for public near Charlestown, Massachusetts for twenty years. That gruesome display of him body dey popular well-well for that time, and na the place wey dem display Mark body make Paul Revere mention am as landmark for him 1798 account of him 1775 midnight ride. Martha Ann Erskine Ricks (1817–1901), na African-American wey dey born enslave for Tennessee, later she become Americo-Liberian wey sabi quilt. Marthe Franceschini (1755–1799), na Italian wey dem capture and enslave by Corsairs, enter Sultan of Morocco harem. Mary, wey be George Washington Carver mama. Mary (wey die 1838), na teenager wey dem hang for murder wey she do to Vienna Brinker, two-year-old girl wey she dey take care of. Mary Black, one of three enslave women wey dem charge for witchcraft during Salem witch trials for 1692. Mary Calhoun, white woman and cousin of John C. Calhoun wey dem kidnap by Cherokee. She no fit come back home. Mary Edmonson (1832–1853), with her sister Emily, dem try escape for 1848 wey dem dey call Pearl incident, but Henry Ward Beecher and him church gather money help free dem. Mary Eliza Smith, dem dey call 'slave' or 'former slave,' na common-law wife of Michael Morris Healy and mama of him pikin dem, wey include James Augustine Healy, Patrick Francis Healy, Michael A. Healy, and Eliza Healy. Mary Fields (c. 1832–1914): she be first African-American female wey dey carry mail for United States star route. Mary Mildred Williams, Nee Botts (born 1847), na the original 'Poster Child' wey dem use her picture push abolitionist cause by dey spread 'White Slavery' for 1855. Mary Prince (c. 1788–after 1833), her life story motivate anti-slavery movement for England. The Master of Morton and e first son of Clan Oliphant Chief, two Scottish noble wey dem exile from Scotland after 1582 Raid of Ruthven. Dem ship wey dem travel with vanish for sea, and dem talk say na Dutch ship catch dem. Last report be say dem dey enslave for Turkish ship for Mediterranean. Dem raise plaque for church for Algiers to remember dem. Masúd, dem buy am when e be pikin from Khál-i Akbar, wey be Báb uncle, Masúd go serve Bahá'u'lláh for Acre. Matilda McCrear (around 1857–1940), last person wey survive for US wey gree say Transatlantic slave trade no easy. Dem carry am go for slave ship Clotilda. Mende Nazer (born around 1982), Nuba woman wey dem capture for Darfur carry am from Sudan go London, later she get refugee status and write book wey title Slave: My True Story (2002). Menecrates of Tralles, na Greek doctor wey dey for 1st century BC. Metaneira, woman for ancient Greece wey dem talk say na Nicarete property, wey dey sell am for body. Michael Shiner (1805–1880), en slaved laborer, painter entrepreneur, community leader and diary writer for Washington Navy Yard. Miguel de Buría (around 1510–around 1555), na slave and rebel. Miguel Perez na the Spanish name of boy wey be Yojuane people, wey dey among 149 Yojuane women and children wey dem carry go as captive for 1759 when some Spanish and Apaches come attack their camp along Red River for northern Texas. Many of dem wey dem capture die from smallpox, the ones wey survive, dem go still enslave dem. Dem sell the boy to Spanish soldier wey give am that Spanish name. Perez become Hispanicized Indian for San Antonio but he still dey connect with his Yojuane people. For 1786, Perez go persuade the Yojuanes and their Tonkawa friends to fight Lipan Apache, wey he do am well. Mikhail Matinsky (1750–1820), Russian serf wey be scientist, dramatist, librettist and opera composer. Michał Rymiński (e don die after 1797), Polish serf wey be Royal Ballet Dancer, wey donate am to king of Poland by him will. Mikhail Shchepkin (1788–1863), Russian serf actor. Mikhail Shibanov, Russian serf painter wey dey active for 1780s. Mikhail Tikhanov (1789–1862), Russian serf artist. Mina Kolokolnikov (1708?–1775?), Russian serf painter and teacher. Mingo, di 15–16 years old boy wey Titsworth family use as slave for Tennessee, dem capture am for 1794 by Creeks when dem raid di house. Minerva (Anderson) Breedlove, na Madam C.J. Walker mama. Moses A. Hopkins (1846–1886), African-American diplomat, U.S. minister to Liberia. Murad Agha (c. 1480–c. 1556), Italy-born Ottoman eunuch and naval officer, wey turn Beylerbey of Tripoli. Mustapha Khaznadar (1817–1878), him be Christian Greek wey dem capture during 1822 Massacre of Chios, change am to Islam wey dem call am Mustapha, sell am for Constantinople to envoy of Husainid Dynasty. Him grow for Mustapha Bey family, later him son Ahmad I Bey. Him first be prince private treasurer before him become Ahmad state treasurer (khaznadar). Him rise to top offices for Tunisian state, marry Princess Lalla Kalthoum for 1839, turn lieutenant-general of di army, become bey for 1840 and de president of Grand Council from 1862 to 1878. Muyahid ibn Yusuf ibn Ali (11th century), na di leader of Saqaliba (slaves wey dem say be Slavic origin) for Dénia, Spain. As Caliphate of Córdoba dey fall, him and him followers rebel, free demself, control di city and establish di Taifa of Dénia, wey at di peak dey reach as far as di island of Majorca. N Nafisa al-Bayda, Egyptian investor wey dem dey call "white slave", na hin dey buy as concubine slave. Nancy, wey dem dey call Ann, na di plaintiff for di 1799 New Brunswick habeas corpus case R v Jones. Nancy Brown, Nancy Caffrey, na white captive wey Creek dey enslave. When trader John O'Reilly try to ransom her and Elsey Thompson, dem tell am say dem no capture dem to go back, but to work. Nanny of di Maroons, wey dem dey call Granny Nanny and Queen Nanny, na di leader of di Jamaican Maroons. Nat Turner (1800–1831), wey escape come lead revolt for Southampton County, Virginia. Nathan McMillian, wey as free man sue to make him pikin enter local "Croatan Indian" school, say e dey for all non-white pikin, and say him pikin get Croatan blood for their mama side. Nathaniel Booth (1826–1901), wey escape slavery for Virginia and settle for Lowell, Massachusetts. For 1851, di people of Lowell buy him freedom from slave hunters. Neaera, formerly enslaved woman and prostitute wey di Athenian Stephanus marry against di law around 340 BC, according to Demosthenes speech. Nero Hawley (1742–1817), wey be formerly enslaved freeperson wey serve for Continental Army during di American Revolutionary War, and dem bury am for Trumbull, Connecticut. Newport Gardner (1746–1826), na formerly enslaved freeperson for colonial Newport, Rhode Island. Ng Akew (died 1880), be Tanka enslaved woman for British Hong Kong wey famous for piracy scandal. Nicarete, na woman for ancient Greece, wey dem describe for Against Neaera di freedwoman of Charisius di Elean and him wife wey be cook Hippias, and as her dey own and sell several women around 340 BC. Saint Nino (c. 280–c. 332), na 4th-century Roman woman from Constantinople wey dem dey respect well well for bring Christianity come Georgia. Some account of her life talk say she originally come Georgia as slave wey dem kidnap from her homeland. Nurbanu Sultan (about 1525–1583), wey dem call Cecilia Venier-Baffo before, na enslaved noblewoman from Venice wey become the favorite wife of Ottoman sultan Selim II, and her wan dey very powerful as mother to sultan Murad III. O Omar ibn Said, Senegal scholar wey don dey slavery for North Carolina more than 50 years, around 1850. Oenomaus, Gallic gladiator wey lead slaves wey dey rebel during Third Servile War. Olaudah Equiano (c. 1745–1797), wey dem sabi as Gustavus Vassa, strong African-British writer wey dey fight for abolition, but dem no sure where e born. Omar ibn Said (1770–1864), writer and Islamic scholar wey come from Senegal wey dem carry go USA for 1807, spend di rest of im life for slavery. Onesimus, slave of Philemon from Colossae wey run away, meet St. Paul, and Paul change am. Paul send am back go Philemon with letter, wey be Epistle to Philemon. Ignatius of Antioch talk about an Onesimus wey be Bishop of Ephesus for early 2nd century, but nobody sure if na di same people. Onesimus, slave for colonial Boston wey help spread knowledge about smallpox inoculation. Onesimos Nesib (c. 1856–1931), Ethiopian wey Swedish missionaries buy out of slavery when e be pikin. E work with another former slave Aster Ganno to translate Bible into Oromo language. Oney Judge (1773–1848), wey dem enslave for Martha Washington family, and later for di First Lady, Judge dey work for Mount Vernon and all over as personal servant to Martha Washington until she escape for 1796 go Portsmouth New Hampshire. Ottobah Cugoano, wey dem sabi as John Stuart (c. 1757–after 1791), be abolitionist, political activist, and natural rights philosopher from West Africa wey dey active for Britain. Owen Fitzpen (c. 1582–1636), English merchant wey Barbary pirates carry capture for 1620 but escape later. Owen Breedlove, papa of Madam C.J. Walker. P Pallas, secretary wey dey work for Roman emperor Claudius. Pasion, na enslaved Athenian guy wey be banker. E later get dat rare chance for freedman to get citizen. Pata Seca (real name na Roque José Florêncio), wey come from Angola for 1828, dem capture am come Brazil as slave, na tall, strong guy: 2m18 tall plus over 140 kg weight. E dey work as breeding slave, e don born over 200 pikin. When dem cancel slavery for Brazil for 1888, e get land, wey e live with e wife and 9 children. Saint Patrick, dem kidnap am from Britain, enslave for Ireland, escape go Britain, come back to Ireland as missionary. Patsey (born around 1830), na enslaved African-American wey dey live for mid-1800s for South Carolina. Paul Jennings (1799–1874), na personal servant wey dem enslave under President James Madison during e White House time, e buy im freedom for 1845 from Daniel Webster. E publish di first White House memoir, 1865's A Colored Man's Reminiscences of James Madison. Paul Smith, na free black wey accuse di Cherokee headman Doublehead say e kidnap am and force am into bondage. Pedro Camejo (1790–1821), na Venezuelan soldier for di Venezuelan War of Independence. Peggy Margaret Titsworth, dem enslave am at 13 years for three years, after Creek raid for 1794 on her Tennessee home. Pete and Hannah Byrne, na freed slaves from Napoleon Bonaparte Byrne family wey travel from Missouri to California by land (six months journey) for 1859, dem leave di farm for Missouri carry six adults (including Pete & Hannah), di four Byrne children and cattle come settle for Berkeley, California. Pete and Hannah be di first blacks wey dey live for Berkeley and among di first African-Americans for California. Peter Salem (c. 1750–1816), African American wey born for slavery for Massachusetts, serve as soldier for American Revolutionary War. Petronia Justa, woman wey dey Herculaneum, sue her owner say she born after her mama don freedom; Vesuvius eruption preserve di court matter. Phaedo of Elis, wey dem capture for war, carry go Athens, force am to do prostitution, later become Socrates student wey free am, give him name to one Plato dialogue, Phaedo, and him be famous philosopher. Phaedrus (c. 15 BCE–c. 50 CE), Roman storyteller. Praskovia Kovalyova-Zhemchugova dress fine for Les mariages samnites by André Ernest Modeste Grétry. Phillis (die 1755), woman wey dey Massachusetts, enslave by Captain John Codman. She and her people plot to poison her owner as dem no fit take di wahala from their master, but dem burn am to death for 1755. Phillis Wheatley (1753–1784?), Colonial American poet, second published African-American poet and first African-American woman wey publish. Phoebe, woman wey dey slavery wey sue for her freedom for Tennessee, with her pikin Davy and Tom, say dem be descendants of one enslaved Indian woman wey prove say dem no suppose hold dem. Philocrates, wey dey slavery under Roman reformer Gaius Gracchus. He stay with him master when Gracchus dey run from him enemies, everybody don leave am. When dem reach one grove wey dey sacred to di Furies, Philocrates help Gracchus kill himself first before he take him own life, some talk say dem kill am after him refuse to let go him master body. Phormion, one enslaved man from Athens wey dey do banking. For him old age, dem give am rare honor of citizenship as free man. Pierre d'Espagnac, sometimes Pierre d'Espagnal (1650–1689), na French Jesuit missionary, dem enslave am by di Siamese. Pope Pius I (e die around 154), na Bishop for Rome from around 140 to 154, when dem dey reign under Roman emperor Antoninus Pius. E be brother to freedman Hermas, so e fit don be former slave too, but dem no talk am clear for di small records wey dey about e life. Pleasant Richardson, wey escape slavery become Union soldier plus property owner for Fincastle, Virginia. Polly, di subject of 1820 Indiana Supreme Court case Polly v. Lasselle, wey make all slaves wey dey Indiana go free. Polly Berry, wey dem also dey call Polly Crockett or Polly Wash, win freedom suit for 1843 for St. Louis, Missouri plus she free her daughter Lucy Ann Berry too. Politoria, wey get lead curse tablet for ancient Rome; na curse on Clodia Valeria Sophrone say make she no fit get Politoria into her power. E look like say she be slave-courtesan wey dey fear say dem go send am go brothel. Praskovia Kovalyova-Zhemchugova (1768–1803) na Russian serf actress plus soprano opera singer. Primus (1700–1791), wey Daniel Fowle from Portsmouth, New Hampshire enslave. Primus dey run di press for di New Hampshire Gazette wey be di oldest newspaper wey still dey print for America. Prince na di slave of Choctaw man wey name Richard Harkins. E vex say him owner no give di slaves Christmas celebration, Prince kill am sharply and dump di body for river for 1858. Prince Boston (born 1750), sue for him freedom and win for 1773 U.S. jury trial. Prince Estabrook (1741–1830), wey Benjamin Estabrook enslave; join fight for Continental Army and get wound for di Battle of Lexington and Concord. Prince Whipple (1750–1796), enslave by American General William Whipple. Prosper, na enslaved man wey dem murder for 1807 for Virgin Islands by him owner Arthur William Hodge, and Hodge go face trial and dem execute am for 1811, na di first case wey dem fit record like dat. One pregnant Thrall wey we no fit remember the name, dey run from her life for 11th-century Oslo, Hallvard Vebjørnsson carry am go hide for him boat. Dem people come attack dem, shoot dem with arrow, and both of dem die. Because of dat, dem make Hallvard saint and him be patron saint for Oslo. Publilius Syrus (fl. 85–43 BCE), na Latin writer wey sabi plenty for him wise sayings. E be Syrian wey dem carry come Italy as slave. Q Quamina Gladstone, him be Jack Gladstone papa and e dey involve for Demerara rebellion wey happen for 1823. Quassi van Timotebo or Kwasimukamba (1692–1787) na Surinam slave, wey don free and na Maroon hunter for Dutch Surinam. Him name dey for plant genus wey dem call Quassia. Quock Walker, wey dem dey call Kwaku or Quok Walker too, him sue and win him freedom for 1781 because of new Massachusetts Constitution (1780) wey talk say all men dem dey born free and equal. Qutb-ud-din Aybak or Qutbuddin Aibak (1150–1210), na Turk wey don suffer slavery before, become soldier, be first Sultan of Delhi, for India e start "slave dynasty". R Rachel, na the person wey dey the 1834 Rachel v. Walker case for Supreme Court of Missouri wey rule say U.S. Army officer go lose him slave if e carry the person go place wey slavery no dey allowed. Dis ruling come dey used as example for 1856 for Dred Scott v. Sandford case for U.S. Supreme Court. Rachel of Kittery, Maine (she die 1695), na enslaved woman wey her owner kill, and e case set legal example for New England. Rachel Knight (she die 1889), at first na enslaved by Newton Knight grandpapa, wey be popular Southern Unionist wey during American Civil War, e no gree Confederacy, wey dem dey call Free State of Jones. After the war, Rachel come get freedom with other slaves. By mid-1870s, Knight don separate from him wife, Serena, come marry Rachel. During this time, Knight grown son, Mat (from him first wife), come marry Rachel grown daughter, Fannie, from her previous relationship. Knight daughter, Molly, come marry Rachel son, Jeff, turns three interracial families for the community. Newton and Rachel Knight born plenty children before she die for 1889. Rebecca Huger, na enslaved woman wey General Benjamin F. Butler free for New Orleans, and dem talk for Harper's Weekly say she be white, come dey go school for freed slaves for Philadelphia. Richard Preston (around 1791–1861), e comot from slavery come be religious leader and abolitionist for Nova Scotia. Robert Blake, e get Medal of Honor as sailor during American Civil War, after e become 'contraband' (slaves wey Union forces free) come join. Robert Drury (1687–1743/1750), English sailor wey shipwreck for Madagascar island in 1702, e dey slave there till 1717. Robert J. Patterson (1809–1884), e run from slavery for Virginia come be restaurateur for Saint John, New Brunswick. Robert Smalls (1839–1915), e take charge of Confederate ship, carry the ship and enslaved people go freedom, make Union allow African Americans join; later e serve for South Carolina Senate before e enter U.S. House of Representatives wey represent South Carolina's 5th congressional district. Robin and Polly Holmes, na dem be plaintiffs for the 1853 Holmes v. Ford court case for Oregon Territory wey free their pikin dem. The verdict confirm say slavery no dey legal for that area as Organic Laws of Oregon talk when the place become U.S. territory. Rosina Downs, na enslaved woman wey General Benjamin F. Butler free for New Orleans, dem describe am for Harper's Weekly say she look white, and she come school for emancipated slaves for Philadelphia. Roustam Raza (1783–1845), na Napoleon Bonaparte's Armenian bodyguard. S Solomon Northup wey come from Twelve Years a Slave Sabuktigin (c. 942–997), full name Abu Mansur Sabuktigin, be small pikin wey dem carry go sell for slavery, but e rise come be general, then king wey start the Ghaznavid Empire for medieval Iran. Safiye Sultan (c. 1550 – c. 1619), na enslaved woman wey be Albanian, dem put am for harem of Ottoman sultan Murad III, and she be the mama of sultan Mehmed III. Salem Poor (1747–1802), na enslaved African-American man wey buy im freedom, and e be war hero during the American Revolutionary War. Sally Hemings (1773–1835), na mixed-race woman wey dem enslave by Thomas Jefferson, plenty people dey believe say she born six pikin for am, four of dem survive grow reach adult. Sally Miller or Salomé Müller (born c. 1814), na enslaved American woman wey file her freedom case for Louisiana based on say she dey claim say she be free German immigrant and indentured servant. Sally Seymour (died 1824), na American pastry chef and restaurateur, enslaved woman wey dem free and she come own her own slaves too. Salonia na di second wife of Cato di Elder. Salvius, wey dem sabi as Tryphon, be leader of di 104 BCE slave rebellion for Sicily wey dem call di Second Servile War. Sambo (died 1736), na enslaved boy wey enter Sunderland Point, near Lancaster, England, around 1736 from West Indies as captain servant. Dem bury am for grave wey no dey blessed inside one field near small village of Sunderland Point, Lancashire, England. Sambo, a black guy wey dey under Tiger King, one Lower Creek, wey tell traveler William Bartram say Sambo be him family property. Samson Rowlie (wey die after 1588), wey dem sabi as Hassan Aga, Chief Eunuch and Treasurer for Algiers. Samuel Benedict (1792–1854), wey born be African-American slave, later become free and waka go Liberia, where he turn politician and judge. Samuel Green (c. 1802–1877), one enslaved man wey buy him freedom and freedom for him loved ones, dey involve for Underground Railroad, and dem lock him up for 1857 because e carry Uncle Tom's Cabin. Samuel Ringgold Ward (1817–c. 1866), African-American wey dey fight for abolition and be journalist. Sandy Jenkins, na person wey dey enslave wey Frederick Douglass talk for him first autobiography. Sanker, na manservant wey dey work for Samuel R. Watkins, wey write "Co. Aytch" (1882), wey dey tell how him life be as soldier for the 1st Tennessee Infantry Regiment. Sarah Forbes Bonetta (1843–1880), na Egbado princess from Yoruba wey lose her people during fight, sell into slavery as small pikin, but Captain Frederick E. Forbes from Royal Navy come rescue am carry am go UK wey she con become goddaughter to Queen Victoria. Sarah Basset (die 1730), wey dey enslave for Bermuda; dem execute am for poison matter wey involve three people. Sarah Johnson (1844–1920), her life for the first president plantation dey published for book wey dem call "Sarah Johnson's Mount Vernon." Satrelanus, from Gaul, wey Ermedruda sell give Toto for Milan for 725. Scipio Africanus (around 1702–1720). Scipio Moorhead (fl. 1773–1775), na enslaved African-American artist. Scipio Vaughan (around 1784–around 1840), dem carry am komot from him place for Africa young, sell am go slavery for United States. E turn skilled artisan for Camden, South Carolina; manage get him freedom and inspire plenty of him pikin dem. Septimus Clarke (1787–1859), wey dem don enslave before, him turn e get success as farmer and leader for community for Nova Scotia. Servius Tullius, ancient King of Rome wey people talk sey e start life as slave (but some people dey argue this matter, both Romans and modern historians). Seymour Burr (1754/1762–1837), e fight for Continental Army for American Revolution. Shadrach Minkins (1814–1875), na fugitive wey slavery no fit catch, dem save am by abolitionists for Boston in 1850. Shaghab (dem don die 933), mother and double ruler of the eighteenth Abbasid Caliph al-Muqtadir. Silas Chandler (1838–1919), na man wey dey follow him enslavers for Confederate Army during American Civil War. Sojourner Truth (around 1797–1883), na abolitionist and women's rights activist. Solomon Bayley (1771–1839), write book for 1825 about him life as slave. Solomon Northup (1807–around 1863), na farmer, pro violinist, and free-born black man from New York wey dem lure go Washington, D.C., wey slavery dey legal, kidnap am and sell am for South. E dey enslaved for Louisiana from 1841 till dem rescue am and liberate am for 1853. Na author of Twelve Years a Slave. Solomon Flores, na enslaved man from northern Alabama. Sosias the Thracian, na enslaved Athenian man, later freedman, wey Nicias carry enslave, later rent am one thousand slaves for mining work. Spartacus (around 111–71 BCE), na gladiator and rebel leader during the Servile Revolt. Spendius be Campanian wey run come out from slavery, serve as Carthaginian mercenary for di First Punic War, den later be general for Mercenary War wey dem fight against Carthage. Stefan Holnicki (we no sabi when e die after 1797), Polish serf and Royal Ballet Dancer, don give plenty to di king of Poland by im will. Stephen Bishop (about 1821–1857), na mixed-race man wey dem hold for Kentucky, him dey known as one of di first explorers and guides for Mammoth Cave. Sue, na black woman wey James Brown enslave, dem capture am with plenty members for di Brown family and other slaves by Chickamaugas. When di warrior wey catch am threaten another captive, di other captor come threaten say dem go kill Sue for revenge. James' pikin Joseph later kidnap Sue, her children and grandchildren—total eight—for di revenge wey dey follow im captivity. Suhayb ar-Rumi (born around 587), wey people sabi as Suhayb ibn Sinan, na child wey dey enslave for Byzantine Empire, escape as young man go Mecca, come join Muhammad and become big friend for di early Muslim community. Sumayyah bint Khayyat (550–615), na woman wey dem enslave for Mecca; she be one of di first seven pipo wey convert to Islam by Prophet Muhammad early for him work. Dem torture am and kill am because of di new faith, she become di first Muslim Shahid. Squanto (1585–1622), wey dem also sabi as Tisquantum, na Native American from wetin dem dey call coastal Massachusetts now; dem capture am by English pirates and sell am as slave. Later, he free and return go New England, meet di Pilgrims for di Mayflower in 1621. Subh of Cordoba (940–999), na enslave concubine of a Caliph, na mother and regent of di next Caliph of Cordoba inside di 10th century. Suk-bin Choe (1670–1718), na consort of Sukjong of Joseon and mother of Yeongjo of Joseon. Surya Devi (we no sabi when she die, 715), na Indian princess wey dem enslave by Caliph Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik. T Taras Shevchenko Tatyana Shlykova Dem dey talk say na Terence portrait from Vatican Codex 3868. E fit be copy from 3rd-century original. Taras Shevchenko (1814–1861): Na di biggest Ukrainian poet, artist and illustrator wey come from serf family. E artist padi buy am freedom for 1838. Tatyana Shlykova (1773–1863), Russian serf wey be ballerina and opera singer. Thanadelthur (c. 1697–1717), woman from Chipewyan Dënesųłı̨ne nation wey help as guide and interpreter for Hudson's Bay Company. Thomas Fuller, African American man wey dey suffer for Virginia, dem sabi am for im math skills. Thomas Pellow (1704–1745), wey pirates from Barbary enslave, carry am go Morocco, dem select am and torture am by Ismail Ibn Sharif. E escape after 23 years, come back home to Cornwall. Thomas Peters (1738–1792), wey first be Thomas Potters, one of di founding fathers of Sierra Leone. Dem don enslave am before, e run come out from North Carolina during American Revolutionary War. Peters na Black Loyalist member of British Black Company of Pioneers, e become sergeant, settle down, and marry for Nova Scotia. E even recruit African settlers for Nova Scotia to colonize Sierra Leone, later become leader for Freetown. Thomas Sims (born 1834), African American man wey escape slavery for Georgia come Boston, Massachusetts, but dem catch am back under Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, but e escape go Boston again. Thomas-Alexandre Dumas (1762–1806), French general and papa of Alexandre Dumas. Thumal, administrator of justice for di eighteenth Abbasid Caliph al-Muqtadir. T. Aelius Dionysius, freedman for di late Roman Empire, wey create stela for himself, im wife, and Aelius Perseus, im fellow freedman, and dem and dem wey come after dem. T. Claudius Dionysius, him be freedman wey him freedwoman wife Claudia Prepontis build funeral altar for am. Di hands wey dem hold show say dem marry legit, na only after dem get dem freedom. Terence (c. 195/185–c. 159 BCE), full name Publius Terentius Afer, na Roman playwright and comic poet wey write before and maybe after him freedom. Tiberius Claudius Narcissus, na freedman wey dey serve as secretary to Roman emperor Claudius for 1st century. Tituba, na 17th-century Native American woman wey Samuel Parris from Danvers, Massachusetts enslave. She be di first person wey dem accuse of witchcraft during di 1692 Salem witch trials. Tomás Ortega, na enslaved man for colonial Mexico wey try marry Leonor de Mendoza, another woman wey dey under different master. When dat man lock Tomás, Leonor beg church court for help, dem threaten say if him no free Tomás, dem go excommunicate am. Titus Kent (1733–18??), him dey serve for di Samuel Kent family for Suffield Connecticut. Samuel Kent wey live from 1698–1772, wey write for him will say Titus go be Elihu Kent pikin. Revolutionary War records show say Titus serve for different regiments from 1775 to 1783. Toussaint L'Ouverture (1743–1803), na freedman wey lead di slave revolt wey bring Haiti independence. Tula (wey die 1795), na leader of di Curaçao Slave Revolt of 1795. Turgut Reis (1485–1565), wey dem sabi as Dragut, na famous admiral for Ottoman Navy wey Genoese capture for Corsica and force am work as galley slave for near four years. Finally, him fellow admiral Barbarossa come rescue am, wey lay siege to Genoa and secure Turgut Reis release for big ransom of 3,500 gold ducats. After dat, Turgut Reis continue him naval career (wey include di enslavement of plenty other people). U Ukawsaw Gronniosaw (1705–1775), wey dem sabi as James Albert, na freedman wey turn writer. Him autobiography be di first one wey African publish for Britain. Ursula Granger (1738–1800), na woman wey Thomas Jefferson enslave, she be cook, dairymaid, laundress, and wet nurse. Dem dey call am di "Queen of Monticello". V Vasily Tropinin Vincent de Paul Vasily Tropinin (1776–1857), na Russian serf wey sabi paint. Venture Smith (1729–1805), na African wey dem capture as pikin, carry am go American colonies as slave. When e grow, e buy im freedom and im family too – im wife Meg and di pikin dem: Hannah, Solomon and Cuff. Di schoolteacher wey write im story, na person wey e talk to for im old age. Venus Vance (died c. 1850), na enslaved American woman wey live and work for Mira Margaret Baird Vance plantation. Di Vestmenn ("West Men" for Old Norse, wey dey point to di Irish) be group of Irish slaves wey Hjörleifr Hróðmarsson carry go Iceland. E no treat dem well, so dem kill am and run go one group of islands. Ingólfur Arnarson, Hjörleifur's blood brother, chase dem come kill all of dem. Though we no sabi their individual names, dem memory still dey for Iceland geography, di islands wey dem seek refuge dey known as "Vestmannaeyjar": "Islands of di West Men" (i.e. of di Irish). Vincent de Paul (1581–1660), na French priest wey dem dey honor as saint for di Catholic Church. Dem capture am by Turkish pirates, sell am as slave, but e come free for 1607. Vindicius, na ancient Roman slave wey find out Tarquin's plan to take back power. Vibia Calybeni, na freedwoman for late Roman Empire wey weirdly call herself madam for im tombstone. Virginia Boyd, na enslaved American woman wey write letter to R.C. Ballard, dey beg make dem no sell am with her pikin for strangers. Ballard wan sell am die as Judge Samuel Boyd, di children papa, tell am make e hide her existence from im family. Violet Ludlow, na American woman wey don sell into slavery plenty times even though she dey claim say she be free white woman. Virginia Demetricia (1842–after 1867), na enslaved Aruban wey dem sabi say she be heroine wey dey fight against slavery. Vitalis, ancient enslaved Roman. One inscription dey talk about enslaved boy, Iucundus, as son of Gryphus and Vitalis. Volumnia Cytheris, na enslaved and later freedwoman for ancient Rome. She be actress and courtesan, her lovers include Brutus, Mark Antony, and Cornelius Gallus; how she reject Gallus dey inspire Virgil's tenth Eclogue. W Photograph of Wes Brady, ex-slave, wey dem snap for Marshall, Texas, for 1937 as part of Federal Writers' Project Slave Narrative Collection. Wes Brady (born 1849), from Marshall, Texas, dey among di Federal Writers' Project Slave Narrative Collection. West Ford (c. 1784–1863), wey George Washington enslave and serve as caretaker for Mount Vernon. Him dey claim say he be Washington biological son. William Ansah Sessarakoo (c. 1736–1770), African prince wey suffer for transatlantic slave trade, get freedom, and later become slave trader himself. William Beverly Nash (1822–1888), na North Carolina state senator. William Ellison (1790–1861), na enslaved man wey mixed race and after him gain freedom, him too become slaveholder wey dey produce cotton. William Gardner (born 1759), na man wey James Madison enslave wey Madison sell into indentured servitude for seven years before him dey free and dey work as merchant's agent. William Henry wey dem dey call 'Jerry', na man wey escape slavery for Missouri but dem catch am for Syracuse, New York for 1851 before some abolitionists come rescue am from Fugitive Slave Law wahala. William A. Jackson, na man wey Jefferson Davis keep as slave wey run come out for 1861 with plenty military gist about Confederate forces. William Andrew Johnson, mixed-race American wey President Andrew Johnson, Dolly Johnson son carry come as slave. William D. Gibbons (1825–1886), na domestic servant wey later become African Baptist minister after dem free am. William Dorsey Swann (1860–1925), wey born into slavery for Maryland, later become LGBT activist and di first person wey fit self-identify as drag queen. William Jones na slave wey Ulysses S. Grant acquire from him father-in-law for 1858. Jones dey thirty-five years old when dem carry am come. Even though Grant no be abolitionist, he no dey fit force slave to work. For March 1859, Grant free William with manumission deed, wey fit worth $1,000, when he need money. Di case of William Jones catch plenty historians eye, and e dey enter debate about Grant attitude to slavery. William Lee (1750–1828), na man wey George Washington keep as personal servant during di American Revolutionary War, and na di only person wey Washington free from slavery by im will. William Okeley na Englishman wey Algerian pirates capture keep as slave. William Wells Brown (c. 1814–1884), na African-American writer wey escape from slavery for 1834. Wilson Chinn, na African American wey dey for 1863 photo as 'branded slave.' Wulfstan be man wey dey suffer for Anglo-Saxon England, him two pikin and stepdaughter join am. Dem free dem with him madam Æthelgifu will. Wu Rui (15th century), be eunuch wey don suffer for wetin be Vietnam now. E be the smallest of thirteen Chinese men from Wenchang wey ship waka stray and dem carry dem go slave under Lê dynasty. According to Ming Shi-lu, dem turn him teammates to farm workers but dem cut Wu Rui and make am attendant for Imperial Citadel of Thang Long. After plenty years, when Vietnamese king die for 1497, dem boost him to military position for northern Vietnam. One soldier tell am say if e fit escape go back China, and Wu Rui take the chance waka go Longzhou. The local chief wan sell am back to the Vietnamese, but Pingxiang magistrate come rescue am and later send am go Beijing to work as palace eunuch. Wyatt Lee (c. 1822–1863), na the first husband of Dr. Rebecca Davis Lee Crumpler. E escape from slavery for Virginia. X Xenon, be Athenian man wey dey suffer and be banker. Xing be the main wife of Gaozong, brother to Qinzong, wey be Chinese Emperor for Song Dynasty. In 1127, Jurchen come capture Kaifeng during Jin–Song Wars, and dem carry more than 3000 people go exile for Manchuria during wetin dem call Jingkang Incident. Xing na one of the Imperial consorts, concubines, palace women and eunuchs wey dem capture, and dem share among Jurchen as slaves. Xing husband Gaozong wey escape, come be new Emperor and declare Xing Empress for absentia, but e no fit free am. She dey suffer for captivity, wey her captors dey crave for am, she try kill herself to run come out but e no work, and she die for captivity in 1139. == List of slaves == ld2e6b5iekubgkrg1rj78ktq1qton6k 69179 69178 2025-07-06T00:38:25Z Abdul-Rauf Moshie 1580 /* List of slaves */ 69179 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Slavery}} [[File:Livorno_Quattro_mori_monument_07.JPG|thumb|375x375px|One out of four statues wey dey show chained slaves for base of the Monument of the Four Moors for Livorno, Italy, wey dem fit be real slaves o.]] Slavery be one kind social-economic system wey people dey suffer: dem no get freedom and dem dey force to do work or service without pay. Dem people wey dey in dis condition, we dey call dem slaves or enslaved people. Dis na list of some important historical people wey don dey enslave for some time for dem life, we go arrange am from A to Z based on dem first name. * A * B * C * D * E * F * G * H * I * J * K * L * M * N * O * P * Q * R * S * T * U * V * W * X * Y * Z * See also A Abraham be enslaved black man wey dey carry message between frontier and Charles Town for war with Cherokee, wey fit free am. Abdul Rahman Ibrahima Sori (1762–1829), na prince from West Africa wey dem hold for United States for 40 years till President John Quincy Adams free am. Abram Petrovich Gannibal (1696–1781), dem adopt am by Russian czar Peter the Great, him be governor for Tallinn (Reval) (1742–1752) and general-en-chef (1759–1762) wey dey build sea forts and canals for Russia; e be great-grandpapa of Alexander Pushkin. See The Slave in European Art for him portraits. Absalom Jones (1746–1818), him don free hims [[File:Cabeza_de_Vaca_Portrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cabeza_de_Vaca_Portrait.jpg|right|thumb|235x235px|[[:en:Álvar_Núñez_Cabeza_de_Vaca|Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca]]]] elf, na abolitionist and clergyman – first ordained black priest of Episcopal Church. Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz (die 644), na Persian craftsman and captive wey kill second Islamic caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab (r. 634–644). Addas (7th century) na enslaved Christian boy wey dey live for Taif during Muhammad time, wey people talk say na him be first person from western Taif wey convert to Islam. Adriaan de Bruin (c. 1700–1766), wey dem call Tabo Jansz before, na enslaved servant for Dutch Republic wey turn free man for Hoorn, North Holland. Adam Brzeziński (1768 – after 1797), Polish serf and Royal Ballet Dancer, wey donate to king of Poland by will and testament. Aesop (c. 620–564 BCE), na Greek poet and author or transcriber for Aesop's Fables. Afanasy Grigoriev (1782–1868), na Russian serf and Neoclassical architect. Afrosinya (1699/1700–1748), na Russian serf, fit be Finnish captive, na enslaved mistress of Alexei Petrovich, Tsarevich of Russia. Agathoclia (shey die around 230), na martyr and patron saint for Mequinenza town for Spain. Alam al-Malika (shey die 1130), na singer wey dem catch as slave but rise become de prime minister and ruler for Zubayd, wey dey now Yemen. Alexina Morrison, na run away girl from slavery for Louisiana wey claim say she be kidnapped white pikin, she sue her master wey make people vex say dem go lynch am. Alfred "Teen" Blackburn (1842–1951), one of de last survivors of slavery for United States wey fit remember wetin happen. Alfred Francis Russ [[File:Aesop_pushkin01.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aesop_pushkin01.jpg|left|thumb|264x264px|[[:en:Aesop|Aesop]] in a [[:en:Hellenistic_art|Hellenistic]] statue claimed to be him, Art Collection of [[:en:Villa_Albani|Villa Albani]], Rome]] ell (1817–1884), na 10th President of Liberia. Alice Clifton (c. 1772–unknown), as slave pikin, she dey trial for infanticide matter for 1787. Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca (c. 1490–c. 1558), na Spanish explorer wey dem turn slave by Native Americans for Gulf Coast after e survive Narváez expedition wey scatter for 1527. Al-Khayzuran bint Atta (shey die 789), na Yemeni girl wey turn wife for Abbasid Caliph Al-Mahdi and mama to two Caliphs, Al-Hadi and Harun al-Rashid, wey dem sabi well well. Alp-Tegin (shey die 963), na member of nomadic Turks, dem carry am as slave small for Samanid court for Bukhara, later e come be army commander for Samanid Empire. Him son-in-law Sabuktigin later start Ghaznavid Empire. Amanda America Dickson (1849–1893), daughter of white planter David Dickson and Julia Frances Lewis, she be slave under Dickson's mama. Even though she dey legally enslaved till after Civil War, Amanda be her papa favorite and she inherit him $500,000 estate after him die for 1885. Ammar bin Yasir (570–657), one of di popular sahaba dem wey Abu Bakr free. Amos Fortune (1710–1801), African prince wey don suffer for United States for most of him life. Di children book wey talk about am, Amos Fortune, Free Man win Newbery Medal for 1951. Anarcha Westcott (c. 1828–unknown), black woman wey dey enslaved for di United States, she be among di women wey J. Marion Sims use do experiment. Portrait of Andrey Voronikhin. Engraving by V. A. Bobrov from di early 19th century. Andrey Voronikhin (1759–1814), Russian serf, architect and painter. Andrea Aguyar (died 1849), former enslaved black ma [[File:Voronikhin.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Voronikhin.jpg|right|thumb|297x297px|Portrait of [[:en:Andrey_Voronikhin|Andrey Voronikhin]]. Engraving by V. A. Bobrov from the beginning of the 19th century.]] n from Uruguay wey join Giuseppe Garibaldi during di Italian revolution for di Uruguayan Civil War of di 1840s and die for fight for di Roman Republic of 1849. Andrew Jackson Beard (1849–1921), inventor, him free at age 15 by di Emancipation Proclamation. Anna J. Cooper (1858–1964), author, educator, speaker and big African-American scholar. Anna Madgigine Jai Kingsley (1793–1870), woman wey dey enslaved then become planter and slave owner. Anna Williams, woman wey dey enslaved for Washington, D.C. wey go court win her freedom against di United States Court of Appeals. Annice (died 1828), dem execute her for murder five children. Annika Svahn (fl. 1714), Finnish woman wey Russian take away during di Great Northern War. She be vicar pikin for Joutseno, wey become popular victim for di wahala wey civilian dem suffer during di Russian occupation. Antarah ibn Shaddad (525–608), pre-Islamic Arab wey born from enslaved woman, him papa free am before battle, and he be poet too. Anthony Burns (1834–1862), na Baptist pre [[File:Петровское._Бюст_А.П._Ганнибала.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5._%D0%91%D1%8E%D1%81%D1%82_%D0%90.%D0%9F._%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0.jpg|right|thumb|263x263px|[[:en:Abram_Petrovich_Gannibal|Abram Petrovich Gannibal]], bust in [[:en:Petrovskoye,_Yaroslavl_Oblast|Petrovskoe]], [[:en:Russia|Russia]]]] acher wey escape slavery go Boston, but dem catch am again because Fugitive Slave Act wey dey 1850, den people wey no want am capture buy im freedom for Boston. Antonia Bonnelli (1786–1870), dem capture am and enslave am by Mikasuki tribe for Florida in 1802. António Corea, na European name wey dem give to Korean. Dem carry am go Italy, wey fit make am di first Korean wey step foot for Europe. Antón Guanche (15th century), na Guanche from Tenerife, dem capture am, enslave am, come return am go di island. Aqualtune Ezgondidu Mahamud da Silva Santos (died 1677), na princess of Kongo, mother of Ganga Zumba and grandmother of Zumbi dos Palmares. She lead 10,000 men during di Battle of Mbwila between Kingdom of Kongo and Kingdom of Portugal. Dem catch am by Portuguese forces, carry am go Brazil and sell am as slave. She start di slave settlement of Quilombo dos Palmares with her son Ganga Zumba. Archer Alexander (1810–1879), na model wey dem use for di slave wey dey di 1876 Emancipation Memorial sculpture. Abram Petrovich Gannibal, bust wey dey Petrovskoe, Russia. Archibald Grimké (1849–1930), born into slavery, son of white papa, become American lawyer, intellectual, journalist, diplomat and community leader. Arthur Crumpler (c. 1835–1910), escape slavery for Virginia, na di second husband of Dr. Rebecca Davis Lee Crumpler. Aster Ganno (c. 1872–1964), na young Ethiopian woman wey Italian Navy rescue from slave ship wey dey cross go Yemen. She go translate di Bible into Oromo language. Also she prepare literacy materials and spend di rest of her life as school teacher. Augustine Tolton (1854–1897), na di first black priest for di United States. Aurelia Philematium, na freedwoman wey her tombstone dey praise her marriage with her fellow freedman, Lucius Aurelius Hermia. Ayuba Suleiman Diallo (1701–1773), wey dem sabi as Job ben S [[File:William_Hoare_of_Bath_-_Portrait_of_Ayuba_Suleiman_Diallo,_(1701-1773).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:William_Hoare_of_Bath_-_Portrait_of_Ayuba_Suleiman_Diallo,_(1701-1773).jpg|left|thumb|Portrait of [[:en:Ayuba_Suleiman_Diallo|Ayuba Suleiman Diallo]] by [[:en:William_Hoare|William Hoare]] (1733)]] olomon, na Muslim wey come from Bundu state for West Africa. E dey suffer for two years for Maryland as slave, but dem free am for 1734. Later, e write hin story wey dem publish as one of di first slave narrative. B Baibars Baibars (1223–1277), wey dem dey call am Abu al-Futuh, na Kipchak Turk wey turn Mamluk sultan for Egypt and Syria. Balthild (c. 626–680), na Anglo-Saxon woman wey come from big family, dem sell am gree as small pikin, serve for Erchinoald house, wey be mayor for Neustria. After, she marry Clovis II, and later she be regent when her pikin Clotaire dey small. She stop dem wey dey trade Christian slaves and dey fight for freedom of children wey dem sell as slaves. Pope Nicholas I canonize am about 200 years after she die. Bass Reeves (1838–1910), na one of di first black Deputy U.S. Marshals for di west of di Mississippi River, wey don arrest over 3,000 bad guys and shoot fourteen outlaws for self-defense. Belinda Sutton (1713–179?), born for Ghana, she dey beg for support from her enslaver estate, wey be one early case for reparations and inspire future activism. Belinda Sutton petition, wey dem print again Bell (Belinda) (c. 1750–c. 1772), born for Bengal, dem carry her go Scotland as servant for East India Company nabob. Dem accuse am say she kill pikin, she dey beg make dem banish am and she turn “slave for life” and dem carry am go Virginia for 1772. She na di last person wey court for Britain call slave. Benjamin S. Turner (1825–1894), former slave wey be politician wey represent Alabama's 1st congressional district for United States House of Representatives. Him be di first African American wey don represent di state for Congress. Benkos Biohó, wey born for royal family of Bissagos Islands, dem kidnap am and enslave am. After dem carry am go Spanish New Granada for South America, him fit escape, help plenty other slaves escape too, and create di maroon community of San Basilio de Palenque. Di Governor Diego Pacheco Téllez-Girón Gómez de Sandoval of Cartagena betray am and hang am for 1621, but di community wey him build still dey live free till today. Betty Hemings (c. 1735–1807), na enslave mixed-race woman wey for colonial Virginia, wey for 1761 start dey be sex slave of her master, planter John Wayles, and she get six mixed-race children with am over 12 years, including Sally Hemings and James Hemings. Big Eyes (fl. 1540), na Wichita woman wey dem enslave by Tejas people before dem capture am and enslave am by conquistador Juan de Zaldívar. Bilichild (died 610), be queen of Austrasia through marriage to Theudebert II. Bilal ibn Ribah (580–640), wey dem free in 6th century. Him convert to Islam and be Muhammad's muezzin. Bill Richmond (1763–1829), wey born for America, dem free am and him become one of England's best boxers. Saint Brigid of Kildare as dem depict am for Saint Non's chapel, St Davids, Wales. Billy (born c. 1754), na man wey run come from John Tayloe II's plantation, dem charge am for treason against Virginia during American Revolutionary War. Him collect pardon after e talk say, as slave, him no be citizen, so e no fit commit treason against government wey him no dey owe loyalty to. Bissula (fl. 368) na Alemannic woman wey dem enslave, and she be inspiration for Roman poet Ausonius. Blanche Bruce (1841–1898) na di first and only former slave wey serve for United States Senate. Blandina (c. 162–177) be slave and Christian martyr for Roman Gaul. Di Bodmin manumissions na manuscript wey dey inside British Library, e keep names and details of slaves wey dem free for Bodmin (di main town for Cornwall back then) during 9th or 10th centuries. Booker T. Washington (1856–1915), born inside slavery, come be American educator, author and leader of African-American community after Civil War. Saint Brigid of Kildare, na major Irish Saint. Tradition say Brigid born for 451 AD for Faughart, just north of Dundalk for County Louth, Ireland. Her mama na Brocca, Pict slave wey Saint Patrick don baptize. Dem talk say her papa be Dubhthach, chieftain of Leinster. Dubthach wife force am sell Brigid's mama to druid when she carry belle. Brigid self born for slavery. Di small Brigid fit perform miracle, like healing and feeding di poor. At age ten, dem return am as household servant to her papa, where her charity make am dey give out hin things to anybody wey ask. For two Lives, Dubthach dey vex with her, he carry am go King of Leinster to sell her. While Dubthach dey talk with di king, Brigid don give away hin jeweled sword to beggar to change am for food to feed di family. Di king sabi her holiness well well and e make Dubthach free him daughter. After dat, she start her waka as popular nun. Brigitta Scherzenfeldt (1698–1733), Swedish wey dey write memoirs and teach weaving, she catch during di Great Northern War, carry go live as slave for di Kalmyk kingdom for Central Asia. Bussa wey born free man for West Africa, maybe Igbo pikin, dem catch am by African slave traders, sell am go Britain, transport am go Barbados (wey slavery don dey legal since 1661) for late 18th century as slave. C Charlotte Aïssé Cezayirli Gazi Hasan Pasha statue for Mersin Naval Museum Caenis, na woman wey don suffer as slave, she be secretary for Antonia Minor (emperor Claudius mama) plus Vespasian wey be Roman emperor. Caesar (c. 1737–1852), na di last slave wey fit get freedom for New York. E reach supercentenarian level, plus fit be di first person wey dem snap while dem dey alive in 1851. Caesar Nero Paul (c. 1741–1823), as small pikin, dem carry am from Africa come Exeter, New Hampshire, but e get freedom, start big New England family wey dey fight against slavery. Pope Callixtus I (died 223), na man wey don suffer as slave, pope from about 218 to about 223, during di time of Heliogabalus and Alexander Severus. Dem kill am for him Christian faith, now he be saint for Roman Catholic Church. Carlota (died 1844), she lead slave rebellion for Cuba for 1843–1844. Castus, na enslaved Gaul and one of di leaders for di Third Servile War wey get people wey dey fight for freedom. Catalina of Motril (fl. 1501–1531), she be bed servant for Catherine of Aragon when she marry Henry VIII for England. Cato (1786–1803), na man wey don suffer for Charleston, New York, wey kill twelve-year-old Mary Akins after e try rape am. Him confession show for di murder book of dat time. Cato, na African-American man wey serve as American Black Patriot spy and courier to gather info with him owner, Hercules Mulligan. Celia (died 1855), na woman wey dem catch and kill for di murder of Robert Newsom, her enslaver. During di trial, John Jameson argue say she kill am for self-defense to stop am from raping her. Cesar Picton (c. 1765–1831), na slave wey start for Senegal, later work as servant for England, come get money as coal merchant. Cevri Kalfa, one Georgian girl wey e dey for sultan harem for Istanbul, wey save Mahmud II life. Dem reward am wit big position haznedar usta, wey be chief treasurer for the imperial Harem. Cezayirli Gazi Hasan Pasha (1713–1790) na Georgian wey dem enslave for Ottoman Empire, wey rise become grand vizier, Kapudan Pasha, and army boss. Charity Folks (1757–1834), American slave wey born for Annapolis, Maryland, release from slavery for 1797 and later become property owner. Charles Deslondes, Haitian mulatto wey dey oversee other slaves for André plantation and leader of 1811 German Coast Uprising for Louisiana. Dem kill am terribly by the militia wey suppress the slave revolt. Charlotte Aïssé, (c. 1694–1733), French letter-writer, daughter of one Circassian chief, wey suffer for Ottoman Black Sea slave trade. Charlotte Dupuy (c. 1787/1790–c. 1866), wey dem dey call Lottie, file freedom suit for 1829 against her enslaver, Henry Clay, wey be Secretary of State, but she lose. Chica da Silva (c. 1732–1796), wey dem sabi as Xica da Silva, Brazilian courtesan wey become rich and powerful even though she born into slavery. Chloe Cooley (fl. 1793), wey dey enslave for Canada, her violent treatment and transport to US make Upper Canada pass 1793 Act Against Slavery. Christopher Shields (born 1774) na George Washington slave wey he keep am for Mount Vernon. The place wey he die and the year wey e happen no dey clear. Christophorus Plato Castanis, (born 1814) na runaway Greek slave from Chios. He journey come US with Samuel Gridley Howe and John Celivergos Zachos. Castanis be Greek-American author and lecturer. Çiçek Hatun (fl. 1453) na Greek girl wey dem capture when Constantinople fall and put as one of the concubine for Sultan Mehmet II harem. Clara Brown (around 1800–1885), she be one woman wey dem don enslave for Virginia. She come be community leader, give back for people wey don free during Colorado Gold Rush. Claudia Acte (1st century), na mistress for Roman emperor Nero. Pope Clement I (wey die for 100), na di fourth Pope for Catholic tradition. E fit dey freedman for Titus Flavius Clemens. Cleon (die 132 BC) na leader for di First Servile War. Colonel Tye (1753–1780), wey dem dey call Titus Cornelius, him don free, come be Black Loyalist soldier and guerrilla leader for di American Revolution. Crixus, na Gallic gladiator and military leader for di Third Servile War. Cudjoe Lewis (around 1840–1935), wey originally be Oluale Kossola, na di third-to-last survivor of di Transatlantic slave trade for USA. Dem carry am go di slave ship Clotilda. Cuffy (die 1763), na Akan man wey dem capture for him own West Africa, carry am go work for di plantations of di Dutch colony for Berbice wey dey Guyana today, and for 1763, him lead revolt wey get more than 2,500 slaves against di colonial regime. Today, him na national hero for Guyana. D Dred Scott wey no fit win im case for im freedom for United States Supreme Court for 1857. Dabitum, woman wey dem enslave for Old Babylonia wey sabi write letter about miscarriage. Daniel Bell (around 1802–1877) wey try for years make e and im family fit enjoy freedom. E help organize one big escape plan wey dem call "the Pearl incident" for Washington, D.C., for 1848. Dada Masiti (around 1810s–15 July 1919) poet, mystic and Islamic scholar. Dave Drake (around 1801–1876), wey people sabi am as Dave the Potter. Deborah Squash and im husband Harvey wey escape from George Washington Mount Vernon, join British for New York during American Revolutionary War, and dem carry dem go free in 1783. Denmark Vesey (around 1767–1822), one enslaved African-American man wey plan one big slave rebellion for United States wey dem leak the plans before e go happen. Dido Elizabeth Belle (1761–1804), wey born into slavery as the daughter of Maria Belle, one enslaved African woman for West Indies, and Sir John Lindsay, one Navy officer. Lindsay carry Belle go England for 1765, give im uncle William Murray, 1st Earl of Mansfield, and im wife Elizabeth to take care of am. Dem educate Belle, raise am as free gentlewoman for their Kenwood House with their niece, Lady Elizabeth Murray. Belle stay there for 30 years. For im will for 1793, Lord Mansfield confirm im freedom and give am money and annuity, make Belle heiress. Diego be one freedman wey dem don enslave before, and e dey close with di Elizabethan navigator Francis Drake. For March 1573, Drake raid Darien (for today Panama) and Maroons help am well – dem be Africans wey don run from Spanish slave owners and dem glad to help their English enemies. One of dem na Diego, wey sabi build ship well, and e follow Drake go England. For 1577, Queen Elizabeth send Drake make e start journey against di Spanish for di Pacific coast fit America – wey later turn as Drake waka go round di world – Diego again dey work under Drake; him sabi Spanish and English well well, so he fit be good interpreter when dem catch Spaniard or Portuguese wey dey speak Spanish. E be Drake's servant and dem dey pay am like di rest of di crew. Diego die while Drake ship dey cross di Pacific, wounds wey e get earlier for di journey. Drake dey feel bad for him death, as Diego don become him good friend. Diogenes of Sinope (c. 412–323 BCE), Greek philosopher wey pirates carry away and sell for Corinth. Diocletian (244–312), Emperor of Rome, some people talk say e born as slave of Senator Anullinus. Other talk say na Diocletian papa (we no sabi im name) wey be slave and free before him son, di future emperor, born. Dionysius I (die 1492), Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, dem don enslave am by di Ottomans after di Fall of Constantinople for 1453. Dolly Johnson (born late 1820s, die after 1887), African-American woman from Tennessee, wey President Andrew Johnson don enslave, later become small small-business owner. Dorota Sitańska (die after 1797), Polish serf and Royal Ballet Dancer, wey dem donate to di king of Poland by will and testament. Dred Scott (around 1799–1858), na one enslaved African-American guy wey dey Missouri wey carry case go court make e fit get freedom for one big trial, Scott v. Sandford, wey reach U.S. Supreme Court for 1857. E Florence, Lady Baker around 1875. Na Romanian wey dem enslave as orphan, Samuel Baker buy am, later marry am. Edward Mozingo Sr., (about 1649–1712), dem kidnap am from Africa when e dey like 10 years, sell am for slavery for Jamestown, Virginia. After e owner die, he sue for im freedom and win am. E marry poor white woman, Margaret Pierce Bayley (1645–1711) and together dem be dem wey start the Mozingo family for North America. Elijah Abel (1808–1884), wey born enslave for Maryland, people believe say e escape from slavery enter Underground Railroad go Canada. He join Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints early, na him dey among the first black wey get priesthood and the first black wey rise to elder and seventy rank. Elizabeth Marsh (1735–1785), na English woman wey corsairs capture and hold for slavery for Morocco. Edith Hern Fossett, na woman wey U.S. President Thomas Jefferson enslave, dem teach am to cook by French chef wey create French food for White House and Monticello. Elias Polk (1806–1886), na conservative political activist from 19th century. Eliezer of Damascus, na Abraham slave and trusted manager for im house in Hebrew Bible. Elieser be man wey dem enslave by Paulo de Pina family, Portuguese Jews wey move go Netherlands for 1610 to escape wahala and forced conversion for Portugal. E dey stay with the family for Amsterdam till e die for 1629, dem bury am for Beth Haim cemetery, wey be the oldest Jewish cemetery for Netherlands. E appear say dem don free am, whether officially or in practice, and e dey near equal level with the family wey own am for Portugal – show by fact say e attend the funeral of im master wife, Sara de Pina, and contribute six stuivers, and dem bury am alongside im (former) owners and Jacob Israel Belmonte, wey be the richest man for the community. Elieser don convert to Judaism and dem accept am as Jewish, true true if not, he for no dey buried for Jewish cemetery; dem fit give am the name 'Elieser' when dem convert am, e dey bring Eliezer from Damascus mind. Recently, members of Surinamese community for Netherlands don carry Elieser memory go high, dem put statue for am and dey do yearly pilgrimage go his grave wey dem call Elieser Day. Elisenda de Sant Climent (1220–1275), dem enslave am during slave raid for Mallorca and carry am go emir harem for Tunis. Eliza Hopewell, woman wey dey under Confederates spy Isabella Maria Boyd ('Belle Boyd'). For 1862, she help her owner do spy work, carry message go Confederate Army inside watch case wey dem hollow. Eliza Moore (1843–1948), one of the last African-American former slaves wey dey live for United States. Elizabeth Johnson Forby, mixed-race American woman wey dem enslave under President Andrew Johnson, daughter of Dolly Johnson. Elizabeth Key Grinstead (1630–after 1665), na the first woman wey get African blood for North America wey go court for her freedom and win. Key and her small pikin, John Grinstead, come free on July 21, 1656 for Virginia because her papa be Englishman and she be baptized Christian. Elizabeth Freeman (c. 1742–1829), wey dem dey call Bett and later Mum Bett, na among the first enslaved black people for Massachusetts wey fit file freedom suit and win, based on 1780 constitution wey rule slavery illegal. Elizabeth Hobbs Keckley (1818–1907), wey be popular as personal modiste and close friend of Mary Todd Lincoln, First Lady of the United States. Keckley write and publish autobiography, Behind the Scenes: Or, Thirty Years a Slave and Four Years in the White House (1868). Ellen Craft (1826–1891), light-skin wife of William Craft, wey escape from Georgia to Philadelphia, by acting like white woman and her slave, case wey become popular. Ellen More, enslaved woman wey them carry go royal Scottish court. Emilia Soares de Patrocinio (1805–1886) na Brazilian slave, slave owner and businesswoman. Emiline (23 years); Nancy (20); Lewis, Nancy brother (16); Edward, Emiline brother (13); Lewis and Edward, sons of Nancy (7); Ann, daughter of Nancy (5); and Amanda, daughter of Emiline (2), dem free for 1852 Lemmon v. New York court case after dem bring dem go New York from Virginia. Emily Edmonson (1835–1895), with her sister Mary, try escape for 1848 wey dem call Pearl incident, but Henry Ward Beecher and him church gather money to free dem. Enrique of Malacca, wey dem dey call Henry the Black, na slave and interpreter for Ferdinand Magellan and maybe the first person wey waka round the globe for Magellan's trip of 1519–1521. Epictetus (55–c. 135), ancient Greek stoic philosopher. Estevanico (1500–1539), wey dem dey call Esteban the Moor. He be slave of the Portuguese first, then become servant of the Spaniards. He be one of the only four wey survive the bad Narváez expedition, later na guide for search of the fabled Seven Cities of Gold and maybe the first African wey reach wetin be Arizona and New Mexico today. Eston Hemings (1808–1856), son of Sally Hemings and Thomas Jefferson. Eucharis, na Greek wey dem free, born Roman Licinia, dem describe am for him epitaph for 1st century AD as fourteen when she die, child actress and professional dancer. Eunus (him die for 132 BC), na slave wey come from Apamea for Syria, and him be leader for slave wahala for First Servile War wey happen for Roman province of Sicily. Eunus sabi gree people as prophet and wonder-worker. Him dey claim say him dey see visions and dey communicate with goddess Atargatis, wey dey popular for him place; he even fit connect am to Sicilian Demeter. Some prophecies wey he drop na say di rebel slaves go fit capture di city of Enna and say one day, he go be king. Euphemia (him die for 520s), na Empress of Byzantine Empire because she marry Justin I, she be slave before. Euphraios, na Athenian slave and banker. Exuperius and Zoe (dem die for 127), na Christian martyrs for 2nd century. Dem be married couple wey slave master in Pamphylia enslave. Dem kill dem with their sons, Cyriacus and Theodolus, because dem no wan join pagan rites when dem pikin born. Florence Johnson Smith be mixed-race American babe wey President Andrew Johnson carry go enslave, she be Dolly Johnson pikin. Fountain Hughes (1848–1957), dem interview am for June 1949 about him life by Library of Congress as part of Federal Writers' Project. Francis Bok (wey born 1979), na Dinka slave from South Sudan, now him dey fight for freedom and be author for United States. Francis Jackson (wey born between 1815 and 1820), him dey free from birth, but dem kidnap am for 1850 and sell am into slavery. Him finally get freedom for 1855 when case Francis Jackson v. John W. Deshazer end. Francis James Grimké (1850–1937), him be minister. Francisco Menéndez, na man wey dem enslave for South Carolina but e run go Spanish Florida, wey e serve for Spanish militia, even lead the garrison wey dem set for 1738 for Fort Mose. This place be the first legal free black community for wetin we dey call United States now. François Mackandal (wey die 1758), na Haitian Maroon leader. Frederick Douglass (1818–1895), him born for slavery for Maryland and run go Northeast for 1838, where e turn big-time abolitionist writer, speaker, and diplomat. Fyodor Slavyansky (1817–1876), na Russian serf painter. G Medical photo wey show Gordon back wey dem whip, plenty abolitionists dey share am to show how slavery dey be bad. Portrait of Gülnuş Sultan Gabriel Prosser (1776–1800), leader wey lead Virginia slave revolt. Gaius Furius Chresimus, ancient Roman. As him free man, e produce crops from him small farm wey people accuse am say him dey witch other people crop, but when him bring him farm tools for court, dem free am. Pliny the Elder talk say him story na proof say hard work be wetin matter for farming. Galatian de Sesse (16th century), knight from Aragon wey dey work for hospital and be Governor of Gozo wey dem enslave during 1551 Ottoman attack, e spend five years as galley slave before dem pay ransom and free am. Galeria Lysistrate (2nd century), mistress of Roman emperor Antoninus Pius. Ganga Zumba or Ganazumba (c. 1630–1678), one descendant of unknown Kongo king wey run away from slavery for Brazilian colonial and be first leader of runaway slave settlement wey be Quilombo dos Palmares. Gannicus, enslaved Celt wey be one of the leaders of rebel slaves during Third Servile War. Garafilia Mohalbi (1817–1830), Greek slave wey American merchant rescue and carry go Boston. She die young and inspire big art movement. Genghis Khan (c. 1162–1227), dem capture am after raid and make am slave for Taichiud. George Africanus (1763–1834), enslaved African man from Sierra Leone wey become successful businessman for Nottingham. George Edward Doney (1758–1809), Gambian man wey William Capell, 4th Earl of Essex enslave. George Colvocoresses (1816–1872), from Chios, Greece, come America come be captain for U.S. Navy, but small small dem carry am put for slavery when e be pikin. Colvos Passage dey named after am. George Freeman Bragg (1863–1940), wey born for slavery for North Carolina, later turn big Episcopal priest and social activist. George Lewis (1794–1811), wey dem dey call Slave George, na enslaved guy wey dem kill for Kentucky night of December 15–16, 1811. George Moses Horton (1797–1884), na di first African-American author; him first poetry book publish for North Carolina. George Washington Carver (c. 1864–1943), na African-American scientist, botanist, educator and inventor wey sabi to promote other crops like sweet potatoes and peanuts for South; him born for slavery for Missouri but dem free am as small pikin after American Civil War. George Griffin (1849–1897), born for slavery for Maryland but later dem free am; him be close person to Mark Twain. George W. Hayes (1847–1933), na court crier and politician for Ohio, mixed African American and Native American background, dem carry am put for slavery early for him life. Gerónimo de Aguilar (1489–1531), na Franciscan friar wey waka go Yucatán Peninsula for 1511 but dem shipwreck am and dem carry am for slavery by Mayans. Gosala, one ascetic teacher from ancient India – wey dey live same time (and dey compete) with Gautama Buddha – people talk say him born for slavery, and he become naked ascetic after him run from him bad captor, wey catch him cloth before e run. Gonzalo Guerrero (died 1536), na sailor from Palos, Spain, wey shipwreck for Yucatán Peninsula for 1511 and dem carry am for slavery by di local Maya. Gordon, wey dem dey call Whipped Peter, na enslaved African-American wey escape come Union Army camp from plantation near Baton Rouge, Louisiana for 1863. Di pictures wey dem take of Gordon back wey dem beat during medical check, dem publish am for Harper's Weekly, e show Northerners di wahala wey slavery dey cause. E make plenty free blacks want join di Union Army. Gülnuş Sultan (1642–1715) na Haseki Sultan for Ottoman Sultan Mehmed IV and Valide sultan for dia pikin Mustafa II and Ahmed III. Guðríður Símonardóttir (1598–1682) na Iceland woman wey some North African slavers (Barbary Pirates) carry go. Gustav Badin (wey die for 1822) na servant for royal Swedish court, originally na Danish slave. H Hurrem Sultan, be Eastern European slave girl wey Ottoman sultan Süleyman the Magnificent buy, marry am. Hababah, concubine of Caliph Yazid II. Hagar, biblical figure, Sarah own. Hannah Bond (weh dey born for 1830s), pen name Hannah Crafts, write The Bondwoman's Narrative after she gain freedom. E fit be di first novel wey African-American woman write, na di only novel wey woman wey run from slavery don write. Hark Olufs (1708–1754), Danish sailor, dem capture am by Algerian pirates. Dem sell am to di Bey of Constantine, and him become Commander in Chief for di Bey's cavalry. Dem release am for 1735. Harriet Balfour (c. 1818–1858), Surinam-born enslaved woman wey free for 1841 and move go Scotland. Harriet Evans Paine, (c. 1822–1917), Texas enslaved woman and later oral historian and storyteller. Harriet Hemings (1801–after 1822), daughter of Sally Hemings and Thomas Jefferson. Harriet Jacobs (1813–1897), author of Incidents in di Life of a Slave Girl. Harriet Powers (1837–1910), American folk artist, and quilter. Harriet Tubman (c. 1822–1913), dem dey call am 'Moses' because of di work wey she dey do to help other American slaves escape through di Underground Railroad. Harry, di plaintiff for di 1818 Harry v. Decker & Hopkins case wey di Supreme Court of Mississippi decide to free person from slavery just because him dey stay for free land. Harry Washington (wey die for 1800), dem dey call am Henry Washington, be slave wey George Washington dey own. Dem transport am go America as slave, and Washington buy am for 1763 to work on project wey go drain di Great Dismal Swamp. Hafsa Sultan (she die March 1534), na Selim I wife and di first real sultan of Ottoman Empire as Suleiman di Magnificent mama. Pipo sabi her background matter dey confuse, but some historians talk say she be slave. Helen Gloag (1750–1790), from Muthill, Perthshire, Scotland, become di Empress of Morocco as di harem slave for Morocco sultan. Henry Bibb (1815–1854), American writer and abolitionist wey born as slave. After e run come out from slavery to British Upper Canada, he start newspaper wey dey call The Voice of the Fugitive. E later come back to U.S. come dey lecture against slavery. Henry Highland Garnet (1815–1882), wey born African-American slave for Maryland, run from slavery for 1824, come become abolitionist and teacher. Hercules (born c. 1755), na di head cook wey George Washington enslave for him plantation, Mount Vernon. E run come gain him freedom for 1797, but him wife Alice and him three pikin still dey enslave. Hermas, wey write di book The Shepherd of Hermas and na Pope Pius I brother. Hernando de Escalante Fontaneda, been born for Cartagena, but e don dey enslave at 13 when di ship wey carry am go Spain for school sink for Florida. Calusa chief take am as slave and use am as translator until dem free am at 30. Horace King (1807–1885), American architect, engineer, and bridge builder, born into slavery for South Carolina plantation. Hümaşah Sultan (fl. 1647–1672) na di wife of Sultan Ibrahim for Ottoman Empire. Hurrem Sultan (c. 1504–1558), wey dem sabi as Roxelana, be Eastern European girl wey slave traders capture and sell to di Imperial Harem, become di chief consort and legal wife of Ottoman sultan Süleyman di Magnificent. Halime Sultan (about 1570–after 1639) be Valide Sultan wey dey rule alongside Ottoman Empire. Handan Sultan (about 1568–1605) too be Valide Sultan and her dey act as regent for the Ottomans. I İbrahim Pasha Ivan Argunov. Self-portrait (late 1750s). İbrahim Pasha (about 1495 – 1536), na first Grand Vizier wey Suleiman the Magnificent appoint. E be Greek by birth, at six years old, dem sell am as slave to Ottoman palace for future sultans, where e meet Suleiman wey dey same age. Icelus Marcianus, na slave and later free guy for Roman emperor Galba for 1st century CE. E be one of three men wey dey control the emperor well well, make Galba no dey popular. Ida B. Wells (1862–1931), na big African-American activist wey born into slavery, but later she dey fight against lynching and fit cancel am. For 1909, she co-found National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). Imma, na Northumbrian noble wey knock for battle and later sabi act like peasant, so say captors no go kill am. Him behavior show say him no be real peasant, and dem sell am into slavery. Isabel de Solís (fl. 1485), na enslaved Castilian concubine for Abu l-Hasan Ali, Sultan of Granada. Isabella Gibbons (1826–1890), become schoolteacher for Virginia after dem liberate am for 1865. Isfandíyár, na enslaved servant for Bahá'u'lláh's house for Tehran, Isfandíyár die for Mazandaran. Israel Jefferson (about 1800–after 1873), wey people sabi as Israel Gillette before 1844, born into slavery for Monticello, Thomas Jefferson estate, and work as domestic servant near Jefferson for many years. Ivan Bolotnikov (1565–1608), na fugitive kholop (enslaved for Russia) and leader of Bolotnikov rebellion for 1606–1607. Ivan Argunov (1729–1802), na Russian serf painter, one of the founders of Russian school of portrait painting. J Jean Parisot de Valette St. Josephine Margaret Bakhita, F.D.C.C. Jack Gladstone, di leader wey lead di Demerara rebellion for 1823. Jackey Wright, na enslaved American woman wey sue for im freedom for di popular 1806 Virginia case, Hudgins v. Wright. Di Virginia Supreme Court talk say Wright look white and Native American, but di lower court under George Wythe dey try arrange say everybody fit be free, no matter di race. Jacob Notaras (fl. 1453), na Byzantine nobleman wey dem carry as slave by Sultan Mehmed di Conqueror when Constantinople fall. Jaja of Opobo (1821–1891), dem sell am around age 12 as slave for di Kingdom of Bonny wey dey Nigeria now. From young, di guy don show say e sabi business, so e find im way come out from slavery, become rich merchant prince and start di Opobo city-state, but British colonizers wey e wan challenge come end im career. James Armistead Lafayette (1760–1830), na enslaved African-American man wey serve di Continental Army for di American Revolutionary War as double agent. James Baugh, na enslaved American wey sue for im freedom because im mama granmama na Indian. James Hemings (1765–1801), na mixed-race American wey dem enslave later free am by Thomas Jefferson. E be di older brother of Sally Hemings and half-brother of Jefferson wife, Martha Wayles Skelton Jefferson, through dia papa John Wayles. James Leander Cathcart (1767–1843), diplomat and sailor wey sabi tell story about 11 years wey e dey enslave for Algiers and e do some big diplomatic work while for slavery. James Poovey (born c. 1769), Philadelphian wey dem enslave am from birth, but e find freedom through peaceful resistance. James M. Priest (1819–1883), 6th Vice President of Liberia, wey born inside slavery for Kentucky. James Somersett, man wey dey enslave for colonial America, escape for England in 1771 with help of Beta British people, wey lead to the big case Somerset v Stewart, wey change the slavery matter for Britain, but not for dem colonies. James W. C. Pennington (c. 1807–1870), African-American writer and abolitionist. Jan Ernst Matzeliger (1852–1889), Surinamese-American wey invent shoe making. Jane Johnson (1814/1827–1872), she gain freedom on July 18, 1855, with her two small pikin while dem dey Philadelphia with her owner. William Still and Passmore Williamson help am, dem be abolitionists for Pennsylvania Anti-Slavery Society. Jean Amilcar (c. 1781–1793), Senegalese son of Marie Antoinette. Jean-Jacques Dessalines (1758–1806), leader of Haitian Revolution and first leader of independent Haiti. Jean Marteilhe (1684–1777), French Huguenot wey be slave narrator, him be galley slave. Jean Saint Malo (died 1784), leader of runaway slaves (maroon colony) for Spanish Louisiana and he name dey for Saint Malo, Louisiana. Jean Parisot de Valette (1495–1568), knight of the Order of Saint John, wey dem capture and make galley slave for 1541 by Barbary pirates. After about one year, dem free am and him later become Grandmaster of the Order. Jefferson F. Long (1836–1901), first former slave wey serve for United States Congress and first African American wey represent Georgia for Congress. Jeffrey Hudson (1619–c. 1682), na English court guy wey spend 25 years for North Africa as slave. Jehan Alard (fl. 1580), na French Huguenot wey dey serve as galley slave for Italy, dem catch am for Inquisition. Jehu Grant (c. 1752–1840), na veteran from Revolutionary War. Jeremiah Haralson (1846–Unknown), na former slave and politician wey represent Alabama for House of Representatives during 44th Congress. Jermain Wesley Loguen (1813–1872), na African-American wey run away from slavery, be abolitionist, bishop of the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church, and e write slave narrative. Jim Cuff or Jim Crow be physically disabled African man wey people talk say e fit dey St. Louis, Cincinnati, or Pittsburgh, e song and dance inspire the blackface song 'Jump Jim Crow' wey white comedian Thomas D. Rice bring come. Rice popular creation make Jim Crow turn bad name for blacks, later dem use am for dem segregation laws. Jim Henson, na African wey escape slavery and publish im memoirs, Broken Shackles, for Canada. Joana da Gama (c. 1520–1586), na Portuguese maid-of-honor and writer. Joe, na man wey William B. Travis, one of the Texian commanders for Battle of Alamo enslaved. After dem lose, Mexican General Santa Anna spare Joe, hoping say e go fit convince other slaves for Texas to support Mexican government instead of Texian rebels. After that, Joe and some survivors go Gonzales, dem encourage dem to talk about the battle and tell Texian forces say Santa Anna army no fit beat. John Axouch (1087–1150), na Seljuk Turk wey dem capture as pikin by Byzantine Empire, dem free am and raise am for di imperial house as John II Komnenos wey go be emperor future friend. When him take over, dem put am for di army command and e be di emperor only close pal and confidant. John Boston (c. 1832–after 1880), na former slave wey dey represent Darlington County for South Carolina House during di Reconstruction era. Him dey involved for community work and, as minister, him start di Lamar Colored Methodist Church for 1865. By 1880, him don turn farmer. John 'Lit' Fleming, born for slavery for Virginia but later move go Edmundson, Arkansas with him papa and siblings. E go move go Memphis, Tennessee, and be part owner of di newspaper Memphis Free Speech with activist Ida B. Wells-Barnett. John Munroe Brazealle, with him mama, dem case dey Hinds v. Brazealle (1838), for di Supreme Court of Mississippi, wey deny di legality and inheritance rights for Mississippi for manumission wey Elisha Brazealle, wey dey Ohio, do to free dem. John Brown (c. 1810–1876), wey escape and write about di conditions for di Deep South of United States. John Casor, na di first person wey dey enslaved as result of civil case for di Thirteen Colonies (Virginia Colony, 1655). John Ezzidio (c. 1810–1872), na enslaved Nigerian man wey turn successful politician and businessman for Sierra Leone. John Adams Hyman (1840-1891), na former slave and politician wey serve for di North Carolina Senate and later be di first African American to represent di state for Congress. John Jea (born 1773), na enslaved African-American man wey popular for him 1811 autobiography, The Life, History, and Unparalleled Sufferings of John Jea, di African Preacher. John Joyce wey dem born am for slavery for Maryland, serve for United States Navy, do plenty work after, and kill shopkeeper, Sarah Cross; him life and crime dey for murder stories wey dem dey talk for him time. John R. Jewitt (1783–1821), small English man wey dey make armor, spend three years as prisoner for Maquinna of the Nuu-chah-nulth people for Pacific coast wey dey for Canada now. John R. Lynch (1847–1939), former slave and politician wey serve for Mississippi House of Representatives, be the first African American wey lead state legislative chamber. Later he go serve for United States House of Representatives and write The Facts of Reconstruction to answer dem wey dey talk bad about Reconstruction time policies. John Punch (fl. 1630s, live 1640), na enslaved African man wey dey for Virginia Colony for 17th century. For July 1640, Virginia Governor's Council punish am to serve for him whole life because e run go Maryland. Historians dey call Punch the 'first official slave for the English colonies,' and him case na the 'first time dem make slavery forever for the Chesapeake.' Historians also sabi say this one be the first legal line wey dem draw between Europeans and Africans for the colony, and na important step for slavery matter for United States. John S. Jacobs (1815–1873), wey dem born into slavery for North Carolina, escape, become abolitionist speaker and write slave memoir. Him be brother of famous author Harriet Jacobs. John Smith (1580–1631), English soldier, sailor, and author wey everybody sabi for him role wey help Jamestown colony survive for Virginia. Smith dey captured by Crimean Tatars for 1602 while him dey fight for Wallachia and dem make am slave for Ottoman Empire, but him escape come England by 1604. As Smith talk am: 'we all dey sell for slaves, like goat for market-place.' Jordan Anderson (1825–1907), wey people sabi well well for di letter wey he gree send to im old master when dem call am make he come back to serve dem. Jordan Winston Early (1814–after 1894) na American Methodist preacher wey get different blood, and dem write book about im life as slave. John White, na black boy wey Creeks capture for 1797, but he escape come back New Orleans, only to find Spanish people don carry am go back to slavery. John Ystumllyn, wey dem dey call Jac Du or Jack Black, na 18th-century Welsh gardener, di first Black person wey record well for North Wales. Jonathan Strong, na di person wey dem dey talk about one of di first legal cases wey concern slavery for Britain. José Antonio Aponte, na di leader of Aponte conspiracy. Joseph, na important person for Old Testament and Quran. Joseph Antonio Emidy (1775–1835), violinist wey born for Africa, die for Cornwall. Joseph Cinqué (1814–1879), wey dem know as Sengbe Pieh, na di leader of slave rebellion for di slave ship La Amistad and di case wey follow for Supreme Court, United States v. Amistad for 1839. Joseph Jackson Fuller (1825–1908), one of di earliest slaves wey gree free for Jamaica, at first under di partial freedoms of 1833 Slavery Abolition Act. Joseph Knight, wey succeed find im freedom through court case for Scotland in 1777, case wey make Scots law no go support slavery. Josephine Bakhita (c. 1869–1947), Sudanese-born Roman Catholic Canossian nun and saint. Joshua Glover, na fugitive wey slavery people chase am but abolitionists help am for Racine, Wisconsin in 1854. Josiah T. Walls (c. 1842–1905), former slave wey turn politician wey don serve for di two chambers of Florida State Legislature, na di first African American wey represent di state for Congress. Juan de Pareja (1606–1670), man wey Spanish artist Diego Velázquez enslave am. Velázquez teach am how to paint and free am for 1650. Juan Francisco Manzano (c. 1797–1854), Cuban poet. Juan Gros, free black soldier wey Upper Creek catch near Pensacola, sell am to white trader wey carry am go sell to Mitasuki chief Kinache, wey Spanish people come pay ransom for am. Juan Latino, dem dey call am "el negro Juan Latino", from Ethiopia, dem carry am go Spain when e small, e go school and become Latin professor for University of Granada, 16th-century Spain. Juan Ortiz, young nobleman from Andalucía wey Chief Ucita enslave for Florida to take revenge for wetin happen to am during the expedition. Juan Valiente (died 1553), black African slave wey get chance to be conquistador. E die during the battle of Tucapel against Mapuche people for Chile. Juana Ramírez (1790–1856), rebel soldier and heroine for Venezuelan War of Independence. Julia Chinn, enslave woman wey be octoroon and common-law wife to Richard Mentor Johnson, 9th Vice President of the United States. Julia Frances Lewis, mama to Amanda American Dickson through her owner’s son. Juliana, Guaraní woman from Paraguay, wey famous for kill her Spanish enslaver between 1538 and 1542 and encourage other women to do same. Julius Soubise (1754–1798) be freed Afro-Caribbean slave wey become popular fop for late eighteenth-century Britain. Julius Zoilos, enslave by Julius Caesar. After him get freedom, e shine for him city Aphrodisias after Caesar die. Jupiter Hammon (1711–before 1806), for 1761, become the first African-American writer wey dem publish for the present-day United States. Born for slavery, Hammon never get freedom. Dem dey consider am one of the founders of African-American literature. K Kösem Sultan (1589–1651), na slave concubine just like all di other pipo wey dey di Imperial Harem. Kunta Kinte (c. 1750–c. 1822), na character from di 1976 novel Roots: Di Saga of an American Family wey author Alex Haley base on one of him real ancestors. Kinte be man wey dey come from di Mandinka pipo, he grow for small village wey dem dey call Juffure for wetin we sabi as The Gambia, and dem raise am as Muslim before dem capture am and turn am slave for Virginia. Di historical accuracy of Haley's story get debate. Kodjo (c. 1803–1833), na Surinamese slave wey dem burn alive fit start di 1832 fire for Paramaribo, Dutch Suriname, maybe as way to show resistance. Kösem Sultan (1589–1651), na Ottoman enslaved woman, wey later become very powerful as wife, then mother and later grandmother of di Ottoman sultan during di 130-year wey dem dey call di Sultanate of Women. L Laurens de Graaf Lalla Balqis (1670–after 1721), na English woman wey dem capture and turn slave by Corsairs, dem include am for di harem of di Sultan of Morocco. Lamhatty, na Tawasa Indian wey dem capture and enslave by Creek; him escape. Lampegia (die after 730), Aquitanian noblewoman, wey Abd al-Rahman ibn Abd Allah al-Ghafiqi capture, wey in 730 take di Llivia Fortress, kill her husband Munuza and send her go as slave for di harem of Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik for Damascus. La Mulâtresse Solitude (1772–1802), na slave for di island of Guadeloupe wey dem free in 1794 when dem abolish slavery during di French Revolution. Dem execute am after she fight for freedom when slavery come back because Napoleon in 1802. Laurens de Graaf (c. 1653–1704), na Dutch pirate, mercenary, and naval officer, wey dem enslave by Spanish slave traders when dem capture am for wetin we dey call Netherlands, and dem carry am go di Canary Islands to work for plantation before 1674. Lear Green (around 1839–1860), one African-American woman from Maryland wey run go freedom for New York by fitting inside box make dem carry am. Leo Africanus (1494–1554), one Moor wey born for Granada, dem carry am go Morocco in 1498 because of Spanish wahala. As adult, he dey do diplomatic work. Crusaders catch am for Middle East, dem carry am go Rome make he be slave and convert to Christianity. Later, he get him freedom back and live him life for Tunis. Leofgifu, wey be dairy maid, na one enslaved woman for Anglo-Saxon England, dem mention am for her freedom paper. Leoflaed, another enslaved woman for Anglo-Saxon England, man buy her freedom wey describe her as “kinswoman.” Leonor de Mendoza, enslaved woman for colonial Mexico wey wan marry Tomás Ortega wey be slave for another master; when her master put Tomás for prison, she go church court beg make dem help, dem even threaten say if him no free Tomás, e go fit face excommunication. Letitia Munson (around 1820–after 1882), na midwife wey don come out from slavery, dem don free her for doing illegal abortion for Canada. Lewis Adams (1842–1905), man wey don free from slavery, wey co-found Tuskegee Institute, now Tuskegee University for Alabama. Lewis Hayden (1811–1889), na African-American man from Kentucky, later dem elect am for Massachusetts General Court. Lilliam Williams, settler from Tennessee wey Creek catch while she dey pregnant. Creek adopt her pikin (wey she name Molly and dem name Esnahatchee); dem keep the girl when Williams arrange her freedom. Liol, one Chinese man wey dem carry as slave by Mongol bannerman Soosar. E get semi-independent status for dem. In 1735, him pikin Fuji try claim say him and him brother be Manchus but e no work. Lorenzo de Apapis (around 1501–1586), priest and notary from Gozitan wey dey slavery during 1551 Ottoman attack for Gozo. Dem ransom am and free am by 1553. Lott Cary (about 1780–1828), wey dem born am as African-American slave for Virginia, buy im freedom around 1813, move go Liberia for 1822, where e serve as colonial administrator.[1] Louis Hughes (1832–1913), African-American man wey run away from slavery, author, and businessman.[2] Lovisa von Burghausen (1698–1733), Swedish writer wey publish story of how dem enslave am for Russia after dem capture am during the Great Northern War. Lucius Agermus, freedman of Agrippina the Elder.[3] Lucius Aurelius Hermia, freedman butcher wey his tombstone dey praise im marriage with his fellow freedwoman Aurelia Philematium.[4] Lucius Cancrius Primigenius, freedman of Clemens for one inscription wey dey thank am for breaking spells wey dey affect the city.[5] Lucius of Campione, wey lose lawsuit for 8th century about man Toto wey claim ownership of am.[6] Lucy, di black woman wey John Lang enslave. Dem capture her by di Creek wen she dey 12 years and keep her as slave for Creek land, where she born slave children and grandchildren.[7] Lucy Ann (Berry) Delaney (1830–1891), former enslaved woman, daughter of Polly Berry. Lucy Higgs Nichols (1838–1915), wey escape slavery, serve as nurse for di Civil War, member of di Grand Army of di Republic. Lucy Terry (about 1733–1821), dem kidnap her for Africa and enslave her, dem carry am go British colony of Rhode Island. She later gain freedom and become poet. Luís Gama (1830–1882), wey born free for Brazil, illegally sell am into slavery as pikin, he regain freedom as adult and become lawyer wey free plenty people from slavery without asking for money, especially for di Netto Case. Lunsford Lane (1803–after 1870), na enslaved African-American guy wey dey North Carolina wey buy him freedom and him family too. Him write one slave story. Lyde, na woman wey dem free from slavery by Roman empress Livia. Lydia, na woman wey dem shoot when she try run away from her captor wey dey whip am. Supreme Court of North Carolina talk say na legal in 1830 (check North Carolina v. Mann). Lydia Carter, dey call am 'Little Osage Captive,' dem catch am among Cherokee. Na Lydia Carter go pay money come free am and she name her. Osage try take am back, but she fall sick and die. Lydia Polite, na mother of Robert Smalls. M Mikhail Shchepkin Macuncuzade Mustafa Efendi (wey born around 1550s), na Ottoman qadi and poet wey suffer for slavery for Malta after di ship wey e dey waka for capture by di Knights Hospitaller for 1597. Dem release am for 1600, and e write story about im captivity. Madison Hemings (1805–1877), na di pikin of Sally Hemings and Thomas Jefferson. Mae Louise Miller (1943–2014), American woman wey dey live for modern slavery (peonage) till 1961. Malgarida (wey born around 1488), black African woman and boyfriend of di conquistador Diego de Almagro. For 1536, she be di first non-indigenous woman wey enter di land wey we call Chile today. Malik Ambar, wey born for 1548 as Chapu, na im birth-name for Harar, Adal Sultanate wey dey Ethiopia today. Im come from di Maya ethnic group wey don disappear. As small pikin, im parents sell am for slavery. Mir Qasim Al Baghdadi, one of di people wey own am, convert Chapu come Islam and give am di name Ambar, after e sabi sey di boy get sharp brain. Malik waka go India as slave. For India, e create mercenary group wey reach 1500 men. Di group dey for di Deccan region and local kings dey hire dem. Malik become popular Prime Minister for Ahmadnagar Sultanate, show sey e sabi how to manage. E also dey regarded as pacesetter for guerilla warfare for di area. Dem dey credit am with managing tax collection for plenty for di Deccan, wey set di ground for future collections. Di Siddis of Gujarat dey respect am well. E match di strength of di Mughals and Adil Shah of Bijapur, lift di low status of di Nizam Shah. Margaret Himfi (before 1380–after 1408), na Hungarian woman wey dem carry go enslave by Ottoman bad guys for late 14th century. She later become slave mistress for one rich Venetian man for Crete, wey she born two daughters for. Margaret manage come back to Hungary for 1405. Margaret Morgan dey involved for Prigg v. Pennsylvania case wey United States Supreme Court rule say federal Fugitive Slave Act no go allow Pennsylvania law wey stop blacks from chop dey carry dem go slavery, an dem clear Edward Prigg case because of dat. Marguerite Duplessis (c. 1718–after 1740) na Pawnee woman wey dem enslave for Montreal wey, for 1740, try sue for her freedom but e no work. Marguerite Scypion (c. 1770s–after 1836) na African-Natchez woman wey born for slavery for St. Louis wey go sue for her freedom and eventually win am. Maria al-Qibtiyya (died 637), wey dem dey call “Maria the Copt” or sometimes Maria Qupthiya, na Copt woman wey dem send give Muhammad as gift from Muqawqis, one Byzantine big man, for 628, an she become Muhammad concubine. She be mama to Muhammad son Ibrahim wey die for small pikin age. Her sister, Sirin, sef go meet Muhammad. Muhammad give am to him guy Hassan ibn Thabit. Maria die five years after Muhammad die for 632. Maria (died 1716), na leader for slave uprising for Curaçao. Maria Boguslavka (17th century), na Ukrainian woman wey dem enslave for harem, she start help 30 Cossacks run away from slavery. Maria Guyomar de Pinha (1664–1728), na royal chef from Siam wey get Japanese-Portuguese blood. Maria Perkins, na enslave woman from Virginia wey write letter to her husband for 1852 say dem don sell their son away. Maria ter Meetelen (1704–after 1751), na Dutch writer wey tell her own slave story, dem carry her go enslave by pirates and later sell am to Sultan of Morocco. Her 1748 biography na important witness statement about life of former slave. Mariah Bell Winder McGavock Otey Reddick (she die 1922), as she be small girl, dem give am as wedding gift to Carrie Winder when she marry John McGavock for 1848 inside Terrebonne Parish, Louisiana. Mariah wey born for Mississippi as enslaved person, dem carry am go Franklin, Tennessee, where she spend plenty of her life. Dem match her with Harvey Otey after him first wife Phebe die. Dem get plenty pikin, including two set of twins, wey born into slavery. When Civil War start, dem send her go Montgomery make she dey far from Union lines and possible freedom. She don appear for three novels: Widow of the South and Orphan Mother wey Robert Hicks write and also for book wey her great-grandson William 'Damani' Keene and him wife Carole 'Ife' Keene write titled Clandestine: The Times and Secret Life of Mariah Otey Reddick. Marianna Malińska (she die after 1797), Polish serf and Royal Ballet Dancer, dem donates am to king of Poland by will. Marie (she die 1759), enslaved Cree woman wey get death sentence for Trois-Rivières, New France. Marie-Cessette Dumas, woman wey Marquis Antoine de la Pailleterie enslaved, she be mama of General Thomas-Alexandre Dumas, and grandmother of famous author Alexandre Dumas, père. Marie-Josèphe dite Angélique (she die 1734), black Portuguese enslaved woman wey dem try and convict, beat and hang because she set fire to her woman owner house, wey burn plenty of wetin dem dey call Old Montreal now. Marie Thérèse Metoyer, na planter and businesswoman wey dey Natchitoches, Louisiana after dem free her. Mark, one man from Massachusetts wey dey enslaved by Captain John Codman. Mark body dey display for chains for public near Charlestown, Massachusetts for twenty years. That gruesome display of him body dey popular well-well for that time, and na the place wey dem display Mark body make Paul Revere mention am as landmark for him 1798 account of him 1775 midnight ride. Martha Ann Erskine Ricks (1817–1901), na African-American wey dey born enslave for Tennessee, later she become Americo-Liberian wey sabi quilt. Marthe Franceschini (1755–1799), na Italian wey dem capture and enslave by Corsairs, enter Sultan of Morocco harem. Mary, wey be George Washington Carver mama. Mary (wey die 1838), na teenager wey dem hang for murder wey she do to Vienna Brinker, two-year-old girl wey she dey take care of. Mary Black, one of three enslave women wey dem charge for witchcraft during Salem witch trials for 1692. Mary Calhoun, white woman and cousin of John C. Calhoun wey dem kidnap by Cherokee. She no fit come back home. Mary Edmonson (1832–1853), with her sister Emily, dem try escape for 1848 wey dem dey call Pearl incident, but Henry Ward Beecher and him church gather money help free dem. Mary Eliza Smith, dem dey call 'slave' or 'former slave,' na common-law wife of Michael Morris Healy and mama of him pikin dem, wey include James Augustine Healy, Patrick Francis Healy, Michael A. Healy, and Eliza Healy. Mary Fields (c. 1832–1914): she be first African-American female wey dey carry mail for United States star route. Mary Mildred Williams, Nee Botts (born 1847), na the original 'Poster Child' wey dem use her picture push abolitionist cause by dey spread 'White Slavery' for 1855. Mary Prince (c. 1788–after 1833), her life story motivate anti-slavery movement for England. The Master of Morton and e first son of Clan Oliphant Chief, two Scottish noble wey dem exile from Scotland after 1582 Raid of Ruthven. Dem ship wey dem travel with vanish for sea, and dem talk say na Dutch ship catch dem. Last report be say dem dey enslave for Turkish ship for Mediterranean. Dem raise plaque for church for Algiers to remember dem. Masúd, dem buy am when e be pikin from Khál-i Akbar, wey be Báb uncle, Masúd go serve Bahá'u'lláh for Acre. Matilda McCrear (around 1857–1940), last person wey survive for US wey gree say Transatlantic slave trade no easy. Dem carry am go for slave ship Clotilda. Mende Nazer (born around 1982), Nuba woman wey dem capture for Darfur carry am from Sudan go London, later she get refugee status and write book wey title Slave: My True Story (2002). Menecrates of Tralles, na Greek doctor wey dey for 1st century BC. Metaneira, woman for ancient Greece wey dem talk say na Nicarete property, wey dey sell am for body. Michael Shiner (1805–1880), en slaved laborer, painter entrepreneur, community leader and diary writer for Washington Navy Yard. Miguel de Buría (around 1510–around 1555), na slave and rebel. Miguel Perez na the Spanish name of boy wey be Yojuane people, wey dey among 149 Yojuane women and children wey dem carry go as captive for 1759 when some Spanish and Apaches come attack their camp along Red River for northern Texas. Many of dem wey dem capture die from smallpox, the ones wey survive, dem go still enslave dem. Dem sell the boy to Spanish soldier wey give am that Spanish name. Perez become Hispanicized Indian for San Antonio but he still dey connect with his Yojuane people. For 1786, Perez go persuade the Yojuanes and their Tonkawa friends to fight Lipan Apache, wey he do am well. Mikhail Matinsky (1750–1820), Russian serf wey be scientist, dramatist, librettist and opera composer. Michał Rymiński (e don die after 1797), Polish serf wey be Royal Ballet Dancer, wey donate am to king of Poland by him will. Mikhail Shchepkin (1788–1863), Russian serf actor. Mikhail Shibanov, Russian serf painter wey dey active for 1780s. Mikhail Tikhanov (1789–1862), Russian serf artist. Mina Kolokolnikov (1708?–1775?), Russian serf painter and teacher. Mingo, di 15–16 years old boy wey Titsworth family use as slave for Tennessee, dem capture am for 1794 by Creeks when dem raid di house. Minerva (Anderson) Breedlove, na Madam C.J. Walker mama. Moses A. Hopkins (1846–1886), African-American diplomat, U.S. minister to Liberia. Murad Agha (c. 1480–c. 1556), Italy-born Ottoman eunuch and naval officer, wey turn Beylerbey of Tripoli. Mustapha Khaznadar (1817–1878), him be Christian Greek wey dem capture during 1822 Massacre of Chios, change am to Islam wey dem call am Mustapha, sell am for Constantinople to envoy of Husainid Dynasty. Him grow for Mustapha Bey family, later him son Ahmad I Bey. Him first be prince private treasurer before him become Ahmad state treasurer (khaznadar). Him rise to top offices for Tunisian state, marry Princess Lalla Kalthoum for 1839, turn lieutenant-general of di army, become bey for 1840 and de president of Grand Council from 1862 to 1878. Muyahid ibn Yusuf ibn Ali (11th century), na di leader of Saqaliba (slaves wey dem say be Slavic origin) for Dénia, Spain. As Caliphate of Córdoba dey fall, him and him followers rebel, free demself, control di city and establish di Taifa of Dénia, wey at di peak dey reach as far as di island of Majorca. N Nafisa al-Bayda, Egyptian investor wey dem dey call "white slave", na hin dey buy as concubine slave. Nancy, wey dem dey call Ann, na di plaintiff for di 1799 New Brunswick habeas corpus case R v Jones. Nancy Brown, Nancy Caffrey, na white captive wey Creek dey enslave. When trader John O'Reilly try to ransom her and Elsey Thompson, dem tell am say dem no capture dem to go back, but to work. Nanny of di Maroons, wey dem dey call Granny Nanny and Queen Nanny, na di leader of di Jamaican Maroons. Nat Turner (1800–1831), wey escape come lead revolt for Southampton County, Virginia. Nathan McMillian, wey as free man sue to make him pikin enter local "Croatan Indian" school, say e dey for all non-white pikin, and say him pikin get Croatan blood for their mama side. Nathaniel Booth (1826–1901), wey escape slavery for Virginia and settle for Lowell, Massachusetts. For 1851, di people of Lowell buy him freedom from slave hunters. Neaera, formerly enslaved woman and prostitute wey di Athenian Stephanus marry against di law around 340 BC, according to Demosthenes speech. Nero Hawley (1742–1817), wey be formerly enslaved freeperson wey serve for Continental Army during di American Revolutionary War, and dem bury am for Trumbull, Connecticut. Newport Gardner (1746–1826), na formerly enslaved freeperson for colonial Newport, Rhode Island. Ng Akew (died 1880), be Tanka enslaved woman for British Hong Kong wey famous for piracy scandal. Nicarete, na woman for ancient Greece, wey dem describe for Against Neaera di freedwoman of Charisius di Elean and him wife wey be cook Hippias, and as her dey own and sell several women around 340 BC. Saint Nino (c. 280–c. 332), na 4th-century Roman woman from Constantinople wey dem dey respect well well for bring Christianity come Georgia. Some account of her life talk say she originally come Georgia as slave wey dem kidnap from her homeland. Nurbanu Sultan (about 1525–1583), wey dem call Cecilia Venier-Baffo before, na enslaved noblewoman from Venice wey become the favorite wife of Ottoman sultan Selim II, and her wan dey very powerful as mother to sultan Murad III. O Omar ibn Said, Senegal scholar wey don dey slavery for North Carolina more than 50 years, around 1850. Oenomaus, Gallic gladiator wey lead slaves wey dey rebel during Third Servile War. Olaudah Equiano (c. 1745–1797), wey dem sabi as Gustavus Vassa, strong African-British writer wey dey fight for abolition, but dem no sure where e born. Omar ibn Said (1770–1864), writer and Islamic scholar wey come from Senegal wey dem carry go USA for 1807, spend di rest of im life for slavery. Onesimus, slave of Philemon from Colossae wey run away, meet St. Paul, and Paul change am. Paul send am back go Philemon with letter, wey be Epistle to Philemon. Ignatius of Antioch talk about an Onesimus wey be Bishop of Ephesus for early 2nd century, but nobody sure if na di same people. Onesimus, slave for colonial Boston wey help spread knowledge about smallpox inoculation. Onesimos Nesib (c. 1856–1931), Ethiopian wey Swedish missionaries buy out of slavery when e be pikin. E work with another former slave Aster Ganno to translate Bible into Oromo language. Oney Judge (1773–1848), wey dem enslave for Martha Washington family, and later for di First Lady, Judge dey work for Mount Vernon and all over as personal servant to Martha Washington until she escape for 1796 go Portsmouth New Hampshire. Ottobah Cugoano, wey dem sabi as John Stuart (c. 1757–after 1791), be abolitionist, political activist, and natural rights philosopher from West Africa wey dey active for Britain. Owen Fitzpen (c. 1582–1636), English merchant wey Barbary pirates carry capture for 1620 but escape later. Owen Breedlove, papa of Madam C.J. Walker. P Pallas, secretary wey dey work for Roman emperor Claudius. Pasion, na enslaved Athenian guy wey be banker. E later get dat rare chance for freedman to get citizen. Pata Seca (real name na Roque José Florêncio), wey come from Angola for 1828, dem capture am come Brazil as slave, na tall, strong guy: 2m18 tall plus over 140 kg weight. E dey work as breeding slave, e don born over 200 pikin. When dem cancel slavery for Brazil for 1888, e get land, wey e live with e wife and 9 children. Saint Patrick, dem kidnap am from Britain, enslave for Ireland, escape go Britain, come back to Ireland as missionary. Patsey (born around 1830), na enslaved African-American wey dey live for mid-1800s for South Carolina. Paul Jennings (1799–1874), na personal servant wey dem enslave under President James Madison during e White House time, e buy im freedom for 1845 from Daniel Webster. E publish di first White House memoir, 1865's A Colored Man's Reminiscences of James Madison. Paul Smith, na free black wey accuse di Cherokee headman Doublehead say e kidnap am and force am into bondage. Pedro Camejo (1790–1821), na Venezuelan soldier for di Venezuelan War of Independence. Peggy Margaret Titsworth, dem enslave am at 13 years for three years, after Creek raid for 1794 on her Tennessee home. Pete and Hannah Byrne, na freed slaves from Napoleon Bonaparte Byrne family wey travel from Missouri to California by land (six months journey) for 1859, dem leave di farm for Missouri carry six adults (including Pete & Hannah), di four Byrne children and cattle come settle for Berkeley, California. Pete and Hannah be di first blacks wey dey live for Berkeley and among di first African-Americans for California. Peter Salem (c. 1750–1816), African American wey born for slavery for Massachusetts, serve as soldier for American Revolutionary War. Petronia Justa, woman wey dey Herculaneum, sue her owner say she born after her mama don freedom; Vesuvius eruption preserve di court matter. Phaedo of Elis, wey dem capture for war, carry go Athens, force am to do prostitution, later become Socrates student wey free am, give him name to one Plato dialogue, Phaedo, and him be famous philosopher. Phaedrus (c. 15 BCE–c. 50 CE), Roman storyteller. Praskovia Kovalyova-Zhemchugova dress fine for Les mariages samnites by André Ernest Modeste Grétry. Phillis (die 1755), woman wey dey Massachusetts, enslave by Captain John Codman. She and her people plot to poison her owner as dem no fit take di wahala from their master, but dem burn am to death for 1755. Phillis Wheatley (1753–1784?), Colonial American poet, second published African-American poet and first African-American woman wey publish. Phoebe, woman wey dey slavery wey sue for her freedom for Tennessee, with her pikin Davy and Tom, say dem be descendants of one enslaved Indian woman wey prove say dem no suppose hold dem. Philocrates, wey dey slavery under Roman reformer Gaius Gracchus. He stay with him master when Gracchus dey run from him enemies, everybody don leave am. When dem reach one grove wey dey sacred to di Furies, Philocrates help Gracchus kill himself first before he take him own life, some talk say dem kill am after him refuse to let go him master body. Phormion, one enslaved man from Athens wey dey do banking. For him old age, dem give am rare honor of citizenship as free man. Pierre d'Espagnac, sometimes Pierre d'Espagnal (1650–1689), na French Jesuit missionary, dem enslave am by di Siamese. Pope Pius I (e die around 154), na Bishop for Rome from around 140 to 154, when dem dey reign under Roman emperor Antoninus Pius. E be brother to freedman Hermas, so e fit don be former slave too, but dem no talk am clear for di small records wey dey about e life. Pleasant Richardson, wey escape slavery become Union soldier plus property owner for Fincastle, Virginia. Polly, di subject of 1820 Indiana Supreme Court case Polly v. Lasselle, wey make all slaves wey dey Indiana go free. Polly Berry, wey dem also dey call Polly Crockett or Polly Wash, win freedom suit for 1843 for St. Louis, Missouri plus she free her daughter Lucy Ann Berry too. Politoria, wey get lead curse tablet for ancient Rome; na curse on Clodia Valeria Sophrone say make she no fit get Politoria into her power. E look like say she be slave-courtesan wey dey fear say dem go send am go brothel. Praskovia Kovalyova-Zhemchugova (1768–1803) na Russian serf actress plus soprano opera singer. Primus (1700–1791), wey Daniel Fowle from Portsmouth, New Hampshire enslave. Primus dey run di press for di New Hampshire Gazette wey be di oldest newspaper wey still dey print for America. Prince na di slave of Choctaw man wey name Richard Harkins. E vex say him owner no give di slaves Christmas celebration, Prince kill am sharply and dump di body for river for 1858. Prince Boston (born 1750), sue for him freedom and win for 1773 U.S. jury trial. Prince Estabrook (1741–1830), wey Benjamin Estabrook enslave; join fight for Continental Army and get wound for di Battle of Lexington and Concord. Prince Whipple (1750–1796), enslave by American General William Whipple. Prosper, na enslaved man wey dem murder for 1807 for Virgin Islands by him owner Arthur William Hodge, and Hodge go face trial and dem execute am for 1811, na di first case wey dem fit record like dat. One pregnant Thrall wey we no fit remember the name, dey run from her life for 11th-century Oslo, Hallvard Vebjørnsson carry am go hide for him boat. Dem people come attack dem, shoot dem with arrow, and both of dem die. Because of dat, dem make Hallvard saint and him be patron saint for Oslo. Publilius Syrus (fl. 85–43 BCE), na Latin writer wey sabi plenty for him wise sayings. E be Syrian wey dem carry come Italy as slave. Q Quamina Gladstone, him be Jack Gladstone papa and e dey involve for Demerara rebellion wey happen for 1823. Quassi van Timotebo or Kwasimukamba (1692–1787) na Surinam slave, wey don free and na Maroon hunter for Dutch Surinam. Him name dey for plant genus wey dem call Quassia. Quock Walker, wey dem dey call Kwaku or Quok Walker too, him sue and win him freedom for 1781 because of new Massachusetts Constitution (1780) wey talk say all men dem dey born free and equal. Qutb-ud-din Aybak or Qutbuddin Aibak (1150–1210), na Turk wey don suffer slavery before, become soldier, be first Sultan of Delhi, for India e start "slave dynasty". R Rachel, na the person wey dey the 1834 Rachel v. Walker case for Supreme Court of Missouri wey rule say U.S. Army officer go lose him slave if e carry the person go place wey slavery no dey allowed. Dis ruling come dey used as example for 1856 for Dred Scott v. Sandford case for U.S. Supreme Court. Rachel of Kittery, Maine (she die 1695), na enslaved woman wey her owner kill, and e case set legal example for New England. Rachel Knight (she die 1889), at first na enslaved by Newton Knight grandpapa, wey be popular Southern Unionist wey during American Civil War, e no gree Confederacy, wey dem dey call Free State of Jones. After the war, Rachel come get freedom with other slaves. By mid-1870s, Knight don separate from him wife, Serena, come marry Rachel. During this time, Knight grown son, Mat (from him first wife), come marry Rachel grown daughter, Fannie, from her previous relationship. Knight daughter, Molly, come marry Rachel son, Jeff, turns three interracial families for the community. Newton and Rachel Knight born plenty children before she die for 1889. Rebecca Huger, na enslaved woman wey General Benjamin F. Butler free for New Orleans, and dem talk for Harper's Weekly say she be white, come dey go school for freed slaves for Philadelphia. Richard Preston (around 1791–1861), e comot from slavery come be religious leader and abolitionist for Nova Scotia. Robert Blake, e get Medal of Honor as sailor during American Civil War, after e become 'contraband' (slaves wey Union forces free) come join. Robert Drury (1687–1743/1750), English sailor wey shipwreck for Madagascar island in 1702, e dey slave there till 1717. Robert J. Patterson (1809–1884), e run from slavery for Virginia come be restaurateur for Saint John, New Brunswick. Robert Smalls (1839–1915), e take charge of Confederate ship, carry the ship and enslaved people go freedom, make Union allow African Americans join; later e serve for South Carolina Senate before e enter U.S. House of Representatives wey represent South Carolina's 5th congressional district. Robin and Polly Holmes, na dem be plaintiffs for the 1853 Holmes v. Ford court case for Oregon Territory wey free their pikin dem. The verdict confirm say slavery no dey legal for that area as Organic Laws of Oregon talk when the place become U.S. territory. Rosina Downs, na enslaved woman wey General Benjamin F. Butler free for New Orleans, dem describe am for Harper's Weekly say she look white, and she come school for emancipated slaves for Philadelphia. Roustam Raza (1783–1845), na Napoleon Bonaparte's Armenian bodyguard. S Solomon Northup wey come from Twelve Years a Slave Sabuktigin (c. 942–997), full name Abu Mansur Sabuktigin, be small pikin wey dem carry go sell for slavery, but e rise come be general, then king wey start the Ghaznavid Empire for medieval Iran. Safiye Sultan (c. 1550 – c. 1619), na enslaved woman wey be Albanian, dem put am for harem of Ottoman sultan Murad III, and she be the mama of sultan Mehmed III. Salem Poor (1747–1802), na enslaved African-American man wey buy im freedom, and e be war hero during the American Revolutionary War. Sally Hemings (1773–1835), na mixed-race woman wey dem enslave by Thomas Jefferson, plenty people dey believe say she born six pikin for am, four of dem survive grow reach adult. Sally Miller or Salomé Müller (born c. 1814), na enslaved American woman wey file her freedom case for Louisiana based on say she dey claim say she be free German immigrant and indentured servant. Sally Seymour (died 1824), na American pastry chef and restaurateur, enslaved woman wey dem free and she come own her own slaves too. Salonia na di second wife of Cato di Elder. Salvius, wey dem sabi as Tryphon, be leader of di 104 BCE slave rebellion for Sicily wey dem call di Second Servile War. Sambo (died 1736), na enslaved boy wey enter Sunderland Point, near Lancaster, England, around 1736 from West Indies as captain servant. Dem bury am for grave wey no dey blessed inside one field near small village of Sunderland Point, Lancashire, England. Sambo, a black guy wey dey under Tiger King, one Lower Creek, wey tell traveler William Bartram say Sambo be him family property. Samson Rowlie (wey die after 1588), wey dem sabi as Hassan Aga, Chief Eunuch and Treasurer for Algiers. Samuel Benedict (1792–1854), wey born be African-American slave, later become free and waka go Liberia, where he turn politician and judge. Samuel Green (c. 1802–1877), one enslaved man wey buy him freedom and freedom for him loved ones, dey involve for Underground Railroad, and dem lock him up for 1857 because e carry Uncle Tom's Cabin. Samuel Ringgold Ward (1817–c. 1866), African-American wey dey fight for abolition and be journalist. Sandy Jenkins, na person wey dey enslave wey Frederick Douglass talk for him first autobiography. Sanker, na manservant wey dey work for Samuel R. Watkins, wey write "Co. Aytch" (1882), wey dey tell how him life be as soldier for the 1st Tennessee Infantry Regiment. Sarah Forbes Bonetta (1843–1880), na Egbado princess from Yoruba wey lose her people during fight, sell into slavery as small pikin, but Captain Frederick E. Forbes from Royal Navy come rescue am carry am go UK wey she con become goddaughter to Queen Victoria. Sarah Basset (die 1730), wey dey enslave for Bermuda; dem execute am for poison matter wey involve three people. Sarah Johnson (1844–1920), her life for the first president plantation dey published for book wey dem call "Sarah Johnson's Mount Vernon." Satrelanus, from Gaul, wey Ermedruda sell give Toto for Milan for 725. Scipio Africanus (around 1702–1720). Scipio Moorhead (fl. 1773–1775), na enslaved African-American artist. Scipio Vaughan (around 1784–around 1840), dem carry am komot from him place for Africa young, sell am go slavery for United States. E turn skilled artisan for Camden, South Carolina; manage get him freedom and inspire plenty of him pikin dem. Septimus Clarke (1787–1859), wey dem don enslave before, him turn e get success as farmer and leader for community for Nova Scotia. Servius Tullius, ancient King of Rome wey people talk sey e start life as slave (but some people dey argue this matter, both Romans and modern historians). Seymour Burr (1754/1762–1837), e fight for Continental Army for American Revolution. Shadrach Minkins (1814–1875), na fugitive wey slavery no fit catch, dem save am by abolitionists for Boston in 1850. Shaghab (dem don die 933), mother and double ruler of the eighteenth Abbasid Caliph al-Muqtadir. Silas Chandler (1838–1919), na man wey dey follow him enslavers for Confederate Army during American Civil War. Sojourner Truth (around 1797–1883), na abolitionist and women's rights activist. Solomon Bayley (1771–1839), write book for 1825 about him life as slave. Solomon Northup (1807–around 1863), na farmer, pro violinist, and free-born black man from New York wey dem lure go Washington, D.C., wey slavery dey legal, kidnap am and sell am for South. E dey enslaved for Louisiana from 1841 till dem rescue am and liberate am for 1853. Na author of Twelve Years a Slave. Solomon Flores, na enslaved man from northern Alabama. Sosias the Thracian, na enslaved Athenian man, later freedman, wey Nicias carry enslave, later rent am one thousand slaves for mining work. Spartacus (around 111–71 BCE), na gladiator and rebel leader during the Servile Revolt. Spendius be Campanian wey run come out from slavery, serve as Carthaginian mercenary for di First Punic War, den later be general for Mercenary War wey dem fight against Carthage. Stefan Holnicki (we no sabi when e die after 1797), Polish serf and Royal Ballet Dancer, don give plenty to di king of Poland by im will. Stephen Bishop (about 1821–1857), na mixed-race man wey dem hold for Kentucky, him dey known as one of di first explorers and guides for Mammoth Cave. Sue, na black woman wey James Brown enslave, dem capture am with plenty members for di Brown family and other slaves by Chickamaugas. When di warrior wey catch am threaten another captive, di other captor come threaten say dem go kill Sue for revenge. James' pikin Joseph later kidnap Sue, her children and grandchildren—total eight—for di revenge wey dey follow im captivity. Suhayb ar-Rumi (born around 587), wey people sabi as Suhayb ibn Sinan, na child wey dey enslave for Byzantine Empire, escape as young man go Mecca, come join Muhammad and become big friend for di early Muslim community. Sumayyah bint Khayyat (550–615), na woman wey dem enslave for Mecca; she be one of di first seven pipo wey convert to Islam by Prophet Muhammad early for him work. Dem torture am and kill am because of di new faith, she become di first Muslim Shahid. Squanto (1585–1622), wey dem also sabi as Tisquantum, na Native American from wetin dem dey call coastal Massachusetts now; dem capture am by English pirates and sell am as slave. Later, he free and return go New England, meet di Pilgrims for di Mayflower in 1621. Subh of Cordoba (940–999), na enslave concubine of a Caliph, na mother and regent of di next Caliph of Cordoba inside di 10th century. Suk-bin Choe (1670–1718), na consort of Sukjong of Joseon and mother of Yeongjo of Joseon. Surya Devi (we no sabi when she die, 715), na Indian princess wey dem enslave by Caliph Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik. T Taras Shevchenko Tatyana Shlykova Dem dey talk say na Terence portrait from Vatican Codex 3868. E fit be copy from 3rd-century original. Taras Shevchenko (1814–1861): Na di biggest Ukrainian poet, artist and illustrator wey come from serf family. E artist padi buy am freedom for 1838. Tatyana Shlykova (1773–1863), Russian serf wey be ballerina and opera singer. Thanadelthur (c. 1697–1717), woman from Chipewyan Dënesųłı̨ne nation wey help as guide and interpreter for Hudson's Bay Company. Thomas Fuller, African American man wey dey suffer for Virginia, dem sabi am for im math skills. Thomas Pellow (1704–1745), wey pirates from Barbary enslave, carry am go Morocco, dem select am and torture am by Ismail Ibn Sharif. E escape after 23 years, come back home to Cornwall. Thomas Peters (1738–1792), wey first be Thomas Potters, one of di founding fathers of Sierra Leone. Dem don enslave am before, e run come out from North Carolina during American Revolutionary War. Peters na Black Loyalist member of British Black Company of Pioneers, e become sergeant, settle down, and marry for Nova Scotia. E even recruit African settlers for Nova Scotia to colonize Sierra Leone, later become leader for Freetown. Thomas Sims (born 1834), African American man wey escape slavery for Georgia come Boston, Massachusetts, but dem catch am back under Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, but e escape go Boston again. Thomas-Alexandre Dumas (1762–1806), French general and papa of Alexandre Dumas. Thumal, administrator of justice for di eighteenth Abbasid Caliph al-Muqtadir. T. Aelius Dionysius, freedman for di late Roman Empire, wey create stela for himself, im wife, and Aelius Perseus, im fellow freedman, and dem and dem wey come after dem. T. Claudius Dionysius, him be freedman wey him freedwoman wife Claudia Prepontis build funeral altar for am. Di hands wey dem hold show say dem marry legit, na only after dem get dem freedom. Terence (c. 195/185–c. 159 BCE), full name Publius Terentius Afer, na Roman playwright and comic poet wey write before and maybe after him freedom. Tiberius Claudius Narcissus, na freedman wey dey serve as secretary to Roman emperor Claudius for 1st century. Tituba, na 17th-century Native American woman wey Samuel Parris from Danvers, Massachusetts enslave. She be di first person wey dem accuse of witchcraft during di 1692 Salem witch trials. Tomás Ortega, na enslaved man for colonial Mexico wey try marry Leonor de Mendoza, another woman wey dey under different master. When dat man lock Tomás, Leonor beg church court for help, dem threaten say if him no free Tomás, dem go excommunicate am. Titus Kent (1733–18??), him dey serve for di Samuel Kent family for Suffield Connecticut. Samuel Kent wey live from 1698–1772, wey write for him will say Titus go be Elihu Kent pikin. Revolutionary War records show say Titus serve for different regiments from 1775 to 1783. Toussaint L'Ouverture (1743–1803), na freedman wey lead di slave revolt wey bring Haiti independence. Tula (wey die 1795), na leader of di Curaçao Slave Revolt of 1795. Turgut Reis (1485–1565), wey dem sabi as Dragut, na famous admiral for Ottoman Navy wey Genoese capture for Corsica and force am work as galley slave for near four years. Finally, him fellow admiral Barbarossa come rescue am, wey lay siege to Genoa and secure Turgut Reis release for big ransom of 3,500 gold ducats. After dat, Turgut Reis continue him naval career (wey include di enslavement of plenty other people). U Ukawsaw Gronniosaw (1705–1775), wey dem sabi as James Albert, na freedman wey turn writer. Him autobiography be di first one wey African publish for Britain. Ursula Granger (1738–1800), na woman wey Thomas Jefferson enslave, she be cook, dairymaid, laundress, and wet nurse. Dem dey call am di "Queen of Monticello". V Vasily Tropinin Vincent de Paul Vasily Tropinin (1776–1857), na Russian serf wey sabi paint. Venture Smith (1729–1805), na African wey dem capture as pikin, carry am go American colonies as slave. When e grow, e buy im freedom and im family too – im wife Meg and di pikin dem: Hannah, Solomon and Cuff. Di schoolteacher wey write im story, na person wey e talk to for im old age. Venus Vance (died c. 1850), na enslaved American woman wey live and work for Mira Margaret Baird Vance plantation. Di Vestmenn ("West Men" for Old Norse, wey dey point to di Irish) be group of Irish slaves wey Hjörleifr Hróðmarsson carry go Iceland. E no treat dem well, so dem kill am and run go one group of islands. Ingólfur Arnarson, Hjörleifur's blood brother, chase dem come kill all of dem. Though we no sabi their individual names, dem memory still dey for Iceland geography, di islands wey dem seek refuge dey known as "Vestmannaeyjar": "Islands of di West Men" (i.e. of di Irish). Vincent de Paul (1581–1660), na French priest wey dem dey honor as saint for di Catholic Church. Dem capture am by Turkish pirates, sell am as slave, but e come free for 1607. Vindicius, na ancient Roman slave wey find out Tarquin's plan to take back power. Vibia Calybeni, na freedwoman for late Roman Empire wey weirdly call herself madam for im tombstone. Virginia Boyd, na enslaved American woman wey write letter to R.C. Ballard, dey beg make dem no sell am with her pikin for strangers. Ballard wan sell am die as Judge Samuel Boyd, di children papa, tell am make e hide her existence from im family. Violet Ludlow, na American woman wey don sell into slavery plenty times even though she dey claim say she be free white woman. Virginia Demetricia (1842–after 1867), na enslaved Aruban wey dem sabi say she be heroine wey dey fight against slavery. Vitalis, ancient enslaved Roman. One inscription dey talk about enslaved boy, Iucundus, as son of Gryphus and Vitalis. Volumnia Cytheris, na enslaved and later freedwoman for ancient Rome. She be actress and courtesan, her lovers include Brutus, Mark Antony, and Cornelius Gallus; how she reject Gallus dey inspire Virgil's tenth Eclogue. W Photograph of Wes Brady, ex-slave, wey dem snap for Marshall, Texas, for 1937 as part of Federal Writers' Project Slave Narrative Collection. Wes Brady (born 1849), from Marshall, Texas, dey among di Federal Writers' Project Slave Narrative Collection. West Ford (c. 1784–1863), wey George Washington enslave and serve as caretaker for Mount Vernon. Him dey claim say he be Washington biological son. William Ansah Sessarakoo (c. 1736–1770), African prince wey suffer for transatlantic slave trade, get freedom, and later become slave trader himself. William Beverly Nash (1822–1888), na North Carolina state senator. William Ellison (1790–1861), na enslaved man wey mixed race and after him gain freedom, him too become slaveholder wey dey produce cotton. William Gardner (born 1759), na man wey James Madison enslave wey Madison sell into indentured servitude for seven years before him dey free and dey work as merchant's agent. William Henry wey dem dey call 'Jerry', na man wey escape slavery for Missouri but dem catch am for Syracuse, New York for 1851 before some abolitionists come rescue am from Fugitive Slave Law wahala. William A. Jackson, na man wey Jefferson Davis keep as slave wey run come out for 1861 with plenty military gist about Confederate forces. William Andrew Johnson, mixed-race American wey President Andrew Johnson, Dolly Johnson son carry come as slave. William D. Gibbons (1825–1886), na domestic servant wey later become African Baptist minister after dem free am. William Dorsey Swann (1860–1925), wey born into slavery for Maryland, later become LGBT activist and di first person wey fit self-identify as drag queen. William Jones na slave wey Ulysses S. Grant acquire from him father-in-law for 1858. Jones dey thirty-five years old when dem carry am come. Even though Grant no be abolitionist, he no dey fit force slave to work. For March 1859, Grant free William with manumission deed, wey fit worth $1,000, when he need money. Di case of William Jones catch plenty historians eye, and e dey enter debate about Grant attitude to slavery. William Lee (1750–1828), na man wey George Washington keep as personal servant during di American Revolutionary War, and na di only person wey Washington free from slavery by im will. William Okeley na Englishman wey Algerian pirates capture keep as slave. William Wells Brown (c. 1814–1884), na African-American writer wey escape from slavery for 1834. Wilson Chinn, na African American wey dey for 1863 photo as 'branded slave.' Wulfstan be man wey dey suffer for Anglo-Saxon England, him two pikin and stepdaughter join am. Dem free dem with him madam Æthelgifu will. Wu Rui (15th century), be eunuch wey don suffer for wetin be Vietnam now. E be the smallest of thirteen Chinese men from Wenchang wey ship waka stray and dem carry dem go slave under Lê dynasty. According to Ming Shi-lu, dem turn him teammates to farm workers but dem cut Wu Rui and make am attendant for Imperial Citadel of Thang Long. After plenty years, when Vietnamese king die for 1497, dem boost him to military position for northern Vietnam. One soldier tell am say if e fit escape go back China, and Wu Rui take the chance waka go Longzhou. The local chief wan sell am back to the Vietnamese, but Pingxiang magistrate come rescue am and later send am go Beijing to work as palace eunuch. Wyatt Lee (c. 1822–1863), na the first husband of Dr. Rebecca Davis Lee Crumpler. E escape from slavery for Virginia. X Xenon, be Athenian man wey dey suffer and be banker. Xing be the main wife of Gaozong, brother to Qinzong, wey be Chinese Emperor for Song Dynasty. In 1127, Jurchen come capture Kaifeng during Jin–Song Wars, and dem carry more than 3000 people go exile for Manchuria during wetin dem call Jingkang Incident. Xing na one of the Imperial consorts, concubines, palace women and eunuchs wey dem capture, and dem share among Jurchen as slaves. Xing husband Gaozong wey escape, come be new Emperor and declare Xing Empress for absentia, but e no fit free am. She dey suffer for captivity, wey her captors dey crave for am, she try kill herself to run come out but e no work, and she die for captivity in 1139. Y Yaqut al-Hamawi (1179–1229), di Arab wey sabi plenty tori and geography, e be known for im big writings about di Muslim world. Dem sell am into slavery for 12th-century Syria, carry am go Baghdad, but dem give am beta education and later dem free am. Yasār (7th century), na Christian man wey dem catch for di war of Khalid ibn al-Walid, wey be friend of Muhammad. Dem carry Yasār go Medina, make am Qays ibn Makhrama ibn al-Muṭṭalib ibn ʿAbd Manāf ibn Quṣayy slave. E accept Islam, dem free am, and e be come him mawlā, so e get di nisbat al-Muṭṭalibī. E get three pikin – Mūsā, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān, and Isḥāq. Him grandpapa, Ibn Ishaq, be important early Arab historian. Yasuke, na 16th-century African man wey travel go Japan for Jesuit missionary service, Alessandro Valignano. Dem give am to Oda Nobunaga, Yasuke become di confident of di daimyō and dem give am official status as trusted retainer. York (1770–before 1832), na African-American man wey dem enslave by William Clark, wey be part of di Lewis and Clark Expedition. Z Zofia Potocka Zalmoxis, na Dacian wey dem enslave by Pythagoras for Samos according to Herodotus. Zalmoxis learn philosophy from him owner and other wise Greeks. Eventually dem free am, him gather plenty wealth, go back him land, wey he convert di Thracians to him beliefs, dem dey respect am for him wisdom and later generations dey worship am as god. Zayd ibn Haritha (c. 581–629), dem give am to Muhammad's wife Khadijah, dem free am, adopt am, come sabi am as Zayd ibn Muhammad. Ziryab (789–857), wey dem also dey call Abul-Hasan Alí Ibn Nafí, na Muslim singer, musician, and polymath wey introduce crop asparagus to Europe. == List of slaves == jjlv8necnonjn66bfpciifxknq29p55 69182 69179 2025-07-06T00:40:23Z Abdul-Rauf Moshie 1580 /* List of slaves */ 69182 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Slavery}} [[File:Livorno_Quattro_mori_monument_07.JPG|thumb|375x375px|One out of four statues wey dey show chained slaves for base of the Monument of the Four Moors for Livorno, Italy, wey dem fit be real slaves o.]] Slavery be one kind social-economic system wey people dey suffer: dem no get freedom and dem dey force to do work or service without pay. Dem people wey dey in dis condition, we dey call dem slaves or enslaved people. Dis na list of some important historical people wey don dey enslave for some time for dem life, we go arrange am from A to Z based on dem first name. * A * B * C * D * E * F * G * H * I * J * K * L * M * N * O * P * Q * R * S * T * U * V * W * X * Y * Z * See also A Abraham be enslaved black man wey dey carry message between frontier and Charles Town for war with Cherokee, wey fit free am. Abdul Rahman Ibrahima Sori (1762–1829), na prince from West Africa wey dem hold for United States for 40 years till President John Quincy Adams free am. Abram Petrovich Gannibal (1696–1781), dem adopt am by Russian czar Peter the Great, him be governor for Tallinn (Reval) (1742–1752) and general-en-chef (1759–1762) wey dey build sea forts and canals for Russia; e be great-grandpapa of Alexander Pushkin. See The Slave in European Art for him portraits. Absalom Jones (1746–1818), him don free hims [[File:Cabeza_de_Vaca_Portrait.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cabeza_de_Vaca_Portrait.jpg|right|thumb|235x235px|[[:en:Álvar_Núñez_Cabeza_de_Vaca|Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca]]]] elf, na abolitionist and clergyman – first ordained black priest of Episcopal Church. Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz (die 644), na Persian craftsman and captive wey kill second Islamic caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab (r. 634–644). Addas (7th century) na enslaved Christian boy wey dey live for Taif during Muhammad time, wey people talk say na him be first person from western Taif wey convert to Islam. Adriaan de Bruin (c. 1700–1766), wey dem call Tabo Jansz before, na enslaved servant for Dutch Republic wey turn free man for Hoorn, North Holland. Adam Brzeziński (1768 – after 1797), Polish serf and Royal Ballet Dancer, wey donate to king of Poland by will and testament. Aesop (c. 620–564 BCE), na Greek poet and author or transcriber for Aesop's Fables. Afanasy Grigoriev (1782–1868), na Russian serf and Neoclassical architect. Afrosinya (1699/1700–1748), na Russian serf, fit be Finnish captive, na enslaved mistress of Alexei Petrovich, Tsarevich of Russia. Agathoclia (shey die around 230), na martyr and patron saint for Mequinenza town for Spain. Alam al-Malika (shey die 1130), na singer wey dem catch as slave but rise become de prime minister and ruler for Zubayd, wey dey now Yemen. Alexina Morrison, na run away girl from slavery for Louisiana wey claim say she be kidnapped white pikin, she sue her master wey make people vex say dem go lynch am. Alfred "Teen" Blackburn (1842–1951), one of de last survivors of slavery for United States wey fit remember wetin happen. Alfred Francis Russ [[File:Aesop_pushkin01.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aesop_pushkin01.jpg|left|thumb|264x264px|[[:en:Aesop|Aesop]] in a [[:en:Hellenistic_art|Hellenistic]] statue claimed to be him, Art Collection of [[:en:Villa_Albani|Villa Albani]], Rome]] ell (1817–1884), na 10th President of Liberia. Alice Clifton (c. 1772–unknown), as slave pikin, she dey trial for infanticide matter for 1787. Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca (c. 1490–c. 1558), na Spanish explorer wey dem turn slave by Native Americans for Gulf Coast after e survive Narváez expedition wey scatter for 1527. Al-Khayzuran bint Atta (shey die 789), na Yemeni girl wey turn wife for Abbasid Caliph Al-Mahdi and mama to two Caliphs, Al-Hadi and Harun al-Rashid, wey dem sabi well well. Alp-Tegin (shey die 963), na member of nomadic Turks, dem carry am as slave small for Samanid court for Bukhara, later e come be army commander for Samanid Empire. Him son-in-law Sabuktigin later start Ghaznavid Empire. Amanda America Dickson (1849–1893), daughter of white planter David Dickson and Julia Frances Lewis, she be slave under Dickson's mama. Even though she dey legally enslaved till after Civil War, Amanda be her papa favorite and she inherit him $500,000 estate after him die for 1885. Ammar bin Yasir (570–657), one of di popular sahaba dem wey Abu Bakr free. Amos Fortune (1710–1801), African prince wey don suffer for United States for most of him life. Di children book wey talk about am, Amos Fortune, Free Man win Newbery Medal for 1951. Anarcha Westcott (c. 1828–unknown), black woman wey dey enslaved for di United States, she be among di women wey J. Marion Sims use do experiment. Portrait of Andrey Voronikhin. Engraving by V. A. Bobrov from di early 19th century. Andrey Voronikhin (1759–1814), Russian serf, architect and painter. Andrea Aguyar (died 1849), former enslaved black ma [[File:Voronikhin.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Voronikhin.jpg|right|thumb|297x297px|Portrait of [[:en:Andrey_Voronikhin|Andrey Voronikhin]]. Engraving by V. A. Bobrov from the beginning of the 19th century.]] n from Uruguay wey join Giuseppe Garibaldi during di Italian revolution for di Uruguayan Civil War of di 1840s and die for fight for di Roman Republic of 1849. Andrew Jackson Beard (1849–1921), inventor, him free at age 15 by di Emancipation Proclamation. Anna J. Cooper (1858–1964), author, educator, speaker and big African-American scholar. Anna Madgigine Jai Kingsley (1793–1870), woman wey dey enslaved then become planter and slave owner. Anna Williams, woman wey dey enslaved for Washington, D.C. wey go court win her freedom against di United States Court of Appeals. Annice (died 1828), dem execute her for murder five children. Annika Svahn (fl. 1714), Finnish woman wey Russian take away during di Great Northern War. She be vicar pikin for Joutseno, wey become popular victim for di wahala wey civilian dem suffer during di Russian occupation. Antarah ibn Shaddad (525–608), pre-Islamic Arab wey born from enslaved woman, him papa free am before battle, and he be poet too. Anthony Burns (1834–1862), na Baptist pre [[File:Петровское._Бюст_А.П._Ганнибала.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5._%D0%91%D1%8E%D1%81%D1%82_%D0%90.%D0%9F._%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0.jpg|right|thumb|263x263px|[[:en:Abram_Petrovich_Gannibal|Abram Petrovich Gannibal]], bust in [[:en:Petrovskoye,_Yaroslavl_Oblast|Petrovskoe]], [[:en:Russia|Russia]]]] acher wey escape slavery go Boston, but dem catch am again because Fugitive Slave Act wey dey 1850, den people wey no want am capture buy im freedom for Boston. Antonia Bonnelli (1786–1870), dem capture am and enslave am by Mikasuki tribe for Florida in 1802. António Corea, na European name wey dem give to Korean. Dem carry am go Italy, wey fit make am di first Korean wey step foot for Europe. Antón Guanche (15th century), na Guanche from Tenerife, dem capture am, enslave am, come return am go di island. Aqualtune Ezgondidu Mahamud da Silva Santos (died 1677), na princess of Kongo, mother of Ganga Zumba and grandmother of Zumbi dos Palmares. She lead 10,000 men during di Battle of Mbwila between Kingdom of Kongo and Kingdom of Portugal. Dem catch am by Portuguese forces, carry am go Brazil and sell am as slave. She start di slave settlement of Quilombo dos Palmares with her son Ganga Zumba. Archer Alexander (1810–1879), na model wey dem use for di slave wey dey di 1876 Emancipation Memorial sculpture. Abram Petrovich Gannibal, bust wey dey Petrovskoe, Russia. Archibald Grimké (1849–1930), born into slavery, son of white papa, become American lawyer, intellectual, journalist, diplomat and community leader. Arthur Crumpler (c. 1835–1910), escape slavery for Virginia, na di second husband of Dr. Rebecca Davis Lee Crumpler. Aster Ganno (c. 1872–1964), na young Ethiopian woman wey Italian Navy rescue from slave ship wey dey cross go Yemen. She go translate di Bible into Oromo language. Also she prepare literacy materials and spend di rest of her life as school teacher. Augustine Tolton (1854–1897), na di first black priest for di United States. Aurelia Philematium, na freedwoman wey her tombstone dey praise her marriage with her fellow freedman, Lucius Aurelius Hermia. Ayuba Suleiman Diallo (1701–1773), wey dem sabi as Job ben S [[File:William_Hoare_of_Bath_-_Portrait_of_Ayuba_Suleiman_Diallo,_(1701-1773).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:William_Hoare_of_Bath_-_Portrait_of_Ayuba_Suleiman_Diallo,_(1701-1773).jpg|left|thumb|Portrait of [[:en:Ayuba_Suleiman_Diallo|Ayuba Suleiman Diallo]] by [[:en:William_Hoare|William Hoare]] (1733)]] olomon, na Muslim wey come from Bundu state for West Africa. E dey suffer for two years for Maryland as slave, but dem free am for 1734. Later, e write hin story wey dem publish as one of di first slave narrative. B Baibars Baibars (1223–1277), wey dem dey call am Abu al-Futuh, na Kipchak Turk wey turn Mamluk sultan for Egypt and Syria. Balthild (c. 626–680), na Anglo-Saxon woman wey come from big family, dem sell am gree as small pikin, serve for Erchinoald house, wey be mayor for Neustria. After, she marry Clovis II, and later she be regent when her pikin Clotaire dey small. She stop dem wey dey trade Christian slaves and dey fight for freedom of children wey dem sell as slaves. Pope Nicholas I canonize am about 200 years after she die. Bass Reeves (1838–1910), na one of di first black Deputy U.S. Marshals for di west of di Mississippi River, wey don arrest over 3,000 bad guys and shoot fourteen outlaws for self-defense. Belinda Sutton (1713–179?), born for Ghana, she dey beg for support from her enslaver estate, wey be one early case for reparations and inspire future activism. Belinda Sutton petition, wey dem print again Bell (Belinda) (c. 1750–c. 1772), born for Bengal, dem carry her go Scotland as servant for East India Company nabob. Dem accuse am say she kill pikin, she dey beg make dem banish am and she turn “slave for life” and dem carry am go Virginia for 1772. She na di last person wey court for Britain call slave. Benjamin S. Turner (1825–1894), former slave wey be politician wey represent Alabama's 1st congressional district for United States House of Representatives. Him be di first African American wey don represent di state for Congress. Benkos Biohó, wey born for royal family of Bissagos Islands, dem kidnap am and enslave am. After dem carry am go Spanish New Granada for South America, him fit escape, help plenty other slaves escape too, and create di maroon community of San Basilio de Palenque. Di Governor Diego Pacheco Téllez-Girón Gómez de Sandoval of Cartagena betray am and hang am for 1621, but di community wey him build still dey live free till today. Betty Hemings (c. 1735–1807), na enslave mixed-race woman wey for colonial Virginia, wey for 1761 start dey be sex slave of her master, planter John Wayles, and she get six mixed-race children with am over 12 years, including Sally Hemings and James Hemings. Big Eyes (fl. 1540), na Wichita woman wey dem enslave by Tejas people before dem capture am and enslave am by conquistador Juan de Zaldívar. Bilichild (died 610), be queen of Austrasia through marriage to Theudebert II. Bilal ibn Ribah (580–640), wey dem free in 6th century. Him convert to Islam and be Muhammad's muezzin. Bill Richmond (1763–1829), wey born for America, dem free am and him become one of England's best boxers. Saint Brigid of Kildare as dem depict am for Saint Non's chapel, St Davids, Wales. Billy (born c. 1754), na man wey run come from John Tayloe II's plantation, dem charge am for treason against Virginia during American Revolutionary War. Him collect pardon after e talk say, as slave, him no be citizen, so e no fit commit treason against government wey him no dey owe loyalty to. Bissula (fl. 368) na Alemannic woman wey dem enslave, and she be inspiration for Roman poet Ausonius. Blanche Bruce (1841–1898) na di first and only former slave wey serve for United States Senate. Blandina (c. 162–177) be slave and Christian martyr for Roman Gaul. Di Bodmin manumissions na manuscript wey dey inside British Library, e keep names and details of slaves wey dem free for Bodmin (di main town for Cornwall back then) during 9th or 10th centuries. Booker T. Washington (1856–1915), born inside slavery, come be American educator, author and leader of African-American community after Civil War. Saint Brigid of Kildare, na major Irish Saint. Tradition say Brigid born for 451 AD for Faughart, just north of Dundalk for County Louth, Ireland. Her mama na Brocca, Pict slave wey Saint Patrick don baptize. Dem talk say her papa be Dubhthach, chieftain of Leinster. Dubthach wife force am sell Brigid's mama to druid when she carry belle. Brigid self born for slavery. Di small Brigid fit perform miracle, like healing and feeding di poor. At age ten, dem return am as household servant to her papa, where her charity make am dey give out hin things to anybody wey ask. For two Lives, Dubthach dey vex with her, he carry am go King of Leinster to sell her. While Dubthach dey talk with di king, Brigid don give away hin jeweled sword to beggar to change am for food to feed di family. Di king sabi her holiness well well and e make Dubthach free him daughter. After dat, she start her waka as popular nun. Brigitta Scherzenfeldt (1698–1733), Swedish wey dey write memoirs and teach weaving, she catch during di Great Northern War, carry go live as slave for di Kalmyk kingdom for Central Asia. Bussa wey born free man for West Africa, maybe Igbo pikin, dem catch am by African slave traders, sell am go Britain, transport am go Barbados (wey slavery don dey legal since 1661) for late 18th century as slave. C Charlotte Aïssé Cezayirli Gazi Hasan Pasha statue for Mersin Naval Museum Caenis, na woman wey don suffer as slave, she be secretary for Antonia Minor (emperor Claudius mama) plus Vespasian wey be Roman emperor. Caesar (c. 1737–1852), na di last slave wey fit get freedom for New York. E reach supercentenarian level, plus fit be di first person wey dem snap while dem dey alive in 1851. Caesar Nero Paul (c. 1741–1823), as small pikin, dem carry am from Africa come Exeter, New Hampshire, but e get freedom, start big New England family wey dey fight against slavery. Pope Callixtus I (died 223), na man wey don suffer as slave, pope from about 218 to about 223, during di time of Heliogabalus and Alexander Severus. Dem kill am for him Christian faith, now he be saint for Roman Catholic Church. Carlota (died 1844), she lead slave rebellion for Cuba for 1843–1844. Castus, na enslaved Gaul and one of di leaders for di Third Servile War wey get people wey dey fight for freedom. Catalina of Motril (fl. 1501–1531), she be bed servant for Catherine of Aragon when she marry Henry VIII for England. Cato (1786–1803), na man wey don suffer for Charleston, New York, wey kill twelve-year-old Mary Akins after e try rape am. Him confession show for di murder book of dat time. Cato, na African-American man wey serve as American Black Patriot spy and courier to gather info with him owner, Hercules Mulligan. Celia (died 1855), na woman wey dem catch and kill for di murder of Robert Newsom, her enslaver. During di trial, John Jameson argue say she kill am for self-defense to stop am from raping her. Cesar Picton (c. 1765–1831), na slave wey start for Senegal, later work as servant for England, come get money as coal merchant. Cevri Kalfa, one Georgian girl wey e dey for sultan harem for Istanbul, wey save Mahmud II life. Dem reward am wit big position haznedar usta, wey be chief treasurer for the imperial Harem. Cezayirli Gazi Hasan Pasha (1713–1790) na Georgian wey dem enslave for Ottoman Empire, wey rise become grand vizier, Kapudan Pasha, and army boss. Charity Folks (1757–1834), American slave wey born for Annapolis, Maryland, release from slavery for 1797 and later become property owner. Charles Deslondes, Haitian mulatto wey dey oversee other slaves for André plantation and leader of 1811 German Coast Uprising for Louisiana. Dem kill am terribly by the militia wey suppress the slave revolt. Charlotte Aïssé, (c. 1694–1733), French letter-writer, daughter of one Circassian chief, wey suffer for Ottoman Black Sea slave trade. Charlotte Dupuy (c. 1787/1790–c. 1866), wey dem dey call Lottie, file freedom suit for 1829 against her enslaver, Henry Clay, wey be Secretary of State, but she lose. Chica da Silva (c. 1732–1796), wey dem sabi as Xica da Silva, Brazilian courtesan wey become rich and powerful even though she born into slavery. Chloe Cooley (fl. 1793), wey dey enslave for Canada, her violent treatment and transport to US make Upper Canada pass 1793 Act Against Slavery. Christopher Shields (born 1774) na George Washington slave wey he keep am for Mount Vernon. The place wey he die and the year wey e happen no dey clear. Christophorus Plato Castanis, (born 1814) na runaway Greek slave from Chios. He journey come US with Samuel Gridley Howe and John Celivergos Zachos. Castanis be Greek-American author and lecturer. Çiçek Hatun (fl. 1453) na Greek girl wey dem capture when Constantinople fall and put as one of the concubine for Sultan Mehmet II harem. Clara Brown (around 1800–1885), she be one woman wey dem don enslave for Virginia. She come be community leader, give back for people wey don free during Colorado Gold Rush. Claudia Acte (1st century), na mistress for Roman emperor Nero. Pope Clement I (wey die for 100), na di fourth Pope for Catholic tradition. E fit dey freedman for Titus Flavius Clemens. Cleon (die 132 BC) na leader for di First Servile War. Colonel Tye (1753–1780), wey dem dey call Titus Cornelius, him don free, come be Black Loyalist soldier and guerrilla leader for di American Revolution. Crixus, na Gallic gladiator and military leader for di Third Servile War. Cudjoe Lewis (around 1840–1935), wey originally be Oluale Kossola, na di third-to-last survivor of di Transatlantic slave trade for USA. Dem carry am go di slave ship Clotilda. Cuffy (die 1763), na Akan man wey dem capture for him own West Africa, carry am go work for di plantations of di Dutch colony for Berbice wey dey Guyana today, and for 1763, him lead revolt wey get more than 2,500 slaves against di colonial regime. Today, him na national hero for Guyana. D Dred Scott wey no fit win im case for im freedom for United States Supreme Court for 1857. Dabitum, woman wey dem enslave for Old Babylonia wey sabi write letter about miscarriage. Daniel Bell (around 1802–1877) wey try for years make e and im family fit enjoy freedom. E help organize one big escape plan wey dem call "the Pearl incident" for Washington, D.C., for 1848. Dada Masiti (around 1810s–15 July 1919) poet, mystic and Islamic scholar. Dave Drake (around 1801–1876), wey people sabi am as Dave the Potter. Deborah Squash and im husband Harvey wey escape from George Washington Mount Vernon, join British for New York during American Revolutionary War, and dem carry dem go free in 1783. Denmark Vesey (around 1767–1822), one enslaved African-American man wey plan one big slave rebellion for United States wey dem leak the plans before e go happen. Dido Elizabeth Belle (1761–1804), wey born into slavery as the daughter of Maria Belle, one enslaved African woman for West Indies, and Sir John Lindsay, one Navy officer. Lindsay carry Belle go England for 1765, give im uncle William Murray, 1st Earl of Mansfield, and im wife Elizabeth to take care of am. Dem educate Belle, raise am as free gentlewoman for their Kenwood House with their niece, Lady Elizabeth Murray. Belle stay there for 30 years. For im will for 1793, Lord Mansfield confirm im freedom and give am money and annuity, make Belle heiress. Diego be one freedman wey dem don enslave before, and e dey close with di Elizabethan navigator Francis Drake. For March 1573, Drake raid Darien (for today Panama) and Maroons help am well – dem be Africans wey don run from Spanish slave owners and dem glad to help their English enemies. One of dem na Diego, wey sabi build ship well, and e follow Drake go England. For 1577, Queen Elizabeth send Drake make e start journey against di Spanish for di Pacific coast fit America – wey later turn as Drake waka go round di world – Diego again dey work under Drake; him sabi Spanish and English well well, so he fit be good interpreter when dem catch Spaniard or Portuguese wey dey speak Spanish. E be Drake's servant and dem dey pay am like di rest of di crew. Diego die while Drake ship dey cross di Pacific, wounds wey e get earlier for di journey. Drake dey feel bad for him death, as Diego don become him good friend. Diogenes of Sinope (c. 412–323 BCE), Greek philosopher wey pirates carry away and sell for Corinth. Diocletian (244–312), Emperor of Rome, some people talk say e born as slave of Senator Anullinus. Other talk say na Diocletian papa (we no sabi im name) wey be slave and free before him son, di future emperor, born. Dionysius I (die 1492), Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, dem don enslave am by di Ottomans after di Fall of Constantinople for 1453. Dolly Johnson (born late 1820s, die after 1887), African-American woman from Tennessee, wey President Andrew Johnson don enslave, later become small small-business owner. Dorota Sitańska (die after 1797), Polish serf and Royal Ballet Dancer, wey dem donate to di king of Poland by will and testament. Dred Scott (around 1799–1858), na one enslaved African-American guy wey dey Missouri wey carry case go court make e fit get freedom for one big trial, Scott v. Sandford, wey reach U.S. Supreme Court for 1857. E Florence, Lady Baker around 1875. Na Romanian wey dem enslave as orphan, Samuel Baker buy am, later marry am. Edward Mozingo Sr., (about 1649–1712), dem kidnap am from Africa when e dey like 10 years, sell am for slavery for Jamestown, Virginia. After e owner die, he sue for im freedom and win am. E marry poor white woman, Margaret Pierce Bayley (1645–1711) and together dem be dem wey start the Mozingo family for North America. Elijah Abel (1808–1884), wey born enslave for Maryland, people believe say e escape from slavery enter Underground Railroad go Canada. He join Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints early, na him dey among the first black wey get priesthood and the first black wey rise to elder and seventy rank. Elizabeth Marsh (1735–1785), na English woman wey corsairs capture and hold for slavery for Morocco. Edith Hern Fossett, na woman wey U.S. President Thomas Jefferson enslave, dem teach am to cook by French chef wey create French food for White House and Monticello. Elias Polk (1806–1886), na conservative political activist from 19th century. Eliezer of Damascus, na Abraham slave and trusted manager for im house in Hebrew Bible. Elieser be man wey dem enslave by Paulo de Pina family, Portuguese Jews wey move go Netherlands for 1610 to escape wahala and forced conversion for Portugal. E dey stay with the family for Amsterdam till e die for 1629, dem bury am for Beth Haim cemetery, wey be the oldest Jewish cemetery for Netherlands. E appear say dem don free am, whether officially or in practice, and e dey near equal level with the family wey own am for Portugal – show by fact say e attend the funeral of im master wife, Sara de Pina, and contribute six stuivers, and dem bury am alongside im (former) owners and Jacob Israel Belmonte, wey be the richest man for the community. Elieser don convert to Judaism and dem accept am as Jewish, true true if not, he for no dey buried for Jewish cemetery; dem fit give am the name 'Elieser' when dem convert am, e dey bring Eliezer from Damascus mind. Recently, members of Surinamese community for Netherlands don carry Elieser memory go high, dem put statue for am and dey do yearly pilgrimage go his grave wey dem call Elieser Day. Elisenda de Sant Climent (1220–1275), dem enslave am during slave raid for Mallorca and carry am go emir harem for Tunis. Eliza Hopewell, woman wey dey under Confederates spy Isabella Maria Boyd ('Belle Boyd'). For 1862, she help her owner do spy work, carry message go Confederate Army inside watch case wey dem hollow. Eliza Moore (1843–1948), one of the last African-American former slaves wey dey live for United States. Elizabeth Johnson Forby, mixed-race American woman wey dem enslave under President Andrew Johnson, daughter of Dolly Johnson. Elizabeth Key Grinstead (1630–after 1665), na the first woman wey get African blood for North America wey go court for her freedom and win. Key and her small pikin, John Grinstead, come free on July 21, 1656 for Virginia because her papa be Englishman and she be baptized Christian. Elizabeth Freeman (c. 1742–1829), wey dem dey call Bett and later Mum Bett, na among the first enslaved black people for Massachusetts wey fit file freedom suit and win, based on 1780 constitution wey rule slavery illegal. Elizabeth Hobbs Keckley (1818–1907), wey be popular as personal modiste and close friend of Mary Todd Lincoln, First Lady of the United States. Keckley write and publish autobiography, Behind the Scenes: Or, Thirty Years a Slave and Four Years in the White House (1868). Ellen Craft (1826–1891), light-skin wife of William Craft, wey escape from Georgia to Philadelphia, by acting like white woman and her slave, case wey become popular. Ellen More, enslaved woman wey them carry go royal Scottish court. Emilia Soares de Patrocinio (1805–1886) na Brazilian slave, slave owner and businesswoman. Emiline (23 years); Nancy (20); Lewis, Nancy brother (16); Edward, Emiline brother (13); Lewis and Edward, sons of Nancy (7); Ann, daughter of Nancy (5); and Amanda, daughter of Emiline (2), dem free for 1852 Lemmon v. New York court case after dem bring dem go New York from Virginia. Emily Edmonson (1835–1895), with her sister Mary, try escape for 1848 wey dem call Pearl incident, but Henry Ward Beecher and him church gather money to free dem. Enrique of Malacca, wey dem dey call Henry the Black, na slave and interpreter for Ferdinand Magellan and maybe the first person wey waka round the globe for Magellan's trip of 1519–1521. Epictetus (55–c. 135), ancient Greek stoic philosopher. Estevanico (1500–1539), wey dem dey call Esteban the Moor. He be slave of the Portuguese first, then become servant of the Spaniards. He be one of the only four wey survive the bad Narváez expedition, later na guide for search of the fabled Seven Cities of Gold and maybe the first African wey reach wetin be Arizona and New Mexico today. Eston Hemings (1808–1856), son of Sally Hemings and Thomas Jefferson. Eucharis, na Greek wey dem free, born Roman Licinia, dem describe am for him epitaph for 1st century AD as fourteen when she die, child actress and professional dancer. Eunus (him die for 132 BC), na slave wey come from Apamea for Syria, and him be leader for slave wahala for First Servile War wey happen for Roman province of Sicily. Eunus sabi gree people as prophet and wonder-worker. Him dey claim say him dey see visions and dey communicate with goddess Atargatis, wey dey popular for him place; he even fit connect am to Sicilian Demeter. Some prophecies wey he drop na say di rebel slaves go fit capture di city of Enna and say one day, he go be king. Euphemia (him die for 520s), na Empress of Byzantine Empire because she marry Justin I, she be slave before. Euphraios, na Athenian slave and banker. Exuperius and Zoe (dem die for 127), na Christian martyrs for 2nd century. Dem be married couple wey slave master in Pamphylia enslave. Dem kill dem with their sons, Cyriacus and Theodolus, because dem no wan join pagan rites when dem pikin born. Florence Johnson Smith be mixed-race American babe wey President Andrew Johnson carry go enslave, she be Dolly Johnson pikin. Fountain Hughes (1848–1957), dem interview am for June 1949 about him life by Library of Congress as part of Federal Writers' Project. Francis Bok (wey born 1979), na Dinka slave from South Sudan, now him dey fight for freedom and be author for United States. Francis Jackson (wey born between 1815 and 1820), him dey free from birth, but dem kidnap am for 1850 and sell am into slavery. Him finally get freedom for 1855 when case Francis Jackson v. John W. Deshazer end. Francis James Grimké (1850–1937), him be minister. Francisco Menéndez, na man wey dem enslave for South Carolina but e run go Spanish Florida, wey e serve for Spanish militia, even lead the garrison wey dem set for 1738 for Fort Mose. This place be the first legal free black community for wetin we dey call United States now. François Mackandal (wey die 1758), na Haitian Maroon leader. Frederick Douglass (1818–1895), him born for slavery for Maryland and run go Northeast for 1838, where e turn big-time abolitionist writer, speaker, and diplomat. Fyodor Slavyansky (1817–1876), na Russian serf painter. G Medical photo wey show Gordon back wey dem whip, plenty abolitionists dey share am to show how slavery dey be bad. Portrait of Gülnuş Sultan Gabriel Prosser (1776–1800), leader wey lead Virginia slave revolt. Gaius Furius Chresimus, ancient Roman. As him free man, e produce crops from him small farm wey people accuse am say him dey witch other people crop, but when him bring him farm tools for court, dem free am. Pliny the Elder talk say him story na proof say hard work be wetin matter for farming. Galatian de Sesse (16th century), knight from Aragon wey dey work for hospital and be Governor of Gozo wey dem enslave during 1551 Ottoman attack, e spend five years as galley slave before dem pay ransom and free am. Galeria Lysistrate (2nd century), mistress of Roman emperor Antoninus Pius. Ganga Zumba or Ganazumba (c. 1630–1678), one descendant of unknown Kongo king wey run away from slavery for Brazilian colonial and be first leader of runaway slave settlement wey be Quilombo dos Palmares. Gannicus, enslaved Celt wey be one of the leaders of rebel slaves during Third Servile War. Garafilia Mohalbi (1817–1830), Greek slave wey American merchant rescue and carry go Boston. She die young and inspire big art movement. Genghis Khan (c. 1162–1227), dem capture am after raid and make am slave for Taichiud. George Africanus (1763–1834), enslaved African man from Sierra Leone wey become successful businessman for Nottingham. George Edward Doney (1758–1809), Gambian man wey William Capell, 4th Earl of Essex enslave. George Colvocoresses (1816–1872), from Chios, Greece, come America come be captain for U.S. Navy, but small small dem carry am put for slavery when e be pikin. Colvos Passage dey named after am. George Freeman Bragg (1863–1940), wey born for slavery for North Carolina, later turn big Episcopal priest and social activist. George Lewis (1794–1811), wey dem dey call Slave George, na enslaved guy wey dem kill for Kentucky night of December 15–16, 1811. George Moses Horton (1797–1884), na di first African-American author; him first poetry book publish for North Carolina. George Washington Carver (c. 1864–1943), na African-American scientist, botanist, educator and inventor wey sabi to promote other crops like sweet potatoes and peanuts for South; him born for slavery for Missouri but dem free am as small pikin after American Civil War. George Griffin (1849–1897), born for slavery for Maryland but later dem free am; him be close person to Mark Twain. George W. Hayes (1847–1933), na court crier and politician for Ohio, mixed African American and Native American background, dem carry am put for slavery early for him life. Gerónimo de Aguilar (1489–1531), na Franciscan friar wey waka go Yucatán Peninsula for 1511 but dem shipwreck am and dem carry am for slavery by Mayans. Gosala, one ascetic teacher from ancient India – wey dey live same time (and dey compete) with Gautama Buddha – people talk say him born for slavery, and he become naked ascetic after him run from him bad captor, wey catch him cloth before e run. Gonzalo Guerrero (died 1536), na sailor from Palos, Spain, wey shipwreck for Yucatán Peninsula for 1511 and dem carry am for slavery by di local Maya. Gordon, wey dem dey call Whipped Peter, na enslaved African-American wey escape come Union Army camp from plantation near Baton Rouge, Louisiana for 1863. Di pictures wey dem take of Gordon back wey dem beat during medical check, dem publish am for Harper's Weekly, e show Northerners di wahala wey slavery dey cause. E make plenty free blacks want join di Union Army. Gülnuş Sultan (1642–1715) na Haseki Sultan for Ottoman Sultan Mehmed IV and Valide sultan for dia pikin Mustafa II and Ahmed III. Guðríður Símonardóttir (1598–1682) na Iceland woman wey some North African slavers (Barbary Pirates) carry go. Gustav Badin (wey die for 1822) na servant for royal Swedish court, originally na Danish slave. H Hurrem Sultan, be Eastern European slave girl wey Ottoman sultan Süleyman the Magnificent buy, marry am. Hababah, concubine of Caliph Yazid II. Hagar, biblical figure, Sarah own. Hannah Bond (weh dey born for 1830s), pen name Hannah Crafts, write The Bondwoman's Narrative after she gain freedom. E fit be di first novel wey African-American woman write, na di only novel wey woman wey run from slavery don write. Hark Olufs (1708–1754), Danish sailor, dem capture am by Algerian pirates. Dem sell am to di Bey of Constantine, and him become Commander in Chief for di Bey's cavalry. Dem release am for 1735. Harriet Balfour (c. 1818–1858), Surinam-born enslaved woman wey free for 1841 and move go Scotland. Harriet Evans Paine, (c. 1822–1917), Texas enslaved woman and later oral historian and storyteller. Harriet Hemings (1801–after 1822), daughter of Sally Hemings and Thomas Jefferson. Harriet Jacobs (1813–1897), author of Incidents in di Life of a Slave Girl. Harriet Powers (1837–1910), American folk artist, and quilter. Harriet Tubman (c. 1822–1913), dem dey call am 'Moses' because of di work wey she dey do to help other American slaves escape through di Underground Railroad. Harry, di plaintiff for di 1818 Harry v. Decker & Hopkins case wey di Supreme Court of Mississippi decide to free person from slavery just because him dey stay for free land. Harry Washington (wey die for 1800), dem dey call am Henry Washington, be slave wey George Washington dey own. Dem transport am go America as slave, and Washington buy am for 1763 to work on project wey go drain di Great Dismal Swamp. Hafsa Sultan (she die March 1534), na Selim I wife and di first real sultan of Ottoman Empire as Suleiman di Magnificent mama. Pipo sabi her background matter dey confuse, but some historians talk say she be slave. Helen Gloag (1750–1790), from Muthill, Perthshire, Scotland, become di Empress of Morocco as di harem slave for Morocco sultan. Henry Bibb (1815–1854), American writer and abolitionist wey born as slave. After e run come out from slavery to British Upper Canada, he start newspaper wey dey call The Voice of the Fugitive. E later come back to U.S. come dey lecture against slavery. Henry Highland Garnet (1815–1882), wey born African-American slave for Maryland, run from slavery for 1824, come become abolitionist and teacher. Hercules (born c. 1755), na di head cook wey George Washington enslave for him plantation, Mount Vernon. E run come gain him freedom for 1797, but him wife Alice and him three pikin still dey enslave. Hermas, wey write di book The Shepherd of Hermas and na Pope Pius I brother. Hernando de Escalante Fontaneda, been born for Cartagena, but e don dey enslave at 13 when di ship wey carry am go Spain for school sink for Florida. Calusa chief take am as slave and use am as translator until dem free am at 30. Horace King (1807–1885), American architect, engineer, and bridge builder, born into slavery for South Carolina plantation. Hümaşah Sultan (fl. 1647–1672) na di wife of Sultan Ibrahim for Ottoman Empire. Hurrem Sultan (c. 1504–1558), wey dem sabi as Roxelana, be Eastern European girl wey slave traders capture and sell to di Imperial Harem, become di chief consort and legal wife of Ottoman sultan Süleyman di Magnificent. Halime Sultan (about 1570–after 1639) be Valide Sultan wey dey rule alongside Ottoman Empire. Handan Sultan (about 1568–1605) too be Valide Sultan and her dey act as regent for the Ottomans. I İbrahim Pasha Ivan Argunov. Self-portrait (late 1750s). İbrahim Pasha (about 1495 – 1536), na first Grand Vizier wey Suleiman the Magnificent appoint. E be Greek by birth, at six years old, dem sell am as slave to Ottoman palace for future sultans, where e meet Suleiman wey dey same age. Icelus Marcianus, na slave and later free guy for Roman emperor Galba for 1st century CE. E be one of three men wey dey control the emperor well well, make Galba no dey popular. Ida B. Wells (1862–1931), na big African-American activist wey born into slavery, but later she dey fight against lynching and fit cancel am. For 1909, she co-found National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). Imma, na Northumbrian noble wey knock for battle and later sabi act like peasant, so say captors no go kill am. Him behavior show say him no be real peasant, and dem sell am into slavery. Isabel de Solís (fl. 1485), na enslaved Castilian concubine for Abu l-Hasan Ali, Sultan of Granada. Isabella Gibbons (1826–1890), become schoolteacher for Virginia after dem liberate am for 1865. Isfandíyár, na enslaved servant for Bahá'u'lláh's house for Tehran, Isfandíyár die for Mazandaran. Israel Jefferson (about 1800–after 1873), wey people sabi as Israel Gillette before 1844, born into slavery for Monticello, Thomas Jefferson estate, and work as domestic servant near Jefferson for many years. Ivan Bolotnikov (1565–1608), na fugitive kholop (enslaved for Russia) and leader of Bolotnikov rebellion for 1606–1607. Ivan Argunov (1729–1802), na Russian serf painter, one of the founders of Russian school of portrait painting. J Jean Parisot de Valette St. Josephine Margaret Bakhita, F.D.C.C. Jack Gladstone, di leader wey lead di Demerara rebellion for 1823. Jackey Wright, na enslaved American woman wey sue for im freedom for di popular 1806 Virginia case, Hudgins v. Wright. Di Virginia Supreme Court talk say Wright look white and Native American, but di lower court under George Wythe dey try arrange say everybody fit be free, no matter di race. Jacob Notaras (fl. 1453), na Byzantine nobleman wey dem carry as slave by Sultan Mehmed di Conqueror when Constantinople fall. Jaja of Opobo (1821–1891), dem sell am around age 12 as slave for di Kingdom of Bonny wey dey Nigeria now. From young, di guy don show say e sabi business, so e find im way come out from slavery, become rich merchant prince and start di Opobo city-state, but British colonizers wey e wan challenge come end im career. James Armistead Lafayette (1760–1830), na enslaved African-American man wey serve di Continental Army for di American Revolutionary War as double agent. James Baugh, na enslaved American wey sue for im freedom because im mama granmama na Indian. James Hemings (1765–1801), na mixed-race American wey dem enslave later free am by Thomas Jefferson. E be di older brother of Sally Hemings and half-brother of Jefferson wife, Martha Wayles Skelton Jefferson, through dia papa John Wayles. James Leander Cathcart (1767–1843), diplomat and sailor wey sabi tell story about 11 years wey e dey enslave for Algiers and e do some big diplomatic work while for slavery. James Poovey (born c. 1769), Philadelphian wey dem enslave am from birth, but e find freedom through peaceful resistance. James M. Priest (1819–1883), 6th Vice President of Liberia, wey born inside slavery for Kentucky. James Somersett, man wey dey enslave for colonial America, escape for England in 1771 with help of Beta British people, wey lead to the big case Somerset v Stewart, wey change the slavery matter for Britain, but not for dem colonies. James W. C. Pennington (c. 1807–1870), African-American writer and abolitionist. Jan Ernst Matzeliger (1852–1889), Surinamese-American wey invent shoe making. Jane Johnson (1814/1827–1872), she gain freedom on July 18, 1855, with her two small pikin while dem dey Philadelphia with her owner. William Still and Passmore Williamson help am, dem be abolitionists for Pennsylvania Anti-Slavery Society. Jean Amilcar (c. 1781–1793), Senegalese son of Marie Antoinette. Jean-Jacques Dessalines (1758–1806), leader of Haitian Revolution and first leader of independent Haiti. Jean Marteilhe (1684–1777), French Huguenot wey be slave narrator, him be galley slave. Jean Saint Malo (died 1784), leader of runaway slaves (maroon colony) for Spanish Louisiana and he name dey for Saint Malo, Louisiana. Jean Parisot de Valette (1495–1568), knight of the Order of Saint John, wey dem capture and make galley slave for 1541 by Barbary pirates. After about one year, dem free am and him later become Grandmaster of the Order. Jefferson F. Long (1836–1901), first former slave wey serve for United States Congress and first African American wey represent Georgia for Congress. Jeffrey Hudson (1619–c. 1682), na English court guy wey spend 25 years for North Africa as slave. Jehan Alard (fl. 1580), na French Huguenot wey dey serve as galley slave for Italy, dem catch am for Inquisition. Jehu Grant (c. 1752–1840), na veteran from Revolutionary War. Jeremiah Haralson (1846–Unknown), na former slave and politician wey represent Alabama for House of Representatives during 44th Congress. Jermain Wesley Loguen (1813–1872), na African-American wey run away from slavery, be abolitionist, bishop of the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church, and e write slave narrative. Jim Cuff or Jim Crow be physically disabled African man wey people talk say e fit dey St. Louis, Cincinnati, or Pittsburgh, e song and dance inspire the blackface song 'Jump Jim Crow' wey white comedian Thomas D. Rice bring come. Rice popular creation make Jim Crow turn bad name for blacks, later dem use am for dem segregation laws. Jim Henson, na African wey escape slavery and publish im memoirs, Broken Shackles, for Canada. Joana da Gama (c. 1520–1586), na Portuguese maid-of-honor and writer. Joe, na man wey William B. Travis, one of the Texian commanders for Battle of Alamo enslaved. After dem lose, Mexican General Santa Anna spare Joe, hoping say e go fit convince other slaves for Texas to support Mexican government instead of Texian rebels. After that, Joe and some survivors go Gonzales, dem encourage dem to talk about the battle and tell Texian forces say Santa Anna army no fit beat. John Axouch (1087–1150), na Seljuk Turk wey dem capture as pikin by Byzantine Empire, dem free am and raise am for di imperial house as John II Komnenos wey go be emperor future friend. When him take over, dem put am for di army command and e be di emperor only close pal and confidant. John Boston (c. 1832–after 1880), na former slave wey dey represent Darlington County for South Carolina House during di Reconstruction era. Him dey involved for community work and, as minister, him start di Lamar Colored Methodist Church for 1865. By 1880, him don turn farmer. John 'Lit' Fleming, born for slavery for Virginia but later move go Edmundson, Arkansas with him papa and siblings. E go move go Memphis, Tennessee, and be part owner of di newspaper Memphis Free Speech with activist Ida B. Wells-Barnett. John Munroe Brazealle, with him mama, dem case dey Hinds v. Brazealle (1838), for di Supreme Court of Mississippi, wey deny di legality and inheritance rights for Mississippi for manumission wey Elisha Brazealle, wey dey Ohio, do to free dem. John Brown (c. 1810–1876), wey escape and write about di conditions for di Deep South of United States. John Casor, na di first person wey dey enslaved as result of civil case for di Thirteen Colonies (Virginia Colony, 1655). John Ezzidio (c. 1810–1872), na enslaved Nigerian man wey turn successful politician and businessman for Sierra Leone. John Adams Hyman (1840-1891), na former slave and politician wey serve for di North Carolina Senate and later be di first African American to represent di state for Congress. John Jea (born 1773), na enslaved African-American man wey popular for him 1811 autobiography, The Life, History, and Unparalleled Sufferings of John Jea, di African Preacher. John Joyce wey dem born am for slavery for Maryland, serve for United States Navy, do plenty work after, and kill shopkeeper, Sarah Cross; him life and crime dey for murder stories wey dem dey talk for him time. John R. Jewitt (1783–1821), small English man wey dey make armor, spend three years as prisoner for Maquinna of the Nuu-chah-nulth people for Pacific coast wey dey for Canada now. John R. Lynch (1847–1939), former slave and politician wey serve for Mississippi House of Representatives, be the first African American wey lead state legislative chamber. Later he go serve for United States House of Representatives and write The Facts of Reconstruction to answer dem wey dey talk bad about Reconstruction time policies. John Punch (fl. 1630s, live 1640), na enslaved African man wey dey for Virginia Colony for 17th century. For July 1640, Virginia Governor's Council punish am to serve for him whole life because e run go Maryland. Historians dey call Punch the 'first official slave for the English colonies,' and him case na the 'first time dem make slavery forever for the Chesapeake.' Historians also sabi say this one be the first legal line wey dem draw between Europeans and Africans for the colony, and na important step for slavery matter for United States. John S. Jacobs (1815–1873), wey dem born into slavery for North Carolina, escape, become abolitionist speaker and write slave memoir. Him be brother of famous author Harriet Jacobs. John Smith (1580–1631), English soldier, sailor, and author wey everybody sabi for him role wey help Jamestown colony survive for Virginia. Smith dey captured by Crimean Tatars for 1602 while him dey fight for Wallachia and dem make am slave for Ottoman Empire, but him escape come England by 1604. As Smith talk am: 'we all dey sell for slaves, like goat for market-place.' Jordan Anderson (1825–1907), wey people sabi well well for di letter wey he gree send to im old master when dem call am make he come back to serve dem. Jordan Winston Early (1814–after 1894) na American Methodist preacher wey get different blood, and dem write book about im life as slave. John White, na black boy wey Creeks capture for 1797, but he escape come back New Orleans, only to find Spanish people don carry am go back to slavery. John Ystumllyn, wey dem dey call Jac Du or Jack Black, na 18th-century Welsh gardener, di first Black person wey record well for North Wales. Jonathan Strong, na di person wey dem dey talk about one of di first legal cases wey concern slavery for Britain. José Antonio Aponte, na di leader of Aponte conspiracy. Joseph, na important person for Old Testament and Quran. Joseph Antonio Emidy (1775–1835), violinist wey born for Africa, die for Cornwall. Joseph Cinqué (1814–1879), wey dem know as Sengbe Pieh, na di leader of slave rebellion for di slave ship La Amistad and di case wey follow for Supreme Court, United States v. Amistad for 1839. Joseph Jackson Fuller (1825–1908), one of di earliest slaves wey gree free for Jamaica, at first under di partial freedoms of 1833 Slavery Abolition Act. Joseph Knight, wey succeed find im freedom through court case for Scotland in 1777, case wey make Scots law no go support slavery. Josephine Bakhita (c. 1869–1947), Sudanese-born Roman Catholic Canossian nun and saint. Joshua Glover, na fugitive wey slavery people chase am but abolitionists help am for Racine, Wisconsin in 1854. Josiah T. Walls (c. 1842–1905), former slave wey turn politician wey don serve for di two chambers of Florida State Legislature, na di first African American wey represent di state for Congress. Juan de Pareja (1606–1670), man wey Spanish artist Diego Velázquez enslave am. Velázquez teach am how to paint and free am for 1650. Juan Francisco Manzano (c. 1797–1854), Cuban poet. Juan Gros, free black soldier wey Upper Creek catch near Pensacola, sell am to white trader wey carry am go sell to Mitasuki chief Kinache, wey Spanish people come pay ransom for am. Juan Latino, dem dey call am "el negro Juan Latino", from Ethiopia, dem carry am go Spain when e small, e go school and become Latin professor for University of Granada, 16th-century Spain. Juan Ortiz, young nobleman from Andalucía wey Chief Ucita enslave for Florida to take revenge for wetin happen to am during the expedition. Juan Valiente (died 1553), black African slave wey get chance to be conquistador. E die during the battle of Tucapel against Mapuche people for Chile. Juana Ramírez (1790–1856), rebel soldier and heroine for Venezuelan War of Independence. Julia Chinn, enslave woman wey be octoroon and common-law wife to Richard Mentor Johnson, 9th Vice President of the United States. Julia Frances Lewis, mama to Amanda American Dickson through her owner’s son. Juliana, Guaraní woman from Paraguay, wey famous for kill her Spanish enslaver between 1538 and 1542 and encourage other women to do same. Julius Soubise (1754–1798) be freed Afro-Caribbean slave wey become popular fop for late eighteenth-century Britain. Julius Zoilos, enslave by Julius Caesar. After him get freedom, e shine for him city Aphrodisias after Caesar die. Jupiter Hammon (1711–before 1806), for 1761, become the first African-American writer wey dem publish for the present-day United States. Born for slavery, Hammon never get freedom. Dem dey consider am one of the founders of African-American literature. K Kösem Sultan (1589–1651), na slave concubine just like all di other pipo wey dey di Imperial Harem. Kunta Kinte (c. 1750–c. 1822), na character from di 1976 novel Roots: Di Saga of an American Family wey author Alex Haley base on one of him real ancestors. Kinte be man wey dey come from di Mandinka pipo, he grow for small village wey dem dey call Juffure for wetin we sabi as The Gambia, and dem raise am as Muslim before dem capture am and turn am slave for Virginia. Di historical accuracy of Haley's story get debate. Kodjo (c. 1803–1833), na Surinamese slave wey dem burn alive fit start di 1832 fire for Paramaribo, Dutch Suriname, maybe as way to show resistance. Kösem Sultan (1589–1651), na Ottoman enslaved woman, wey later become very powerful as wife, then mother and later grandmother of di Ottoman sultan during di 130-year wey dem dey call di Sultanate of Women. L Laurens de Graaf Lalla Balqis (1670–after 1721), na English woman wey dem capture and turn slave by Corsairs, dem include am for di harem of di Sultan of Morocco. Lamhatty, na Tawasa Indian wey dem capture and enslave by Creek; him escape. Lampegia (die after 730), Aquitanian noblewoman, wey Abd al-Rahman ibn Abd Allah al-Ghafiqi capture, wey in 730 take di Llivia Fortress, kill her husband Munuza and send her go as slave for di harem of Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik for Damascus. La Mulâtresse Solitude (1772–1802), na slave for di island of Guadeloupe wey dem free in 1794 when dem abolish slavery during di French Revolution. Dem execute am after she fight for freedom when slavery come back because Napoleon in 1802. Laurens de Graaf (c. 1653–1704), na Dutch pirate, mercenary, and naval officer, wey dem enslave by Spanish slave traders when dem capture am for wetin we dey call Netherlands, and dem carry am go di Canary Islands to work for plantation before 1674. Lear Green (around 1839–1860), one African-American woman from Maryland wey run go freedom for New York by fitting inside box make dem carry am. Leo Africanus (1494–1554), one Moor wey born for Granada, dem carry am go Morocco in 1498 because of Spanish wahala. As adult, he dey do diplomatic work. Crusaders catch am for Middle East, dem carry am go Rome make he be slave and convert to Christianity. Later, he get him freedom back and live him life for Tunis. Leofgifu, wey be dairy maid, na one enslaved woman for Anglo-Saxon England, dem mention am for her freedom paper. Leoflaed, another enslaved woman for Anglo-Saxon England, man buy her freedom wey describe her as “kinswoman.” Leonor de Mendoza, enslaved woman for colonial Mexico wey wan marry Tomás Ortega wey be slave for another master; when her master put Tomás for prison, she go church court beg make dem help, dem even threaten say if him no free Tomás, e go fit face excommunication. Letitia Munson (around 1820–after 1882), na midwife wey don come out from slavery, dem don free her for doing illegal abortion for Canada. Lewis Adams (1842–1905), man wey don free from slavery, wey co-found Tuskegee Institute, now Tuskegee University for Alabama. Lewis Hayden (1811–1889), na African-American man from Kentucky, later dem elect am for Massachusetts General Court. Lilliam Williams, settler from Tennessee wey Creek catch while she dey pregnant. Creek adopt her pikin (wey she name Molly and dem name Esnahatchee); dem keep the girl when Williams arrange her freedom. Liol, one Chinese man wey dem carry as slave by Mongol bannerman Soosar. E get semi-independent status for dem. In 1735, him pikin Fuji try claim say him and him brother be Manchus but e no work. Lorenzo de Apapis (around 1501–1586), priest and notary from Gozitan wey dey slavery during 1551 Ottoman attack for Gozo. Dem ransom am and free am by 1553. Lott Cary (about 1780–1828), wey dem born am as African-American slave for Virginia, buy im freedom around 1813, move go Liberia for 1822, where e serve as colonial administrator.[1] Louis Hughes (1832–1913), African-American man wey run away from slavery, author, and businessman.[2] Lovisa von Burghausen (1698–1733), Swedish writer wey publish story of how dem enslave am for Russia after dem capture am during the Great Northern War. Lucius Agermus, freedman of Agrippina the Elder.[3] Lucius Aurelius Hermia, freedman butcher wey his tombstone dey praise im marriage with his fellow freedwoman Aurelia Philematium.[4] Lucius Cancrius Primigenius, freedman of Clemens for one inscription wey dey thank am for breaking spells wey dey affect the city.[5] Lucius of Campione, wey lose lawsuit for 8th century about man Toto wey claim ownership of am.[6] Lucy, di black woman wey John Lang enslave. Dem capture her by di Creek wen she dey 12 years and keep her as slave for Creek land, where she born slave children and grandchildren.[7] Lucy Ann (Berry) Delaney (1830–1891), former enslaved woman, daughter of Polly Berry. Lucy Higgs Nichols (1838–1915), wey escape slavery, serve as nurse for di Civil War, member of di Grand Army of di Republic. Lucy Terry (about 1733–1821), dem kidnap her for Africa and enslave her, dem carry am go British colony of Rhode Island. She later gain freedom and become poet. Luís Gama (1830–1882), wey born free for Brazil, illegally sell am into slavery as pikin, he regain freedom as adult and become lawyer wey free plenty people from slavery without asking for money, especially for di Netto Case. Lunsford Lane (1803–after 1870), na enslaved African-American guy wey dey North Carolina wey buy him freedom and him family too. Him write one slave story. Lyde, na woman wey dem free from slavery by Roman empress Livia. Lydia, na woman wey dem shoot when she try run away from her captor wey dey whip am. Supreme Court of North Carolina talk say na legal in 1830 (check North Carolina v. Mann). Lydia Carter, dey call am 'Little Osage Captive,' dem catch am among Cherokee. Na Lydia Carter go pay money come free am and she name her. Osage try take am back, but she fall sick and die. Lydia Polite, na mother of Robert Smalls. M Mikhail Shchepkin Macuncuzade Mustafa Efendi (wey born around 1550s), na Ottoman qadi and poet wey suffer for slavery for Malta after di ship wey e dey waka for capture by di Knights Hospitaller for 1597. Dem release am for 1600, and e write story about im captivity. Madison Hemings (1805–1877), na di pikin of Sally Hemings and Thomas Jefferson. Mae Louise Miller (1943–2014), American woman wey dey live for modern slavery (peonage) till 1961. Malgarida (wey born around 1488), black African woman and boyfriend of di conquistador Diego de Almagro. For 1536, she be di first non-indigenous woman wey enter di land wey we call Chile today. Malik Ambar, wey born for 1548 as Chapu, na im birth-name for Harar, Adal Sultanate wey dey Ethiopia today. Im come from di Maya ethnic group wey don disappear. As small pikin, im parents sell am for slavery. Mir Qasim Al Baghdadi, one of di people wey own am, convert Chapu come Islam and give am di name Ambar, after e sabi sey di boy get sharp brain. Malik waka go India as slave. For India, e create mercenary group wey reach 1500 men. Di group dey for di Deccan region and local kings dey hire dem. Malik become popular Prime Minister for Ahmadnagar Sultanate, show sey e sabi how to manage. E also dey regarded as pacesetter for guerilla warfare for di area. Dem dey credit am with managing tax collection for plenty for di Deccan, wey set di ground for future collections. Di Siddis of Gujarat dey respect am well. E match di strength of di Mughals and Adil Shah of Bijapur, lift di low status of di Nizam Shah. Margaret Himfi (before 1380–after 1408), na Hungarian woman wey dem carry go enslave by Ottoman bad guys for late 14th century. She later become slave mistress for one rich Venetian man for Crete, wey she born two daughters for. Margaret manage come back to Hungary for 1405. Margaret Morgan dey involved for Prigg v. Pennsylvania case wey United States Supreme Court rule say federal Fugitive Slave Act no go allow Pennsylvania law wey stop blacks from chop dey carry dem go slavery, an dem clear Edward Prigg case because of dat. Marguerite Duplessis (c. 1718–after 1740) na Pawnee woman wey dem enslave for Montreal wey, for 1740, try sue for her freedom but e no work. Marguerite Scypion (c. 1770s–after 1836) na African-Natchez woman wey born for slavery for St. Louis wey go sue for her freedom and eventually win am. Maria al-Qibtiyya (died 637), wey dem dey call “Maria the Copt” or sometimes Maria Qupthiya, na Copt woman wey dem send give Muhammad as gift from Muqawqis, one Byzantine big man, for 628, an she become Muhammad concubine. She be mama to Muhammad son Ibrahim wey die for small pikin age. Her sister, Sirin, sef go meet Muhammad. Muhammad give am to him guy Hassan ibn Thabit. Maria die five years after Muhammad die for 632. Maria (died 1716), na leader for slave uprising for Curaçao. Maria Boguslavka (17th century), na Ukrainian woman wey dem enslave for harem, she start help 30 Cossacks run away from slavery. Maria Guyomar de Pinha (1664–1728), na royal chef from Siam wey get Japanese-Portuguese blood. Maria Perkins, na enslave woman from Virginia wey write letter to her husband for 1852 say dem don sell their son away. Maria ter Meetelen (1704–after 1751), na Dutch writer wey tell her own slave story, dem carry her go enslave by pirates and later sell am to Sultan of Morocco. Her 1748 biography na important witness statement about life of former slave. Mariah Bell Winder McGavock Otey Reddick (she die 1922), as she be small girl, dem give am as wedding gift to Carrie Winder when she marry John McGavock for 1848 inside Terrebonne Parish, Louisiana. Mariah wey born for Mississippi as enslaved person, dem carry am go Franklin, Tennessee, where she spend plenty of her life. Dem match her with Harvey Otey after him first wife Phebe die. Dem get plenty pikin, including two set of twins, wey born into slavery. When Civil War start, dem send her go Montgomery make she dey far from Union lines and possible freedom. She don appear for three novels: Widow of the South and Orphan Mother wey Robert Hicks write and also for book wey her great-grandson William 'Damani' Keene and him wife Carole 'Ife' Keene write titled Clandestine: The Times and Secret Life of Mariah Otey Reddick. Marianna Malińska (she die after 1797), Polish serf and Royal Ballet Dancer, dem donates am to king of Poland by will. Marie (she die 1759), enslaved Cree woman wey get death sentence for Trois-Rivières, New France. Marie-Cessette Dumas, woman wey Marquis Antoine de la Pailleterie enslaved, she be mama of General Thomas-Alexandre Dumas, and grandmother of famous author Alexandre Dumas, père. Marie-Josèphe dite Angélique (she die 1734), black Portuguese enslaved woman wey dem try and convict, beat and hang because she set fire to her woman owner house, wey burn plenty of wetin dem dey call Old Montreal now. Marie Thérèse Metoyer, na planter and businesswoman wey dey Natchitoches, Louisiana after dem free her. Mark, one man from Massachusetts wey dey enslaved by Captain John Codman. Mark body dey display for chains for public near Charlestown, Massachusetts for twenty years. That gruesome display of him body dey popular well-well for that time, and na the place wey dem display Mark body make Paul Revere mention am as landmark for him 1798 account of him 1775 midnight ride. Martha Ann Erskine Ricks (1817–1901), na African-American wey dey born enslave for Tennessee, later she become Americo-Liberian wey sabi quilt. Marthe Franceschini (1755–1799), na Italian wey dem capture and enslave by Corsairs, enter Sultan of Morocco harem. Mary, wey be George Washington Carver mama. Mary (wey die 1838), na teenager wey dem hang for murder wey she do to Vienna Brinker, two-year-old girl wey she dey take care of. Mary Black, one of three enslave women wey dem charge for witchcraft during Salem witch trials for 1692. Mary Calhoun, white woman and cousin of John C. Calhoun wey dem kidnap by Cherokee. She no fit come back home. Mary Edmonson (1832–1853), with her sister Emily, dem try escape for 1848 wey dem dey call Pearl incident, but Henry Ward Beecher and him church gather money help free dem. Mary Eliza Smith, dem dey call 'slave' or 'former slave,' na common-law wife of Michael Morris Healy and mama of him pikin dem, wey include James Augustine Healy, Patrick Francis Healy, Michael A. Healy, and Eliza Healy. Mary Fields (c. 1832–1914): she be first African-American female wey dey carry mail for United States star route. Mary Mildred Williams, Nee Botts (born 1847), na the original 'Poster Child' wey dem use her picture push abolitionist cause by dey spread 'White Slavery' for 1855. Mary Prince (c. 1788–after 1833), her life story motivate anti-slavery movement for England. The Master of Morton and e first son of Clan Oliphant Chief, two Scottish noble wey dem exile from Scotland after 1582 Raid of Ruthven. Dem ship wey dem travel with vanish for sea, and dem talk say na Dutch ship catch dem. Last report be say dem dey enslave for Turkish ship for Mediterranean. Dem raise plaque for church for Algiers to remember dem. Masúd, dem buy am when e be pikin from Khál-i Akbar, wey be Báb uncle, Masúd go serve Bahá'u'lláh for Acre. Matilda McCrear (around 1857–1940), last person wey survive for US wey gree say Transatlantic slave trade no easy. Dem carry am go for slave ship Clotilda. Mende Nazer (born around 1982), Nuba woman wey dem capture for Darfur carry am from Sudan go London, later she get refugee status and write book wey title Slave: My True Story (2002). Menecrates of Tralles, na Greek doctor wey dey for 1st century BC. Metaneira, woman for ancient Greece wey dem talk say na Nicarete property, wey dey sell am for body. Michael Shiner (1805–1880), en slaved laborer, painter entrepreneur, community leader and diary writer for Washington Navy Yard. Miguel de Buría (around 1510–around 1555), na slave and rebel. Miguel Perez na the Spanish name of boy wey be Yojuane people, wey dey among 149 Yojuane women and children wey dem carry go as captive for 1759 when some Spanish and Apaches come attack their camp along Red River for northern Texas. Many of dem wey dem capture die from smallpox, the ones wey survive, dem go still enslave dem. Dem sell the boy to Spanish soldier wey give am that Spanish name. Perez become Hispanicized Indian for San Antonio but he still dey connect with his Yojuane people. For 1786, Perez go persuade the Yojuanes and their Tonkawa friends to fight Lipan Apache, wey he do am well. Mikhail Matinsky (1750–1820), Russian serf wey be scientist, dramatist, librettist and opera composer. Michał Rymiński (e don die after 1797), Polish serf wey be Royal Ballet Dancer, wey donate am to king of Poland by him will. Mikhail Shchepkin (1788–1863), Russian serf actor. Mikhail Shibanov, Russian serf painter wey dey active for 1780s. Mikhail Tikhanov (1789–1862), Russian serf artist. Mina Kolokolnikov (1708?–1775?), Russian serf painter and teacher. Mingo, di 15–16 years old boy wey Titsworth family use as slave for Tennessee, dem capture am for 1794 by Creeks when dem raid di house. Minerva (Anderson) Breedlove, na Madam C.J. Walker mama. Moses A. Hopkins (1846–1886), African-American diplomat, U.S. minister to Liberia. Murad Agha (c. 1480–c. 1556), Italy-born Ottoman eunuch and naval officer, wey turn Beylerbey of Tripoli. Mustapha Khaznadar (1817–1878), him be Christian Greek wey dem capture during 1822 Massacre of Chios, change am to Islam wey dem call am Mustapha, sell am for Constantinople to envoy of Husainid Dynasty. Him grow for Mustapha Bey family, later him son Ahmad I Bey. Him first be prince private treasurer before him become Ahmad state treasurer (khaznadar). Him rise to top offices for Tunisian state, marry Princess Lalla Kalthoum for 1839, turn lieutenant-general of di army, become bey for 1840 and de president of Grand Council from 1862 to 1878. Muyahid ibn Yusuf ibn Ali (11th century), na di leader of Saqaliba (slaves wey dem say be Slavic origin) for Dénia, Spain. As Caliphate of Córdoba dey fall, him and him followers rebel, free demself, control di city and establish di Taifa of Dénia, wey at di peak dey reach as far as di island of Majorca. N Nafisa al-Bayda, Egyptian investor wey dem dey call "white slave", na hin dey buy as concubine slave. Nancy, wey dem dey call Ann, na di plaintiff for di 1799 New Brunswick habeas corpus case R v Jones. Nancy Brown, Nancy Caffrey, na white captive wey Creek dey enslave. When trader John O'Reilly try to ransom her and Elsey Thompson, dem tell am say dem no capture dem to go back, but to work. Nanny of di Maroons, wey dem dey call Granny Nanny and Queen Nanny, na di leader of di Jamaican Maroons. Nat Turner (1800–1831), wey escape come lead revolt for Southampton County, Virginia. Nathan McMillian, wey as free man sue to make him pikin enter local "Croatan Indian" school, say e dey for all non-white pikin, and say him pikin get Croatan blood for their mama side. Nathaniel Booth (1826–1901), wey escape slavery for Virginia and settle for Lowell, Massachusetts. For 1851, di people of Lowell buy him freedom from slave hunters. Neaera, formerly enslaved woman and prostitute wey di Athenian Stephanus marry against di law around 340 BC, according to Demosthenes speech. Nero Hawley (1742–1817), wey be formerly enslaved freeperson wey serve for Continental Army during di American Revolutionary War, and dem bury am for Trumbull, Connecticut. Newport Gardner (1746–1826), na formerly enslaved freeperson for colonial Newport, Rhode Island. Ng Akew (died 1880), be Tanka enslaved woman for British Hong Kong wey famous for piracy scandal. Nicarete, na woman for ancient Greece, wey dem describe for Against Neaera di freedwoman of Charisius di Elean and him wife wey be cook Hippias, and as her dey own and sell several women around 340 BC. Saint Nino (c. 280–c. 332), na 4th-century Roman woman from Constantinople wey dem dey respect well well for bring Christianity come Georgia. Some account of her life talk say she originally come Georgia as slave wey dem kidnap from her homeland. Nurbanu Sultan (about 1525–1583), wey dem call Cecilia Venier-Baffo before, na enslaved noblewoman from Venice wey become the favorite wife of Ottoman sultan Selim II, and her wan dey very powerful as mother to sultan Murad III. O Omar ibn Said, Senegal scholar wey don dey slavery for North Carolina more than 50 years, around 1850. Oenomaus, Gallic gladiator wey lead slaves wey dey rebel during Third Servile War. Olaudah Equiano (c. 1745–1797), wey dem sabi as Gustavus Vassa, strong African-British writer wey dey fight for abolition, but dem no sure where e born. Omar ibn Said (1770–1864), writer and Islamic scholar wey come from Senegal wey dem carry go USA for 1807, spend di rest of im life for slavery. Onesimus, slave of Philemon from Colossae wey run away, meet St. Paul, and Paul change am. Paul send am back go Philemon with letter, wey be Epistle to Philemon. Ignatius of Antioch talk about an Onesimus wey be Bishop of Ephesus for early 2nd century, but nobody sure if na di same people. Onesimus, slave for colonial Boston wey help spread knowledge about smallpox inoculation. Onesimos Nesib (c. 1856–1931), Ethiopian wey Swedish missionaries buy out of slavery when e be pikin. E work with another former slave Aster Ganno to translate Bible into Oromo language. Oney Judge (1773–1848), wey dem enslave for Martha Washington family, and later for di First Lady, Judge dey work for Mount Vernon and all over as personal servant to Martha Washington until she escape for 1796 go Portsmouth New Hampshire. Ottobah Cugoano, wey dem sabi as John Stuart (c. 1757–after 1791), be abolitionist, political activist, and natural rights philosopher from West Africa wey dey active for Britain. Owen Fitzpen (c. 1582–1636), English merchant wey Barbary pirates carry capture for 1620 but escape later. Owen Breedlove, papa of Madam C.J. Walker. P Pallas, secretary wey dey work for Roman emperor Claudius. Pasion, na enslaved Athenian guy wey be banker. E later get dat rare chance for freedman to get citizen. Pata Seca (real name na Roque José Florêncio), wey come from Angola for 1828, dem capture am come Brazil as slave, na tall, strong guy: 2m18 tall plus over 140 kg weight. E dey work as breeding slave, e don born over 200 pikin. When dem cancel slavery for Brazil for 1888, e get land, wey e live with e wife and 9 children. Saint Patrick, dem kidnap am from Britain, enslave for Ireland, escape go Britain, come back to Ireland as missionary. Patsey (born around 1830), na enslaved African-American wey dey live for mid-1800s for South Carolina. Paul Jennings (1799–1874), na personal servant wey dem enslave under President James Madison during e White House time, e buy im freedom for 1845 from Daniel Webster. E publish di first White House memoir, 1865's A Colored Man's Reminiscences of James Madison. Paul Smith, na free black wey accuse di Cherokee headman Doublehead say e kidnap am and force am into bondage. Pedro Camejo (1790–1821), na Venezuelan soldier for di Venezuelan War of Independence. Peggy Margaret Titsworth, dem enslave am at 13 years for three years, after Creek raid for 1794 on her Tennessee home. Pete and Hannah Byrne, na freed slaves from Napoleon Bonaparte Byrne family wey travel from Missouri to California by land (six months journey) for 1859, dem leave di farm for Missouri carry six adults (including Pete & Hannah), di four Byrne children and cattle come settle for Berkeley, California. Pete and Hannah be di first blacks wey dey live for Berkeley and among di first African-Americans for California. Peter Salem (c. 1750–1816), African American wey born for slavery for Massachusetts, serve as soldier for American Revolutionary War. Petronia Justa, woman wey dey Herculaneum, sue her owner say she born after her mama don freedom; Vesuvius eruption preserve di court matter. Phaedo of Elis, wey dem capture for war, carry go Athens, force am to do prostitution, later become Socrates student wey free am, give him name to one Plato dialogue, Phaedo, and him be famous philosopher. Phaedrus (c. 15 BCE–c. 50 CE), Roman storyteller. Praskovia Kovalyova-Zhemchugova dress fine for Les mariages samnites by André Ernest Modeste Grétry. Phillis (die 1755), woman wey dey Massachusetts, enslave by Captain John Codman. She and her people plot to poison her owner as dem no fit take di wahala from their master, but dem burn am to death for 1755. Phillis Wheatley (1753–1784?), Colonial American poet, second published African-American poet and first African-American woman wey publish. Phoebe, woman wey dey slavery wey sue for her freedom for Tennessee, with her pikin Davy and Tom, say dem be descendants of one enslaved Indian woman wey prove say dem no suppose hold dem. Philocrates, wey dey slavery under Roman reformer Gaius Gracchus. He stay with him master when Gracchus dey run from him enemies, everybody don leave am. When dem reach one grove wey dey sacred to di Furies, Philocrates help Gracchus kill himself first before he take him own life, some talk say dem kill am after him refuse to let go him master body. Phormion, one enslaved man from Athens wey dey do banking. For him old age, dem give am rare honor of citizenship as free man. Pierre d'Espagnac, sometimes Pierre d'Espagnal (1650–1689), na French Jesuit missionary, dem enslave am by di Siamese. Pope Pius I (e die around 154), na Bishop for Rome from around 140 to 154, when dem dey reign under Roman emperor Antoninus Pius. E be brother to freedman Hermas, so e fit don be former slave too, but dem no talk am clear for di small records wey dey about e life. Pleasant Richardson, wey escape slavery become Union soldier plus property owner for Fincastle, Virginia. Polly, di subject of 1820 Indiana Supreme Court case Polly v. Lasselle, wey make all slaves wey dey Indiana go free. Polly Berry, wey dem also dey call Polly Crockett or Polly Wash, win freedom suit for 1843 for St. Louis, Missouri plus she free her daughter Lucy Ann Berry too. Politoria, wey get lead curse tablet for ancient Rome; na curse on Clodia Valeria Sophrone say make she no fit get Politoria into her power. E look like say she be slave-courtesan wey dey fear say dem go send am go brothel. Praskovia Kovalyova-Zhemchugova (1768–1803) na Russian serf actress plus soprano opera singer. Primus (1700–1791), wey Daniel Fowle from Portsmouth, New Hampshire enslave. Primus dey run di press for di New Hampshire Gazette wey be di oldest newspaper wey still dey print for America. Prince na di slave of Choctaw man wey name Richard Harkins. E vex say him owner no give di slaves Christmas celebration, Prince kill am sharply and dump di body for river for 1858. Prince Boston (born 1750), sue for him freedom and win for 1773 U.S. jury trial. Prince Estabrook (1741–1830), wey Benjamin Estabrook enslave; join fight for Continental Army and get wound for di Battle of Lexington and Concord. Prince Whipple (1750–1796), enslave by American General William Whipple. Prosper, na enslaved man wey dem murder for 1807 for Virgin Islands by him owner Arthur William Hodge, and Hodge go face trial and dem execute am for 1811, na di first case wey dem fit record like dat. One pregnant Thrall wey we no fit remember the name, dey run from her life for 11th-century Oslo, Hallvard Vebjørnsson carry am go hide for him boat. Dem people come attack dem, shoot dem with arrow, and both of dem die. Because of dat, dem make Hallvard saint and him be patron saint for Oslo. Publilius Syrus (fl. 85–43 BCE), na Latin writer wey sabi plenty for him wise sayings. E be Syrian wey dem carry come Italy as slave. Q Quamina Gladstone, him be Jack Gladstone papa and e dey involve for Demerara rebellion wey happen for 1823. Quassi van Timotebo or Kwasimukamba (1692–1787) na Surinam slave, wey don free and na Maroon hunter for Dutch Surinam. Him name dey for plant genus wey dem call Quassia. Quock Walker, wey dem dey call Kwaku or Quok Walker too, him sue and win him freedom for 1781 because of new Massachusetts Constitution (1780) wey talk say all men dem dey born free and equal. Qutb-ud-din Aybak or Qutbuddin Aibak (1150–1210), na Turk wey don suffer slavery before, become soldier, be first Sultan of Delhi, for India e start "slave dynasty". R Rachel, na the person wey dey the 1834 Rachel v. Walker case for Supreme Court of Missouri wey rule say U.S. Army officer go lose him slave if e carry the person go place wey slavery no dey allowed. Dis ruling come dey used as example for 1856 for Dred Scott v. Sandford case for U.S. Supreme Court. Rachel of Kittery, Maine (she die 1695), na enslaved woman wey her owner kill, and e case set legal example for New England. Rachel Knight (she die 1889), at first na enslaved by Newton Knight grandpapa, wey be popular Southern Unionist wey during American Civil War, e no gree Confederacy, wey dem dey call Free State of Jones. After the war, Rachel come get freedom with other slaves. By mid-1870s, Knight don separate from him wife, Serena, come marry Rachel. During this time, Knight grown son, Mat (from him first wife), come marry Rachel grown daughter, Fannie, from her previous relationship. Knight daughter, Molly, come marry Rachel son, Jeff, turns three interracial families for the community. Newton and Rachel Knight born plenty children before she die for 1889. Rebecca Huger, na enslaved woman wey General Benjamin F. Butler free for New Orleans, and dem talk for Harper's Weekly say she be white, come dey go school for freed slaves for Philadelphia. Richard Preston (around 1791–1861), e comot from slavery come be religious leader and abolitionist for Nova Scotia. Robert Blake, e get Medal of Honor as sailor during American Civil War, after e become 'contraband' (slaves wey Union forces free) come join. Robert Drury (1687–1743/1750), English sailor wey shipwreck for Madagascar island in 1702, e dey slave there till 1717. Robert J. Patterson (1809–1884), e run from slavery for Virginia come be restaurateur for Saint John, New Brunswick. Robert Smalls (1839–1915), e take charge of Confederate ship, carry the ship and enslaved people go freedom, make Union allow African Americans join; later e serve for South Carolina Senate before e enter U.S. House of Representatives wey represent South Carolina's 5th congressional district. Robin and Polly Holmes, na dem be plaintiffs for the 1853 Holmes v. Ford court case for Oregon Territory wey free their pikin dem. The verdict confirm say slavery no dey legal for that area as Organic Laws of Oregon talk when the place become U.S. territory. Rosina Downs, na enslaved woman wey General Benjamin F. Butler free for New Orleans, dem describe am for Harper's Weekly say she look white, and she come school for emancipated slaves for Philadelphia. Roustam Raza (1783–1845), na Napoleon Bonaparte's Armenian bodyguard. S Solomon Northup wey come from Twelve Years a Slave Sabuktigin (c. 942–997), full name Abu Mansur Sabuktigin, be small pikin wey dem carry go sell for slavery, but e rise come be general, then king wey start the Ghaznavid Empire for medieval Iran. Safiye Sultan (c. 1550 – c. 1619), na enslaved woman wey be Albanian, dem put am for harem of Ottoman sultan Murad III, and she be the mama of sultan Mehmed III. Salem Poor (1747–1802), na enslaved African-American man wey buy im freedom, and e be war hero during the American Revolutionary War. Sally Hemings (1773–1835), na mixed-race woman wey dem enslave by Thomas Jefferson, plenty people dey believe say she born six pikin for am, four of dem survive grow reach adult. Sally Miller or Salomé Müller (born c. 1814), na enslaved American woman wey file her freedom case for Louisiana based on say she dey claim say she be free German immigrant and indentured servant. Sally Seymour (died 1824), na American pastry chef and restaurateur, enslaved woman wey dem free and she come own her own slaves too. Salonia na di second wife of Cato di Elder. Salvius, wey dem sabi as Tryphon, be leader of di 104 BCE slave rebellion for Sicily wey dem call di Second Servile War. Sambo (died 1736), na enslaved boy wey enter Sunderland Point, near Lancaster, England, around 1736 from West Indies as captain servant. Dem bury am for grave wey no dey blessed inside one field near small village of Sunderland Point, Lancashire, England. Sambo, a black guy wey dey under Tiger King, one Lower Creek, wey tell traveler William Bartram say Sambo be him family property. Samson Rowlie (wey die after 1588), wey dem sabi as Hassan Aga, Chief Eunuch and Treasurer for Algiers. Samuel Benedict (1792–1854), wey born be African-American slave, later become free and waka go Liberia, where he turn politician and judge. Samuel Green (c. 1802–1877), one enslaved man wey buy him freedom and freedom for him loved ones, dey involve for Underground Railroad, and dem lock him up for 1857 because e carry Uncle Tom's Cabin. Samuel Ringgold Ward (1817–c. 1866), African-American wey dey fight for abolition and be journalist. Sandy Jenkins, na person wey dey enslave wey Frederick Douglass talk for him first autobiography. Sanker, na manservant wey dey work for Samuel R. Watkins, wey write "Co. Aytch" (1882), wey dey tell how him life be as soldier for the 1st Tennessee Infantry Regiment. Sarah Forbes Bonetta (1843–1880), na Egbado princess from Yoruba wey lose her people during fight, sell into slavery as small pikin, but Captain Frederick E. Forbes from Royal Navy come rescue am carry am go UK wey she con become goddaughter to Queen Victoria. Sarah Basset (die 1730), wey dey enslave for Bermuda; dem execute am for poison matter wey involve three people. Sarah Johnson (1844–1920), her life for the first president plantation dey published for book wey dem call "Sarah Johnson's Mount Vernon." Satrelanus, from Gaul, wey Ermedruda sell give Toto for Milan for 725. Scipio Africanus (around 1702–1720). Scipio Moorhead (fl. 1773–1775), na enslaved African-American artist. Scipio Vaughan (around 1784–around 1840), dem carry am komot from him place for Africa young, sell am go slavery for United States. E turn skilled artisan for Camden, South Carolina; manage get him freedom and inspire plenty of him pikin dem. Septimus Clarke (1787–1859), wey dem don enslave before, him turn e get success as farmer and leader for community for Nova Scotia. Servius Tullius, ancient King of Rome wey people talk sey e start life as slave (but some people dey argue this matter, both Romans and modern historians). Seymour Burr (1754/1762–1837), e fight for Continental Army for American Revolution. Shadrach Minkins (1814–1875), na fugitive wey slavery no fit catch, dem save am by abolitionists for Boston in 1850. Shaghab (dem don die 933), mother and double ruler of the eighteenth Abbasid Caliph al-Muqtadir. Silas Chandler (1838–1919), na man wey dey follow him enslavers for Confederate Army during American Civil War. Sojourner Truth (around 1797–1883), na abolitionist and women's rights activist. Solomon Bayley (1771–1839), write book for 1825 about him life as slave. Solomon Northup (1807–around 1863), na farmer, pro violinist, and free-born black man from New York wey dem lure go Washington, D.C., wey slavery dey legal, kidnap am and sell am for South. E dey enslaved for Louisiana from 1841 till dem rescue am and liberate am for 1853. Na author of Twelve Years a Slave. Solomon Flores, na enslaved man from northern Alabama. Sosias the Thracian, na enslaved Athenian man, later freedman, wey Nicias carry enslave, later rent am one thousand slaves for mining work. Spartacus (around 111–71 BCE), na gladiator and rebel leader during the Servile Revolt. Spendius be Campanian wey run come out from slavery, serve as Carthaginian mercenary for di First Punic War, den later be general for Mercenary War wey dem fight against Carthage. Stefan Holnicki (we no sabi when e die after 1797), Polish serf and Royal Ballet Dancer, don give plenty to di king of Poland by im will. Stephen Bishop (about 1821–1857), na mixed-race man wey dem hold for Kentucky, him dey known as one of di first explorers and guides for Mammoth Cave. Sue, na black woman wey James Brown enslave, dem capture am with plenty members for di Brown family and other slaves by Chickamaugas. When di warrior wey catch am threaten another captive, di other captor come threaten say dem go kill Sue for revenge. James' pikin Joseph later kidnap Sue, her children and grandchildren—total eight—for di revenge wey dey follow im captivity. Suhayb ar-Rumi (born around 587), wey people sabi as Suhayb ibn Sinan, na child wey dey enslave for Byzantine Empire, escape as young man go Mecca, come join Muhammad and become big friend for di early Muslim community. Sumayyah bint Khayyat (550–615), na woman wey dem enslave for Mecca; she be one of di first seven pipo wey convert to Islam by Prophet Muhammad early for him work. Dem torture am and kill am because of di new faith, she become di first Muslim Shahid. Squanto (1585–1622), wey dem also sabi as Tisquantum, na Native American from wetin dem dey call coastal Massachusetts now; dem capture am by English pirates and sell am as slave. Later, he free and return go New England, meet di Pilgrims for di Mayflower in 1621. Subh of Cordoba (940–999), na enslave concubine of a Caliph, na mother and regent of di next Caliph of Cordoba inside di 10th century. Suk-bin Choe (1670–1718), na consort of Sukjong of Joseon and mother of Yeongjo of Joseon. Surya Devi (we no sabi when she die, 715), na Indian princess wey dem enslave by Caliph Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik. T Taras Shevchenko Tatyana Shlykova Dem dey talk say na Terence portrait from Vatican Codex 3868. E fit be copy from 3rd-century original. Taras Shevchenko (1814–1861): Na di biggest Ukrainian poet, artist and illustrator wey come from serf family. E artist padi buy am freedom for 1838. Tatyana Shlykova (1773–1863), Russian serf wey be ballerina and opera singer. Thanadelthur (c. 1697–1717), woman from Chipewyan Dënesųłı̨ne nation wey help as guide and interpreter for Hudson's Bay Company. Thomas Fuller, African American man wey dey suffer for Virginia, dem sabi am for im math skills. Thomas Pellow (1704–1745), wey pirates from Barbary enslave, carry am go Morocco, dem select am and torture am by Ismail Ibn Sharif. E escape after 23 years, come back home to Cornwall. Thomas Peters (1738–1792), wey first be Thomas Potters, one of di founding fathers of Sierra Leone. Dem don enslave am before, e run come out from North Carolina during American Revolutionary War. Peters na Black Loyalist member of British Black Company of Pioneers, e become sergeant, settle down, and marry for Nova Scotia. E even recruit African settlers for Nova Scotia to colonize Sierra Leone, later become leader for Freetown. Thomas Sims (born 1834), African American man wey escape slavery for Georgia come Boston, Massachusetts, but dem catch am back under Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, but e escape go Boston again. Thomas-Alexandre Dumas (1762–1806), French general and papa of Alexandre Dumas. Thumal, administrator of justice for di eighteenth Abbasid Caliph al-Muqtadir. T. Aelius Dionysius, freedman for di late Roman Empire, wey create stela for himself, im wife, and Aelius Perseus, im fellow freedman, and dem and dem wey come after dem. T. Claudius Dionysius, him be freedman wey him freedwoman wife Claudia Prepontis build funeral altar for am. Di hands wey dem hold show say dem marry legit, na only after dem get dem freedom. Terence (c. 195/185–c. 159 BCE), full name Publius Terentius Afer, na Roman playwright and comic poet wey write before and maybe after him freedom. Tiberius Claudius Narcissus, na freedman wey dey serve as secretary to Roman emperor Claudius for 1st century. Tituba, na 17th-century Native American woman wey Samuel Parris from Danvers, Massachusetts enslave. She be di first person wey dem accuse of witchcraft during di 1692 Salem witch trials. Tomás Ortega, na enslaved man for colonial Mexico wey try marry Leonor de Mendoza, another woman wey dey under different master. When dat man lock Tomás, Leonor beg church court for help, dem threaten say if him no free Tomás, dem go excommunicate am. Titus Kent (1733–18??), him dey serve for di Samuel Kent family for Suffield Connecticut. Samuel Kent wey live from 1698–1772, wey write for him will say Titus go be Elihu Kent pikin. Revolutionary War records show say Titus serve for different regiments from 1775 to 1783. Toussaint L'Ouverture (1743–1803), na freedman wey lead di slave revolt wey bring Haiti independence. Tula (wey die 1795), na leader of di Curaçao Slave Revolt of 1795. Turgut Reis (1485–1565), wey dem sabi as Dragut, na famous admiral for Ottoman Navy wey Genoese capture for Corsica and force am work as galley slave for near four years. Finally, him fellow admiral Barbarossa come rescue am, wey lay siege to Genoa and secure Turgut Reis release for big ransom of 3,500 gold ducats. After dat, Turgut Reis continue him naval career (wey include di enslavement of plenty other people). U Ukawsaw Gronniosaw (1705–1775), wey dem sabi as James Albert, na freedman wey turn writer. Him autobiography be di first one wey African publish for Britain. Ursula Granger (1738–1800), na woman wey Thomas Jefferson enslave, she be cook, dairymaid, laundress, and wet nurse. Dem dey call am di "Queen of Monticello". V Vasily Tropinin Vincent de Paul Vasily Tropinin (1776–1857), na Russian serf wey sabi paint. Venture Smith (1729–1805), na African wey dem capture as pikin, carry am go American colonies as slave. When e grow, e buy im freedom and im family too – im wife Meg and di pikin dem: Hannah, Solomon and Cuff. Di schoolteacher wey write im story, na person wey e talk to for im old age. Venus Vance (died c. 1850), na enslaved American woman wey live and work for Mira Margaret Baird Vance plantation. Di Vestmenn ("West Men" for Old Norse, wey dey point to di Irish) be group of Irish slaves wey Hjörleifr Hróðmarsson carry go Iceland. E no treat dem well, so dem kill am and run go one group of islands. Ingólfur Arnarson, Hjörleifur's blood brother, chase dem come kill all of dem. Though we no sabi their individual names, dem memory still dey for Iceland geography, di islands wey dem seek refuge dey known as "Vestmannaeyjar": "Islands of di West Men" (i.e. of di Irish). Vincent de Paul (1581–1660), na French priest wey dem dey honor as saint for di Catholic Church. Dem capture am by Turkish pirates, sell am as slave, but e come free for 1607. Vindicius, na ancient Roman slave wey find out Tarquin's plan to take back power. Vibia Calybeni, na freedwoman for late Roman Empire wey weirdly call herself madam for im tombstone. Virginia Boyd, na enslaved American woman wey write letter to R.C. Ballard, dey beg make dem no sell am with her pikin for strangers. Ballard wan sell am die as Judge Samuel Boyd, di children papa, tell am make e hide her existence from im family. Violet Ludlow, na American woman wey don sell into slavery plenty times even though she dey claim say she be free white woman. Virginia Demetricia (1842–after 1867), na enslaved Aruban wey dem sabi say she be heroine wey dey fight against slavery. Vitalis, ancient enslaved Roman. One inscription dey talk about enslaved boy, Iucundus, as son of Gryphus and Vitalis. Volumnia Cytheris, na enslaved and later freedwoman for ancient Rome. She be actress and courtesan, her lovers include Brutus, Mark Antony, and Cornelius Gallus; how she reject Gallus dey inspire Virgil's tenth Eclogue. W Photograph of Wes Brady, ex-slave, wey dem snap for Marshall, Texas, for 1937 as part of Federal Writers' Project Slave Narrative Collection. Wes Brady (born 1849), from Marshall, Texas, dey among di Federal Writers' Project Slave Narrative Collection. West Ford (c. 1784–1863), wey George Washington enslave and serve as caretaker for Mount Vernon. Him dey claim say he be Washington biological son. William Ansah Sessarakoo (c. 1736–1770), African prince wey suffer for transatlantic slave trade, get freedom, and later become slave trader himself. William Beverly Nash (1822–1888), na North Carolina state senator. William Ellison (1790–1861), na enslaved man wey mixed race and after him gain freedom, him too become slaveholder wey dey produce cotton. William Gardner (born 1759), na man wey James Madison enslave wey Madison sell into indentured servitude for seven years before him dey free and dey work as merchant's agent. William Henry wey dem dey call 'Jerry', na man wey escape slavery for Missouri but dem catch am for Syracuse, New York for 1851 before some abolitionists come rescue am from Fugitive Slave Law wahala. William A. Jackson, na man wey Jefferson Davis keep as slave wey run come out for 1861 with plenty military gist about Confederate forces. William Andrew Johnson, mixed-race American wey President Andrew Johnson, Dolly Johnson son carry come as slave. William D. Gibbons (1825–1886), na domestic servant wey later become African Baptist minister after dem free am. William Dorsey Swann (1860–1925), wey born into slavery for Maryland, later become LGBT activist and di first person wey fit self-identify as drag queen. William Jones na slave wey Ulysses S. Grant acquire from him father-in-law for 1858. Jones dey thirty-five years old when dem carry am come. Even though Grant no be abolitionist, he no dey fit force slave to work. For March 1859, Grant free William with manumission deed, wey fit worth $1,000, when he need money. Di case of William Jones catch plenty historians eye, and e dey enter debate about Grant attitude to slavery. William Lee (1750–1828), na man wey George Washington keep as personal servant during di American Revolutionary War, and na di only person wey Washington free from slavery by im will. William Okeley na Englishman wey Algerian pirates capture keep as slave. William Wells Brown (c. 1814–1884), na African-American writer wey escape from slavery for 1834. Wilson Chinn, na African American wey dey for 1863 photo as 'branded slave.' Wulfstan be man wey dey suffer for Anglo-Saxon England, him two pikin and stepdaughter join am. Dem free dem with him madam Æthelgifu will. Wu Rui (15th century), be eunuch wey don suffer for wetin be Vietnam now. E be the smallest of thirteen Chinese men from Wenchang wey ship waka stray and dem carry dem go slave under Lê dynasty. According to Ming Shi-lu, dem turn him teammates to farm workers but dem cut Wu Rui and make am attendant for Imperial Citadel of Thang Long. After plenty years, when Vietnamese king die for 1497, dem boost him to military position for northern Vietnam. One soldier tell am say if e fit escape go back China, and Wu Rui take the chance waka go Longzhou. The local chief wan sell am back to the Vietnamese, but Pingxiang magistrate come rescue am and later send am go Beijing to work as palace eunuch. Wyatt Lee (c. 1822–1863), na the first husband of Dr. Rebecca Davis Lee Crumpler. E escape from slavery for Virginia. X Xenon, be Athenian man wey dey suffer and be banker. Xing be the main wife of Gaozong, brother to Qinzong, wey be Chinese Emperor for Song Dynasty. In 1127, Jurchen come capture Kaifeng during Jin–Song Wars, and dem carry more than 3000 people go exile for Manchuria during wetin dem call Jingkang Incident. Xing na one of the Imperial consorts, concubines, palace women and eunuchs wey dem capture, and dem share among Jurchen as slaves. Xing husband Gaozong wey escape, come be new Emperor and declare Xing Empress for absentia, but e no fit free am. She dey suffer for captivity, wey her captors dey crave for am, she try kill herself to run come out but e no work, and she die for captivity in 1139. Y Yaqut al-Hamawi (1179–1229), di Arab wey sabi plenty tori and geography, e be known for im big writings about di Muslim world. Dem sell am into slavery for 12th-century Syria, carry am go Baghdad, but dem give am beta education and later dem free am. Yasār (7th century), na Christian man wey dem catch for di war of Khalid ibn al-Walid, wey be friend of Muhammad. Dem carry Yasār go Medina, make am Qays ibn Makhrama ibn al-Muṭṭalib ibn ʿAbd Manāf ibn Quṣayy slave. E accept Islam, dem free am, and e be come him mawlā, so e get di nisbat al-Muṭṭalibī. E get three pikin – Mūsā, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān, and Isḥāq. Him grandpapa, Ibn Ishaq, be important early Arab historian. Yasuke, na 16th-century African man wey travel go Japan for Jesuit missionary service, Alessandro Valignano. Dem give am to Oda Nobunaga, Yasuke become di confident of di daimyō and dem give am official status as trusted retainer. York (1770–before 1832), na African-American man wey dem enslave by William Clark, wey be part of di Lewis and Clark Expedition. Z Zofia Potocka Zalmoxis, na Dacian wey dem enslave by Pythagoras for Samos according to Herodotus. Zalmoxis learn philosophy from him owner and other wise Greeks. Eventually dem free am, him gather plenty wealth, go back him land, wey he convert di Thracians to him beliefs, dem dey respect am for him wisdom and later generations dey worship am as god. Zayd ibn Haritha (c. 581–629), dem give am to Muhammad's wife Khadijah, dem free am, adopt am, come sabi am as Zayd ibn Muhammad. Ziryab (789–857), wey dem also dey call Abul-Hasan Alí Ibn Nafí, na Muslim singer, musician, and polymath wey introduce crop asparagus to Europe. Zoe, Christian martyr. Zofia Potocka (1760–1822), na Greek-Ottoman enslaved courtesan wey marry rich become Polish countess. Zumbi (1655–1695), wey dem enslave for Portuguese Brazil, e run come join Quilombo dos Palmares, di biggest settlement of freed slaves for colonial Brazil, na im be di last and most well-known leader. Zunairah al-Rumiya (7th century), some people sabi am as Zaneera, Zannirah, Zanira or for some stories Zinra or Zinnirah ("Zaneerah di Roman") wey na companion of Prophet Muhammad. See also == List of slaves == a3a25q22l7mi1mdrlkm5qkq951y91j7 69189 69182 2025-07-06T00:52:51Z Abdul-Rauf Moshie 1580 69189 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Slavery}} [[File:Livorno_Quattro_mori_monument_07.JPG|thumb|375x375px|One out of four statues wey dey show chained slaves for base of the Monument of the Four Moors for Livorno, Italy, wey dem fit be real slaves o.]] Slavery be one kind social-economic system wey people dey suffer: dem no get freedom and dem dey force to do work or service without pay. Dem people wey dey in dis condition, we dey call dem slaves or enslaved people. Dis na list of some important historical people wey don dey enslave for some time for dem life, we go arrange am from A to Z based on dem first name. * A * B * C * D * E * F * G * H * I * J * K * L * M * N * O * P * Q * R * S * T * U * V * W * X * Y * Z * See also == A == * Abraham be enslaved black man wey dey carry message between frontier and Charles Town for war with Cherokee, wey fit free am. * Abdul Rahman Ibrahima Sori (1762–1829), na prince from West Africa wey dem hold for United States for 40 years till President John Quincy Adams free am. * Abram Petrovich Gannibal (1696–1781), dem adopt am by Russian czar Peter the Great, him be governor for Tallinn (Reval) (1742–1752) and general-en-chef (1759–1762) wey dey build sea forts and canals for Russia; e be great-grandpapa of Alexander Pushkin. See The Slave in European Art for him portraits. * Absalom Jones (1746–1818), him don free himself, na abolitionist and clergyman – first ordained black priest of Episcopal Church. * Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz (die 644), na Persian craftsman and captive wey kill second Islamic caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab (r. 634–644). * Addas (7th century) na enslaved Christian boy wey dey live for Taif during Muhammad time, wey people talk say na him be first person from western Taif wey convert to Islam. * Adriaan de Bruin (c. 1700–1766), wey dem call Tabo Jansz before, na enslaved servant for Dutch Republic wey turn free man for Hoorn, North Holland. * Adam Brzeziński (1768 – after 1797), Polish serf and Royal Ballet Dancer, wey donate to king of Poland by will and testament. * Aesop (c. 620–564 BCE), na Greek poet and author or transcriber for Aesop's Fables. * Afanasy Grigoriev (1782–1868), na Russian serf and Neoclassical architect. * Afrosinya (1699/1700–1748), na Russian serf, fit be Finnish captive, na enslaved mistress of Alexei Petrovich, Tsarevich of Russia. * Agathoclia (shey die around 230), na martyr and patron saint for Mequinenza town for Spain. * Alam al-Malika (shey die 1130), na singer wey dem catch as slave but rise become de prime minister and ruler for Zubayd, wey dey now Yemen. Alexina Morrison, na run away girl from slavery for Louisiana wey claim say she be kidnapped white pikin, she sue her master wey make people vex say dem go lynch am. * Alfred "Teen" Blackburn (1842–1951), one of de last survivors of slavery for United States wey fit remember wetin happen. Alfred Francis Russ [[File:Aesop_pushkin01.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aesop_pushkin01.jpg|left|thumb|264x264px|[[:en:Aesop|Aesop]] in a [[:en:Hellenistic_art|Hellenistic]] statue claimed to be him, Art Collection of [[:en:Villa_Albani|Villa Albani]], Rome]] ell (1817–1884), na 10th President of Liberia. * Alice Clifton (c. 1772–unknown), as slave pikin, she dey trial for infanticide matter for 1787. * Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca (c. 1490–c. 1558), na Spanish explorer wey dem turn slave by Native Americans for Gulf Coast after e survive Narváez expedition wey scatter for 1527. * Al-Khayzuran bint Atta (shey die 789), na Yemeni girl wey turn wife for Abbasid Caliph Al-Mahdi and mama to two Caliphs, Al-Hadi and Harun al-Rashid, wey dem sabi well well. * Alp-Tegin (shey die 963), na member of nomadic Turks, dem carry am as slave small for Samanid court for Bukhara, later e come be army commander for Samanid Empire. Him son-in-law Sabuktigin later start Ghaznavid Empire. * Amanda America Dickson (1849–1893), daughter of white planter David Dickson and Julia Frances Lewis, she be slave under Dickson's mama. Even though she dey legally enslaved till after Civil War, Amanda be her papa favorite and she inherit him $500,000 estate after him die for 1885. * Ammar bin Yasir (570–657), one of di popular sahaba dem wey Abu Bakr free. * Amos Fortune (1710–1801), African prince wey don suffer for United States for most of him life. Di children book wey talk about am, Amos Fortune, Free Man win Newbery Medal for 1951. * Anarcha Westcott (c. 1828–unknown), black woman wey dey enslaved for di United States, she be among di women wey J. Marion Sims use do experiment. Portrait of Andrey Voronikhin. Engraving by V. A. Bobrov from di early 19th century. * Andrey Voronikhin (1759–1814), Russian serf, architect and painter. * Andrea Aguyar (died 1849), former enslaved black ma [[File:Voronikhin.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Voronikhin.jpg|right|thumb|297x297px|Portrait of [[:en:Andrey_Voronikhin|Andrey Voronikhin]]. Engraving by V. A. Bobrov from the beginning of the 19th century.]] * n from Uruguay wey join Giuseppe Garibaldi during di Italian revolution for di Uruguayan Civil War of di 1840s and die for fight for di Roman Republic of 1849. * Andrew Jackson Beard (1849–1921), inventor, him free at age 15 by di Emancipation Proclamation. * Anna J. Cooper (1858–1964), author, educator, speaker and big African-American scholar. * Anna Madgigine Jai Kingsley (1793–1870), woman wey dey enslaved then become planter and slave owner. Anna Williams, woman wey dey enslaved for Washington, D.C. wey go court win her freedom against di United States Court of Appeals. * Annice (died 1828), dem execute her for murder five children. Annika Svahn (fl. 1714), Finnish woman wey Russian take away during di Great Northern War. She be vicar pikin for Joutseno, wey become popular victim for di wahala wey civilian dem suffer during di Russian occupation. * Antarah ibn Shaddad (525–608), pre-Islamic Arab wey born from enslaved woman, him papa free am before battle, and he be poet too. * Anthony Burns (1834–1862), na Baptist pre [[File:Петровское._Бюст_А.П._Ганнибала.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5._%D0%91%D1%8E%D1%81%D1%82_%D0%90.%D0%9F._%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0.jpg|right|thumb|263x263px|[[:en:Abram_Petrovich_Gannibal|Abram Petrovich Gannibal]], bust in [[:en:Petrovskoye,_Yaroslavl_Oblast|Petrovskoe]], [[:en:Russia|Russia]]]] acher wey escape slavery go Boston, but dem catch am again because Fugitive Slave Act wey dey 1850, den people wey no want am capture buy im freedom for Boston. * Antonia Bonnelli (1786–1870), dem capture am and enslave am by Mikasuki tribe for Florida in 1802. * António Corea, na European name wey dem give to Korean. Dem carry am go Italy, wey fit make am di first Korean wey step foot for Europe. * Antón Guanche (15th century), na Guanche from Tenerife, dem capture am, enslave am, come return am go di island. * Aqualtune Ezgondidu Mahamud da Silva Santos (died 1677), na princess of Kongo, mother of Ganga Zumba and grandmother of Zumbi dos Palmares. She lead 10,000 men during di Battle of Mbwila between Kingdom of Kongo and Kingdom of Portugal. Dem catch am by Portuguese forces, carry am go Brazil and sell am as slave. She start di slave settlement of Quilombo dos Palmares with her son Ganga Zumba. * Archer Alexander (1810–1879), na model wey dem use for di slave wey dey di 1876 Emancipation Memorial sculpture. Abram Petrovich Gannibal, bust wey dey Petrovskoe, Russia. * Archibald Grimké (1849–1930), born into slavery, son of white papa, become American lawyer, intellectual, journalist, diplomat and community leader. * Arthur Crumpler (c. 1835–1910), escape slavery for Virginia, na di second husband of Dr. Rebecca Davis Lee Crumpler. * Aster Ganno (c. 1872–1964), na young Ethiopian woman wey Italian Navy rescue from slave ship wey dey cross go Yemen. She go translate di Bible into Oromo language. Also she prepare literacy materials and spend di rest of her life as school teacher. * Augustine Tolton (1854–1897), na di first black priest for di United States. * Aurelia Philematium, na freedwoman wey her tombstone dey praise her marriage with her fellow freedman, Lucius Aurelius Hermia. * Ayuba Suleiman Diallo (1701–1773), wey dem sabi as Job ben S [[File:William_Hoare_of_Bath_-_Portrait_of_Ayuba_Suleiman_Diallo,_(1701-1773).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:William_Hoare_of_Bath_-_Portrait_of_Ayuba_Suleiman_Diallo,_(1701-1773).jpg|left|thumb|Portrait of [[:en:Ayuba_Suleiman_Diallo|Ayuba Suleiman Diallo]] by [[:en:William_Hoare|William Hoare]] (1733)]] olomon, na Muslim wey come from Bundu state for West Africa. E dey suffer for two years for Maryland as slave, but dem free am for 1734. Later, e write hin story wey dem publish as one of di first slave narrative. B Baibars Baibars (1223–1277), wey dem dey call am Abu al-Futuh, na Kipchak Turk wey turn Mamluk sultan for Egypt and Syria. Balthild (c. 626–680), na Anglo-Saxon woman wey come from big family, dem sell am gree as small pikin, serve for Erchinoald house, wey be mayor for Neustria. After, she marry Clovis II, and later she be regent when her pikin Clotaire dey small. She stop dem wey dey trade Christian slaves and dey fight for freedom of children wey dem sell as slaves. Pope Nicholas I canonize am about 200 years after she die. Bass Reeves (1838–1910), na one of di first black Deputy U.S. Marshals for di west of di Mississippi River, wey don arrest over 3,000 bad guys and shoot fourteen outlaws for self-defense. Belinda Sutton (1713–179?), born for Ghana, she dey beg for support from her enslaver estate, wey be one early case for reparations and inspire future activism. Belinda Sutton petition, wey dem print again Bell (Belinda) (c. 1750–c. 1772), born for Bengal, dem carry her go Scotland as servant for East India Company nabob. Dem accuse am say she kill pikin, she dey beg make dem banish am and she turn “slave for life” and dem carry am go Virginia for 1772. She na di last person wey court for Britain call slave. Benjamin S. Turner (1825–1894), former slave wey be politician wey represent Alabama's 1st congressional district for United States House of Representatives. Him be di first African American wey don represent di state for Congress. Benkos Biohó, wey born for royal family of Bissagos Islands, dem kidnap am and enslave am. After dem carry am go Spanish New Granada for South America, him fit escape, help plenty other slaves escape too, and create di maroon community of San Basilio de Palenque. Di Governor Diego Pacheco Téllez-Girón Gómez de Sandoval of Cartagena betray am and hang am for 1621, but di community wey him build still dey live free till today. Betty Hemings (c. 1735–1807), na enslave mixed-race woman wey for colonial Virginia, wey for 1761 start dey be sex slave of her master, planter John Wayles, and she get six mixed-race children with am over 12 years, including Sally Hemings and James Hemings. Big Eyes (fl. 1540), na Wichita woman wey dem enslave by Tejas people before dem capture am and enslave am by conquistador Juan de Zaldívar. Bilichild (died 610), be queen of Austrasia through marriage to Theudebert II. Bilal ibn Ribah (580–640), wey dem free in 6th century. Him convert to Islam and be Muhammad's muezzin. Bill Richmond (1763–1829), wey born for America, dem free am and him become one of England's best boxers. Saint Brigid of Kildare as dem depict am for Saint Non's chapel, St Davids, Wales. Billy (born c. 1754), na man wey run come from John Tayloe II's plantation, dem charge am for treason against Virginia during American Revolutionary War. Him collect pardon after e talk say, as slave, him no be citizen, so e no fit commit treason against government wey him no dey owe loyalty to. Bissula (fl. 368) na Alemannic woman wey dem enslave, and she be inspiration for Roman poet Ausonius. Blanche Bruce (1841–1898) na di first and only former slave wey serve for United States Senate. Blandina (c. 162–177) be slave and Christian martyr for Roman Gaul. Di Bodmin manumissions na manuscript wey dey inside British Library, e keep names and details of slaves wey dem free for Bodmin (di main town for Cornwall back then) during 9th or 10th centuries. Booker T. Washington (1856–1915), born inside slavery, come be American educator, author and leader of African-American community after Civil War. Saint Brigid of Kildare, na major Irish Saint. Tradition say Brigid born for 451 AD for Faughart, just north of Dundalk for County Louth, Ireland. Her mama na Brocca, Pict slave wey Saint Patrick don baptize. Dem talk say her papa be Dubhthach, chieftain of Leinster. Dubthach wife force am sell Brigid's mama to druid when she carry belle. Brigid self born for slavery. Di small Brigid fit perform miracle, like healing and feeding di poor. At age ten, dem return am as household servant to her papa, where her charity make am dey give out hin things to anybody wey ask. For two Lives, Dubthach dey vex with her, he carry am go King of Leinster to sell her. While Dubthach dey talk with di king, Brigid don give away hin jeweled sword to beggar to change am for food to feed di family. Di king sabi her holiness well well and e make Dubthach free him daughter. After dat, she start her waka as popular nun. Brigitta Scherzenfeldt (1698–1733), Swedish wey dey write memoirs and teach weaving, she catch during di Great Northern War, carry go live as slave for di Kalmyk kingdom for Central Asia. Bussa wey born free man for West Africa, maybe Igbo pikin, dem catch am by African slave traders, sell am go Britain, transport am go Barbados (wey slavery don dey legal since 1661) for late 18th century as slave. C Charlotte Aïssé Cezayirli Gazi Hasan Pasha statue for Mersin Naval Museum Caenis, na woman wey don suffer as slave, she be secretary for Antonia Minor (emperor Claudius mama) plus Vespasian wey be Roman emperor. Caesar (c. 1737–1852), na di last slave wey fit get freedom for New York. E reach supercentenarian level, plus fit be di first person wey dem snap while dem dey alive in 1851. Caesar Nero Paul (c. 1741–1823), as small pikin, dem carry am from Africa come Exeter, New Hampshire, but e get freedom, start big New England family wey dey fight against slavery. Pope Callixtus I (died 223), na man wey don suffer as slave, pope from about 218 to about 223, during di time of Heliogabalus and Alexander Severus. Dem kill am for him Christian faith, now he be saint for Roman Catholic Church. Carlota (died 1844), she lead slave rebellion for Cuba for 1843–1844. Castus, na enslaved Gaul and one of di leaders for di Third Servile War wey get people wey dey fight for freedom. Catalina of Motril (fl. 1501–1531), she be bed servant for Catherine of Aragon when she marry Henry VIII for England. Cato (1786–1803), na man wey don suffer for Charleston, New York, wey kill twelve-year-old Mary Akins after e try rape am. Him confession show for di murder book of dat time. Cato, na African-American man wey serve as American Black Patriot spy and courier to gather info with him owner, Hercules Mulligan. Celia (died 1855), na woman wey dem catch and kill for di murder of Robert Newsom, her enslaver. During di trial, John Jameson argue say she kill am for self-defense to stop am from raping her. Cesar Picton (c. 1765–1831), na slave wey start for Senegal, later work as servant for England, come get money as coal merchant. Cevri Kalfa, one Georgian girl wey e dey for sultan harem for Istanbul, wey save Mahmud II life. Dem reward am wit big position haznedar usta, wey be chief treasurer for the imperial Harem. Cezayirli Gazi Hasan Pasha (1713–1790) na Georgian wey dem enslave for Ottoman Empire, wey rise become grand vizier, Kapudan Pasha, and army boss. Charity Folks (1757–1834), American slave wey born for Annapolis, Maryland, release from slavery for 1797 and later become property owner. Charles Deslondes, Haitian mulatto wey dey oversee other slaves for André plantation and leader of 1811 German Coast Uprising for Louisiana. Dem kill am terribly by the militia wey suppress the slave revolt. Charlotte Aïssé, (c. 1694–1733), French letter-writer, daughter of one Circassian chief, wey suffer for Ottoman Black Sea slave trade. Charlotte Dupuy (c. 1787/1790–c. 1866), wey dem dey call Lottie, file freedom suit for 1829 against her enslaver, Henry Clay, wey be Secretary of State, but she lose. Chica da Silva (c. 1732–1796), wey dem sabi as Xica da Silva, Brazilian courtesan wey become rich and powerful even though she born into slavery. Chloe Cooley (fl. 1793), wey dey enslave for Canada, her violent treatment and transport to US make Upper Canada pass 1793 Act Against Slavery. Christopher Shields (born 1774) na George Washington slave wey he keep am for Mount Vernon. The place wey he die and the year wey e happen no dey clear. Christophorus Plato Castanis, (born 1814) na runaway Greek slave from Chios. He journey come US with Samuel Gridley Howe and John Celivergos Zachos. Castanis be Greek-American author and lecturer. Çiçek Hatun (fl. 1453) na Greek girl wey dem capture when Constantinople fall and put as one of the concubine for Sultan Mehmet II harem. Clara Brown (around 1800–1885), she be one woman wey dem don enslave for Virginia. She come be community leader, give back for people wey don free during Colorado Gold Rush. Claudia Acte (1st century), na mistress for Roman emperor Nero. Pope Clement I (wey die for 100), na di fourth Pope for Catholic tradition. E fit dey freedman for Titus Flavius Clemens. Cleon (die 132 BC) na leader for di First Servile War. Colonel Tye (1753–1780), wey dem dey call Titus Cornelius, him don free, come be Black Loyalist soldier and guerrilla leader for di American Revolution. Crixus, na Gallic gladiator and military leader for di Third Servile War. Cudjoe Lewis (around 1840–1935), wey originally be Oluale Kossola, na di third-to-last survivor of di Transatlantic slave trade for USA. Dem carry am go di slave ship Clotilda. Cuffy (die 1763), na Akan man wey dem capture for him own West Africa, carry am go work for di plantations of di Dutch colony for Berbice wey dey Guyana today, and for 1763, him lead revolt wey get more than 2,500 slaves against di colonial regime. Today, him na national hero for Guyana. D Dred Scott wey no fit win im case for im freedom for United States Supreme Court for 1857. Dabitum, woman wey dem enslave for Old Babylonia wey sabi write letter about miscarriage. Daniel Bell (around 1802–1877) wey try for years make e and im family fit enjoy freedom. E help organize one big escape plan wey dem call "the Pearl incident" for Washington, D.C., for 1848. Dada Masiti (around 1810s–15 July 1919) poet, mystic and Islamic scholar. Dave Drake (around 1801–1876), wey people sabi am as Dave the Potter. Deborah Squash and im husband Harvey wey escape from George Washington Mount Vernon, join British for New York during American Revolutionary War, and dem carry dem go free in 1783. Denmark Vesey (around 1767–1822), one enslaved African-American man wey plan one big slave rebellion for United States wey dem leak the plans before e go happen. Dido Elizabeth Belle (1761–1804), wey born into slavery as the daughter of Maria Belle, one enslaved African woman for West Indies, and Sir John Lindsay, one Navy officer. Lindsay carry Belle go England for 1765, give im uncle William Murray, 1st Earl of Mansfield, and im wife Elizabeth to take care of am. Dem educate Belle, raise am as free gentlewoman for their Kenwood House with their niece, Lady Elizabeth Murray. Belle stay there for 30 years. For im will for 1793, Lord Mansfield confirm im freedom and give am money and annuity, make Belle heiress. Diego be one freedman wey dem don enslave before, and e dey close with di Elizabethan navigator Francis Drake. For March 1573, Drake raid Darien (for today Panama) and Maroons help am well – dem be Africans wey don run from Spanish slave owners and dem glad to help their English enemies. One of dem na Diego, wey sabi build ship well, and e follow Drake go England. For 1577, Queen Elizabeth send Drake make e start journey against di Spanish for di Pacific coast fit America – wey later turn as Drake waka go round di world – Diego again dey work under Drake; him sabi Spanish and English well well, so he fit be good interpreter when dem catch Spaniard or Portuguese wey dey speak Spanish. E be Drake's servant and dem dey pay am like di rest of di crew. Diego die while Drake ship dey cross di Pacific, wounds wey e get earlier for di journey. Drake dey feel bad for him death, as Diego don become him good friend. Diogenes of Sinope (c. 412–323 BCE), Greek philosopher wey pirates carry away and sell for Corinth. Diocletian (244–312), Emperor of Rome, some people talk say e born as slave of Senator Anullinus. Other talk say na Diocletian papa (we no sabi im name) wey be slave and free before him son, di future emperor, born. Dionysius I (die 1492), Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, dem don enslave am by di Ottomans after di Fall of Constantinople for 1453. Dolly Johnson (born late 1820s, die after 1887), African-American woman from Tennessee, wey President Andrew Johnson don enslave, later become small small-business owner. Dorota Sitańska (die after 1797), Polish serf and Royal Ballet Dancer, wey dem donate to di king of Poland by will and testament. Dred Scott (around 1799–1858), na one enslaved African-American guy wey dey Missouri wey carry case go court make e fit get freedom for one big trial, Scott v. Sandford, wey reach U.S. Supreme Court for 1857. E Florence, Lady Baker around 1875. Na Romanian wey dem enslave as orphan, Samuel Baker buy am, later marry am. Edward Mozingo Sr., (about 1649–1712), dem kidnap am from Africa when e dey like 10 years, sell am for slavery for Jamestown, Virginia. After e owner die, he sue for im freedom and win am. E marry poor white woman, Margaret Pierce Bayley (1645–1711) and together dem be dem wey start the Mozingo family for North America. Elijah Abel (1808–1884), wey born enslave for Maryland, people believe say e escape from slavery enter Underground Railroad go Canada. He join Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints early, na him dey among the first black wey get priesthood and the first black wey rise to elder and seventy rank. Elizabeth Marsh (1735–1785), na English woman wey corsairs capture and hold for slavery for Morocco. Edith Hern Fossett, na woman wey U.S. President Thomas Jefferson enslave, dem teach am to cook by French chef wey create French food for White House and Monticello. Elias Polk (1806–1886), na conservative political activist from 19th century. Eliezer of Damascus, na Abraham slave and trusted manager for im house in Hebrew Bible. Elieser be man wey dem enslave by Paulo de Pina family, Portuguese Jews wey move go Netherlands for 1610 to escape wahala and forced conversion for Portugal. E dey stay with the family for Amsterdam till e die for 1629, dem bury am for Beth Haim cemetery, wey be the oldest Jewish cemetery for Netherlands. E appear say dem don free am, whether officially or in practice, and e dey near equal level with the family wey own am for Portugal – show by fact say e attend the funeral of im master wife, Sara de Pina, and contribute six stuivers, and dem bury am alongside im (former) owners and Jacob Israel Belmonte, wey be the richest man for the community. Elieser don convert to Judaism and dem accept am as Jewish, true true if not, he for no dey buried for Jewish cemetery; dem fit give am the name 'Elieser' when dem convert am, e dey bring Eliezer from Damascus mind. Recently, members of Surinamese community for Netherlands don carry Elieser memory go high, dem put statue for am and dey do yearly pilgrimage go his grave wey dem call Elieser Day. Elisenda de Sant Climent (1220–1275), dem enslave am during slave raid for Mallorca and carry am go emir harem for Tunis. Eliza Hopewell, woman wey dey under Confederates spy Isabella Maria Boyd ('Belle Boyd'). For 1862, she help her owner do spy work, carry message go Confederate Army inside watch case wey dem hollow. Eliza Moore (1843–1948), one of the last African-American former slaves wey dey live for United States. Elizabeth Johnson Forby, mixed-race American woman wey dem enslave under President Andrew Johnson, daughter of Dolly Johnson. Elizabeth Key Grinstead (1630–after 1665), na the first woman wey get African blood for North America wey go court for her freedom and win. Key and her small pikin, John Grinstead, come free on July 21, 1656 for Virginia because her papa be Englishman and she be baptized Christian. Elizabeth Freeman (c. 1742–1829), wey dem dey call Bett and later Mum Bett, na among the first enslaved black people for Massachusetts wey fit file freedom suit and win, based on 1780 constitution wey rule slavery illegal. Elizabeth Hobbs Keckley (1818–1907), wey be popular as personal modiste and close friend of Mary Todd Lincoln, First Lady of the United States. Keckley write and publish autobiography, Behind the Scenes: Or, Thirty Years a Slave and Four Years in the White House (1868). Ellen Craft (1826–1891), light-skin wife of William Craft, wey escape from Georgia to Philadelphia, by acting like white woman and her slave, case wey become popular. Ellen More, enslaved woman wey them carry go royal Scottish court. Emilia Soares de Patrocinio (1805–1886) na Brazilian slave, slave owner and businesswoman. Emiline (23 years); Nancy (20); Lewis, Nancy brother (16); Edward, Emiline brother (13); Lewis and Edward, sons of Nancy (7); Ann, daughter of Nancy (5); and Amanda, daughter of Emiline (2), dem free for 1852 Lemmon v. New York court case after dem bring dem go New York from Virginia. Emily Edmonson (1835–1895), with her sister Mary, try escape for 1848 wey dem call Pearl incident, but Henry Ward Beecher and him church gather money to free dem. Enrique of Malacca, wey dem dey call Henry the Black, na slave and interpreter for Ferdinand Magellan and maybe the first person wey waka round the globe for Magellan's trip of 1519–1521. Epictetus (55–c. 135), ancient Greek stoic philosopher. Estevanico (1500–1539), wey dem dey call Esteban the Moor. He be slave of the Portuguese first, then become servant of the Spaniards. He be one of the only four wey survive the bad Narváez expedition, later na guide for search of the fabled Seven Cities of Gold and maybe the first African wey reach wetin be Arizona and New Mexico today. Eston Hemings (1808–1856), son of Sally Hemings and Thomas Jefferson. Eucharis, na Greek wey dem free, born Roman Licinia, dem describe am for him epitaph for 1st century AD as fourteen when she die, child actress and professional dancer. Eunus (him die for 132 BC), na slave wey come from Apamea for Syria, and him be leader for slave wahala for First Servile War wey happen for Roman province of Sicily. Eunus sabi gree people as prophet and wonder-worker. Him dey claim say him dey see visions and dey communicate with goddess Atargatis, wey dey popular for him place; he even fit connect am to Sicilian Demeter. Some prophecies wey he drop na say di rebel slaves go fit capture di city of Enna and say one day, he go be king. Euphemia (him die for 520s), na Empress of Byzantine Empire because she marry Justin I, she be slave before. Euphraios, na Athenian slave and banker. Exuperius and Zoe (dem die for 127), na Christian martyrs for 2nd century. Dem be married couple wey slave master in Pamphylia enslave. Dem kill dem with their sons, Cyriacus and Theodolus, because dem no wan join pagan rites when dem pikin born. Florence Johnson Smith be mixed-race American babe wey President Andrew Johnson carry go enslave, she be Dolly Johnson pikin. Fountain Hughes (1848–1957), dem interview am for June 1949 about him life by Library of Congress as part of Federal Writers' Project. Francis Bok (wey born 1979), na Dinka slave from South Sudan, now him dey fight for freedom and be author for United States. Francis Jackson (wey born between 1815 and 1820), him dey free from birth, but dem kidnap am for 1850 and sell am into slavery. Him finally get freedom for 1855 when case Francis Jackson v. John W. Deshazer end. Francis James Grimké (1850–1937), him be minister. Francisco Menéndez, na man wey dem enslave for South Carolina but e run go Spanish Florida, wey e serve for Spanish militia, even lead the garrison wey dem set for 1738 for Fort Mose. This place be the first legal free black community for wetin we dey call United States now. François Mackandal (wey die 1758), na Haitian Maroon leader. Frederick Douglass (1818–1895), him born for slavery for Maryland and run go Northeast for 1838, where e turn big-time abolitionist writer, speaker, and diplomat. Fyodor Slavyansky (1817–1876), na Russian serf painter. G Medical photo wey show Gordon back wey dem whip, plenty abolitionists dey share am to show how slavery dey be bad. Portrait of Gülnuş Sultan Gabriel Prosser (1776–1800), leader wey lead Virginia slave revolt. Gaius Furius Chresimus, ancient Roman. As him free man, e produce crops from him small farm wey people accuse am say him dey witch other people crop, but when him bring him farm tools for court, dem free am. Pliny the Elder talk say him story na proof say hard work be wetin matter for farming. Galatian de Sesse (16th century), knight from Aragon wey dey work for hospital and be Governor of Gozo wey dem enslave during 1551 Ottoman attack, e spend five years as galley slave before dem pay ransom and free am. Galeria Lysistrate (2nd century), mistress of Roman emperor Antoninus Pius. Ganga Zumba or Ganazumba (c. 1630–1678), one descendant of unknown Kongo king wey run away from slavery for Brazilian colonial and be first leader of runaway slave settlement wey be Quilombo dos Palmares. Gannicus, enslaved Celt wey be one of the leaders of rebel slaves during Third Servile War. Garafilia Mohalbi (1817–1830), Greek slave wey American merchant rescue and carry go Boston. She die young and inspire big art movement. Genghis Khan (c. 1162–1227), dem capture am after raid and make am slave for Taichiud. George Africanus (1763–1834), enslaved African man from Sierra Leone wey become successful businessman for Nottingham. George Edward Doney (1758–1809), Gambian man wey William Capell, 4th Earl of Essex enslave. George Colvocoresses (1816–1872), from Chios, Greece, come America come be captain for U.S. Navy, but small small dem carry am put for slavery when e be pikin. Colvos Passage dey named after am. George Freeman Bragg (1863–1940), wey born for slavery for North Carolina, later turn big Episcopal priest and social activist. George Lewis (1794–1811), wey dem dey call Slave George, na enslaved guy wey dem kill for Kentucky night of December 15–16, 1811. George Moses Horton (1797–1884), na di first African-American author; him first poetry book publish for North Carolina. George Washington Carver (c. 1864–1943), na African-American scientist, botanist, educator and inventor wey sabi to promote other crops like sweet potatoes and peanuts for South; him born for slavery for Missouri but dem free am as small pikin after American Civil War. George Griffin (1849–1897), born for slavery for Maryland but later dem free am; him be close person to Mark Twain. George W. Hayes (1847–1933), na court crier and politician for Ohio, mixed African American and Native American background, dem carry am put for slavery early for him life. Gerónimo de Aguilar (1489–1531), na Franciscan friar wey waka go Yucatán Peninsula for 1511 but dem shipwreck am and dem carry am for slavery by Mayans. Gosala, one ascetic teacher from ancient India – wey dey live same time (and dey compete) with Gautama Buddha – people talk say him born for slavery, and he become naked ascetic after him run from him bad captor, wey catch him cloth before e run. Gonzalo Guerrero (died 1536), na sailor from Palos, Spain, wey shipwreck for Yucatán Peninsula for 1511 and dem carry am for slavery by di local Maya. Gordon, wey dem dey call Whipped Peter, na enslaved African-American wey escape come Union Army camp from plantation near Baton Rouge, Louisiana for 1863. Di pictures wey dem take of Gordon back wey dem beat during medical check, dem publish am for Harper's Weekly, e show Northerners di wahala wey slavery dey cause. E make plenty free blacks want join di Union Army. Gülnuş Sultan (1642–1715) na Haseki Sultan for Ottoman Sultan Mehmed IV and Valide sultan for dia pikin Mustafa II and Ahmed III. Guðríður Símonardóttir (1598–1682) na Iceland woman wey some North African slavers (Barbary Pirates) carry go. Gustav Badin (wey die for 1822) na servant for royal Swedish court, originally na Danish slave. H Hurrem Sultan, be Eastern European slave girl wey Ottoman sultan Süleyman the Magnificent buy, marry am. Hababah, concubine of Caliph Yazid II. Hagar, biblical figure, Sarah own. Hannah Bond (weh dey born for 1830s), pen name Hannah Crafts, write The Bondwoman's Narrative after she gain freedom. E fit be di first novel wey African-American woman write, na di only novel wey woman wey run from slavery don write. Hark Olufs (1708–1754), Danish sailor, dem capture am by Algerian pirates. Dem sell am to di Bey of Constantine, and him become Commander in Chief for di Bey's cavalry. Dem release am for 1735. Harriet Balfour (c. 1818–1858), Surinam-born enslaved woman wey free for 1841 and move go Scotland. Harriet Evans Paine, (c. 1822–1917), Texas enslaved woman and later oral historian and storyteller. Harriet Hemings (1801–after 1822), daughter of Sally Hemings and Thomas Jefferson. Harriet Jacobs (1813–1897), author of Incidents in di Life of a Slave Girl. Harriet Powers (1837–1910), American folk artist, and quilter. Harriet Tubman (c. 1822–1913), dem dey call am 'Moses' because of di work wey she dey do to help other American slaves escape through di Underground Railroad. Harry, di plaintiff for di 1818 Harry v. Decker & Hopkins case wey di Supreme Court of Mississippi decide to free person from slavery just because him dey stay for free land. Harry Washington (wey die for 1800), dem dey call am Henry Washington, be slave wey George Washington dey own. Dem transport am go America as slave, and Washington buy am for 1763 to work on project wey go drain di Great Dismal Swamp. Hafsa Sultan (she die March 1534), na Selim I wife and di first real sultan of Ottoman Empire as Suleiman di Magnificent mama. Pipo sabi her background matter dey confuse, but some historians talk say she be slave. Helen Gloag (1750–1790), from Muthill, Perthshire, Scotland, become di Empress of Morocco as di harem slave for Morocco sultan. Henry Bibb (1815–1854), American writer and abolitionist wey born as slave. After e run come out from slavery to British Upper Canada, he start newspaper wey dey call The Voice of the Fugitive. E later come back to U.S. come dey lecture against slavery. Henry Highland Garnet (1815–1882), wey born African-American slave for Maryland, run from slavery for 1824, come become abolitionist and teacher. Hercules (born c. 1755), na di head cook wey George Washington enslave for him plantation, Mount Vernon. E run come gain him freedom for 1797, but him wife Alice and him three pikin still dey enslave. Hermas, wey write di book The Shepherd of Hermas and na Pope Pius I brother. Hernando de Escalante Fontaneda, been born for Cartagena, but e don dey enslave at 13 when di ship wey carry am go Spain for school sink for Florida. Calusa chief take am as slave and use am as translator until dem free am at 30. Horace King (1807–1885), American architect, engineer, and bridge builder, born into slavery for South Carolina plantation. Hümaşah Sultan (fl. 1647–1672) na di wife of Sultan Ibrahim for Ottoman Empire. Hurrem Sultan (c. 1504–1558), wey dem sabi as Roxelana, be Eastern European girl wey slave traders capture and sell to di Imperial Harem, become di chief consort and legal wife of Ottoman sultan Süleyman di Magnificent. Halime Sultan (about 1570–after 1639) be Valide Sultan wey dey rule alongside Ottoman Empire. Handan Sultan (about 1568–1605) too be Valide Sultan and her dey act as regent for the Ottomans. I İbrahim Pasha Ivan Argunov. Self-portrait (late 1750s). İbrahim Pasha (about 1495 – 1536), na first Grand Vizier wey Suleiman the Magnificent appoint. E be Greek by birth, at six years old, dem sell am as slave to Ottoman palace for future sultans, where e meet Suleiman wey dey same age. Icelus Marcianus, na slave and later free guy for Roman emperor Galba for 1st century CE. E be one of three men wey dey control the emperor well well, make Galba no dey popular. Ida B. Wells (1862–1931), na big African-American activist wey born into slavery, but later she dey fight against lynching and fit cancel am. For 1909, she co-found National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). Imma, na Northumbrian noble wey knock for battle and later sabi act like peasant, so say captors no go kill am. Him behavior show say him no be real peasant, and dem sell am into slavery. Isabel de Solís (fl. 1485), na enslaved Castilian concubine for Abu l-Hasan Ali, Sultan of Granada. Isabella Gibbons (1826–1890), become schoolteacher for Virginia after dem liberate am for 1865. Isfandíyár, na enslaved servant for Bahá'u'lláh's house for Tehran, Isfandíyár die for Mazandaran. Israel Jefferson (about 1800–after 1873), wey people sabi as Israel Gillette before 1844, born into slavery for Monticello, Thomas Jefferson estate, and work as domestic servant near Jefferson for many years. Ivan Bolotnikov (1565–1608), na fugitive kholop (enslaved for Russia) and leader of Bolotnikov rebellion for 1606–1607. Ivan Argunov (1729–1802), na Russian serf painter, one of the founders of Russian school of portrait painting. J Jean Parisot de Valette St. Josephine Margaret Bakhita, F.D.C.C. Jack Gladstone, di leader wey lead di Demerara rebellion for 1823. Jackey Wright, na enslaved American woman wey sue for im freedom for di popular 1806 Virginia case, Hudgins v. Wright. Di Virginia Supreme Court talk say Wright look white and Native American, but di lower court under George Wythe dey try arrange say everybody fit be free, no matter di race. Jacob Notaras (fl. 1453), na Byzantine nobleman wey dem carry as slave by Sultan Mehmed di Conqueror when Constantinople fall. Jaja of Opobo (1821–1891), dem sell am around age 12 as slave for di Kingdom of Bonny wey dey Nigeria now. From young, di guy don show say e sabi business, so e find im way come out from slavery, become rich merchant prince and start di Opobo city-state, but British colonizers wey e wan challenge come end im career. James Armistead Lafayette (1760–1830), na enslaved African-American man wey serve di Continental Army for di American Revolutionary War as double agent. James Baugh, na enslaved American wey sue for im freedom because im mama granmama na Indian. James Hemings (1765–1801), na mixed-race American wey dem enslave later free am by Thomas Jefferson. E be di older brother of Sally Hemings and half-brother of Jefferson wife, Martha Wayles Skelton Jefferson, through dia papa John Wayles. James Leander Cathcart (1767–1843), diplomat and sailor wey sabi tell story about 11 years wey e dey enslave for Algiers and e do some big diplomatic work while for slavery. James Poovey (born c. 1769), Philadelphian wey dem enslave am from birth, but e find freedom through peaceful resistance. James M. Priest (1819–1883), 6th Vice President of Liberia, wey born inside slavery for Kentucky. James Somersett, man wey dey enslave for colonial America, escape for England in 1771 with help of Beta British people, wey lead to the big case Somerset v Stewart, wey change the slavery matter for Britain, but not for dem colonies. James W. C. Pennington (c. 1807–1870), African-American writer and abolitionist. Jan Ernst Matzeliger (1852–1889), Surinamese-American wey invent shoe making. Jane Johnson (1814/1827–1872), she gain freedom on July 18, 1855, with her two small pikin while dem dey Philadelphia with her owner. William Still and Passmore Williamson help am, dem be abolitionists for Pennsylvania Anti-Slavery Society. Jean Amilcar (c. 1781–1793), Senegalese son of Marie Antoinette. Jean-Jacques Dessalines (1758–1806), leader of Haitian Revolution and first leader of independent Haiti. Jean Marteilhe (1684–1777), French Huguenot wey be slave narrator, him be galley slave. Jean Saint Malo (died 1784), leader of runaway slaves (maroon colony) for Spanish Louisiana and he name dey for Saint Malo, Louisiana. Jean Parisot de Valette (1495–1568), knight of the Order of Saint John, wey dem capture and make galley slave for 1541 by Barbary pirates. After about one year, dem free am and him later become Grandmaster of the Order. Jefferson F. Long (1836–1901), first former slave wey serve for United States Congress and first African American wey represent Georgia for Congress. Jeffrey Hudson (1619–c. 1682), na English court guy wey spend 25 years for North Africa as slave. Jehan Alard (fl. 1580), na French Huguenot wey dey serve as galley slave for Italy, dem catch am for Inquisition. Jehu Grant (c. 1752–1840), na veteran from Revolutionary War. Jeremiah Haralson (1846–Unknown), na former slave and politician wey represent Alabama for House of Representatives during 44th Congress. Jermain Wesley Loguen (1813–1872), na African-American wey run away from slavery, be abolitionist, bishop of the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church, and e write slave narrative. Jim Cuff or Jim Crow be physically disabled African man wey people talk say e fit dey St. Louis, Cincinnati, or Pittsburgh, e song and dance inspire the blackface song 'Jump Jim Crow' wey white comedian Thomas D. Rice bring come. Rice popular creation make Jim Crow turn bad name for blacks, later dem use am for dem segregation laws. Jim Henson, na African wey escape slavery and publish im memoirs, Broken Shackles, for Canada. Joana da Gama (c. 1520–1586), na Portuguese maid-of-honor and writer. Joe, na man wey William B. Travis, one of the Texian commanders for Battle of Alamo enslaved. After dem lose, Mexican General Santa Anna spare Joe, hoping say e go fit convince other slaves for Texas to support Mexican government instead of Texian rebels. After that, Joe and some survivors go Gonzales, dem encourage dem to talk about the battle and tell Texian forces say Santa Anna army no fit beat. John Axouch (1087–1150), na Seljuk Turk wey dem capture as pikin by Byzantine Empire, dem free am and raise am for di imperial house as John II Komnenos wey go be emperor future friend. When him take over, dem put am for di army command and e be di emperor only close pal and confidant. John Boston (c. 1832–after 1880), na former slave wey dey represent Darlington County for South Carolina House during di Reconstruction era. Him dey involved for community work and, as minister, him start di Lamar Colored Methodist Church for 1865. By 1880, him don turn farmer. John 'Lit' Fleming, born for slavery for Virginia but later move go Edmundson, Arkansas with him papa and siblings. E go move go Memphis, Tennessee, and be part owner of di newspaper Memphis Free Speech with activist Ida B. Wells-Barnett. John Munroe Brazealle, with him mama, dem case dey Hinds v. Brazealle (1838), for di Supreme Court of Mississippi, wey deny di legality and inheritance rights for Mississippi for manumission wey Elisha Brazealle, wey dey Ohio, do to free dem. John Brown (c. 1810–1876), wey escape and write about di conditions for di Deep South of United States. John Casor, na di first person wey dey enslaved as result of civil case for di Thirteen Colonies (Virginia Colony, 1655). John Ezzidio (c. 1810–1872), na enslaved Nigerian man wey turn successful politician and businessman for Sierra Leone. John Adams Hyman (1840-1891), na former slave and politician wey serve for di North Carolina Senate and later be di first African American to represent di state for Congress. John Jea (born 1773), na enslaved African-American man wey popular for him 1811 autobiography, The Life, History, and Unparalleled Sufferings of John Jea, di African Preacher. John Joyce wey dem born am for slavery for Maryland, serve for United States Navy, do plenty work after, and kill shopkeeper, Sarah Cross; him life and crime dey for murder stories wey dem dey talk for him time. John R. Jewitt (1783–1821), small English man wey dey make armor, spend three years as prisoner for Maquinna of the Nuu-chah-nulth people for Pacific coast wey dey for Canada now. John R. Lynch (1847–1939), former slave and politician wey serve for Mississippi House of Representatives, be the first African American wey lead state legislative chamber. Later he go serve for United States House of Representatives and write The Facts of Reconstruction to answer dem wey dey talk bad about Reconstruction time policies. John Punch (fl. 1630s, live 1640), na enslaved African man wey dey for Virginia Colony for 17th century. For July 1640, Virginia Governor's Council punish am to serve for him whole life because e run go Maryland. Historians dey call Punch the 'first official slave for the English colonies,' and him case na the 'first time dem make slavery forever for the Chesapeake.' Historians also sabi say this one be the first legal line wey dem draw between Europeans and Africans for the colony, and na important step for slavery matter for United States. John S. Jacobs (1815–1873), wey dem born into slavery for North Carolina, escape, become abolitionist speaker and write slave memoir. Him be brother of famous author Harriet Jacobs. John Smith (1580–1631), English soldier, sailor, and author wey everybody sabi for him role wey help Jamestown colony survive for Virginia. Smith dey captured by Crimean Tatars for 1602 while him dey fight for Wallachia and dem make am slave for Ottoman Empire, but him escape come England by 1604. As Smith talk am: 'we all dey sell for slaves, like goat for market-place.' Jordan Anderson (1825–1907), wey people sabi well well for di letter wey he gree send to im old master when dem call am make he come back to serve dem. Jordan Winston Early (1814–after 1894) na American Methodist preacher wey get different blood, and dem write book about im life as slave. John White, na black boy wey Creeks capture for 1797, but he escape come back New Orleans, only to find Spanish people don carry am go back to slavery. John Ystumllyn, wey dem dey call Jac Du or Jack Black, na 18th-century Welsh gardener, di first Black person wey record well for North Wales. Jonathan Strong, na di person wey dem dey talk about one of di first legal cases wey concern slavery for Britain. José Antonio Aponte, na di leader of Aponte conspiracy. Joseph, na important person for Old Testament and Quran. Joseph Antonio Emidy (1775–1835), violinist wey born for Africa, die for Cornwall. Joseph Cinqué (1814–1879), wey dem know as Sengbe Pieh, na di leader of slave rebellion for di slave ship La Amistad and di case wey follow for Supreme Court, United States v. Amistad for 1839. Joseph Jackson Fuller (1825–1908), one of di earliest slaves wey gree free for Jamaica, at first under di partial freedoms of 1833 Slavery Abolition Act. Joseph Knight, wey succeed find im freedom through court case for Scotland in 1777, case wey make Scots law no go support slavery. Josephine Bakhita (c. 1869–1947), Sudanese-born Roman Catholic Canossian nun and saint. Joshua Glover, na fugitive wey slavery people chase am but abolitionists help am for Racine, Wisconsin in 1854. Josiah T. Walls (c. 1842–1905), former slave wey turn politician wey don serve for di two chambers of Florida State Legislature, na di first African American wey represent di state for Congress. Juan de Pareja (1606–1670), man wey Spanish artist Diego Velázquez enslave am. Velázquez teach am how to paint and free am for 1650. Juan Francisco Manzano (c. 1797–1854), Cuban poet. Juan Gros, free black soldier wey Upper Creek catch near Pensacola, sell am to white trader wey carry am go sell to Mitasuki chief Kinache, wey Spanish people come pay ransom for am. Juan Latino, dem dey call am "el negro Juan Latino", from Ethiopia, dem carry am go Spain when e small, e go school and become Latin professor for University of Granada, 16th-century Spain. Juan Ortiz, young nobleman from Andalucía wey Chief Ucita enslave for Florida to take revenge for wetin happen to am during the expedition. Juan Valiente (died 1553), black African slave wey get chance to be conquistador. E die during the battle of Tucapel against Mapuche people for Chile. Juana Ramírez (1790–1856), rebel soldier and heroine for Venezuelan War of Independence. Julia Chinn, enslave woman wey be octoroon and common-law wife to Richard Mentor Johnson, 9th Vice President of the United States. Julia Frances Lewis, mama to Amanda American Dickson through her owner’s son. Juliana, Guaraní woman from Paraguay, wey famous for kill her Spanish enslaver between 1538 and 1542 and encourage other women to do same. Julius Soubise (1754–1798) be freed Afro-Caribbean slave wey become popular fop for late eighteenth-century Britain. Julius Zoilos, enslave by Julius Caesar. After him get freedom, e shine for him city Aphrodisias after Caesar die. Jupiter Hammon (1711–before 1806), for 1761, become the first African-American writer wey dem publish for the present-day United States. Born for slavery, Hammon never get freedom. Dem dey consider am one of the founders of African-American literature. K Kösem Sultan (1589–1651), na slave concubine just like all di other pipo wey dey di Imperial Harem. Kunta Kinte (c. 1750–c. 1822), na character from di 1976 novel Roots: Di Saga of an American Family wey author Alex Haley base on one of him real ancestors. Kinte be man wey dey come from di Mandinka pipo, he grow for small village wey dem dey call Juffure for wetin we sabi as The Gambia, and dem raise am as Muslim before dem capture am and turn am slave for Virginia. Di historical accuracy of Haley's story get debate. Kodjo (c. 1803–1833), na Surinamese slave wey dem burn alive fit start di 1832 fire for Paramaribo, Dutch Suriname, maybe as way to show resistance. Kösem Sultan (1589–1651), na Ottoman enslaved woman, wey later become very powerful as wife, then mother and later grandmother of di Ottoman sultan during di 130-year wey dem dey call di Sultanate of Women. L Laurens de Graaf Lalla Balqis (1670–after 1721), na English woman wey dem capture and turn slave by Corsairs, dem include am for di harem of di Sultan of Morocco. Lamhatty, na Tawasa Indian wey dem capture and enslave by Creek; him escape. Lampegia (die after 730), Aquitanian noblewoman, wey Abd al-Rahman ibn Abd Allah al-Ghafiqi capture, wey in 730 take di Llivia Fortress, kill her husband Munuza and send her go as slave for di harem of Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik for Damascus. La Mulâtresse Solitude (1772–1802), na slave for di island of Guadeloupe wey dem free in 1794 when dem abolish slavery during di French Revolution. Dem execute am after she fight for freedom when slavery come back because Napoleon in 1802. Laurens de Graaf (c. 1653–1704), na Dutch pirate, mercenary, and naval officer, wey dem enslave by Spanish slave traders when dem capture am for wetin we dey call Netherlands, and dem carry am go di Canary Islands to work for plantation before 1674. Lear Green (around 1839–1860), one African-American woman from Maryland wey run go freedom for New York by fitting inside box make dem carry am. Leo Africanus (1494–1554), one Moor wey born for Granada, dem carry am go Morocco in 1498 because of Spanish wahala. As adult, he dey do diplomatic work. Crusaders catch am for Middle East, dem carry am go Rome make he be slave and convert to Christianity. Later, he get him freedom back and live him life for Tunis. Leofgifu, wey be dairy maid, na one enslaved woman for Anglo-Saxon England, dem mention am for her freedom paper. Leoflaed, another enslaved woman for Anglo-Saxon England, man buy her freedom wey describe her as “kinswoman.” Leonor de Mendoza, enslaved woman for colonial Mexico wey wan marry Tomás Ortega wey be slave for another master; when her master put Tomás for prison, she go church court beg make dem help, dem even threaten say if him no free Tomás, e go fit face excommunication. Letitia Munson (around 1820–after 1882), na midwife wey don come out from slavery, dem don free her for doing illegal abortion for Canada. Lewis Adams (1842–1905), man wey don free from slavery, wey co-found Tuskegee Institute, now Tuskegee University for Alabama. Lewis Hayden (1811–1889), na African-American man from Kentucky, later dem elect am for Massachusetts General Court. Lilliam Williams, settler from Tennessee wey Creek catch while she dey pregnant. Creek adopt her pikin (wey she name Molly and dem name Esnahatchee); dem keep the girl when Williams arrange her freedom. Liol, one Chinese man wey dem carry as slave by Mongol bannerman Soosar. E get semi-independent status for dem. In 1735, him pikin Fuji try claim say him and him brother be Manchus but e no work. Lorenzo de Apapis (around 1501–1586), priest and notary from Gozitan wey dey slavery during 1551 Ottoman attack for Gozo. Dem ransom am and free am by 1553. Lott Cary (about 1780–1828), wey dem born am as African-American slave for Virginia, buy im freedom around 1813, move go Liberia for 1822, where e serve as colonial administrator.[1] Louis Hughes (1832–1913), African-American man wey run away from slavery, author, and businessman.[2] Lovisa von Burghausen (1698–1733), Swedish writer wey publish story of how dem enslave am for Russia after dem capture am during the Great Northern War. Lucius Agermus, freedman of Agrippina the Elder.[3] Lucius Aurelius Hermia, freedman butcher wey his tombstone dey praise im marriage with his fellow freedwoman Aurelia Philematium.[4] Lucius Cancrius Primigenius, freedman of Clemens for one inscription wey dey thank am for breaking spells wey dey affect the city.[5] Lucius of Campione, wey lose lawsuit for 8th century about man Toto wey claim ownership of am.[6] Lucy, di black woman wey John Lang enslave. Dem capture her by di Creek wen she dey 12 years and keep her as slave for Creek land, where she born slave children and grandchildren.[7] Lucy Ann (Berry) Delaney (1830–1891), former enslaved woman, daughter of Polly Berry. Lucy Higgs Nichols (1838–1915), wey escape slavery, serve as nurse for di Civil War, member of di Grand Army of di Republic. Lucy Terry (about 1733–1821), dem kidnap her for Africa and enslave her, dem carry am go British colony of Rhode Island. She later gain freedom and become poet. Luís Gama (1830–1882), wey born free for Brazil, illegally sell am into slavery as pikin, he regain freedom as adult and become lawyer wey free plenty people from slavery without asking for money, especially for di Netto Case. Lunsford Lane (1803–after 1870), na enslaved African-American guy wey dey North Carolina wey buy him freedom and him family too. Him write one slave story. Lyde, na woman wey dem free from slavery by Roman empress Livia. Lydia, na woman wey dem shoot when she try run away from her captor wey dey whip am. Supreme Court of North Carolina talk say na legal in 1830 (check North Carolina v. Mann). Lydia Carter, dey call am 'Little Osage Captive,' dem catch am among Cherokee. Na Lydia Carter go pay money come free am and she name her. Osage try take am back, but she fall sick and die. Lydia Polite, na mother of Robert Smalls. M Mikhail Shchepkin Macuncuzade Mustafa Efendi (wey born around 1550s), na Ottoman qadi and poet wey suffer for slavery for Malta after di ship wey e dey waka for capture by di Knights Hospitaller for 1597. Dem release am for 1600, and e write story about im captivity. Madison Hemings (1805–1877), na di pikin of Sally Hemings and Thomas Jefferson. Mae Louise Miller (1943–2014), American woman wey dey live for modern slavery (peonage) till 1961. Malgarida (wey born around 1488), black African woman and boyfriend of di conquistador Diego de Almagro. For 1536, she be di first non-indigenous woman wey enter di land wey we call Chile today. Malik Ambar, wey born for 1548 as Chapu, na im birth-name for Harar, Adal Sultanate wey dey Ethiopia today. Im come from di Maya ethnic group wey don disappear. As small pikin, im parents sell am for slavery. Mir Qasim Al Baghdadi, one of di people wey own am, convert Chapu come Islam and give am di name Ambar, after e sabi sey di boy get sharp brain. Malik waka go India as slave. For India, e create mercenary group wey reach 1500 men. Di group dey for di Deccan region and local kings dey hire dem. Malik become popular Prime Minister for Ahmadnagar Sultanate, show sey e sabi how to manage. E also dey regarded as pacesetter for guerilla warfare for di area. Dem dey credit am with managing tax collection for plenty for di Deccan, wey set di ground for future collections. Di Siddis of Gujarat dey respect am well. E match di strength of di Mughals and Adil Shah of Bijapur, lift di low status of di Nizam Shah. Margaret Himfi (before 1380–after 1408), na Hungarian woman wey dem carry go enslave by Ottoman bad guys for late 14th century. She later become slave mistress for one rich Venetian man for Crete, wey she born two daughters for. Margaret manage come back to Hungary for 1405. Margaret Morgan dey involved for Prigg v. Pennsylvania case wey United States Supreme Court rule say federal Fugitive Slave Act no go allow Pennsylvania law wey stop blacks from chop dey carry dem go slavery, an dem clear Edward Prigg case because of dat. Marguerite Duplessis (c. 1718–after 1740) na Pawnee woman wey dem enslave for Montreal wey, for 1740, try sue for her freedom but e no work. Marguerite Scypion (c. 1770s–after 1836) na African-Natchez woman wey born for slavery for St. Louis wey go sue for her freedom and eventually win am. Maria al-Qibtiyya (died 637), wey dem dey call “Maria the Copt” or sometimes Maria Qupthiya, na Copt woman wey dem send give Muhammad as gift from Muqawqis, one Byzantine big man, for 628, an she become Muhammad concubine. She be mama to Muhammad son Ibrahim wey die for small pikin age. Her sister, Sirin, sef go meet Muhammad. Muhammad give am to him guy Hassan ibn Thabit. Maria die five years after Muhammad die for 632. Maria (died 1716), na leader for slave uprising for Curaçao. Maria Boguslavka (17th century), na Ukrainian woman wey dem enslave for harem, she start help 30 Cossacks run away from slavery. Maria Guyomar de Pinha (1664–1728), na royal chef from Siam wey get Japanese-Portuguese blood. Maria Perkins, na enslave woman from Virginia wey write letter to her husband for 1852 say dem don sell their son away. Maria ter Meetelen (1704–after 1751), na Dutch writer wey tell her own slave story, dem carry her go enslave by pirates and later sell am to Sultan of Morocco. Her 1748 biography na important witness statement about life of former slave. Mariah Bell Winder McGavock Otey Reddick (she die 1922), as she be small girl, dem give am as wedding gift to Carrie Winder when she marry John McGavock for 1848 inside Terrebonne Parish, Louisiana. Mariah wey born for Mississippi as enslaved person, dem carry am go Franklin, Tennessee, where she spend plenty of her life. Dem match her with Harvey Otey after him first wife Phebe die. Dem get plenty pikin, including two set of twins, wey born into slavery. When Civil War start, dem send her go Montgomery make she dey far from Union lines and possible freedom. She don appear for three novels: Widow of the South and Orphan Mother wey Robert Hicks write and also for book wey her great-grandson William 'Damani' Keene and him wife Carole 'Ife' Keene write titled Clandestine: The Times and Secret Life of Mariah Otey Reddick. Marianna Malińska (she die after 1797), Polish serf and Royal Ballet Dancer, dem donates am to king of Poland by will. Marie (she die 1759), enslaved Cree woman wey get death sentence for Trois-Rivières, New France. Marie-Cessette Dumas, woman wey Marquis Antoine de la Pailleterie enslaved, she be mama of General Thomas-Alexandre Dumas, and grandmother of famous author Alexandre Dumas, père. Marie-Josèphe dite Angélique (she die 1734), black Portuguese enslaved woman wey dem try and convict, beat and hang because she set fire to her woman owner house, wey burn plenty of wetin dem dey call Old Montreal now. Marie Thérèse Metoyer, na planter and businesswoman wey dey Natchitoches, Louisiana after dem free her. Mark, one man from Massachusetts wey dey enslaved by Captain John Codman. Mark body dey display for chains for public near Charlestown, Massachusetts for twenty years. That gruesome display of him body dey popular well-well for that time, and na the place wey dem display Mark body make Paul Revere mention am as landmark for him 1798 account of him 1775 midnight ride. Martha Ann Erskine Ricks (1817–1901), na African-American wey dey born enslave for Tennessee, later she become Americo-Liberian wey sabi quilt. Marthe Franceschini (1755–1799), na Italian wey dem capture and enslave by Corsairs, enter Sultan of Morocco harem. Mary, wey be George Washington Carver mama. Mary (wey die 1838), na teenager wey dem hang for murder wey she do to Vienna Brinker, two-year-old girl wey she dey take care of. Mary Black, one of three enslave women wey dem charge for witchcraft during Salem witch trials for 1692. Mary Calhoun, white woman and cousin of John C. Calhoun wey dem kidnap by Cherokee. She no fit come back home. Mary Edmonson (1832–1853), with her sister Emily, dem try escape for 1848 wey dem dey call Pearl incident, but Henry Ward Beecher and him church gather money help free dem. Mary Eliza Smith, dem dey call 'slave' or 'former slave,' na common-law wife of Michael Morris Healy and mama of him pikin dem, wey include James Augustine Healy, Patrick Francis Healy, Michael A. Healy, and Eliza Healy. Mary Fields (c. 1832–1914): she be first African-American female wey dey carry mail for United States star route. Mary Mildred Williams, Nee Botts (born 1847), na the original 'Poster Child' wey dem use her picture push abolitionist cause by dey spread 'White Slavery' for 1855. Mary Prince (c. 1788–after 1833), her life story motivate anti-slavery movement for England. The Master of Morton and e first son of Clan Oliphant Chief, two Scottish noble wey dem exile from Scotland after 1582 Raid of Ruthven. Dem ship wey dem travel with vanish for sea, and dem talk say na Dutch ship catch dem. Last report be say dem dey enslave for Turkish ship for Mediterranean. Dem raise plaque for church for Algiers to remember dem. Masúd, dem buy am when e be pikin from Khál-i Akbar, wey be Báb uncle, Masúd go serve Bahá'u'lláh for Acre. Matilda McCrear (around 1857–1940), last person wey survive for US wey gree say Transatlantic slave trade no easy. Dem carry am go for slave ship Clotilda. Mende Nazer (born around 1982), Nuba woman wey dem capture for Darfur carry am from Sudan go London, later she get refugee status and write book wey title Slave: My True Story (2002). Menecrates of Tralles, na Greek doctor wey dey for 1st century BC. Metaneira, woman for ancient Greece wey dem talk say na Nicarete property, wey dey sell am for body. Michael Shiner (1805–1880), en slaved laborer, painter entrepreneur, community leader and diary writer for Washington Navy Yard. Miguel de Buría (around 1510–around 1555), na slave and rebel. Miguel Perez na the Spanish name of boy wey be Yojuane people, wey dey among 149 Yojuane women and children wey dem carry go as captive for 1759 when some Spanish and Apaches come attack their camp along Red River for northern Texas. Many of dem wey dem capture die from smallpox, the ones wey survive, dem go still enslave dem. Dem sell the boy to Spanish soldier wey give am that Spanish name. Perez become Hispanicized Indian for San Antonio but he still dey connect with his Yojuane people. For 1786, Perez go persuade the Yojuanes and their Tonkawa friends to fight Lipan Apache, wey he do am well. Mikhail Matinsky (1750–1820), Russian serf wey be scientist, dramatist, librettist and opera composer. Michał Rymiński (e don die after 1797), Polish serf wey be Royal Ballet Dancer, wey donate am to king of Poland by him will. Mikhail Shchepkin (1788–1863), Russian serf actor. Mikhail Shibanov, Russian serf painter wey dey active for 1780s. Mikhail Tikhanov (1789–1862), Russian serf artist. Mina Kolokolnikov (1708?–1775?), Russian serf painter and teacher. Mingo, di 15–16 years old boy wey Titsworth family use as slave for Tennessee, dem capture am for 1794 by Creeks when dem raid di house. Minerva (Anderson) Breedlove, na Madam C.J. Walker mama. Moses A. Hopkins (1846–1886), African-American diplomat, U.S. minister to Liberia. Murad Agha (c. 1480–c. 1556), Italy-born Ottoman eunuch and naval officer, wey turn Beylerbey of Tripoli. Mustapha Khaznadar (1817–1878), him be Christian Greek wey dem capture during 1822 Massacre of Chios, change am to Islam wey dem call am Mustapha, sell am for Constantinople to envoy of Husainid Dynasty. Him grow for Mustapha Bey family, later him son Ahmad I Bey. Him first be prince private treasurer before him become Ahmad state treasurer (khaznadar). Him rise to top offices for Tunisian state, marry Princess Lalla Kalthoum for 1839, turn lieutenant-general of di army, become bey for 1840 and de president of Grand Council from 1862 to 1878. Muyahid ibn Yusuf ibn Ali (11th century), na di leader of Saqaliba (slaves wey dem say be Slavic origin) for Dénia, Spain. As Caliphate of Córdoba dey fall, him and him followers rebel, free demself, control di city and establish di Taifa of Dénia, wey at di peak dey reach as far as di island of Majorca. N Nafisa al-Bayda, Egyptian investor wey dem dey call "white slave", na hin dey buy as concubine slave. Nancy, wey dem dey call Ann, na di plaintiff for di 1799 New Brunswick habeas corpus case R v Jones. Nancy Brown, Nancy Caffrey, na white captive wey Creek dey enslave. When trader John O'Reilly try to ransom her and Elsey Thompson, dem tell am say dem no capture dem to go back, but to work. Nanny of di Maroons, wey dem dey call Granny Nanny and Queen Nanny, na di leader of di Jamaican Maroons. Nat Turner (1800–1831), wey escape come lead revolt for Southampton County, Virginia. Nathan McMillian, wey as free man sue to make him pikin enter local "Croatan Indian" school, say e dey for all non-white pikin, and say him pikin get Croatan blood for their mama side. Nathaniel Booth (1826–1901), wey escape slavery for Virginia and settle for Lowell, Massachusetts. For 1851, di people of Lowell buy him freedom from slave hunters. Neaera, formerly enslaved woman and prostitute wey di Athenian Stephanus marry against di law around 340 BC, according to Demosthenes speech. Nero Hawley (1742–1817), wey be formerly enslaved freeperson wey serve for Continental Army during di American Revolutionary War, and dem bury am for Trumbull, Connecticut. Newport Gardner (1746–1826), na formerly enslaved freeperson for colonial Newport, Rhode Island. Ng Akew (died 1880), be Tanka enslaved woman for British Hong Kong wey famous for piracy scandal. Nicarete, na woman for ancient Greece, wey dem describe for Against Neaera di freedwoman of Charisius di Elean and him wife wey be cook Hippias, and as her dey own and sell several women around 340 BC. Saint Nino (c. 280–c. 332), na 4th-century Roman woman from Constantinople wey dem dey respect well well for bring Christianity come Georgia. Some account of her life talk say she originally come Georgia as slave wey dem kidnap from her homeland. Nurbanu Sultan (about 1525–1583), wey dem call Cecilia Venier-Baffo before, na enslaved noblewoman from Venice wey become the favorite wife of Ottoman sultan Selim II, and her wan dey very powerful as mother to sultan Murad III. O Omar ibn Said, Senegal scholar wey don dey slavery for North Carolina more than 50 years, around 1850. Oenomaus, Gallic gladiator wey lead slaves wey dey rebel during Third Servile War. Olaudah Equiano (c. 1745–1797), wey dem sabi as Gustavus Vassa, strong African-British writer wey dey fight for abolition, but dem no sure where e born. Omar ibn Said (1770–1864), writer and Islamic scholar wey come from Senegal wey dem carry go USA for 1807, spend di rest of im life for slavery. Onesimus, slave of Philemon from Colossae wey run away, meet St. Paul, and Paul change am. Paul send am back go Philemon with letter, wey be Epistle to Philemon. Ignatius of Antioch talk about an Onesimus wey be Bishop of Ephesus for early 2nd century, but nobody sure if na di same people. Onesimus, slave for colonial Boston wey help spread knowledge about smallpox inoculation. Onesimos Nesib (c. 1856–1931), Ethiopian wey Swedish missionaries buy out of slavery when e be pikin. E work with another former slave Aster Ganno to translate Bible into Oromo language. Oney Judge (1773–1848), wey dem enslave for Martha Washington family, and later for di First Lady, Judge dey work for Mount Vernon and all over as personal servant to Martha Washington until she escape for 1796 go Portsmouth New Hampshire. Ottobah Cugoano, wey dem sabi as John Stuart (c. 1757–after 1791), be abolitionist, political activist, and natural rights philosopher from West Africa wey dey active for Britain. Owen Fitzpen (c. 1582–1636), English merchant wey Barbary pirates carry capture for 1620 but escape later. Owen Breedlove, papa of Madam C.J. Walker. P Pallas, secretary wey dey work for Roman emperor Claudius. Pasion, na enslaved Athenian guy wey be banker. E later get dat rare chance for freedman to get citizen. Pata Seca (real name na Roque José Florêncio), wey come from Angola for 1828, dem capture am come Brazil as slave, na tall, strong guy: 2m18 tall plus over 140 kg weight. E dey work as breeding slave, e don born over 200 pikin. When dem cancel slavery for Brazil for 1888, e get land, wey e live with e wife and 9 children. Saint Patrick, dem kidnap am from Britain, enslave for Ireland, escape go Britain, come back to Ireland as missionary. Patsey (born around 1830), na enslaved African-American wey dey live for mid-1800s for South Carolina. Paul Jennings (1799–1874), na personal servant wey dem enslave under President James Madison during e White House time, e buy im freedom for 1845 from Daniel Webster. E publish di first White House memoir, 1865's A Colored Man's Reminiscences of James Madison. Paul Smith, na free black wey accuse di Cherokee headman Doublehead say e kidnap am and force am into bondage. Pedro Camejo (1790–1821), na Venezuelan soldier for di Venezuelan War of Independence. Peggy Margaret Titsworth, dem enslave am at 13 years for three years, after Creek raid for 1794 on her Tennessee home. Pete and Hannah Byrne, na freed slaves from Napoleon Bonaparte Byrne family wey travel from Missouri to California by land (six months journey) for 1859, dem leave di farm for Missouri carry six adults (including Pete & Hannah), di four Byrne children and cattle come settle for Berkeley, California. Pete and Hannah be di first blacks wey dey live for Berkeley and among di first African-Americans for California. Peter Salem (c. 1750–1816), African American wey born for slavery for Massachusetts, serve as soldier for American Revolutionary War. Petronia Justa, woman wey dey Herculaneum, sue her owner say she born after her mama don freedom; Vesuvius eruption preserve di court matter. Phaedo of Elis, wey dem capture for war, carry go Athens, force am to do prostitution, later become Socrates student wey free am, give him name to one Plato dialogue, Phaedo, and him be famous philosopher. Phaedrus (c. 15 BCE–c. 50 CE), Roman storyteller. Praskovia Kovalyova-Zhemchugova dress fine for Les mariages samnites by André Ernest Modeste Grétry. Phillis (die 1755), woman wey dey Massachusetts, enslave by Captain John Codman. She and her people plot to poison her owner as dem no fit take di wahala from their master, but dem burn am to death for 1755. Phillis Wheatley (1753–1784?), Colonial American poet, second published African-American poet and first African-American woman wey publish. Phoebe, woman wey dey slavery wey sue for her freedom for Tennessee, with her pikin Davy and Tom, say dem be descendants of one enslaved Indian woman wey prove say dem no suppose hold dem. Philocrates, wey dey slavery under Roman reformer Gaius Gracchus. He stay with him master when Gracchus dey run from him enemies, everybody don leave am. When dem reach one grove wey dey sacred to di Furies, Philocrates help Gracchus kill himself first before he take him own life, some talk say dem kill am after him refuse to let go him master body. Phormion, one enslaved man from Athens wey dey do banking. For him old age, dem give am rare honor of citizenship as free man. Pierre d'Espagnac, sometimes Pierre d'Espagnal (1650–1689), na French Jesuit missionary, dem enslave am by di Siamese. Pope Pius I (e die around 154), na Bishop for Rome from around 140 to 154, when dem dey reign under Roman emperor Antoninus Pius. E be brother to freedman Hermas, so e fit don be former slave too, but dem no talk am clear for di small records wey dey about e life. Pleasant Richardson, wey escape slavery become Union soldier plus property owner for Fincastle, Virginia. Polly, di subject of 1820 Indiana Supreme Court case Polly v. Lasselle, wey make all slaves wey dey Indiana go free. Polly Berry, wey dem also dey call Polly Crockett or Polly Wash, win freedom suit for 1843 for St. Louis, Missouri plus she free her daughter Lucy Ann Berry too. Politoria, wey get lead curse tablet for ancient Rome; na curse on Clodia Valeria Sophrone say make she no fit get Politoria into her power. E look like say she be slave-courtesan wey dey fear say dem go send am go brothel. Praskovia Kovalyova-Zhemchugova (1768–1803) na Russian serf actress plus soprano opera singer. Primus (1700–1791), wey Daniel Fowle from Portsmouth, New Hampshire enslave. Primus dey run di press for di New Hampshire Gazette wey be di oldest newspaper wey still dey print for America. Prince na di slave of Choctaw man wey name Richard Harkins. E vex say him owner no give di slaves Christmas celebration, Prince kill am sharply and dump di body for river for 1858. Prince Boston (born 1750), sue for him freedom and win for 1773 U.S. jury trial. Prince Estabrook (1741–1830), wey Benjamin Estabrook enslave; join fight for Continental Army and get wound for di Battle of Lexington and Concord. Prince Whipple (1750–1796), enslave by American General William Whipple. Prosper, na enslaved man wey dem murder for 1807 for Virgin Islands by him owner Arthur William Hodge, and Hodge go face trial and dem execute am for 1811, na di first case wey dem fit record like dat. One pregnant Thrall wey we no fit remember the name, dey run from her life for 11th-century Oslo, Hallvard Vebjørnsson carry am go hide for him boat. Dem people come attack dem, shoot dem with arrow, and both of dem die. Because of dat, dem make Hallvard saint and him be patron saint for Oslo. Publilius Syrus (fl. 85–43 BCE), na Latin writer wey sabi plenty for him wise sayings. E be Syrian wey dem carry come Italy as slave. Q Quamina Gladstone, him be Jack Gladstone papa and e dey involve for Demerara rebellion wey happen for 1823. Quassi van Timotebo or Kwasimukamba (1692–1787) na Surinam slave, wey don free and na Maroon hunter for Dutch Surinam. Him name dey for plant genus wey dem call Quassia. Quock Walker, wey dem dey call Kwaku or Quok Walker too, him sue and win him freedom for 1781 because of new Massachusetts Constitution (1780) wey talk say all men dem dey born free and equal. Qutb-ud-din Aybak or Qutbuddin Aibak (1150–1210), na Turk wey don suffer slavery before, become soldier, be first Sultan of Delhi, for India e start "slave dynasty". R Rachel, na the person wey dey the 1834 Rachel v. Walker case for Supreme Court of Missouri wey rule say U.S. Army officer go lose him slave if e carry the person go place wey slavery no dey allowed. Dis ruling come dey used as example for 1856 for Dred Scott v. Sandford case for U.S. Supreme Court. Rachel of Kittery, Maine (she die 1695), na enslaved woman wey her owner kill, and e case set legal example for New England. Rachel Knight (she die 1889), at first na enslaved by Newton Knight grandpapa, wey be popular Southern Unionist wey during American Civil War, e no gree Confederacy, wey dem dey call Free State of Jones. After the war, Rachel come get freedom with other slaves. By mid-1870s, Knight don separate from him wife, Serena, come marry Rachel. During this time, Knight grown son, Mat (from him first wife), come marry Rachel grown daughter, Fannie, from her previous relationship. Knight daughter, Molly, come marry Rachel son, Jeff, turns three interracial families for the community. Newton and Rachel Knight born plenty children before she die for 1889. Rebecca Huger, na enslaved woman wey General Benjamin F. Butler free for New Orleans, and dem talk for Harper's Weekly say she be white, come dey go school for freed slaves for Philadelphia. Richard Preston (around 1791–1861), e comot from slavery come be religious leader and abolitionist for Nova Scotia. Robert Blake, e get Medal of Honor as sailor during American Civil War, after e become 'contraband' (slaves wey Union forces free) come join. Robert Drury (1687–1743/1750), English sailor wey shipwreck for Madagascar island in 1702, e dey slave there till 1717. Robert J. Patterson (1809–1884), e run from slavery for Virginia come be restaurateur for Saint John, New Brunswick. Robert Smalls (1839–1915), e take charge of Confederate ship, carry the ship and enslaved people go freedom, make Union allow African Americans join; later e serve for South Carolina Senate before e enter U.S. House of Representatives wey represent South Carolina's 5th congressional district. Robin and Polly Holmes, na dem be plaintiffs for the 1853 Holmes v. Ford court case for Oregon Territory wey free their pikin dem. The verdict confirm say slavery no dey legal for that area as Organic Laws of Oregon talk when the place become U.S. territory. Rosina Downs, na enslaved woman wey General Benjamin F. Butler free for New Orleans, dem describe am for Harper's Weekly say she look white, and she come school for emancipated slaves for Philadelphia. Roustam Raza (1783–1845), na Napoleon Bonaparte's Armenian bodyguard. S Solomon Northup wey come from Twelve Years a Slave Sabuktigin (c. 942–997), full name Abu Mansur Sabuktigin, be small pikin wey dem carry go sell for slavery, but e rise come be general, then king wey start the Ghaznavid Empire for medieval Iran. Safiye Sultan (c. 1550 – c. 1619), na enslaved woman wey be Albanian, dem put am for harem of Ottoman sultan Murad III, and she be the mama of sultan Mehmed III. Salem Poor (1747–1802), na enslaved African-American man wey buy im freedom, and e be war hero during the American Revolutionary War. Sally Hemings (1773–1835), na mixed-race woman wey dem enslave by Thomas Jefferson, plenty people dey believe say she born six pikin for am, four of dem survive grow reach adult. Sally Miller or Salomé Müller (born c. 1814), na enslaved American woman wey file her freedom case for Louisiana based on say she dey claim say she be free German immigrant and indentured servant. Sally Seymour (died 1824), na American pastry chef and restaurateur, enslaved woman wey dem free and she come own her own slaves too. Salonia na di second wife of Cato di Elder. Salvius, wey dem sabi as Tryphon, be leader of di 104 BCE slave rebellion for Sicily wey dem call di Second Servile War. Sambo (died 1736), na enslaved boy wey enter Sunderland Point, near Lancaster, England, around 1736 from West Indies as captain servant. Dem bury am for grave wey no dey blessed inside one field near small village of Sunderland Point, Lancashire, England. Sambo, a black guy wey dey under Tiger King, one Lower Creek, wey tell traveler William Bartram say Sambo be him family property. Samson Rowlie (wey die after 1588), wey dem sabi as Hassan Aga, Chief Eunuch and Treasurer for Algiers. Samuel Benedict (1792–1854), wey born be African-American slave, later become free and waka go Liberia, where he turn politician and judge. Samuel Green (c. 1802–1877), one enslaved man wey buy him freedom and freedom for him loved ones, dey involve for Underground Railroad, and dem lock him up for 1857 because e carry Uncle Tom's Cabin. Samuel Ringgold Ward (1817–c. 1866), African-American wey dey fight for abolition and be journalist. Sandy Jenkins, na person wey dey enslave wey Frederick Douglass talk for him first autobiography. Sanker, na manservant wey dey work for Samuel R. Watkins, wey write "Co. Aytch" (1882), wey dey tell how him life be as soldier for the 1st Tennessee Infantry Regiment. Sarah Forbes Bonetta (1843–1880), na Egbado princess from Yoruba wey lose her people during fight, sell into slavery as small pikin, but Captain Frederick E. Forbes from Royal Navy come rescue am carry am go UK wey she con become goddaughter to Queen Victoria. Sarah Basset (die 1730), wey dey enslave for Bermuda; dem execute am for poison matter wey involve three people. Sarah Johnson (1844–1920), her life for the first president plantation dey published for book wey dem call "Sarah Johnson's Mount Vernon." Satrelanus, from Gaul, wey Ermedruda sell give Toto for Milan for 725. Scipio Africanus (around 1702–1720). Scipio Moorhead (fl. 1773–1775), na enslaved African-American artist. Scipio Vaughan (around 1784–around 1840), dem carry am komot from him place for Africa young, sell am go slavery for United States. E turn skilled artisan for Camden, South Carolina; manage get him freedom and inspire plenty of him pikin dem. Septimus Clarke (1787–1859), wey dem don enslave before, him turn e get success as farmer and leader for community for Nova Scotia. Servius Tullius, ancient King of Rome wey people talk sey e start life as slave (but some people dey argue this matter, both Romans and modern historians). Seymour Burr (1754/1762–1837), e fight for Continental Army for American Revolution. Shadrach Minkins (1814–1875), na fugitive wey slavery no fit catch, dem save am by abolitionists for Boston in 1850. Shaghab (dem don die 933), mother and double ruler of the eighteenth Abbasid Caliph al-Muqtadir. Silas Chandler (1838–1919), na man wey dey follow him enslavers for Confederate Army during American Civil War. Sojourner Truth (around 1797–1883), na abolitionist and women's rights activist. Solomon Bayley (1771–1839), write book for 1825 about him life as slave. Solomon Northup (1807–around 1863), na farmer, pro violinist, and free-born black man from New York wey dem lure go Washington, D.C., wey slavery dey legal, kidnap am and sell am for South. E dey enslaved for Louisiana from 1841 till dem rescue am and liberate am for 1853. Na author of Twelve Years a Slave. Solomon Flores, na enslaved man from northern Alabama. Sosias the Thracian, na enslaved Athenian man, later freedman, wey Nicias carry enslave, later rent am one thousand slaves for mining work. Spartacus (around 111–71 BCE), na gladiator and rebel leader during the Servile Revolt. Spendius be Campanian wey run come out from slavery, serve as Carthaginian mercenary for di First Punic War, den later be general for Mercenary War wey dem fight against Carthage. Stefan Holnicki (we no sabi when e die after 1797), Polish serf and Royal Ballet Dancer, don give plenty to di king of Poland by im will. Stephen Bishop (about 1821–1857), na mixed-race man wey dem hold for Kentucky, him dey known as one of di first explorers and guides for Mammoth Cave. Sue, na black woman wey James Brown enslave, dem capture am with plenty members for di Brown family and other slaves by Chickamaugas. When di warrior wey catch am threaten another captive, di other captor come threaten say dem go kill Sue for revenge. James' pikin Joseph later kidnap Sue, her children and grandchildren—total eight—for di revenge wey dey follow im captivity. Suhayb ar-Rumi (born around 587), wey people sabi as Suhayb ibn Sinan, na child wey dey enslave for Byzantine Empire, escape as young man go Mecca, come join Muhammad and become big friend for di early Muslim community. Sumayyah bint Khayyat (550–615), na woman wey dem enslave for Mecca; she be one of di first seven pipo wey convert to Islam by Prophet Muhammad early for him work. Dem torture am and kill am because of di new faith, she become di first Muslim Shahid. Squanto (1585–1622), wey dem also sabi as Tisquantum, na Native American from wetin dem dey call coastal Massachusetts now; dem capture am by English pirates and sell am as slave. Later, he free and return go New England, meet di Pilgrims for di Mayflower in 1621. Subh of Cordoba (940–999), na enslave concubine of a Caliph, na mother and regent of di next Caliph of Cordoba inside di 10th century. Suk-bin Choe (1670–1718), na consort of Sukjong of Joseon and mother of Yeongjo of Joseon. Surya Devi (we no sabi when she die, 715), na Indian princess wey dem enslave by Caliph Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik. T Taras Shevchenko Tatyana Shlykova Dem dey talk say na Terence portrait from Vatican Codex 3868. E fit be copy from 3rd-century original. Taras Shevchenko (1814–1861): Na di biggest Ukrainian poet, artist and illustrator wey come from serf family. E artist padi buy am freedom for 1838. Tatyana Shlykova (1773–1863), Russian serf wey be ballerina and opera singer. Thanadelthur (c. 1697–1717), woman from Chipewyan Dënesųłı̨ne nation wey help as guide and interpreter for Hudson's Bay Company. Thomas Fuller, African American man wey dey suffer for Virginia, dem sabi am for im math skills. Thomas Pellow (1704–1745), wey pirates from Barbary enslave, carry am go Morocco, dem select am and torture am by Ismail Ibn Sharif. E escape after 23 years, come back home to Cornwall. Thomas Peters (1738–1792), wey first be Thomas Potters, one of di founding fathers of Sierra Leone. Dem don enslave am before, e run come out from North Carolina during American Revolutionary War. Peters na Black Loyalist member of British Black Company of Pioneers, e become sergeant, settle down, and marry for Nova Scotia. E even recruit African settlers for Nova Scotia to colonize Sierra Leone, later become leader for Freetown. Thomas Sims (born 1834), African American man wey escape slavery for Georgia come Boston, Massachusetts, but dem catch am back under Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, but e escape go Boston again. Thomas-Alexandre Dumas (1762–1806), French general and papa of Alexandre Dumas. Thumal, administrator of justice for di eighteenth Abbasid Caliph al-Muqtadir. T. Aelius Dionysius, freedman for di late Roman Empire, wey create stela for himself, im wife, and Aelius Perseus, im fellow freedman, and dem and dem wey come after dem. T. Claudius Dionysius, him be freedman wey him freedwoman wife Claudia Prepontis build funeral altar for am. Di hands wey dem hold show say dem marry legit, na only after dem get dem freedom. Terence (c. 195/185–c. 159 BCE), full name Publius Terentius Afer, na Roman playwright and comic poet wey write before and maybe after him freedom. Tiberius Claudius Narcissus, na freedman wey dey serve as secretary to Roman emperor Claudius for 1st century. Tituba, na 17th-century Native American woman wey Samuel Parris from Danvers, Massachusetts enslave. She be di first person wey dem accuse of witchcraft during di 1692 Salem witch trials. Tomás Ortega, na enslaved man for colonial Mexico wey try marry Leonor de Mendoza, another woman wey dey under different master. When dat man lock Tomás, Leonor beg church court for help, dem threaten say if him no free Tomás, dem go excommunicate am. Titus Kent (1733–18??), him dey serve for di Samuel Kent family for Suffield Connecticut. Samuel Kent wey live from 1698–1772, wey write for him will say Titus go be Elihu Kent pikin. Revolutionary War records show say Titus serve for different regiments from 1775 to 1783. Toussaint L'Ouverture (1743–1803), na freedman wey lead di slave revolt wey bring Haiti independence. Tula (wey die 1795), na leader of di Curaçao Slave Revolt of 1795. Turgut Reis (1485–1565), wey dem sabi as Dragut, na famous admiral for Ottoman Navy wey Genoese capture for Corsica and force am work as galley slave for near four years. Finally, him fellow admiral Barbarossa come rescue am, wey lay siege to Genoa and secure Turgut Reis release for big ransom of 3,500 gold ducats. After dat, Turgut Reis continue him naval career (wey include di enslavement of plenty other people). U Ukawsaw Gronniosaw (1705–1775), wey dem sabi as James Albert, na freedman wey turn writer. Him autobiography be di first one wey African publish for Britain. Ursula Granger (1738–1800), na woman wey Thomas Jefferson enslave, she be cook, dairymaid, laundress, and wet nurse. Dem dey call am di "Queen of Monticello". V Vasily Tropinin Vincent de Paul Vasily Tropinin (1776–1857), na Russian serf wey sabi paint. Venture Smith (1729–1805), na African wey dem capture as pikin, carry am go American colonies as slave. When e grow, e buy im freedom and im family too – im wife Meg and di pikin dem: Hannah, Solomon and Cuff. Di schoolteacher wey write im story, na person wey e talk to for im old age. Venus Vance (died c. 1850), na enslaved American woman wey live and work for Mira Margaret Baird Vance plantation. Di Vestmenn ("West Men" for Old Norse, wey dey point to di Irish) be group of Irish slaves wey Hjörleifr Hróðmarsson carry go Iceland. E no treat dem well, so dem kill am and run go one group of islands. Ingólfur Arnarson, Hjörleifur's blood brother, chase dem come kill all of dem. Though we no sabi their individual names, dem memory still dey for Iceland geography, di islands wey dem seek refuge dey known as "Vestmannaeyjar": "Islands of di West Men" (i.e. of di Irish). Vincent de Paul (1581–1660), na French priest wey dem dey honor as saint for di Catholic Church. Dem capture am by Turkish pirates, sell am as slave, but e come free for 1607. Vindicius, na ancient Roman slave wey find out Tarquin's plan to take back power. Vibia Calybeni, na freedwoman for late Roman Empire wey weirdly call herself madam for im tombstone. Virginia Boyd, na enslaved American woman wey write letter to R.C. Ballard, dey beg make dem no sell am with her pikin for strangers. Ballard wan sell am die as Judge Samuel Boyd, di children papa, tell am make e hide her existence from im family. Violet Ludlow, na American woman wey don sell into slavery plenty times even though she dey claim say she be free white woman. Virginia Demetricia (1842–after 1867), na enslaved Aruban wey dem sabi say she be heroine wey dey fight against slavery. Vitalis, ancient enslaved Roman. One inscription dey talk about enslaved boy, Iucundus, as son of Gryphus and Vitalis. Volumnia Cytheris, na enslaved and later freedwoman for ancient Rome. She be actress and courtesan, her lovers include Brutus, Mark Antony, and Cornelius Gallus; how she reject Gallus dey inspire Virgil's tenth Eclogue. W Photograph of Wes Brady, ex-slave, wey dem snap for Marshall, Texas, for 1937 as part of Federal Writers' Project Slave Narrative Collection. Wes Brady (born 1849), from Marshall, Texas, dey among di Federal Writers' Project Slave Narrative Collection. West Ford (c. 1784–1863), wey George Washington enslave and serve as caretaker for Mount Vernon. Him dey claim say he be Washington biological son. William Ansah Sessarakoo (c. 1736–1770), African prince wey suffer for transatlantic slave trade, get freedom, and later become slave trader himself. William Beverly Nash (1822–1888), na North Carolina state senator. William Ellison (1790–1861), na enslaved man wey mixed race and after him gain freedom, him too become slaveholder wey dey produce cotton. William Gardner (born 1759), na man wey James Madison enslave wey Madison sell into indentured servitude for seven years before him dey free and dey work as merchant's agent. William Henry wey dem dey call 'Jerry', na man wey escape slavery for Missouri but dem catch am for Syracuse, New York for 1851 before some abolitionists come rescue am from Fugitive Slave Law wahala. William A. Jackson, na man wey Jefferson Davis keep as slave wey run come out for 1861 with plenty military gist about Confederate forces. William Andrew Johnson, mixed-race American wey President Andrew Johnson, Dolly Johnson son carry come as slave. William D. Gibbons (1825–1886), na domestic servant wey later become African Baptist minister after dem free am. William Dorsey Swann (1860–1925), wey born into slavery for Maryland, later become LGBT activist and di first person wey fit self-identify as drag queen. William Jones na slave wey Ulysses S. Grant acquire from him father-in-law for 1858. Jones dey thirty-five years old when dem carry am come. Even though Grant no be abolitionist, he no dey fit force slave to work. For March 1859, Grant free William with manumission deed, wey fit worth $1,000, when he need money. Di case of William Jones catch plenty historians eye, and e dey enter debate about Grant attitude to slavery. William Lee (1750–1828), na man wey George Washington keep as personal servant during di American Revolutionary War, and na di only person wey Washington free from slavery by im will. William Okeley na Englishman wey Algerian pirates capture keep as slave. William Wells Brown (c. 1814–1884), na African-American writer wey escape from slavery for 1834. Wilson Chinn, na African American wey dey for 1863 photo as 'branded slave.' Wulfstan be man wey dey suffer for Anglo-Saxon England, him two pikin and stepdaughter join am. Dem free dem with him madam Æthelgifu will. Wu Rui (15th century), be eunuch wey don suffer for wetin be Vietnam now. E be the smallest of thirteen Chinese men from Wenchang wey ship waka stray and dem carry dem go slave under Lê dynasty. According to Ming Shi-lu, dem turn him teammates to farm workers but dem cut Wu Rui and make am attendant for Imperial Citadel of Thang Long. After plenty years, when Vietnamese king die for 1497, dem boost him to military position for northern Vietnam. One soldier tell am say if e fit escape go back China, and Wu Rui take the chance waka go Longzhou. The local chief wan sell am back to the Vietnamese, but Pingxiang magistrate come rescue am and later send am go Beijing to work as palace eunuch. Wyatt Lee (c. 1822–1863), na the first husband of Dr. Rebecca Davis Lee Crumpler. E escape from slavery for Virginia. X Xenon, be Athenian man wey dey suffer and be banker. Xing be the main wife of Gaozong, brother to Qinzong, wey be Chinese Emperor for Song Dynasty. In 1127, Jurchen come capture Kaifeng during Jin–Song Wars, and dem carry more than 3000 people go exile for Manchuria during wetin dem call Jingkang Incident. Xing na one of the Imperial consorts, concubines, palace women and eunuchs wey dem capture, and dem share among Jurchen as slaves. Xing husband Gaozong wey escape, come be new Emperor and declare Xing Empress for absentia, but e no fit free am. She dey suffer for captivity, wey her captors dey crave for am, she try kill herself to run come out but e no work, and she die for captivity in 1139. Y Yaqut al-Hamawi (1179–1229), di Arab wey sabi plenty tori and geography, e be known for im big writings about di Muslim world. Dem sell am into slavery for 12th-century Syria, carry am go Baghdad, but dem give am beta education and later dem free am. Yasār (7th century), na Christian man wey dem catch for di war of Khalid ibn al-Walid, wey be friend of Muhammad. Dem carry Yasār go Medina, make am Qays ibn Makhrama ibn al-Muṭṭalib ibn ʿAbd Manāf ibn Quṣayy slave. E accept Islam, dem free am, and e be come him mawlā, so e get di nisbat al-Muṭṭalibī. E get three pikin – Mūsā, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān, and Isḥāq. Him grandpapa, Ibn Ishaq, be important early Arab historian. Yasuke, na 16th-century African man wey travel go Japan for Jesuit missionary service, Alessandro Valignano. Dem give am to Oda Nobunaga, Yasuke become di confident of di daimyō and dem give am official status as trusted retainer. York (1770–before 1832), na African-American man wey dem enslave by William Clark, wey be part of di Lewis and Clark Expedition. Z Zofia Potocka Zalmoxis, na Dacian wey dem enslave by Pythagoras for Samos according to Herodotus. Zalmoxis learn philosophy from him owner and other wise Greeks. Eventually dem free am, him gather plenty wealth, go back him land, wey he convert di Thracians to him beliefs, dem dey respect am for him wisdom and later generations dey worship am as god. Zayd ibn Haritha (c. 581–629), dem give am to Muhammad's wife Khadijah, dem free am, adopt am, come sabi am as Zayd ibn Muhammad. Ziryab (789–857), wey dem also dey call Abul-Hasan Alí Ibn Nafí, na Muslim singer, musician, and polymath wey introduce crop asparagus to Europe. Zoe, Christian martyr. Zofia Potocka (1760–1822), na Greek-Ottoman enslaved courtesan wey marry rich become Polish countess. Zumbi (1655–1695), wey dem enslave for Portuguese Brazil, e run come join Quilombo dos Palmares, di biggest settlement of freed slaves for colonial Brazil, na im be di last and most well-known leader. Zunairah al-Rumiya (7th century), some people sabi am as Zaneera, Zannirah, Zanira or for some stories Zinra or Zinnirah ("Zaneerah di Roman") wey na companion of Prophet Muhammad. See also == List of slaves == eepnqv9x6jrqupqznecayxp0sh5j65d Ruben Um Nyobè 0 18308 69098 68819 2025-07-05T21:36:18Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 He start work as civil servant 69098 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox person|name=<!-- defaults to article title when left blank -->|image=Ruben-um-nyobe.jpg|alt=Ruben Um Nyobè|caption=Ruben Um Nyobè|birth_name=<!-- only use if different from name -->|birth_date={{Birth year|1913}}|birth_place=[[Boumnyebel]], [[Kamerun]]|death_date={{Death date and age|1958|09|13|1913||}}|death_place=[[Nyong-et-Kellé]], [[French Cameroon]]|death_cause=Shooting|nationality=<!-- use only when necessary per [[WP:INFONAT]] -->|party=[[Union des populations du Cameroun]]|years_active=1944-1958|monuments=Monument Um Nyobe [[Éséka]]}} '''Ruben Um Nyobè''' (1913 – 13 September 1958)He be Cameroonian leader wey no like colonial rule, plus French army kill am on 13 September 1958 near him hometown Boumnyebel, for Nyong-et-Kellé area insyde Bassa bush. '''When he small''' Um Nyobè, wey people dey call de forgotten father of Cameroon, born for 1913 insyd Song Mpeck, Kamerun.Dat time, Kamerun be German colony, but after World War I, dem divide am give France and United Kingdom.Um Nyobè born for family wey dey for farming area insyde Bassa. Him papa be traditional priest for dema village, wey dem dey follow animism wey dem dey follow as religion. People wey know Um Nyobè see am as Christian, wey he get de name Ruben after dem baptize am. Um Nyobè go Presbyterian school for French syde, wey he learn speak French, Bassa, Bulu, plus Do. At age 26, Um Nyobè finish him baccalaureate for university insyde Edea, den soon after, he marry him wife Martha.After he finish university for 1944, Um Nyobè stay Edea to chase him passion for law.He start work as civil servant and catch interest for politics early. hkpn6rq8svqmm5kqwr5saqk1sad00rg 69099 69098 2025-07-05T21:36:51Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 He start work as civil servant 69099 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox person|name=<!-- defaults to article title when left blank -->|image=Ruben-um-nyobe.jpg|alt=Ruben Um Nyobè|caption=Ruben Um Nyobè|birth_name=<!-- only use if different from name -->|birth_date={{Birth year|1913}}|birth_place=[[Boumnyebel]], [[Kamerun]]|death_date={{Death date and age|1958|09|13|1913||}}|death_place=[[Nyong-et-Kellé]], [[French Cameroon]]|death_cause=Shooting|nationality=<!-- use only when necessary per [[WP:INFONAT]] -->|party=[[Union des populations du Cameroun]]|years_active=1944-1958|monuments=Monument Um Nyobe [[Éséka]]}} '''Ruben Um Nyobè''' (1913 – 13 September 1958)He be Cameroonian leader wey no like colonial rule, plus French army kill am on 13 September 1958 near him hometown Boumnyebel, for Nyong-et-Kellé area insyde Bassa bush. '''When he small''' Um Nyobè, wey people dey call de forgotten father of Cameroon, born for 1913 insyd Song Mpeck, Kamerun.Dat time, Kamerun be German colony, but after World War I, dem divide am give France and United Kingdom.Um Nyobè born for family wey dey for farming area insyde Bassa. Him papa be traditional priest for dema village, wey dem dey follow animism wey dem dey follow as religion. People wey know Um Nyobè see am as Christian, wey he get de name Ruben after dem baptize am. Um Nyobè go Presbyterian school for French syde, wey he learn speak French, Bassa, Bulu, plus Do. At age 26, Um Nyobè finish him baccalaureate for university insyde Edea, den soon after, he marry him wife Martha.After he finish university for 1944, Um Nyobè stay Edea to chase him passion for law.He start work as civil servant wey he catch interest for politics early. 70k2g53o30a5n1dpfm2jw1hgo25ycgg 69100 69099 2025-07-05T21:40:15Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 He joined JeuCaFra 69100 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox person|name=<!-- defaults to article title when left blank -->|image=Ruben-um-nyobe.jpg|alt=Ruben Um Nyobè|caption=Ruben Um Nyobè|birth_name=<!-- only use if different from name -->|birth_date={{Birth year|1913}}|birth_place=[[Boumnyebel]], [[Kamerun]]|death_date={{Death date and age|1958|09|13|1913||}}|death_place=[[Nyong-et-Kellé]], [[French Cameroon]]|death_cause=Shooting|nationality=<!-- use only when necessary per [[WP:INFONAT]] -->|party=[[Union des populations du Cameroun]]|years_active=1944-1958|monuments=Monument Um Nyobe [[Éséka]]}} '''Ruben Um Nyobè''' (1913 – 13 September 1958)He be Cameroonian leader wey no like colonial rule, plus French army kill am on 13 September 1958 near him hometown Boumnyebel, for Nyong-et-Kellé area insyde Bassa bush. '''When he small''' Um Nyobè, wey people dey call de forgotten father of Cameroon, born for 1913 insyd Song Mpeck, Kamerun.Dat time, Kamerun be German colony, but after World War I, dem divide am give France and United Kingdom.Um Nyobè born for family wey dey for farming area insyde Bassa. Him papa be traditional priest for dema village, wey dem dey follow animism wey dem dey follow as religion. People wey know Um Nyobè see am as Christian, wey he get de name Ruben after dem baptize am. Um Nyobè go Presbyterian school for French syde, wey he learn speak French, Bassa, Bulu, plus Do. At age 26, Um Nyobè finish him baccalaureate for university insyde Edea, den soon after, he marry him wife Martha.After he finish university for 1944, Um Nyobè stay Edea to chase him passion for law. He start work as civil servant wey he catch interest for politics early. For late 1930s, he join one group wey dem name Jeunesse camerounaise Française (JeuCaFra), wey French people form to fight Nazi propaganda. 2yo152max8g967f5sdco9jqa1vbbiwe 69102 69100 2025-07-05T21:45:23Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 He join Cameroonian Nationalist group to fight against Nazism rasism plus colonialism 69102 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox person|name=<!-- defaults to article title when left blank -->|image=Ruben-um-nyobe.jpg|alt=Ruben Um Nyobè|caption=Ruben Um Nyobè|birth_name=<!-- only use if different from name -->|birth_date={{Birth year|1913}}|birth_place=[[Boumnyebel]], [[Kamerun]]|death_date={{Death date and age|1958|09|13|1913||}}|death_place=[[Nyong-et-Kellé]], [[French Cameroon]]|death_cause=Shooting|nationality=<!-- use only when necessary per [[WP:INFONAT]] -->|party=[[Union des populations du Cameroun]]|years_active=1944-1958|monuments=Monument Um Nyobe [[Éséka]]}} '''Ruben Um Nyobè''' (1913 – 13 September 1958)He be Cameroonian leader wey no like colonial rule, plus French army kill am on 13 September 1958 near him hometown Boumnyebel, for Nyong-et-Kellé area insyde Bassa bush. '''When he small''' Um Nyobè, wey people dey call de forgotten father of Cameroon, born for 1913 insyd Song Mpeck, Kamerun.Dat time, Kamerun be German colony, but after World War I, dem divide am give France and United Kingdom.Um Nyobè born for family wey dey for farming area insyde Bassa. Him papa be traditional priest for dema village, wey dem dey follow animism wey dem dey follow as religion. People wey know Um Nyobè see am as Christian, wey he get de name Ruben after dem baptize am. Um Nyobè go Presbyterian school for French syde, wey he learn speak French, Bassa, Bulu, plus Do. At age 26, Um Nyobè finish him baccalaureate for university insyde Edea, den soon after, he marry him wife Martha.After he finish university for 1944, Um Nyobè stay Edea to chase him passion for law. He start work as civil servant wey he catch interest for politics early. For late 1930s, he join one group wey dem name Jeunesse camerounaise Française (JeuCaFra), wey French people form to fight Nazi propaganda.After World War II, he join one Cameroonian nationalist group for Yaoundé wey dem call ''Cercle d'études Marxistes'', wey one French teacher plus union man, Gaston Donnat, start. De group wan fight strong against ''Nazism, racism and colonialism''. 2x5gsryw2aar8th3l33txdb224jy7ez 69103 69102 2025-07-05T21:46:47Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Turning point 69103 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox person|name=<!-- defaults to article title when left blank -->|image=Ruben-um-nyobe.jpg|alt=Ruben Um Nyobè|caption=Ruben Um Nyobè|birth_name=<!-- only use if different from name -->|birth_date={{Birth year|1913}}|birth_place=[[Boumnyebel]], [[Kamerun]]|death_date={{Death date and age|1958|09|13|1913||}}|death_place=[[Nyong-et-Kellé]], [[French Cameroon]]|death_cause=Shooting|nationality=<!-- use only when necessary per [[WP:INFONAT]] -->|party=[[Union des populations du Cameroun]]|years_active=1944-1958|monuments=Monument Um Nyobe [[Éséka]]}} '''Ruben Um Nyobè''' (1913 – 13 September 1958)He be Cameroonian leader wey no like colonial rule, plus French army kill am on 13 September 1958 near him hometown Boumnyebel, for Nyong-et-Kellé area insyde Bassa bush. '''When he small''' Um Nyobè, wey people dey call de forgotten father of Cameroon, born for 1913 insyd Song Mpeck, Kamerun.Dat time, Kamerun be German colony, but after World War I, dem divide am give France and United Kingdom.Um Nyobè born for family wey dey for farming area insyde Bassa. Him papa be traditional priest for dema village, wey dem dey follow animism wey dem dey follow as religion. People wey know Um Nyobè see am as Christian, wey he get de name Ruben after dem baptize am. Um Nyobè go Presbyterian school for French syde, wey he learn speak French, Bassa, Bulu, plus Do. At age 26, Um Nyobè finish him baccalaureate for university insyde Edea, den soon after, he marry him wife Martha.After he finish university for 1944, Um Nyobè stay Edea to chase him passion for law. He start work as civil servant wey he catch interest for politics early. For late 1930s, he join one group wey dem name Jeunesse camerounaise Française (JeuCaFra), wey French people form to fight Nazi propaganda.After World War II, he join one Cameroonian nationalist group for Yaoundé wey dem call ''Cercle d'études Marxistes'', wey one French teacher plus union man, Gaston Donnat, start. De group wan fight strong against ''Nazism, racism and colonialism''.For Um Nyobé, e be turning point for am. fwgjrz3m9409eshog189co5yfz0lugp 69105 69103 2025-07-05T21:52:16Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Um Nyobe sit plus white man wey he no go forget 69105 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox person|name=<!-- defaults to article title when left blank -->|image=Ruben-um-nyobe.jpg|alt=Ruben Um Nyobè|caption=Ruben Um Nyobè|birth_name=<!-- only use if different from name -->|birth_date={{Birth year|1913}}|birth_place=[[Boumnyebel]], [[Kamerun]]|death_date={{Death date and age|1958|09|13|1913||}}|death_place=[[Nyong-et-Kellé]], [[French Cameroon]]|death_cause=Shooting|nationality=<!-- use only when necessary per [[WP:INFONAT]] -->|party=[[Union des populations du Cameroun]]|years_active=1944-1958|monuments=Monument Um Nyobe [[Éséka]]}} '''Ruben Um Nyobè''' (1913 – 13 September 1958)He be Cameroonian leader wey no like colonial rule, plus French army kill am on 13 September 1958 near him hometown Boumnyebel, for Nyong-et-Kellé area insyde Bassa bush. '''When he small''' Um Nyobè, wey people dey call de forgotten father of Cameroon, born for 1913 insyd Song Mpeck, Kamerun.Dat time, Kamerun be German colony, but after World War I, dem divide am give France and United Kingdom.Um Nyobè born for family wey dey for farming area insyde Bassa. Him papa be traditional priest for dema village, wey dem dey follow animism wey dem dey follow as religion. People wey know Um Nyobè see am as Christian, wey he get de name Ruben after dem baptize am. Um Nyobè go Presbyterian school for French syde, wey he learn speak French, Bassa, Bulu, plus Do. At age 26, Um Nyobè finish him baccalaureate for university insyde Edea, den soon after, he marry him wife Martha.After he finish university for 1944, Um Nyobè stay Edea to chase him passion for law. He start work as civil servant wey he catch interest for politics early. For late 1930s, he join one group wey dem name Jeunesse camerounaise Française (JeuCaFra), wey French people form to fight Nazi propaganda.After World War II, he join one Cameroonian nationalist group for Yaoundé wey dem call ''Cercle d'études Marxistes'', wey one French teacher plus union man, Gaston Donnat, start. De group wan fight strong against ''Nazism, racism and colonialism''.For Um Nyobé, e be turning point for am."This be first time I sit plus white man for table: I see am as big event for Cameroon insyde. Ano go forget am."[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruben_Um_Nyob%C3%A8#cite_note-mod-1] j156bksrumstj6lxajardn618ow2h1t Brice Oligui Nguema 0 18343 68942 2025-07-05T12:03:02Z KISUMAR123 1270 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1298884448|Brice Oligui Nguema]]" 68942 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Brice Clotaire Oligui Nguema''' ; born 3 March 1975) na Gabonese politician and military officer wey currently serve as de fourth president of Gabon since May 2025. Before dem swear am in officially, he serve as transitional leader from 2023 after he lead di military coup wey remove President Ali Bongo Ondimba from power. From 2023 until his formal assumption of de presidency, Oligui Nguema be de chairman of de ''Committee for de Transition and Restoration of Institutions'', de body wey oversee de interim government. He sana serve as ''commander-in-chief'' of de ''Gabonese Republican Guard'' since 2020, a powerful elite military unit wey dey responsible for presidential security plus national stability. [[Category:Living people]] 01ncs9rbu8vqu72u3x4tls5r4y1u5zi 68943 68942 2025-07-05T12:07:52Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 68943 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Brice Clotaire Oligui Nguema''' ; born 3 March 1975) na Gabonese politician and military officer wey currently serve as de fourth president of Gabon since May 2025. Before dem swear am in officially, he serve as transitional leader from 2023 after he lead di military coup wey remove President Ali Bongo Ondimba from power. From 2023 until his formal assumption of de presidency, Oligui Nguema be de chairman of de ''Committee for de Transition and Restoration of Institutions'', de body wey oversee de interim government. He sana serve as ''commander-in-chief'' of de ''Gabonese Republican Guard'' since 2020, a powerful elite military unit wey dey responsible for presidential security plus national stability. Oligui be member of de Bongo family plus e play key role insyd overthrow wey dem do topple ein cousin Ali Bongo during de 2023 coup. He run for president insyd de 2025 presidential election wey he win am plus more than 90% of de vote. == Early life == De son of one Teke mommie plus one Fang military officer, Oligui born insyd Haut-Ogooué Province, Gabon, wey dem dey see am as stronghold of de ruling Bongo family. He be maternal cousin of Ali Bongo, wey be ein predecessor as president. Oligui mostly grow under ein mommie plus her family insyd Haut-Ogooué, plus he go Omar Bongo University go learn book. == Career == Oligui study for Meknes Royal Military Academy insyd Morocco. He serve as aide-de-camp to President Omar Bongo till de man ein death for 2009. Afta dat, he serve as military attaché for de Gabonese embassies insyd Morocco plus Senegal. [[Category:Living people]] 6udvrilex6uergw1schie9kla7gpwry 68944 68943 2025-07-05T12:09:12Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 68944 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Brice Clotaire Oligui Nguema''' ; born 3 March 1975) na Gabonese politician and military officer wey currently serve as de fourth president of Gabon since May 2025. Before dem swear am in officially, he serve as transitional leader from 2023 after he lead di military coup wey remove President Ali Bongo Ondimba from power. From 2023 until his formal assumption of de presidency, Oligui Nguema be de chairman of de ''Committee for de Transition and Restoration of Institutions'', de body wey oversee de interim government. He sana serve as ''commander-in-chief'' of de ''Gabonese Republican Guard'' since 2020, a powerful elite military unit wey dey responsible for presidential security plus national stability. Oligui be member of de Bongo family plus e play key role insyd overthrow wey dem do topple ein cousin Ali Bongo during de 2023 coup. He run for president insyd de 2025 presidential election wey he win am plus more than 90% of de vote. == Early life == De son of one Teke mommie plus one Fang military officer, Oligui born insyd Haut-Ogooué Province, Gabon, wey dem dey see am as stronghold of de ruling Bongo family. He be maternal cousin of Ali Bongo, wey be ein predecessor as president. Oligui mostly grow under ein mommie plus her family insyd Haut-Ogooué, plus he go Omar Bongo University go learn book. == Career == Oligui study for Meknes Royal Military Academy insyd Morocco. He serve as aide-de-camp to President Omar Bongo till de man ein death for 2009. Afta dat, he serve as military attaché for de Gabonese embassies insyd Morocco plus Senegal. For October 2018, dem call am back go Gabon, wey he take over from President Ali Bongo ein half-broda Colonel Frédéric Bongo as de head of de intelligence service for de Republican Guard. Dem promote am go brigadier general for April 2019. For 2021, he start Operation Mamba again, one campaign to arrest corrupt officials. He take over as head of de Gabonese Republican Guard for April 2020, wey he replace General Grégoire Kouna, wey be cousin of den-President Ali Bongo. He boost de Special Interventions Section (SIS), one special unit wey dey under direct command of de President, from about thirty to over 300 men. He sana compose one song wey e line talk say “I go defend my president plus honour plus loyalty.” One 2020 investigation by de Organized Crime plus Corruption Reporting Project (OCCRP) show say he get plenty properties for de US wey dey cost more dan $1 million, plus he help expand de Bongos dem overseas businesses. When dem ask am about dis tins, he talk say na “private affair.” People wey dey Bongo ein regime plus others wey sabi Oligui talk say he be “fairly intelligent man, easy to talk to”, “discreet” plus “man of consensus” wey “ein men dey appreciate am well.” [[Category:Living people]] gzw6781tb3w75vdzja7j2w15fegdq70 68945 68944 2025-07-05T12:12:35Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 68945 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Brice Clotaire Oligui Nguema''' ; born 3 March 1975) na Gabonese politician and military officer wey currently serve as de fourth president of Gabon since May 2025. Before dem swear am in officially, he serve as transitional leader from 2023 after he lead di military coup wey remove President Ali Bongo Ondimba from power. From 2023 until his formal assumption of de presidency, Oligui Nguema be de chairman of de ''Committee for de Transition and Restoration of Institutions'', de body wey oversee de interim government. He sana serve as ''commander-in-chief'' of de ''Gabonese Republican Guard'' since 2020, a powerful elite military unit wey dey responsible for presidential security plus national stability. Oligui be member of de Bongo family plus e play key role insyd overthrow wey dem do topple ein cousin Ali Bongo during de 2023 coup. He run for president insyd de 2025 presidential election wey he win am plus more than 90% of de vote. == Early life == De son of one Teke mommie plus one Fang military officer, Oligui born insyd Haut-Ogooué Province, Gabon, wey dem dey see am as stronghold of de ruling Bongo family. He be maternal cousin of Ali Bongo, wey be ein predecessor as president. Oligui mostly grow under ein mommie plus her family insyd Haut-Ogooué, plus he go Omar Bongo University go learn book. == Career == Oligui study for Meknes Royal Military Academy insyd Morocco. He serve as aide-de-camp to President Omar Bongo till de man ein death for 2009. Afta dat, he serve as military attaché for de Gabonese embassies insyd Morocco plus Senegal. For October 2018, dem call am back go Gabon, wey he take over from President Ali Bongo ein half-broda Colonel Frédéric Bongo as de head of de intelligence service for de Republican Guard. Dem promote am go brigadier general for April 2019. For 2021, he start Operation Mamba again, one campaign to arrest corrupt officials. He take over as head of de Gabonese Republican Guard for April 2020, wey he replace General Grégoire Kouna, wey be cousin of den-President Ali Bongo. He boost de Special Interventions Section (SIS), one special unit wey dey under direct command of de President, from about thirty to over 300 men. He sana compose one song wey e line talk say “I go defend my president plus honour plus loyalty.” One 2020 investigation by de Organized Crime plus Corruption Reporting Project (OCCRP) show say he get plenty properties for de US wey dey cost more dan $1 million, plus he help expand de Bongos dem overseas businesses. When dem ask am about dis tins, he talk say na “private affair.” People wey dey Bongo ein regime plus others wey sabi Oligui talk say he be “fairly intelligent man, easy to talk to”, “discreet” plus “man of consensus” wey “ein men dey appreciate am well.” == Coup den presidency (2023–present) == Main article: 2023 Gabonese coup d'état For 30 August 2023, Nguema plus ein Republican Guards take over power without any resistance during one coup d'état. Dis one happen just few hours after electoral authorities announce for midnight say de current president, Ali Bongo, win ein third seven-year term plus 64% of de vote for de 2023 Gabonese presidential election wey happen few days before. After de coup, de Committee for de Transition plus Restoration of Institutions name Oligui as interim president of Gabon for announcement wey dem broadcast for state television. Dem later see am ontop de shoulders of happy army men wey dey hail am as "President". For one interview plus ''Le Monde'' later dat day, he call Bongo "retired", plus talk say de military do de coup because people for de country no dey happy since Bongo ein stroke for 2018, ein choice to run again for third term, how dem dey ignore de country ein constitution, plus de way dem do de election. Other generals confirm am as interim president later, plus dem swear am in officially as "transitional president" for de Presidential Palace on 4 September. For ein inaugural speech, he promise say elections go dey "free, transparent", but he no give exact date. He sana talk say new government go come soon, plus propose new electoral law, new penal code, referendum for new constitution, plus release of all political prisoners. For October 2023, Oligui announce say he go give up ein salary as president, make he rather depend on de money wey he dey take as commander of de Republican Guard. For March 2025, Oligui announce say he go run for president by ein own self for de 2025 Gabonese presidential election wey happen on 12 April. Before de election reach, Oligui form ein political platform, ''Rally of Builders''. He win de election plus nearly 95% of de vote, plus dem swear am in as president on 3 May. [[Category:Living people]] d05fel2examp3o6coj89shp8nsvxqcm 68946 68945 2025-07-05T12:13:30Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 68946 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Brice Clotaire Oligui Nguema''' ; born 3 March 1975) na Gabonese politician and military officer wey currently serve as de fourth president of Gabon since May 2025. Before dem swear am in officially, he serve as transitional leader from 2023 after he lead di military coup wey remove President Ali Bongo Ondimba from power. From 2023 until his formal assumption of de presidency, Oligui Nguema be de chairman of de ''Committee for de Transition and Restoration of Institutions'', de body wey oversee de interim government. He sana serve as ''commander-in-chief'' of de ''Gabonese Republican Guard'' since 2020, a powerful elite military unit wey dey responsible for presidential security plus national stability. Oligui be member of de Bongo family plus e play key role insyd overthrow wey dem do topple ein cousin Ali Bongo during de 2023 coup. He run for president insyd de 2025 presidential election wey he win am plus more than 90% of de vote. == Early life == De son of one Teke mommie plus one Fang military officer, Oligui born insyd Haut-Ogooué Province, Gabon, wey dem dey see am as stronghold of de ruling Bongo family. He be maternal cousin of Ali Bongo, wey be ein predecessor as president. Oligui mostly grow under ein mommie plus her family insyd Haut-Ogooué, plus he go Omar Bongo University go learn book. == Career == Oligui study for Meknes Royal Military Academy insyd Morocco. He serve as aide-de-camp to President Omar Bongo till de man ein death for 2009. Afta dat, he serve as military attaché for de Gabonese embassies insyd Morocco plus Senegal. For October 2018, dem call am back go Gabon, wey he take over from President Ali Bongo ein half-broda Colonel Frédéric Bongo as de head of de intelligence service for de Republican Guard. Dem promote am go brigadier general for April 2019. For 2021, he start Operation Mamba again, one campaign to arrest corrupt officials. He take over as head of de Gabonese Republican Guard for April 2020, wey he replace General Grégoire Kouna, wey be cousin of den-President Ali Bongo. He boost de Special Interventions Section (SIS), one special unit wey dey under direct command of de President, from about thirty to over 300 men. He sana compose one song wey e line talk say “I go defend my president plus honour plus loyalty.” One 2020 investigation by de Organized Crime plus Corruption Reporting Project (OCCRP) show say he get plenty properties for de US wey dey cost more dan $1 million, plus he help expand de Bongos dem overseas businesses. When dem ask am about dis tins, he talk say na “private affair.” People wey dey Bongo ein regime plus others wey sabi Oligui talk say he be “fairly intelligent man, easy to talk to”, “discreet” plus “man of consensus” wey “ein men dey appreciate am well.” == Coup den presidency (2023–present) == Main article: 2023 Gabonese coup d'état For 30 August 2023, Nguema plus ein Republican Guards take over power without any resistance during one coup d'état. Dis one happen just few hours after electoral authorities announce for midnight say de current president, Ali Bongo, win ein third seven-year term plus 64% of de vote for de 2023 Gabonese presidential election wey happen few days before. After de coup, de Committee for de Transition plus Restoration of Institutions name Oligui as interim president of Gabon for announcement wey dem broadcast for state television. Dem later see am ontop de shoulders of happy army men wey dey hail am as "President". For one interview plus ''Le Monde'' later dat day, he call Bongo "retired", plus talk say de military do de coup because people for de country no dey happy since Bongo ein stroke for 2018, ein choice to run again for third term, how dem dey ignore de country ein constitution, plus de way dem do de election. Other generals confirm am as interim president later, plus dem swear am in officially as "transitional president" for de Presidential Palace on 4 September. For ein inaugural speech, he promise say elections go dey "free, transparent", but he no give exact date. He sana talk say new government go come soon, plus propose new electoral law, new penal code, referendum for new constitution, plus release of all political prisoners. For October 2023, Oligui announce say he go give up ein salary as president, make he rather depend on de money wey he dey take as commander of de Republican Guard. For March 2025, Oligui announce say he go run for president by ein own self for de 2025 Gabonese presidential election wey happen on 12 April. Before de election reach, Oligui form ein political platform, ''Rally of Builders''. He win de election plus nearly 95% of de vote, plus dem swear am in as president on 3 May. == Personal life == Oligui be a Christian. Ein brother-in-law Régis Onanga Ndiaye be ein Minister for Foreign Affairs. == Notes == # Transitional: ''De facto'' from 30 August 2023 until 4 September, ''de jure'' from 4 September 2023 until 3 May 2025 # With Grégoire Kouna until 8 April 2020, but not afterwards. Alongside Antoine Balekidra (acting) since 18 September 2023. == References == [[Category:Living people]] mvrztue4c4adoynd7vfx8rj27142065 Joachim Yhombi-Opango 0 18344 68947 2025-07-05T12:18:03Z KISUMAR123 1270 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1295247831|Joachim Yhombi-Opango]]" 68947 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Jacques Joachim Yhombi-Opango''' (12 January 1939 – 30 March 2020) be Congolese politician. He be army officer wey turn Congo-Brazzaville ein first general, plus he serve as Head of State of de People's Republic of de Congo from 1977 to 1979. He be de President of de Rally for Democracy plus Development (RDD), wey be political party, plus he serve as Prime Minister from 1993 to 1996. He go exile from 1997 go 2007. nazx3v7i2goc56esc4tmam4ca5wgh5l 68948 68947 2025-07-05T12:53:19Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 68948 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Jacques Joachim Yhombi-Opango''' (12 January 1939 – 30 March 2020) be Congolese politician. He be army officer wey turn Congo-Brazzaville ein first general, plus he serve as Head of State of de People's Republic of de Congo from 1977 to 1979. He be de President of de Rally for Democracy plus Development (RDD), wey be political party, plus he serve as Prime Minister from 1993 to 1996. He go exile from 1997 go 2007. == Early life == Yhombi-Opango born on 12 January 1939 for Fort Rousset (wey now be Owando) insyd Cuvette Region, for north of de Congo. He marry Marie-Noëlle Ngollo, plus dem get plenty pikin together. == Career == Under President Marien Ngouabi, Yhombi-Opango be Army Chief of Staff (plus de rank of major); dem suspend am from dat position on 30 July 1970, but later dem bring am back. He be member of de ruling Congolese Labour Party (PCT) plus he dey linked to de party ein right wing. Some left-wing people insyd de PCT talk for Voice of de Revolution radio on 22 February 1972 say Yhombi-Opango dey try take power by force through right-wing coup, plus say he order make dem arrest members of de PCT Political Bureau. Dis claim be part of one failed leftist coup attempt wey Lieutenant Ange Diawara lead. Yhombi-Opango enter PCT ein Central Committee for 1972. After dat, dem promote am to Colonel rank, plus he join de Political Bureau of de PCT for January 1973. He serve as Secretary-General of de Council of State before dem move am go position of Council of State delegate wey dey in charge of Defence on 9 November 1974. === President === After dem kill Ngouabi for March 1977, Yhombi-Opango come turn Head of State. He dey power for nearly two years until dem force am make he resign for February 1979. Dem accuse am say he dey try form one "rightist faction" insyd de PCT, so afta dat, President Denis Sassou Nguesso—wey replace am—hold am for detention for plenty years. Apart from say dem put am under house arrest, dem expel am from de PCT plus seize all ein property for 1979; dem even demote am from general to ordinary private soldier, according to one announcement wey drop on 20 October 1979. Sassou Nguesso later announce say dem go release Yhombi-Opango when he take oath for ein second term as president on 10 November 1984, say e be for “de interest of national unity plus peace.” For July 1987, dem arrest 20 officers wey dem talk say dem dey plan coup, and one commission wey dey investigate de plan mention say Yhombi-Opango plus Captain Pierre Anga dey involved. So for September 1987, dem arrest Yhombi-Opango again because of dis plot. Sassou Nguesso later release am plus all political prisoners on 14 August 1990, to mark de 30-year anniversary of Congo ein independence. During de National Conference wey happun from February to June 1991, some delegates accuse Yhombi-Opango plus Sassou Nguesso say dem join body inside de plan to kill Ngouabi. 6kwe5d7mnwiyag5lwoy62815jaxfybu 68949 68948 2025-07-05T13:14:25Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 68949 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Jacques Joachim Yhombi-Opango''' (12 January 1939 – 30 March 2020) be Congolese politician. He be army officer wey turn Congo-Brazzaville ein first general, plus he serve as Head of State of de People's Republic of de Congo from 1977 to 1979. He be de President of de Rally for Democracy plus Development (RDD), wey be political party, plus he serve as Prime Minister from 1993 to 1996. He go exile from 1997 go 2007. == Early life == Yhombi-Opango born on 12 January 1939 for Fort Rousset (wey now be Owando) insyd Cuvette Region, for north of de Congo. He marry Marie-Noëlle Ngollo, plus dem get plenty pikin together. == Career == Under President Marien Ngouabi, Yhombi-Opango be Army Chief of Staff (plus de rank of major); dem suspend am from dat position on 30 July 1970, but later dem bring am back. He be member of de ruling Congolese Labour Party (PCT) plus he dey linked to de party ein right wing. Some left-wing people insyd de PCT talk for Voice of de Revolution radio on 22 February 1972 say Yhombi-Opango dey try take power by force through right-wing coup, plus say he order make dem arrest members of de PCT Political Bureau. Dis claim be part of one failed leftist coup attempt wey Lieutenant Ange Diawara lead. Yhombi-Opango enter PCT ein Central Committee for 1972. After dat, dem promote am to Colonel rank, plus he join de Political Bureau of de PCT for January 1973. He serve as Secretary-General of de Council of State before dem move am go position of Council of State delegate wey dey in charge of Defence on 9 November 1974. === President === After dem kill Ngouabi for March 1977, Yhombi-Opango come turn Head of State. He dey power for nearly two years until dem force am make he resign for February 1979. Dem accuse am say he dey try form one "rightist faction" insyd de PCT, so afta dat, President Denis Sassou Nguesso—wey replace am—hold am for detention for plenty years. Apart from say dem put am under house arrest, dem expel am from de PCT plus seize all ein property for 1979; dem even demote am from general to ordinary private soldier, according to one announcement wey drop on 20 October 1979. Sassou Nguesso later announce say dem go release Yhombi-Opango when he take oath for ein second term as president on 10 November 1984, say e be for “de interest of national unity plus peace.” For July 1987, dem arrest 20 officers wey dem talk say dem dey plan coup, and one commission wey dey investigate de plan mention say Yhombi-Opango plus Captain Pierre Anga dey involved. So for September 1987, dem arrest Yhombi-Opango again because of dis plot. Sassou Nguesso later release am plus all political prisoners on 14 August 1990, to mark de 30-year anniversary of Congo ein independence. During de National Conference wey happun from February to June 1991, some delegates accuse Yhombi-Opango plus Sassou Nguesso say dem join body inside de plan to kill Ngouabi. === Prime minister === Afta dat, Yhombi-Opango be de candidate for ein party, Rally for Democracy and Development (RDD), for de August 1992 presidential election, but he come sixth place plus only 3.49% of de vote. For ein home area, Cuvette Region, he take second place wey be 27% of de vote, just behind Sassou Nguesso. He come join body plus President Pascal Lissouba plus Lissouba ein party, Pan-African Union for Social Democracy (UPADS), for de first round of de 1993 parliamentary election wey dem do for May. After de election, Lissouba appoint am Prime Minister on 23 June 1993. But opposition people no gree de results, and big political gbege start—wey dem sef form demma own government. Yhombi-Opango resign on 13 January 1995 make Lissouba fit talk to other parties to form new government; but dem reappoint am sharp sharp as Prime Minister, and de new government wey dem announce on 23 January include four people from de opposition Union for Democratic Renewal (URD). Some people inside UPADS wey come from Lissouba ein own Téke ethnic group start dey shout make Yhombi-Opango step down for 1996, sake of say dem want make Prime Minister too be Téke like dem. So Yhombi-Opango resign on 23 August 1996; then Lissouba appoint Charles David Ganao to take over on 27 August. Sassou-Nguesso ein visit to Owando, wey be Yhombi-Opango ein political base, for May 1997 spark gbege between demma supporters. From dat fight, civil war burst out for June, wey lead to Lissouba ein removal for October 1997. Yhombi-Opango support Lissouba during de war as leader of de Presidential Majority. But afta Sassou-Nguesso win, Yhombi-Opango run go exile for Côte d'Ivoire plus France. 4mdm18xm5jfjcw4gw2tvlg8ulc2pq3e 68956 68949 2025-07-05T14:15:14Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 68956 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Jacques Joachim Yhombi-Opango''' (12 January 1939 – 30 March 2020) be Congolese politician. He be army officer wey turn Congo-Brazzaville ein first general, plus he serve as Head of State of de People's Republic of de Congo from 1977 to 1979. He be de President of de Rally for Democracy plus Development (RDD), wey be political party, plus he serve as Prime Minister from 1993 to 1996. He go exile from 1997 go 2007. == Early life == Yhombi-Opango born on 12 January 1939 for Fort Rousset (wey now be Owando) insyd Cuvette Region, for north of de Congo. He marry Marie-Noëlle Ngollo, plus dem get plenty pikin together. == Career == Under President Marien Ngouabi, Yhombi-Opango be Army Chief of Staff (plus de rank of major); dem suspend am from dat position on 30 July 1970, but later dem bring am back. He be member of de ruling Congolese Labour Party (PCT) plus he dey linked to de party ein right wing. Some left-wing people insyd de PCT talk for Voice of de Revolution radio on 22 February 1972 say Yhombi-Opango dey try take power by force through right-wing coup, plus say he order make dem arrest members of de PCT Political Bureau. Dis claim be part of one failed leftist coup attempt wey Lieutenant Ange Diawara lead. Yhombi-Opango enter PCT ein Central Committee for 1972. After dat, dem promote am to Colonel rank, plus he join de Political Bureau of de PCT for January 1973. He serve as Secretary-General of de Council of State before dem move am go position of Council of State delegate wey dey in charge of Defence on 9 November 1974. === President === After dem kill Ngouabi for March 1977, Yhombi-Opango come turn Head of State. He dey power for nearly two years until dem force am make he resign for February 1979. Dem accuse am say he dey try form one "rightist faction" insyd de PCT, so afta dat, President Denis Sassou Nguesso—wey replace am—hold am for detention for plenty years. Apart from say dem put am under house arrest, dem expel am from de PCT plus seize all ein property for 1979; dem even demote am from general to ordinary private soldier, according to one announcement wey drop on 20 October 1979. Sassou Nguesso later announce say dem go release Yhombi-Opango when he take oath for ein second term as president on 10 November 1984, say e be for “de interest of national unity plus peace.” For July 1987, dem arrest 20 officers wey dem talk say dem dey plan coup, and one commission wey dey investigate de plan mention say Yhombi-Opango plus Captain Pierre Anga dey involved. So for September 1987, dem arrest Yhombi-Opango again because of dis plot. Sassou Nguesso later release am plus all political prisoners on 14 August 1990, to mark de 30-year anniversary of Congo ein independence. During de National Conference wey happun from February to June 1991, some delegates accuse Yhombi-Opango plus Sassou Nguesso say dem join body inside de plan to kill Ngouabi. === Prime minister === Afta dat, Yhombi-Opango be de candidate for ein party, Rally for Democracy and Development (RDD), for de August 1992 presidential election, but he come sixth place plus only 3.49% of de vote. For ein home area, Cuvette Region, he take second place wey be 27% of de vote, just behind Sassou Nguesso. He come join body plus President Pascal Lissouba plus Lissouba ein party, Pan-African Union for Social Democracy (UPADS), for de first round of de 1993 parliamentary election wey dem do for May. After de election, Lissouba appoint am Prime Minister on 23 June 1993. But opposition people no gree de results, and big political gbege start—wey dem sef form demma own government. Yhombi-Opango resign on 13 January 1995 make Lissouba fit talk to other parties to form new government; but dem reappoint am sharp sharp as Prime Minister, and de new government wey dem announce on 23 January include four people from de opposition Union for Democratic Renewal (URD). Some people inside UPADS wey come from Lissouba ein own Téke ethnic group start dey shout make Yhombi-Opango step down for 1996, sake of say dem want make Prime Minister too be Téke like dem. So Yhombi-Opango resign on 23 August 1996; then Lissouba appoint Charles David Ganao to take over on 27 August. Sassou-Nguesso ein visit to Owando, wey be Yhombi-Opango ein political base, for May 1997 spark gbege between demma supporters. From dat fight, civil war burst out for June, wey lead to Lissouba ein removal for October 1997. Yhombi-Opango support Lissouba during de war as leader of de Presidential Majority. But afta Sassou-Nguesso win, Yhombi-Opango run go exile for Côte d'Ivoire plus France. === Exile === For December 2001, Yhombi-Opango join hand plus two other exiled politicians—Lissouba plus Bernard Kolélas—wey all reject de electoral process wey Sassou-Nguesso start, say e no be transparent. Dem three call make people do passive boycott of de January 2002 constitutional referendum. Late December 2001, court sentence Yhombi-Opango in absentia to 20 years hard labor for embezzlement. Dem convict Lissouba too (dem give am 30 years) plus three other former government people: former prime minister Claude Antoine Dacosta, former Minister of Finance Nguila Mougounga Nkombo, plus former Minister of Oil Benoit Koukebene. De embezzlement charge come from say dem—Lissouba, Yhombi-Opango plus demma people—do corrupt deal plus Occidental Petroleum to sell oil give dem for $150 million US dollars back in 1993; dem talk say de oil cost pass dat plenty. Dem say de money no reach Treasury; instead, dem keep part for private account insyd Belgium, plus use de rest for campaign purposes. Claudine Munari, wey be Director of de Cabinet by then, defend dem say dem no get any choice for dat time, plus de money go pay salary wey people dey owe plus prepare de 1993 parliamentary election. Dem charge dem again say dem misuse public funds, but dem no get conviction for dat one. Wahala come burst for RDD leadership top in 2005. Yhombi-Opango, wey still dey exile dat time, tell de party leaders for Congo-Brazzaville make dem go meet de ruling PCT. But Saturnin Okabé, wey dey lead de party sake of Yhombi-Opango ein absence, say he no go do am. Dis refusal vex Yhombi-Opango well well. 2ue7l3t4o1gt6ob36rakcsnpxa7j8sq 68958 68956 2025-07-05T14:17:34Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 68958 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Jacques Joachim Yhombi-Opango''' (12 January 1939 – 30 March 2020) be Congolese politician. He be army officer wey turn Congo-Brazzaville ein first general, plus he serve as Head of State of de People's Republic of de Congo from 1977 to 1979. He be de President of de Rally for Democracy plus Development (RDD), wey be political party, plus he serve as Prime Minister from 1993 to 1996. He go exile from 1997 go 2007. == Early life == Yhombi-Opango born on 12 January 1939 for Fort Rousset (wey now be Owando) insyd Cuvette Region, for north of de Congo. He marry Marie-Noëlle Ngollo, plus dem get plenty pikin together. == Career == Under President Marien Ngouabi, Yhombi-Opango be Army Chief of Staff (plus de rank of major); dem suspend am from dat position on 30 July 1970, but later dem bring am back. He be member of de ruling Congolese Labour Party (PCT) plus he dey linked to de party ein right wing. Some left-wing people insyd de PCT talk for Voice of de Revolution radio on 22 February 1972 say Yhombi-Opango dey try take power by force through right-wing coup, plus say he order make dem arrest members of de PCT Political Bureau. Dis claim be part of one failed leftist coup attempt wey Lieutenant Ange Diawara lead. Yhombi-Opango enter PCT ein Central Committee for 1972. After dat, dem promote am to Colonel rank, plus he join de Political Bureau of de PCT for January 1973. He serve as Secretary-General of de Council of State before dem move am go position of Council of State delegate wey dey in charge of Defence on 9 November 1974. === President === After dem kill Ngouabi for March 1977, Yhombi-Opango come turn Head of State. He dey power for nearly two years until dem force am make he resign for February 1979. Dem accuse am say he dey try form one "rightist faction" insyd de PCT, so afta dat, President Denis Sassou Nguesso—wey replace am—hold am for detention for plenty years. Apart from say dem put am under house arrest, dem expel am from de PCT plus seize all ein property for 1979; dem even demote am from general to ordinary private soldier, according to one announcement wey drop on 20 October 1979. Sassou Nguesso later announce say dem go release Yhombi-Opango when he take oath for ein second term as president on 10 November 1984, say e be for “de interest of national unity plus peace.” For July 1987, dem arrest 20 officers wey dem talk say dem dey plan coup, and one commission wey dey investigate de plan mention say Yhombi-Opango plus Captain Pierre Anga dey involved. So for September 1987, dem arrest Yhombi-Opango again because of dis plot. Sassou Nguesso later release am plus all political prisoners on 14 August 1990, to mark de 30-year anniversary of Congo ein independence. During de National Conference wey happun from February to June 1991, some delegates accuse Yhombi-Opango plus Sassou Nguesso say dem join body inside de plan to kill Ngouabi. === Prime minister === Afta dat, Yhombi-Opango be de candidate for ein party, Rally for Democracy and Development (RDD), for de August 1992 presidential election, but he come sixth place plus only 3.49% of de vote. For ein home area, Cuvette Region, he take second place wey be 27% of de vote, just behind Sassou Nguesso. He come join body plus President Pascal Lissouba plus Lissouba ein party, Pan-African Union for Social Democracy (UPADS), for de first round of de 1993 parliamentary election wey dem do for May. After de election, Lissouba appoint am Prime Minister on 23 June 1993. But opposition people no gree de results, and big political gbege start—wey dem sef form demma own government. Yhombi-Opango resign on 13 January 1995 make Lissouba fit talk to other parties to form new government; but dem reappoint am sharp sharp as Prime Minister, and de new government wey dem announce on 23 January include four people from de opposition Union for Democratic Renewal (URD). Some people inside UPADS wey come from Lissouba ein own Téke ethnic group start dey shout make Yhombi-Opango step down for 1996, sake of say dem want make Prime Minister too be Téke like dem. So Yhombi-Opango resign on 23 August 1996; then Lissouba appoint Charles David Ganao to take over on 27 August. Sassou-Nguesso ein visit to Owando, wey be Yhombi-Opango ein political base, for May 1997 spark gbege between demma supporters. From dat fight, civil war burst out for June, wey lead to Lissouba ein removal for October 1997. Yhombi-Opango support Lissouba during de war as leader of de Presidential Majority. But afta Sassou-Nguesso win, Yhombi-Opango run go exile for Côte d'Ivoire plus France. === Exile === For December 2001, Yhombi-Opango join hand plus two other exiled politicians—Lissouba plus Bernard Kolélas—wey all reject de electoral process wey Sassou-Nguesso start, say e no be transparent. Dem three call make people do passive boycott of de January 2002 constitutional referendum. Late December 2001, court sentence Yhombi-Opango in absentia to 20 years hard labor for embezzlement. Dem convict Lissouba too (dem give am 30 years) plus three other former government people: former prime minister Claude Antoine Dacosta, former Minister of Finance Nguila Mougounga Nkombo, plus former Minister of Oil Benoit Koukebene. De embezzlement charge come from say dem—Lissouba, Yhombi-Opango plus demma people—do corrupt deal plus Occidental Petroleum to sell oil give dem for $150 million US dollars back in 1993; dem talk say de oil cost pass dat plenty. Dem say de money no reach Treasury; instead, dem keep part for private account insyd Belgium, plus use de rest for campaign purposes. Claudine Munari, wey be Director of de Cabinet by then, defend dem say dem no get any choice for dat time, plus de money go pay salary wey people dey owe plus prepare de 1993 parliamentary election. Dem charge dem again say dem misuse public funds, but dem no get conviction for dat one. Wahala come burst for RDD leadership top in 2005. Yhombi-Opango, wey still dey exile dat time, tell de party leaders for Congo-Brazzaville make dem go meet de ruling PCT. But Saturnin Okabé, wey dey lead de party sake of Yhombi-Opango ein absence, say he no go do am. Dis refusal vex Yhombi-Opango well well. === Return === De Congolese Council of Ministers approve amnesty for Yhombi-Opango on 18 May 2007. E return come Congo-Brazzaville on 10 August 2007, plus thousands of ein supporters come dey ground to welcome am. For one meeting of de RDD Steering Committee on 8 September 2007, Yhombi-Opango take back de leadership of de party from interim president Saturnin Okabé plus Secretary-General Martial Mathieu Kani. For dat time, Yhombi-Opango talk say e go reorganize de party plus make e strong again for de national political level. From 2007 till e die for 2020, Yhombi-Opango plus ein wifey dey share dem time between Congo plus France. == Personal life == Yhombi-Opango spend over one year for France sake of medical reasons before e come back Brazzaville on 1 June 2013. Joachim Yhombi-Opango die on 30 March 2020, for American Hospital of Paris wey dey Neuilly-sur-Seine, France, from COVID-19, wey catch am for age 81. Na ein son, Jean-Jacques Yhombi Opango, first confirm say e don die through phone call plus Agence France-Presse. Télé Congo, wey be de national TV station for de country, confirm de info again during dem evening news show. Dem bury am for Owando, Congo, on 31 October 2020. == References == a6zkdyqkwgitcajocdubm5i7vmsdk9m Martial Mathieu Kani 0 18345 68959 2025-07-05T14:20:30Z KISUMAR123 1270 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1057274063|Martial Mathieu Kani]]" 68959 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Martial Mathieu Kani''' be one Congolese politician plus academic. E be top man insyd de Rally for Democracy and Development (RDD), and e serve for Congo-Brazzaville ein govment as Minister of de Tourist Industry plus Leisure from September 2009 go September 2012. [[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]] [[Category:Living people]] mppj0cg617ty3cfnqkig2tsnxdmkr6j 68961 68959 2025-07-05T14:25:28Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 68961 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Martial Mathieu Kani''' be one Congolese politician plus academic. E be top man insyd de Rally for Democracy and Development (RDD), and e serve for Congo-Brazzaville ein govment as Minister of de Tourist Industry plus Leisure from September 2009 go September 2012. == Academic and political career == Dem born Kani for Boundji insyd Cuvette Region. E go school for Brazzaville, plus after dat e go continue ein studies for University of Strasbourg insyd France. E teach for long time. From 1991 go 1992, e be member of de Higher Council of de Republic, wey be one transitional parliament wey de 1991 National Conference set up. Wen de transition end, Kani win seat for National Assembly of Congo-Brazzaville insyd de 1992 parliamentary election; dem re-elect am again for de 1993 parliamentary election wey dem hold early sake of political wahala. E dey National Assembly till 1996, wey e win as Mayor of Owando; e serve as Mayor till 1997. For 2006, Kani come be de head of de department of education sciences for Marien Ngouabi University for Brazzaville. As de Secretary-General of de RDD, Kani plus Saturnin Okabé na dem lead de party work wen de leader, Joachim Yhombi-Opango, dey exile. From 1997, Yhombi-Opango spend 10 years for exile before govment give am amnesty wey make am fit come back Congo-Brazzaville. For RDD Steering Committee meeting wey happen 8 September 2007, Yhombi-Opango come take back de leadership of de party from Kani plus Okabé. Dat time, Yhombi-Opango talk say e go rearrange de party plus raise ein level for national politics inside. On 23 February 2009, dem announce say de ruling Congolese Labour Party (PCT) don form alliance plus de RDD, wey before be opposition party. De two parties agree say dem go present one candidate for de 2009 presidential election, and RDD too agree say if their joint candidate (wey everybody believe na President Denis Sassou Nguesso) win de election, dem go join govment. After Sassou Nguesso win de election, dem appoint Kani enter govment as Minister of de Tourist Industry plus Leisure on 15 September 2009. [[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]] [[Category:Living people]] q6qz5g8s7qwyri30e04x0axjhfym6wj 68962 68961 2025-07-05T14:27:17Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 68962 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Martial Mathieu Kani''' be one Congolese politician plus academic. E be top man insyd de Rally for Democracy and Development (RDD), and e serve for Congo-Brazzaville ein govment as Minister of de Tourist Industry plus Leisure from September 2009 go September 2012. == Academic and political career == Dem born Kani for Boundji insyd Cuvette Region. E go school for Brazzaville, plus after dat e go continue ein studies for University of Strasbourg insyd France. E teach for long time. From 1991 go 1992, e be member of de Higher Council of de Republic, wey be one transitional parliament wey de 1991 National Conference set up. Wen de transition end, Kani win seat for National Assembly of Congo-Brazzaville insyd de 1992 parliamentary election; dem re-elect am again for de 1993 parliamentary election wey dem hold early sake of political wahala. E dey National Assembly till 1996, wey e win as Mayor of Owando; e serve as Mayor till 1997. For 2006, Kani come be de head of de department of education sciences for Marien Ngouabi University for Brazzaville. As de Secretary-General of de RDD, Kani plus Saturnin Okabé na dem lead de party work wen de leader, Joachim Yhombi-Opango, dey exile. From 1997, Yhombi-Opango spend 10 years for exile before govment give am amnesty wey make am fit come back Congo-Brazzaville. For RDD Steering Committee meeting wey happen 8 September 2007, Yhombi-Opango come take back de leadership of de party from Kani plus Okabé. Dat time, Yhombi-Opango talk say e go rearrange de party plus raise ein level for national politics inside. On 23 February 2009, dem announce say de ruling Congolese Labour Party (PCT) don form alliance plus de RDD, wey before be opposition party. De two parties agree say dem go present one candidate for de 2009 presidential election, and RDD too agree say if their joint candidate (wey everybody believe na President Denis Sassou Nguesso) win de election, dem go join govment. After Sassou Nguesso win de election, dem appoint Kani enter govment as Minister of de Tourist Industry plus Leisure on 15 September 2009. For de July–August 2012 parliamentary election, Kani contest as RDD candidate for de first constituency of Owando, but im get strong opponent—Gilbert Ondongo, wey be Minister of Finance and PCT candidate. Ondongo take beat Kani sharp sharp, as im win di seat for first round voting plus 75.19% of de vote. After de election, dem comot Kani from govment on 25 September 2012, and RDD no dey represent for govment again. RDD no get political strength again, so Sassou Nguesso no see any reason to keep Kani for govment. For March 2013, Yhombi-Opango decide say make dem sack Kani plus Anaclet Tsomambet from RDD because some gbege dey inside de party. Kani resign after dat. Later, e come turn President of de Congolese Congress for Democracy plus Progress (CCDP). On 9 February 2016, CCDP sign agreement plus PCT, and Kani talk say im party go support Denis Sassou Nguesso make e win for de March 2016 presidential election. [[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]] [[Category:Living people]] p39egxn235cfpeoiuesrsxh1huh2ef4 68963 68962 2025-07-05T14:27:45Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 68963 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Martial Mathieu Kani''' be one Congolese politician plus academic. E be top man insyd de Rally for Democracy and Development (RDD), and e serve for Congo-Brazzaville ein govment as Minister of de Tourist Industry plus Leisure from September 2009 go September 2012. == Academic and political career == Dem born Kani for Boundji insyd Cuvette Region. E go school for Brazzaville, plus after dat e go continue ein studies for University of Strasbourg insyd France. E teach for long time. From 1991 go 1992, e be member of de Higher Council of de Republic, wey be one transitional parliament wey de 1991 National Conference set up. Wen de transition end, Kani win seat for National Assembly of Congo-Brazzaville insyd de 1992 parliamentary election; dem re-elect am again for de 1993 parliamentary election wey dem hold early sake of political wahala. E dey National Assembly till 1996, wey e win as Mayor of Owando; e serve as Mayor till 1997. For 2006, Kani come be de head of de department of education sciences for Marien Ngouabi University for Brazzaville. As de Secretary-General of de RDD, Kani plus Saturnin Okabé na dem lead de party work wen de leader, Joachim Yhombi-Opango, dey exile. From 1997, Yhombi-Opango spend 10 years for exile before govment give am amnesty wey make am fit come back Congo-Brazzaville. For RDD Steering Committee meeting wey happen 8 September 2007, Yhombi-Opango come take back de leadership of de party from Kani plus Okabé. Dat time, Yhombi-Opango talk say e go rearrange de party plus raise ein level for national politics inside. On 23 February 2009, dem announce say de ruling Congolese Labour Party (PCT) don form alliance plus de RDD, wey before be opposition party. De two parties agree say dem go present one candidate for de 2009 presidential election, and RDD too agree say if their joint candidate (wey everybody believe na President Denis Sassou Nguesso) win de election, dem go join govment. After Sassou Nguesso win de election, dem appoint Kani enter govment as Minister of de Tourist Industry plus Leisure on 15 September 2009. For de July–August 2012 parliamentary election, Kani contest as RDD candidate for de first constituency of Owando, but im get strong opponent—Gilbert Ondongo, wey be Minister of Finance and PCT candidate. Ondongo take beat Kani sharp sharp, as im win di seat for first round voting plus 75.19% of de vote. After de election, dem comot Kani from govment on 25 September 2012, and RDD no dey represent for govment again. RDD no get political strength again, so Sassou Nguesso no see any reason to keep Kani for govment. For March 2013, Yhombi-Opango decide say make dem sack Kani plus Anaclet Tsomambet from RDD because some gbege dey inside de party. Kani resign after dat. Later, e come turn President of de Congolese Congress for Democracy plus Progress (CCDP). On 9 February 2016, CCDP sign agreement plus PCT, and Kani talk say im party go support Denis Sassou Nguesso make e win for de March 2016 presidential election. == References == [[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]] [[Category:Living people]] 153llx2ezq46vm4dij7jrhpak7dao69 Charles David Ganao 0 18346 68967 2025-07-05T14:31:23Z KISUMAR123 1270 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1273880487|Charles David Ganao]]" 68967 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Charles David Ganao''' (20 July 1926 – 6 July 2012) be a Congolese politician who serve as Prime Minister of de Republic of de Congo from 27 August 1996 to 8 September 1997. 77mb403cc2boy48uq5hjbwu9vwvm2nz 68969 68967 2025-07-05T14:38:05Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 68969 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Charles David Ganao''' (20 July 1926 – 6 July 2012) be a Congolese politician who serve as Prime Minister of de Republic of de Congo from 27 August 1996 to 8 September 1997. Ganao born for Djambala, wey dey insyd de present-day Plateaux Department for Republic of Congo. E family be big people among de Teke tribe. Ganao start im career as teacher plus headmaster for primary school, before e enter diplomacy work. Dem appoint am as Republic of Congo dem first ambassador to de United States plus first permanent representative to de United Nations after de country gain independence for 1960. Ganao later serve as Congo dem foreign minister from 1963 go 1968, plus from 1973 reach 1975. Ganao next go work for United Nations, wey base for Vienna, Austria. E join de 1991 Sovereign National Conference, wey remove de Congolese Party of Labour government, change de country ein flag plus national anthem, plus commot de word "People's" from de official name of Republic of Congo. Ganao sana be de founder of Union of Democratic Forces political party. President Pascal Lissouba appoint Ganao as prime minister for 1996. But Lissouba dem overthrow am for October 1997 during Republic of de Congo Civil War, just small after Ganao commot office for September. Ganao run go neighbour country Gabon, wey Gabonese President Omar Bongo give am exile. o8ner10s7gcynzli48d1wbi3oz2maug 68970 68969 2025-07-05T14:39:39Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 68970 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Charles David Ganao''' (20 July 1926 – 6 July 2012) be a Congolese politician who serve as Prime Minister of de Republic of de Congo from 27 August 1996 to 8 September 1997. Ganao born for Djambala, wey dey insyd de present-day Plateaux Department for Republic of Congo. E family be big people among de Teke tribe. Ganao start im career as teacher plus headmaster for primary school, before e enter diplomacy work. Dem appoint am as Republic of Congo dem first ambassador to de United States plus first permanent representative to de United Nations after de country gain independence for 1960. Ganao later serve as Congo dem foreign minister from 1963 go 1968, plus from 1973 reach 1975. Ganao next go work for United Nations, wey base for Vienna, Austria. E join de 1991 Sovereign National Conference, wey remove de Congolese Party of Labour government, change de country ein flag plus national anthem, plus commot de word "People's" from de official name of Republic of Congo. Ganao sana be de founder of Union of Democratic Forces political party. President Pascal Lissouba appoint Ganao as prime minister for 1996. But Lissouba dem overthrow am for October 1997 during Republic of de Congo Civil War, just small after Ganao commot office for September. Ganao run go neighbour country Gabon, wey Gabonese President Omar Bongo give am exile. Ganao return go Congo-Brazzaville for 2005, but e no enter politics again for de rest of ein life. E die for Paris on 6 July 2012 wey e be 85 years. == References == 1lcwkq61ghea7dhao1gj54i3ijaz2ij Jean-Pierre Thystère Tchicaya 0 18347 68973 2025-07-05T14:47:30Z KISUMAR123 1270 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1268914976|Jean-Pierre Thystère Tchicaya]]" 68973 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Jean-Pierre Thystère Tchicaya''' (January 7, 1936 &#x2013; June 20, 2008) na Congolese politician. E short small be acting head of state for Congo-Brazzaville for February 1979, plus e serve as President of de National Assembly from 2002 go 2007. E sana lead one political party, Rally for Democracy plus Social Progress (RDPS), from 1990 go 2008. nbkfvz010sncvhx5gti1prkhxt14xex 68974 68973 2025-07-05T14:48:43Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 68974 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Jean-Pierre Thystère Tchicaya''' (January 7, 1936 &#x2013; June 20, 2008) na Congolese politician. E short small be acting head of state for Congo-Brazzaville for February 1979, plus e serve as President of de National Assembly from 2002 go 2007. E sana lead one political party, Rally for Democracy plus Social Progress (RDPS), from 1990 go 2008. == Early career == o7ce0heyu3x79nlztqmo3cgxxdbnc6s 68975 68974 2025-07-05T14:50:06Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Early career */ Improve article 68975 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Jean-Pierre Thystère Tchicaya''' (January 7, 1936 &#x2013; June 20, 2008) na Congolese politician. E short small be acting head of state for Congo-Brazzaville for February 1979, plus e serve as President of de National Assembly from 2002 go 2007. E sana lead one political party, Rally for Democracy plus Social Progress (RDPS), from 1990 go 2008. == Early career == E born for January 1936 for Pointe-Noire, na member of one ethnic Vili royal family wey come from de old Kingdom of Loango. Tchicaya do e elementary school for Pointe-Noire from 1944 reach 1950. From 1950 to 1957, e go school for Brazzaville wey e earn Bachelor's Degree for Philosophy. Dem send am go France for 1957, where e go study for École Normale Supérieure for Saint-Cloud. E sana get Bachelor's Degree for History Education plus e work on doctorate for Paris-Sorbonne University before dem call am back go Congo for 1965. While e dey France, e marry one French woman, Blanche Marie Duran, for 1961, plus dem born four pikins: Dominique, Jean Marc, Patricia, plus Jean Pascal. Wen e come back, e work as director for Lycée Chaminade (1965–1967), de same place wey e finish e secondary school, plus for École Normale Supérieure de l'Afrique Centrale (1967–1970). melim4xams1v7pc9jr1nkzle91a4ccd 68976 68975 2025-07-05T14:51:38Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 68976 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Jean-Pierre Thystère Tchicaya''' (January 7, 1936 &#x2013; June 20, 2008) na Congolese politician. E short small be acting head of state for Congo-Brazzaville for February 1979, plus e serve as President of de National Assembly from 2002 go 2007. E sana lead one political party, Rally for Democracy plus Social Progress (RDPS), from 1990 go 2008. == Early career == E born for January 1936 for Pointe-Noire, na member of one ethnic Vili royal family wey come from de old Kingdom of Loango. Tchicaya do e elementary school for Pointe-Noire from 1944 reach 1950. From 1950 to 1957, e go school for Brazzaville wey e earn Bachelor's Degree for Philosophy. Dem send am go France for 1957, where e go study for École Normale Supérieure for Saint-Cloud. E sana get Bachelor's Degree for History Education plus e work on doctorate for Paris-Sorbonne University before dem call am back go Congo for 1965. While e dey France, e marry one French woman, Blanche Marie Duran, for 1961, plus dem born four pikins: Dominique, Jean Marc, Patricia, plus Jean Pascal. Wen e come back, e work as director for Lycée Chaminade (1965–1967), de same place wey e finish e secondary school, plus for École Normale Supérieure de l'Afrique Centrale (1967–1970). == Political career under single-party rule == ovokld8nx2bdqhu7mzed5v9fpd7jef6 68977 68976 2025-07-05T14:53:03Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Political career under single-party rule */ Improve article 68977 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Jean-Pierre Thystère Tchicaya''' (January 7, 1936 &#x2013; June 20, 2008) na Congolese politician. E short small be acting head of state for Congo-Brazzaville for February 1979, plus e serve as President of de National Assembly from 2002 go 2007. E sana lead one political party, Rally for Democracy plus Social Progress (RDPS), from 1990 go 2008. == Early career == E born for January 1936 for Pointe-Noire, na member of one ethnic Vili royal family wey come from de old Kingdom of Loango. Tchicaya do e elementary school for Pointe-Noire from 1944 reach 1950. From 1950 to 1957, e go school for Brazzaville wey e earn Bachelor's Degree for Philosophy. Dem send am go France for 1957, where e go study for École Normale Supérieure for Saint-Cloud. E sana get Bachelor's Degree for History Education plus e work on doctorate for Paris-Sorbonne University before dem call am back go Congo for 1965. While e dey France, e marry one French woman, Blanche Marie Duran, for 1961, plus dem born four pikins: Dominique, Jean Marc, Patricia, plus Jean Pascal. Wen e come back, e work as director for Lycée Chaminade (1965–1967), de same place wey e finish e secondary school, plus for École Normale Supérieure de l'Afrique Centrale (1967–1970). == Political career under single-party rule == Tchicaya, wey be one of de founding members of de Congolese Labour Party (PCT), become Minister of Vocational plus Technical Education for December 1971. For August 1973, dem expand e role make e include higher education too; e hold dat position till December 1974. Plus during dat same period, on March 2, 1973, e take over temporary responsibility for de portfolio of information, culture, arts plus sports after dem arrest Sylvain Bemba. E join de Central Committee of de PCT for December 1972, den e hold top-top position inside de party throughout de 1970s. From December 1974 go December 1975, e be de President of de PCT Central Commission of Control plus Verification. As political commissar for Pool region, dem add am join de Special Revolutionary General Staff wey dem form on 12 December 1975. Dem add e name too for de Council of State wey dem announce on January 8, 1976. E serve small time as acting head of state during de handover from Yhombi-Opango go Sassou Nguesso. Right after Denis Sassou Nguesso take over as president early 1979, Tchicaya get elect as Vice-President for one special PCT party congress on March 31, 1979. For February 1983, dem appoint am president of de Banque Commerciale Congolaise, but later Claude-Ernest Ndalla accuse am say e dey plot treason against de regime. From March 1979 till July 1984, e be member of de PCT Political Bureau wey dey in charge of ideology plus education, and e be de second highest person for de party. But dem remove am from all e positions for de party, include e seat for de Central Committee, and dem place am under house arrest for two years for 1984. Even though dem no talk officially why, some people believe say e get hand inside de 1982 bomb attacks wey happen for Brazzaville. For August 1986, de Revolutionary Court of Justice give Claude-Ernest Ndalla death sentence for those bomb attacks; Tchicaya sef face trial plus ten others, and dem give am five-year suspended sentence. Later, dem grant am amnesty for 1988. h2e7culhq2viwboacp5zg0omqsm2tk0 68978 68977 2025-07-05T14:53:44Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 68978 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Jean-Pierre Thystère Tchicaya''' (January 7, 1936 &#x2013; June 20, 2008) na Congolese politician. E short small be acting head of state for Congo-Brazzaville for February 1979, plus e serve as President of de National Assembly from 2002 go 2007. E sana lead one political party, Rally for Democracy plus Social Progress (RDPS), from 1990 go 2008. == Early career == E born for January 1936 for Pointe-Noire, na member of one ethnic Vili royal family wey come from de old Kingdom of Loango. Tchicaya do e elementary school for Pointe-Noire from 1944 reach 1950. From 1950 to 1957, e go school for Brazzaville wey e earn Bachelor's Degree for Philosophy. Dem send am go France for 1957, where e go study for École Normale Supérieure for Saint-Cloud. E sana get Bachelor's Degree for History Education plus e work on doctorate for Paris-Sorbonne University before dem call am back go Congo for 1965. While e dey France, e marry one French woman, Blanche Marie Duran, for 1961, plus dem born four pikins: Dominique, Jean Marc, Patricia, plus Jean Pascal. Wen e come back, e work as director for Lycée Chaminade (1965–1967), de same place wey e finish e secondary school, plus for École Normale Supérieure de l'Afrique Centrale (1967–1970). == Political career under single-party rule == Tchicaya, wey be one of de founding members of de Congolese Labour Party (PCT), become Minister of Vocational plus Technical Education for December 1971. For August 1973, dem expand e role make e include higher education too; e hold dat position till December 1974. Plus during dat same period, on March 2, 1973, e take over temporary responsibility for de portfolio of information, culture, arts plus sports after dem arrest Sylvain Bemba. E join de Central Committee of de PCT for December 1972, den e hold top-top position inside de party throughout de 1970s. From December 1974 go December 1975, e be de President of de PCT Central Commission of Control plus Verification. As political commissar for Pool region, dem add am join de Special Revolutionary General Staff wey dem form on 12 December 1975. Dem add e name too for de Council of State wey dem announce on January 8, 1976. E serve small time as acting head of state during de handover from Yhombi-Opango go Sassou Nguesso. Right after Denis Sassou Nguesso take over as president early 1979, Tchicaya get elect as Vice-President for one special PCT party congress on March 31, 1979. For February 1983, dem appoint am president of de Banque Commerciale Congolaise, but later Claude-Ernest Ndalla accuse am say e dey plot treason against de regime. From March 1979 till July 1984, e be member of de PCT Political Bureau wey dey in charge of ideology plus education, and e be de second highest person for de party. But dem remove am from all e positions for de party, include e seat for de Central Committee, and dem place am under house arrest for two years for 1984. Even though dem no talk officially why, some people believe say e get hand inside de 1982 bomb attacks wey happen for Brazzaville. For August 1986, de Revolutionary Court of Justice give Claude-Ernest Ndalla death sentence for those bomb attacks; Tchicaya sef face trial plus ten others, and dem give am five-year suspended sentence. Later, dem grant am amnesty for 1988. == Political career after 1990 == ht85gbgqy5vskup0o8dbeqzqj5wiaos 68979 68978 2025-07-05T14:54:49Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Political career after 1990 */ Improve article 68979 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Jean-Pierre Thystère Tchicaya''' (January 7, 1936 &#x2013; June 20, 2008) na Congolese politician. E short small be acting head of state for Congo-Brazzaville for February 1979, plus e serve as President of de National Assembly from 2002 go 2007. E sana lead one political party, Rally for Democracy plus Social Progress (RDPS), from 1990 go 2008. == Early career == E born for January 1936 for Pointe-Noire, na member of one ethnic Vili royal family wey come from de old Kingdom of Loango. Tchicaya do e elementary school for Pointe-Noire from 1944 reach 1950. From 1950 to 1957, e go school for Brazzaville wey e earn Bachelor's Degree for Philosophy. Dem send am go France for 1957, where e go study for École Normale Supérieure for Saint-Cloud. E sana get Bachelor's Degree for History Education plus e work on doctorate for Paris-Sorbonne University before dem call am back go Congo for 1965. While e dey France, e marry one French woman, Blanche Marie Duran, for 1961, plus dem born four pikins: Dominique, Jean Marc, Patricia, plus Jean Pascal. Wen e come back, e work as director for Lycée Chaminade (1965–1967), de same place wey e finish e secondary school, plus for École Normale Supérieure de l'Afrique Centrale (1967–1970). == Political career under single-party rule == Tchicaya, wey be one of de founding members of de Congolese Labour Party (PCT), become Minister of Vocational plus Technical Education for December 1971. For August 1973, dem expand e role make e include higher education too; e hold dat position till December 1974. Plus during dat same period, on March 2, 1973, e take over temporary responsibility for de portfolio of information, culture, arts plus sports after dem arrest Sylvain Bemba. E join de Central Committee of de PCT for December 1972, den e hold top-top position inside de party throughout de 1970s. From December 1974 go December 1975, e be de President of de PCT Central Commission of Control plus Verification. As political commissar for Pool region, dem add am join de Special Revolutionary General Staff wey dem form on 12 December 1975. Dem add e name too for de Council of State wey dem announce on January 8, 1976. E serve small time as acting head of state during de handover from Yhombi-Opango go Sassou Nguesso. Right after Denis Sassou Nguesso take over as president early 1979, Tchicaya get elect as Vice-President for one special PCT party congress on March 31, 1979. For February 1983, dem appoint am president of de Banque Commerciale Congolaise, but later Claude-Ernest Ndalla accuse am say e dey plot treason against de regime. From March 1979 till July 1984, e be member of de PCT Political Bureau wey dey in charge of ideology plus education, and e be de second highest person for de party. But dem remove am from all e positions for de party, include e seat for de Central Committee, and dem place am under house arrest for two years for 1984. Even though dem no talk officially why, some people believe say e get hand inside de 1982 bomb attacks wey happen for Brazzaville. For August 1986, de Revolutionary Court of Justice give Claude-Ernest Ndalla death sentence for those bomb attacks; Tchicaya sef face trial plus ten others, and dem give am five-year suspended sentence. Later, dem grant am amnesty for 1988. == Political career after 1990 == After e split from de PCT, Tchicaya join opposition party National Union for Democracy plus Progress (UNDP; Union National pour la Démocratie et le Progrès) as de country dey start move into multiparty democracy. But later, e comot from UNDP go start e own opposition party, de RDPS, on October 29, 1990. E be delegate for de 1991 Sovereign National Conference, wey inside de Conference e popular pass for say "never again!" (plus jamais ça!). As RDPS candidate for de August 1992 presidential election, Tchicaya land fifth position wey get 5.78% of de vote. E best support come from Kouilou Region (wey get Pointe-Noire, de second biggest city plus de economic capital), where e gather 28% of de vote and come second behind Pascal Lissouba. Tchicaya then support Bernard Kolélas from de Congolese Movement for Democracy plus Integral Development (MCDDI) for de second round, but Lissouba win Kolélas. 48hwt29h6uk3q28miahhmen6fwf8j16 68980 68979 2025-07-05T14:57:44Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Political career after 1990 */ Improve article 68980 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Jean-Pierre Thystère Tchicaya''' (January 7, 1936 &#x2013; June 20, 2008) na Congolese politician. E short small be acting head of state for Congo-Brazzaville for February 1979, plus e serve as President of de National Assembly from 2002 go 2007. E sana lead one political party, Rally for Democracy plus Social Progress (RDPS), from 1990 go 2008. == Early career == E born for January 1936 for Pointe-Noire, na member of one ethnic Vili royal family wey come from de old Kingdom of Loango. Tchicaya do e elementary school for Pointe-Noire from 1944 reach 1950. From 1950 to 1957, e go school for Brazzaville wey e earn Bachelor's Degree for Philosophy. Dem send am go France for 1957, where e go study for École Normale Supérieure for Saint-Cloud. E sana get Bachelor's Degree for History Education plus e work on doctorate for Paris-Sorbonne University before dem call am back go Congo for 1965. While e dey France, e marry one French woman, Blanche Marie Duran, for 1961, plus dem born four pikins: Dominique, Jean Marc, Patricia, plus Jean Pascal. Wen e come back, e work as director for Lycée Chaminade (1965–1967), de same place wey e finish e secondary school, plus for École Normale Supérieure de l'Afrique Centrale (1967–1970). == Political career under single-party rule == Tchicaya, wey be one of de founding members of de Congolese Labour Party (PCT), become Minister of Vocational plus Technical Education for December 1971. For August 1973, dem expand e role make e include higher education too; e hold dat position till December 1974. Plus during dat same period, on March 2, 1973, e take over temporary responsibility for de portfolio of information, culture, arts plus sports after dem arrest Sylvain Bemba. E join de Central Committee of de PCT for December 1972, den e hold top-top position inside de party throughout de 1970s. From December 1974 go December 1975, e be de President of de PCT Central Commission of Control plus Verification. As political commissar for Pool region, dem add am join de Special Revolutionary General Staff wey dem form on 12 December 1975. Dem add e name too for de Council of State wey dem announce on January 8, 1976. E serve small time as acting head of state during de handover from Yhombi-Opango go Sassou Nguesso. Right after Denis Sassou Nguesso take over as president early 1979, Tchicaya get elect as Vice-President for one special PCT party congress on March 31, 1979. For February 1983, dem appoint am president of de Banque Commerciale Congolaise, but later Claude-Ernest Ndalla accuse am say e dey plot treason against de regime. From March 1979 till July 1984, e be member of de PCT Political Bureau wey dey in charge of ideology plus education, and e be de second highest person for de party. But dem remove am from all e positions for de party, include e seat for de Central Committee, and dem place am under house arrest for two years for 1984. Even though dem no talk officially why, some people believe say e get hand inside de 1982 bomb attacks wey happen for Brazzaville. For August 1986, de Revolutionary Court of Justice give Claude-Ernest Ndalla death sentence for those bomb attacks; Tchicaya sef face trial plus ten others, and dem give am five-year suspended sentence. Later, dem grant am amnesty for 1988. == Political career after 1990 == After e split from de PCT, Tchicaya join opposition party National Union for Democracy plus Progress (UNDP; Union National pour la Démocratie et le Progrès) as de country dey start move into multiparty democracy. But later, e comot from UNDP go start e own opposition party, de RDPS, on October 29, 1990. E be delegate for de 1991 Sovereign National Conference, wey inside de Conference e popular pass for say "never again!" (plus jamais ça!). As RDPS candidate for de August 1992 presidential election, Tchicaya land fifth position wey get 5.78% of de vote. E best support come from Kouilou Region (wey get Pointe-Noire, de second biggest city plus de economic capital), where e gather 28% of de vote and come second behind Pascal Lissouba. Tchicaya then support Bernard Kolélas from de Congolese Movement for Democracy plus Integral Development (MCDDI) for de second round, but Lissouba win Kolélas. After President Lissouba lose ein parliamentary majority, e dissolve de National Assembly make dem prepare for new parliamentary election. Dis move bring political wahala plus lead to new government wey dem form under Prime Minister Claude Antoine Dacosta, wey mix Lissouba ein people plus members from de Union for Democratic Renewal (URD)–PCT opposition coalition. For dis new government wey dem appoint on 25 December 1992, Tchicaya take de position as Minister of Mines, Energy plus Hydrocarbons. Dacosta ein "60/40" government dey in place till May–June 1993 parliamentary election time, wey Tchicaya win seat for de National Assembly. But URD-PCT opposition coalition no gree accept de election result, dem talk say e be fraud, so dem form demma own government wey Tchicaya be de prime minister. For dat rival government too, dem give am post of Minister of National Defense plus Minister of Hydrocarbons. From 1993 go reach 1997, Tchicaya be President for URD Parliamentary Group. E win as Mayor of Pointe-Noire for July 1994, and e serve from August 1994 till October 1997. During de 1997 civil war, Tchicaya be Second Vice-President for de National Mediation Committee, wey URD leader Bernard Kolélas chair, plus dem establish am for June 1997. After Kolélas come become prime minister, e form ein government on 14 September 1997 wey carry Tchicaya put as Minister of State for Decentralization plus Regional Development. But dat government no last — e collapse just one month later, on 14 October 1997, as rebel forces wey dey loyal to former president plus PCT leader Denis Sassou Nguesso capture Brazzaville. Few days after dat, Tchicaya announce say RDPS go support Sassou Nguesso. 593zxc8bgqrsezespq67rbqifyfeuzh 68981 68980 2025-07-05T15:01:28Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 68981 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Jean-Pierre Thystère Tchicaya''' (January 7, 1936 &#x2013; June 20, 2008) na Congolese politician. E short small be acting head of state for Congo-Brazzaville for February 1979, plus e serve as President of de National Assembly from 2002 go 2007. E sana lead one political party, Rally for Democracy plus Social Progress (RDPS), from 1990 go 2008. == Early career == E born for January 1936 for Pointe-Noire, na member of one ethnic Vili royal family wey come from de old Kingdom of Loango. Tchicaya do e elementary school for Pointe-Noire from 1944 reach 1950. From 1950 to 1957, e go school for Brazzaville wey e earn Bachelor's Degree for Philosophy. Dem send am go France for 1957, where e go study for École Normale Supérieure for Saint-Cloud. E sana get Bachelor's Degree for History Education plus e work on doctorate for Paris-Sorbonne University before dem call am back go Congo for 1965. While e dey France, e marry one French woman, Blanche Marie Duran, for 1961, plus dem born four pikins: Dominique, Jean Marc, Patricia, plus Jean Pascal. Wen e come back, e work as director for Lycée Chaminade (1965–1967), de same place wey e finish e secondary school, plus for École Normale Supérieure de l'Afrique Centrale (1967–1970). == Political career under single-party rule == Tchicaya, wey be one of de founding members of de Congolese Labour Party (PCT), become Minister of Vocational plus Technical Education for December 1971. For August 1973, dem expand e role make e include higher education too; e hold dat position till December 1974. Plus during dat same period, on March 2, 1973, e take over temporary responsibility for de portfolio of information, culture, arts plus sports after dem arrest Sylvain Bemba. E join de Central Committee of de PCT for December 1972, den e hold top-top position inside de party throughout de 1970s. From December 1974 go December 1975, e be de President of de PCT Central Commission of Control plus Verification. As political commissar for Pool region, dem add am join de Special Revolutionary General Staff wey dem form on 12 December 1975. Dem add e name too for de Council of State wey dem announce on January 8, 1976. E serve small time as acting head of state during de handover from Yhombi-Opango go Sassou Nguesso. Right after Denis Sassou Nguesso take over as president early 1979, Tchicaya get elect as Vice-President for one special PCT party congress on March 31, 1979. For February 1983, dem appoint am president of de Banque Commerciale Congolaise, but later Claude-Ernest Ndalla accuse am say e dey plot treason against de regime. From March 1979 till July 1984, e be member of de PCT Political Bureau wey dey in charge of ideology plus education, and e be de second highest person for de party. But dem remove am from all e positions for de party, include e seat for de Central Committee, and dem place am under house arrest for two years for 1984. Even though dem no talk officially why, some people believe say e get hand inside de 1982 bomb attacks wey happen for Brazzaville. For August 1986, de Revolutionary Court of Justice give Claude-Ernest Ndalla death sentence for those bomb attacks; Tchicaya sef face trial plus ten others, and dem give am five-year suspended sentence. Later, dem grant am amnesty for 1988. == Political career after 1990 == After e split from de PCT, Tchicaya join opposition party National Union for Democracy plus Progress (UNDP; Union National pour la Démocratie et le Progrès) as de country dey start move into multiparty democracy. But later, e comot from UNDP go start e own opposition party, de RDPS, on October 29, 1990. E be delegate for de 1991 Sovereign National Conference, wey inside de Conference e popular pass for say "never again!" (plus jamais ça!). As RDPS candidate for de August 1992 presidential election, Tchicaya land fifth position wey get 5.78% of de vote. E best support come from Kouilou Region (wey get Pointe-Noire, de second biggest city plus de economic capital), where e gather 28% of de vote and come second behind Pascal Lissouba. Tchicaya then support Bernard Kolélas from de Congolese Movement for Democracy plus Integral Development (MCDDI) for de second round, but Lissouba win Kolélas. After President Lissouba lose ein parliamentary majority, e dissolve de National Assembly make dem prepare for new parliamentary election. Dis move bring political wahala plus lead to new government wey dem form under Prime Minister Claude Antoine Dacosta, wey mix Lissouba ein people plus members from de Union for Democratic Renewal (URD)–PCT opposition coalition. For dis new government wey dem appoint on 25 December 1992, Tchicaya take de position as Minister of Mines, Energy plus Hydrocarbons. Dacosta ein "60/40" government dey in place till May–June 1993 parliamentary election time, wey Tchicaya win seat for de National Assembly. But URD-PCT opposition coalition no gree accept de election result, dem talk say e be fraud, so dem form demma own government wey Tchicaya be de prime minister. For dat rival government too, dem give am post of Minister of National Defense plus Minister of Hydrocarbons. From 1993 go reach 1997, Tchicaya be President for URD Parliamentary Group. E win as Mayor of Pointe-Noire for July 1994, and e serve from August 1994 till October 1997. During de 1997 civil war, Tchicaya be Second Vice-President for de National Mediation Committee, wey URD leader Bernard Kolélas chair, plus dem establish am for June 1997. After Kolélas come become prime minister, e form ein government on 14 September 1997 wey carry Tchicaya put as Minister of State for Decentralization plus Regional Development. But dat government no last — e collapse just one month later, on 14 October 1997, as rebel forces wey dey loyal to former president plus PCT leader Denis Sassou Nguesso capture Brazzaville. Few days after dat, Tchicaya announce say RDPS go support Sassou Nguesso. Wen de transitional period after de war finish, Tchicaya win seat for National Assembly insyd de 2002 parliamentary election as RDPS candidate for Pointe Noire ein Mvou Mvou constituency; e grab de seat for first round plus 68.55% of de vote. After de parliamentary election, dem elect Tchicaya as President for de National Assembly on 10 August 2002; e get 122 votes out of 128 deputies wey vote. Plus, wen de Pan-African Parliament start to dey sit for March 2004, Tchicaya come become one of Congo ein five members. Tchicaya no dey happy how dem organize de 2007 parliamentary election. Plus Justin Lekoundzou, wey be President for de Parliamentary Group of de Presidential Majority, dem write letter go give President Sassou Nguesso on 24 March 2007. For de letter inside, Tchicaya plus Lekoundzou beg make dem set up independent national electoral commission wey go watch over de election. For de same election, Tchicaya win again as RDPS candidate from Mvou Mvou 1 constituency for Pointe-Noire. E face seven challengers but still win plus 55.20% of de vote, after dem re-run de election for ein area for July 2007 sake of de problems wey disturb de first one. Wen de National Assembly hold dem first meeting for de new parliamentary term on 4 September 2007, Justin Koumba from de PCT replace Tchicaya as de new President for de National Assembly. 71vn5mzrv8v54f8sc0s8vbn8vyt1sl2 68982 68981 2025-07-05T15:02:06Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 68982 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Jean-Pierre Thystère Tchicaya''' (January 7, 1936 &#x2013; June 20, 2008) na Congolese politician. E short small be acting head of state for Congo-Brazzaville for February 1979, plus e serve as President of de National Assembly from 2002 go 2007. E sana lead one political party, Rally for Democracy plus Social Progress (RDPS), from 1990 go 2008. == Early career == E born for January 1936 for Pointe-Noire, na member of one ethnic Vili royal family wey come from de old Kingdom of Loango. Tchicaya do e elementary school for Pointe-Noire from 1944 reach 1950. From 1950 to 1957, e go school for Brazzaville wey e earn Bachelor's Degree for Philosophy. Dem send am go France for 1957, where e go study for École Normale Supérieure for Saint-Cloud. E sana get Bachelor's Degree for History Education plus e work on doctorate for Paris-Sorbonne University before dem call am back go Congo for 1965. While e dey France, e marry one French woman, Blanche Marie Duran, for 1961, plus dem born four pikins: Dominique, Jean Marc, Patricia, plus Jean Pascal. Wen e come back, e work as director for Lycée Chaminade (1965–1967), de same place wey e finish e secondary school, plus for École Normale Supérieure de l'Afrique Centrale (1967–1970). == Political career under single-party rule == Tchicaya, wey be one of de founding members of de Congolese Labour Party (PCT), become Minister of Vocational plus Technical Education for December 1971. For August 1973, dem expand e role make e include higher education too; e hold dat position till December 1974. Plus during dat same period, on March 2, 1973, e take over temporary responsibility for de portfolio of information, culture, arts plus sports after dem arrest Sylvain Bemba. E join de Central Committee of de PCT for December 1972, den e hold top-top position inside de party throughout de 1970s. From December 1974 go December 1975, e be de President of de PCT Central Commission of Control plus Verification. As political commissar for Pool region, dem add am join de Special Revolutionary General Staff wey dem form on 12 December 1975. Dem add e name too for de Council of State wey dem announce on January 8, 1976. E serve small time as acting head of state during de handover from Yhombi-Opango go Sassou Nguesso. Right after Denis Sassou Nguesso take over as president early 1979, Tchicaya get elect as Vice-President for one special PCT party congress on March 31, 1979. For February 1983, dem appoint am president of de Banque Commerciale Congolaise, but later Claude-Ernest Ndalla accuse am say e dey plot treason against de regime. From March 1979 till July 1984, e be member of de PCT Political Bureau wey dey in charge of ideology plus education, and e be de second highest person for de party. But dem remove am from all e positions for de party, include e seat for de Central Committee, and dem place am under house arrest for two years for 1984. Even though dem no talk officially why, some people believe say e get hand inside de 1982 bomb attacks wey happen for Brazzaville. For August 1986, de Revolutionary Court of Justice give Claude-Ernest Ndalla death sentence for those bomb attacks; Tchicaya sef face trial plus ten others, and dem give am five-year suspended sentence. Later, dem grant am amnesty for 1988. == Political career after 1990 == After e split from de PCT, Tchicaya join opposition party National Union for Democracy plus Progress (UNDP; Union National pour la Démocratie et le Progrès) as de country dey start move into multiparty democracy. But later, e comot from UNDP go start e own opposition party, de RDPS, on October 29, 1990. E be delegate for de 1991 Sovereign National Conference, wey inside de Conference e popular pass for say "never again!" (plus jamais ça!). As RDPS candidate for de August 1992 presidential election, Tchicaya land fifth position wey get 5.78% of de vote. E best support come from Kouilou Region (wey get Pointe-Noire, de second biggest city plus de economic capital), where e gather 28% of de vote and come second behind Pascal Lissouba. Tchicaya then support Bernard Kolélas from de Congolese Movement for Democracy plus Integral Development (MCDDI) for de second round, but Lissouba win Kolélas. After President Lissouba lose ein parliamentary majority, e dissolve de National Assembly make dem prepare for new parliamentary election. Dis move bring political wahala plus lead to new government wey dem form under Prime Minister Claude Antoine Dacosta, wey mix Lissouba ein people plus members from de Union for Democratic Renewal (URD)–PCT opposition coalition. For dis new government wey dem appoint on 25 December 1992, Tchicaya take de position as Minister of Mines, Energy plus Hydrocarbons. Dacosta ein "60/40" government dey in place till May–June 1993 parliamentary election time, wey Tchicaya win seat for de National Assembly. But URD-PCT opposition coalition no gree accept de election result, dem talk say e be fraud, so dem form demma own government wey Tchicaya be de prime minister. For dat rival government too, dem give am post of Minister of National Defense plus Minister of Hydrocarbons. From 1993 go reach 1997, Tchicaya be President for URD Parliamentary Group. E win as Mayor of Pointe-Noire for July 1994, and e serve from August 1994 till October 1997. During de 1997 civil war, Tchicaya be Second Vice-President for de National Mediation Committee, wey URD leader Bernard Kolélas chair, plus dem establish am for June 1997. After Kolélas come become prime minister, e form ein government on 14 September 1997 wey carry Tchicaya put as Minister of State for Decentralization plus Regional Development. But dat government no last — e collapse just one month later, on 14 October 1997, as rebel forces wey dey loyal to former president plus PCT leader Denis Sassou Nguesso capture Brazzaville. Few days after dat, Tchicaya announce say RDPS go support Sassou Nguesso. Wen de transitional period after de war finish, Tchicaya win seat for National Assembly insyd de 2002 parliamentary election as RDPS candidate for Pointe Noire ein Mvou Mvou constituency; e grab de seat for first round plus 68.55% of de vote. After de parliamentary election, dem elect Tchicaya as President for de National Assembly on 10 August 2002; e get 122 votes out of 128 deputies wey vote. Plus, wen de Pan-African Parliament start to dey sit for March 2004, Tchicaya come become one of Congo ein five members. Tchicaya no dey happy how dem organize de 2007 parliamentary election. Plus Justin Lekoundzou, wey be President for de Parliamentary Group of de Presidential Majority, dem write letter go give President Sassou Nguesso on 24 March 2007. For de letter inside, Tchicaya plus Lekoundzou beg make dem set up independent national electoral commission wey go watch over de election. For de same election, Tchicaya win again as RDPS candidate from Mvou Mvou 1 constituency for Pointe-Noire. E face seven challengers but still win plus 55.20% of de vote, after dem re-run de election for ein area for July 2007 sake of de problems wey disturb de first one. Wen de National Assembly hold dem first meeting for de new parliamentary term on 4 September 2007, Justin Koumba from de PCT replace Tchicaya as de new President for de National Assembly. == Death == alfi30oe7abicz35h6gvosj2jl4q2na 68983 68982 2025-07-05T15:03:20Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Death */ Improve article 68983 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Jean-Pierre Thystère Tchicaya''' (January 7, 1936 &#x2013; June 20, 2008) na Congolese politician. E short small be acting head of state for Congo-Brazzaville for February 1979, plus e serve as President of de National Assembly from 2002 go 2007. E sana lead one political party, Rally for Democracy plus Social Progress (RDPS), from 1990 go 2008. == Early career == E born for January 1936 for Pointe-Noire, na member of one ethnic Vili royal family wey come from de old Kingdom of Loango. Tchicaya do e elementary school for Pointe-Noire from 1944 reach 1950. From 1950 to 1957, e go school for Brazzaville wey e earn Bachelor's Degree for Philosophy. Dem send am go France for 1957, where e go study for École Normale Supérieure for Saint-Cloud. E sana get Bachelor's Degree for History Education plus e work on doctorate for Paris-Sorbonne University before dem call am back go Congo for 1965. While e dey France, e marry one French woman, Blanche Marie Duran, for 1961, plus dem born four pikins: Dominique, Jean Marc, Patricia, plus Jean Pascal. Wen e come back, e work as director for Lycée Chaminade (1965–1967), de same place wey e finish e secondary school, plus for École Normale Supérieure de l'Afrique Centrale (1967–1970). == Political career under single-party rule == Tchicaya, wey be one of de founding members of de Congolese Labour Party (PCT), become Minister of Vocational plus Technical Education for December 1971. For August 1973, dem expand e role make e include higher education too; e hold dat position till December 1974. Plus during dat same period, on March 2, 1973, e take over temporary responsibility for de portfolio of information, culture, arts plus sports after dem arrest Sylvain Bemba. E join de Central Committee of de PCT for December 1972, den e hold top-top position inside de party throughout de 1970s. From December 1974 go December 1975, e be de President of de PCT Central Commission of Control plus Verification. As political commissar for Pool region, dem add am join de Special Revolutionary General Staff wey dem form on 12 December 1975. Dem add e name too for de Council of State wey dem announce on January 8, 1976. E serve small time as acting head of state during de handover from Yhombi-Opango go Sassou Nguesso. Right after Denis Sassou Nguesso take over as president early 1979, Tchicaya get elect as Vice-President for one special PCT party congress on March 31, 1979. For February 1983, dem appoint am president of de Banque Commerciale Congolaise, but later Claude-Ernest Ndalla accuse am say e dey plot treason against de regime. From March 1979 till July 1984, e be member of de PCT Political Bureau wey dey in charge of ideology plus education, and e be de second highest person for de party. But dem remove am from all e positions for de party, include e seat for de Central Committee, and dem place am under house arrest for two years for 1984. Even though dem no talk officially why, some people believe say e get hand inside de 1982 bomb attacks wey happen for Brazzaville. For August 1986, de Revolutionary Court of Justice give Claude-Ernest Ndalla death sentence for those bomb attacks; Tchicaya sef face trial plus ten others, and dem give am five-year suspended sentence. Later, dem grant am amnesty for 1988. == Political career after 1990 == After e split from de PCT, Tchicaya join opposition party National Union for Democracy plus Progress (UNDP; Union National pour la Démocratie et le Progrès) as de country dey start move into multiparty democracy. But later, e comot from UNDP go start e own opposition party, de RDPS, on October 29, 1990. E be delegate for de 1991 Sovereign National Conference, wey inside de Conference e popular pass for say "never again!" (plus jamais ça!). As RDPS candidate for de August 1992 presidential election, Tchicaya land fifth position wey get 5.78% of de vote. E best support come from Kouilou Region (wey get Pointe-Noire, de second biggest city plus de economic capital), where e gather 28% of de vote and come second behind Pascal Lissouba. Tchicaya then support Bernard Kolélas from de Congolese Movement for Democracy plus Integral Development (MCDDI) for de second round, but Lissouba win Kolélas. After President Lissouba lose ein parliamentary majority, e dissolve de National Assembly make dem prepare for new parliamentary election. Dis move bring political wahala plus lead to new government wey dem form under Prime Minister Claude Antoine Dacosta, wey mix Lissouba ein people plus members from de Union for Democratic Renewal (URD)–PCT opposition coalition. For dis new government wey dem appoint on 25 December 1992, Tchicaya take de position as Minister of Mines, Energy plus Hydrocarbons. Dacosta ein "60/40" government dey in place till May–June 1993 parliamentary election time, wey Tchicaya win seat for de National Assembly. But URD-PCT opposition coalition no gree accept de election result, dem talk say e be fraud, so dem form demma own government wey Tchicaya be de prime minister. For dat rival government too, dem give am post of Minister of National Defense plus Minister of Hydrocarbons. From 1993 go reach 1997, Tchicaya be President for URD Parliamentary Group. E win as Mayor of Pointe-Noire for July 1994, and e serve from August 1994 till October 1997. During de 1997 civil war, Tchicaya be Second Vice-President for de National Mediation Committee, wey URD leader Bernard Kolélas chair, plus dem establish am for June 1997. After Kolélas come become prime minister, e form ein government on 14 September 1997 wey carry Tchicaya put as Minister of State for Decentralization plus Regional Development. But dat government no last — e collapse just one month later, on 14 October 1997, as rebel forces wey dey loyal to former president plus PCT leader Denis Sassou Nguesso capture Brazzaville. Few days after dat, Tchicaya announce say RDPS go support Sassou Nguesso. Wen de transitional period after de war finish, Tchicaya win seat for National Assembly insyd de 2002 parliamentary election as RDPS candidate for Pointe Noire ein Mvou Mvou constituency; e grab de seat for first round plus 68.55% of de vote. After de parliamentary election, dem elect Tchicaya as President for de National Assembly on 10 August 2002; e get 122 votes out of 128 deputies wey vote. Plus, wen de Pan-African Parliament start to dey sit for March 2004, Tchicaya come become one of Congo ein five members. Tchicaya no dey happy how dem organize de 2007 parliamentary election. Plus Justin Lekoundzou, wey be President for de Parliamentary Group of de Presidential Majority, dem write letter go give President Sassou Nguesso on 24 March 2007. For de letter inside, Tchicaya plus Lekoundzou beg make dem set up independent national electoral commission wey go watch over de election. For de same election, Tchicaya win again as RDPS candidate from Mvou Mvou 1 constituency for Pointe-Noire. E face seven challengers but still win plus 55.20% of de vote, after dem re-run de election for ein area for July 2007 sake of de problems wey disturb de first one. Wen de National Assembly hold dem first meeting for de new parliamentary term on 4 September 2007, Justin Koumba from de PCT replace Tchicaya as de new President for de National Assembly. == Death == Dem falsely talk say Tchicaya die for Paris insyd October 2007, but e truly die for Georges Pompidou European Hospital insyd Paris on 20 June 2008. Prime Minister Isidore Mvouba talk say Tchicaya be “great statesman” plus “worthy son of our country”, and e talk say Tchicaya “always show great consistency for ein commitment to de values of de Republic plus democracy” as deputy for de National Assembly. Dem carry ein body come back Brazzaville from Paris on 4 July, and dem do official tribute for am insyd Palace of de Parliament on 5 July. After dat, dem carry de body go Pointe-Noire for ein funeral plus burial. But e no go smooth kraa. Some youth for de second arrondissement of Pointe-Noire no gree make dem move ein coffin from Kokolo Copa Stadium go Franco Anselmi Stadium wey dem choose for de funeral, but after small talk, dem release de coffin. Some gbege like looting plus arrest happen too. After de funeral on 7 July, dem bury am for ein family cemetery for Mboukou, wey dey insyd de third arrondissement of de city, Tié-Tié. 1hllhkk7q3wockroa2djkp1z5vtozwe 68984 68983 2025-07-05T15:03:45Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 68984 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Jean-Pierre Thystère Tchicaya''' (January 7, 1936 &#x2013; June 20, 2008) na Congolese politician. E short small be acting head of state for Congo-Brazzaville for February 1979, plus e serve as President of de National Assembly from 2002 go 2007. E sana lead one political party, Rally for Democracy plus Social Progress (RDPS), from 1990 go 2008. == Early career == E born for January 1936 for Pointe-Noire, na member of one ethnic Vili royal family wey come from de old Kingdom of Loango. Tchicaya do e elementary school for Pointe-Noire from 1944 reach 1950. From 1950 to 1957, e go school for Brazzaville wey e earn Bachelor's Degree for Philosophy. Dem send am go France for 1957, where e go study for École Normale Supérieure for Saint-Cloud. E sana get Bachelor's Degree for History Education plus e work on doctorate for Paris-Sorbonne University before dem call am back go Congo for 1965. While e dey France, e marry one French woman, Blanche Marie Duran, for 1961, plus dem born four pikins: Dominique, Jean Marc, Patricia, plus Jean Pascal. Wen e come back, e work as director for Lycée Chaminade (1965–1967), de same place wey e finish e secondary school, plus for École Normale Supérieure de l'Afrique Centrale (1967–1970). == Political career under single-party rule == Tchicaya, wey be one of de founding members of de Congolese Labour Party (PCT), become Minister of Vocational plus Technical Education for December 1971. For August 1973, dem expand e role make e include higher education too; e hold dat position till December 1974. Plus during dat same period, on March 2, 1973, e take over temporary responsibility for de portfolio of information, culture, arts plus sports after dem arrest Sylvain Bemba. E join de Central Committee of de PCT for December 1972, den e hold top-top position inside de party throughout de 1970s. From December 1974 go December 1975, e be de President of de PCT Central Commission of Control plus Verification. As political commissar for Pool region, dem add am join de Special Revolutionary General Staff wey dem form on 12 December 1975. Dem add e name too for de Council of State wey dem announce on January 8, 1976. E serve small time as acting head of state during de handover from Yhombi-Opango go Sassou Nguesso. Right after Denis Sassou Nguesso take over as president early 1979, Tchicaya get elect as Vice-President for one special PCT party congress on March 31, 1979. For February 1983, dem appoint am president of de Banque Commerciale Congolaise, but later Claude-Ernest Ndalla accuse am say e dey plot treason against de regime. From March 1979 till July 1984, e be member of de PCT Political Bureau wey dey in charge of ideology plus education, and e be de second highest person for de party. But dem remove am from all e positions for de party, include e seat for de Central Committee, and dem place am under house arrest for two years for 1984. Even though dem no talk officially why, some people believe say e get hand inside de 1982 bomb attacks wey happen for Brazzaville. For August 1986, de Revolutionary Court of Justice give Claude-Ernest Ndalla death sentence for those bomb attacks; Tchicaya sef face trial plus ten others, and dem give am five-year suspended sentence. Later, dem grant am amnesty for 1988. == Political career after 1990 == After e split from de PCT, Tchicaya join opposition party National Union for Democracy plus Progress (UNDP; Union National pour la Démocratie et le Progrès) as de country dey start move into multiparty democracy. But later, e comot from UNDP go start e own opposition party, de RDPS, on October 29, 1990. E be delegate for de 1991 Sovereign National Conference, wey inside de Conference e popular pass for say "never again!" (plus jamais ça!). As RDPS candidate for de August 1992 presidential election, Tchicaya land fifth position wey get 5.78% of de vote. E best support come from Kouilou Region (wey get Pointe-Noire, de second biggest city plus de economic capital), where e gather 28% of de vote and come second behind Pascal Lissouba. Tchicaya then support Bernard Kolélas from de Congolese Movement for Democracy plus Integral Development (MCDDI) for de second round, but Lissouba win Kolélas. After President Lissouba lose ein parliamentary majority, e dissolve de National Assembly make dem prepare for new parliamentary election. Dis move bring political wahala plus lead to new government wey dem form under Prime Minister Claude Antoine Dacosta, wey mix Lissouba ein people plus members from de Union for Democratic Renewal (URD)–PCT opposition coalition. For dis new government wey dem appoint on 25 December 1992, Tchicaya take de position as Minister of Mines, Energy plus Hydrocarbons. Dacosta ein "60/40" government dey in place till May–June 1993 parliamentary election time, wey Tchicaya win seat for de National Assembly. But URD-PCT opposition coalition no gree accept de election result, dem talk say e be fraud, so dem form demma own government wey Tchicaya be de prime minister. For dat rival government too, dem give am post of Minister of National Defense plus Minister of Hydrocarbons. From 1993 go reach 1997, Tchicaya be President for URD Parliamentary Group. E win as Mayor of Pointe-Noire for July 1994, and e serve from August 1994 till October 1997. During de 1997 civil war, Tchicaya be Second Vice-President for de National Mediation Committee, wey URD leader Bernard Kolélas chair, plus dem establish am for June 1997. After Kolélas come become prime minister, e form ein government on 14 September 1997 wey carry Tchicaya put as Minister of State for Decentralization plus Regional Development. But dat government no last — e collapse just one month later, on 14 October 1997, as rebel forces wey dey loyal to former president plus PCT leader Denis Sassou Nguesso capture Brazzaville. Few days after dat, Tchicaya announce say RDPS go support Sassou Nguesso. Wen de transitional period after de war finish, Tchicaya win seat for National Assembly insyd de 2002 parliamentary election as RDPS candidate for Pointe Noire ein Mvou Mvou constituency; e grab de seat for first round plus 68.55% of de vote. After de parliamentary election, dem elect Tchicaya as President for de National Assembly on 10 August 2002; e get 122 votes out of 128 deputies wey vote. Plus, wen de Pan-African Parliament start to dey sit for March 2004, Tchicaya come become one of Congo ein five members. Tchicaya no dey happy how dem organize de 2007 parliamentary election. Plus Justin Lekoundzou, wey be President for de Parliamentary Group of de Presidential Majority, dem write letter go give President Sassou Nguesso on 24 March 2007. For de letter inside, Tchicaya plus Lekoundzou beg make dem set up independent national electoral commission wey go watch over de election. For de same election, Tchicaya win again as RDPS candidate from Mvou Mvou 1 constituency for Pointe-Noire. E face seven challengers but still win plus 55.20% of de vote, after dem re-run de election for ein area for July 2007 sake of de problems wey disturb de first one. Wen de National Assembly hold dem first meeting for de new parliamentary term on 4 September 2007, Justin Koumba from de PCT replace Tchicaya as de new President for de National Assembly. == Death == Dem falsely talk say Tchicaya die for Paris insyd October 2007, but e truly die for Georges Pompidou European Hospital insyd Paris on 20 June 2008. Prime Minister Isidore Mvouba talk say Tchicaya be “great statesman” plus “worthy son of our country”, and e talk say Tchicaya “always show great consistency for ein commitment to de values of de Republic plus democracy” as deputy for de National Assembly. Dem carry ein body come back Brazzaville from Paris on 4 July, and dem do official tribute for am insyd Palace of de Parliament on 5 July. After dat, dem carry de body go Pointe-Noire for ein funeral plus burial. But e no go smooth kraa. Some youth for de second arrondissement of Pointe-Noire no gree make dem move ein coffin from Kokolo Copa Stadium go Franco Anselmi Stadium wey dem choose for de funeral, but after small talk, dem release de coffin. Some gbege like looting plus arrest happen too. After de funeral on 7 July, dem bury am for ein family cemetery for Mboukou, wey dey insyd de third arrondissement of de city, Tié-Tié. == References == dk7tf751s5v72hvoz8hjc0jsknwees1 Justin Koumba 0 18348 68986 2025-07-05T15:07:53Z KISUMAR123 1270 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1268836416|Justin Koumba]]" 68986 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Justin Koumba''' (born 5 April 1947) be one Congolese politician wey serve as President of de National Assembly of Congo-Brazzaville from 2007 reach 2017. Before dat, e be official for United Nations, plus e serve for Congo-Brazzaville ein govment as Minister of National Education for 1992. Later, e be President of de National Transitional Council from 1998 to 2002, plus e lead de National Human Rights Commission from 2003 go 2007. [[Category:Living people]] n3fe9zir2tniniov6duv13q6o5pr1lx 68987 68986 2025-07-05T15:09:21Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 68987 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Justin Koumba''' (born 5 April 1947) be one Congolese politician wey serve as President of de National Assembly of Congo-Brazzaville from 2007 reach 2017. Before dat, e be official for United Nations, plus e serve for Congo-Brazzaville ein govment as Minister of National Education for 1992. Later, e be President of de National Transitional Council from 1998 to 2002, plus e lead de National Human Rights Commission from 2003 go 2007. == Political career == [[Category:Living people]] rg7zxkpux2qfia6e3zirpu4bbn2k29o 68988 68987 2025-07-05T15:13:11Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 68988 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Justin Koumba''' (born 5 April 1947) be one Congolese politician wey serve as President of de National Assembly of Congo-Brazzaville from 2007 reach 2017. Before dat, e be official for United Nations, plus e serve for Congo-Brazzaville ein govment as Minister of National Education for 1992. Later, e be President of de National Transitional Council from 1998 to 2002, plus e lead de National Human Rights Commission from 2003 go 2007. == Political career == Koumba dem born am for Gango insyd Kibangou District, wey dey Niari Department. E start work as UN official from 1976. During de 1991–1992 period wey Congo dey move go multiparty elections, dem appoint am for de transitional govment under Prime Minister André Milongo as Minister of National Education on 26 January 1992. Dem still keep am for de same post after reshuffle on 21 May 1992, plus dem add science, technology, youth, sports, culture, and arts to ein role. After de transitional period end later for 1992, Koumba go back to ein work for UN, where e become UNESCO ein rep for Central Africa plus Great Lakes countries. After President Denis Sassou Nguesso come back to power after de June, October 1997 civil war, dem organize one National Reconciliation Forum for January 1998. As de forum end, dem elect Koumba as President of de National Transitional Council (CNT) on 14 January 1998. Dis CNT be 75-member body wey act as temporary parliament. Even though Koumba na southerner, majority of de CNT members be northerners, wey reflect how northerners dey control de politics under Sassou Nguesso. From 1998 to 2002, dis CNT body dey criticised say e be just one "embarrassingly compliant rubber stamp." For May 2000, as e dey talk on Radio France Internationale, Koumba accuse former Prime Minister Bernard Kolelas, wey be Sassou Nguesso ein political rival wey dey exile, say e be murderer. Koumba talk say Kolelas build prison for ein house and e get proof for all de crimes. But Kolelas deny all de accusations. [[Category:Living people]] 1qxdevdt0qxogxx7nhs1k4y3t3tnzne 68989 68988 2025-07-05T15:17:57Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 68989 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Justin Koumba''' (born 5 April 1947) be one Congolese politician wey serve as President of de National Assembly of Congo-Brazzaville from 2007 reach 2017. Before dat, e be official for United Nations, plus e serve for Congo-Brazzaville ein govment as Minister of National Education for 1992. Later, e be President of de National Transitional Council from 1998 to 2002, plus e lead de National Human Rights Commission from 2003 go 2007. == Political career == Koumba dem born am for Gango insyd Kibangou District, wey dey Niari Department. E start work as UN official from 1976. During de 1991–1992 period wey Congo dey move go multiparty elections, dem appoint am for de transitional govment under Prime Minister André Milongo as Minister of National Education on 26 January 1992. Dem still keep am for de same post after reshuffle on 21 May 1992, plus dem add science, technology, youth, sports, culture, and arts to ein role. After de transitional period end later for 1992, Koumba go back to ein work for UN, where e become UNESCO ein rep for Central Africa plus Great Lakes countries. After President Denis Sassou Nguesso come back to power after de June, October 1997 civil war, dem organize one National Reconciliation Forum for January 1998. As de forum end, dem elect Koumba as President of de National Transitional Council (CNT) on 14 January 1998. Dis CNT be 75-member body wey act as temporary parliament. Even though Koumba na southerner, majority of de CNT members be northerners, wey reflect how northerners dey control de politics under Sassou Nguesso. From 1998 to 2002, dis CNT body dey criticised say e be just one "embarrassingly compliant rubber stamp." For May 2000, as e dey talk on Radio France Internationale, Koumba accuse former Prime Minister Bernard Kolelas, wey be Sassou Nguesso ein political rival wey dey exile, say e be murderer. Koumba talk say Kolelas build prison for ein house and e get proof for all de crimes. But Kolelas deny all de accusations. Koumba na de President of de Alliance for Congo (l'Alliance pour le Congo, APC), wey dem form for 2001, plus e support Sassou Nguesso. Before dis, e no ever join any political party before. After de CNT wey Koumba dey head run for over four years, dem do parliamentary election for May–June 2002 to replace am plus elected National Assembly. Koumba contest de election as APC candidate for Banda constituency for Niari, and e win de seat for first round wey e get 58.70% of de vote. But e no show for de first meeting of de National Assembly wey dem elect Jean-Pierre Thystère Tchicaya as President of de National Assembly on 10 August 2002. One year later, on 13 August 2003, Sassou Nguesso appoint am as one of 45 members for de National Human Rights Commission. Then on 2 September 2003, de Commission elect am as dem President. On 26 May 2007, APC talk say dem go join body plus Sassou Nguesso ein Congolese Labour Party (PCT). After Koumba comot as President of de National Human Rights Commission, e contest de June–August 2007 parliamentary election as PCT candidate for Banda constituency, and dem re-elect am go de National Assembly. For de first round, e get 36.70% of de vote, so e enter second round plus Jean-Claude Moussavou from Action Movement for Renewal. Koumba beat Moussavou for dat round come win de seat. Then for 4 September 2007, wey be de opening session for de new parliamentary term, dem elect Koumba as President of de National Assembly. E be de only candidate, and e get 121 votes from de 129 deputies wey vote. Dem choose am sake of say e be southerner (wey be de custom for dat position), plus people believe say e dey more loyal to President Sassou Nguesso pass de former head, Thystère Tchicaya. As Congo-Brazzaville mark dem 50 years of independence for 2010, Koumba talk for de opening of de National Assembly ein ninth ordinary session for mid-2010 say, "after half a century of political sovereignty, we for now get economic sovereignty too." For October 2010, Koumba go Iran go visit, wey e meet plus Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad. E talk say e dey hope make de two countries build better cooperation. E sana visit de tomb wey Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini dey and praise Khomeini sake of how e lead de 1979 Iranian Revolution. [[Category:Living people]] pmqc8jyaack4v3zq3g8rbaeodf9rexc 68993 68989 2025-07-05T15:22:35Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 68993 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Justin Koumba''' (born 5 April 1947) be one Congolese politician wey serve as President of de National Assembly of Congo-Brazzaville from 2007 reach 2017. Before dat, e be official for United Nations, plus e serve for Congo-Brazzaville ein govment as Minister of National Education for 1992. Later, e be President of de National Transitional Council from 1998 to 2002, plus e lead de National Human Rights Commission from 2003 go 2007. == Political career == Koumba dem born am for Gango insyd Kibangou District, wey dey Niari Department. E start work as UN official from 1976. During de 1991–1992 period wey Congo dey move go multiparty elections, dem appoint am for de transitional govment under Prime Minister André Milongo as Minister of National Education on 26 January 1992. Dem still keep am for de same post after reshuffle on 21 May 1992, plus dem add science, technology, youth, sports, culture, and arts to ein role. After de transitional period end later for 1992, Koumba go back to ein work for UN, where e become UNESCO ein rep for Central Africa plus Great Lakes countries. After President Denis Sassou Nguesso come back to power after de June, October 1997 civil war, dem organize one National Reconciliation Forum for January 1998. As de forum end, dem elect Koumba as President of de National Transitional Council (CNT) on 14 January 1998. Dis CNT be 75-member body wey act as temporary parliament. Even though Koumba na southerner, majority of de CNT members be northerners, wey reflect how northerners dey control de politics under Sassou Nguesso. From 1998 to 2002, dis CNT body dey criticised say e be just one "embarrassingly compliant rubber stamp." For May 2000, as e dey talk on Radio France Internationale, Koumba accuse former Prime Minister Bernard Kolelas, wey be Sassou Nguesso ein political rival wey dey exile, say e be murderer. Koumba talk say Kolelas build prison for ein house and e get proof for all de crimes. But Kolelas deny all de accusations. Koumba na de President of de Alliance for Congo (l'Alliance pour le Congo, APC), wey dem form for 2001, plus e support Sassou Nguesso. Before dis, e no ever join any political party before. After de CNT wey Koumba dey head run for over four years, dem do parliamentary election for May–June 2002 to replace am plus elected National Assembly. Koumba contest de election as APC candidate for Banda constituency for Niari, and e win de seat for first round wey e get 58.70% of de vote. But e no show for de first meeting of de National Assembly wey dem elect Jean-Pierre Thystère Tchicaya as President of de National Assembly on 10 August 2002. One year later, on 13 August 2003, Sassou Nguesso appoint am as one of 45 members for de National Human Rights Commission. Then on 2 September 2003, de Commission elect am as dem President. On 26 May 2007, APC talk say dem go join body plus Sassou Nguesso ein Congolese Labour Party (PCT). After Koumba comot as President of de National Human Rights Commission, e contest de June–August 2007 parliamentary election as PCT candidate for Banda constituency, and dem re-elect am go de National Assembly. For de first round, e get 36.70% of de vote, so e enter second round plus Jean-Claude Moussavou from Action Movement for Renewal. Koumba beat Moussavou for dat round come win de seat. Then for 4 September 2007, wey be de opening session for de new parliamentary term, dem elect Koumba as President of de National Assembly. E be de only candidate, and e get 121 votes from de 129 deputies wey vote. Dem choose am sake of say e be southerner (wey be de custom for dat position), plus people believe say e dey more loyal to President Sassou Nguesso pass de former head, Thystère Tchicaya. As Congo-Brazzaville mark dem 50 years of independence for 2010, Koumba talk for de opening of de National Assembly ein ninth ordinary session for mid-2010 say, "after half a century of political sovereignty, we for now get economic sovereignty too." For October 2010, Koumba go Iran go visit, wey e meet plus Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad. E talk say e dey hope make de two countries build better cooperation. E sana visit de tomb wey Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini dey and praise Khomeini sake of how e lead de 1979 Iranian Revolution. === Activities since 2012 === For de July–August 2012 parliamentary election, Koumba win back ein seat for de National Assembly as de PCT candidate for Banda constituency; e grab de seat straight from de first round, get 62.71% of de vote. As de National Assembly start dey meet for dem new parliamentary term, de MPs re-elect Koumba as President of de National Assembly on 5 September 2012. Na only he dey contest for de position, and e collect 135 votes out of de 138 MPs wey vote. Alexandre-Ferdinand Nguendet, wey be President of de National Transitional Council for Central African Republic, meet plus Koumba on 5 June 2013 make e get advice on how to manage transitional parliament work, since Koumba self don head Congo-Brazzaville ein transitional parliament from 1998 go 2002. On 2 December 2013, Koumba go Paris go meet Claude Bartolone, President of de National Assembly of France. Dem talk about how de two parliaments fit work together and de kasala wey dey happen for Central African Republic. Later on 14 February 2014, Central African Prime Minister André Nzapayéké come meet Koumba for Brazzaville. Dem yarn about wetin dey go on for ein country and he thank de people of Congo-Brazzaville for de support wey dem show inside de crisis. Wen Sassou Nguesso visit Niari for March 2014, Koumba plus Pierre Mabiala beg am make e gree change de constitution so say e fit contest for anoda presidential term for 2016. Right afta dat, on 6 April 2014, dem form one group wey dem call Citizen Front for Changing de Constitution, wey Koumba be de President. Koumba talk say de aim of dis new group na to ginger people support for de proposal so say de govment go gree act on top am. Even tho plenty pipol believe say na Sassou Nguesso dey push de matter, Koumba make clear say dem no dey do am under ein order. [[Category:Living people]] tajilkzz9aej3vkywgpeiprfki3yewl 68994 68993 2025-07-05T15:23:42Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 68994 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Justin Koumba''' (born 5 April 1947) be one Congolese politician wey serve as President of de National Assembly of Congo-Brazzaville from 2007 reach 2017. Before dat, e be official for United Nations, plus e serve for Congo-Brazzaville ein govment as Minister of National Education for 1992. Later, e be President of de National Transitional Council from 1998 to 2002, plus e lead de National Human Rights Commission from 2003 go 2007. == Political career == Koumba dem born am for Gango insyd Kibangou District, wey dey Niari Department. E start work as UN official from 1976. During de 1991–1992 period wey Congo dey move go multiparty elections, dem appoint am for de transitional govment under Prime Minister André Milongo as Minister of National Education on 26 January 1992. Dem still keep am for de same post after reshuffle on 21 May 1992, plus dem add science, technology, youth, sports, culture, and arts to ein role. After de transitional period end later for 1992, Koumba go back to ein work for UN, where e become UNESCO ein rep for Central Africa plus Great Lakes countries. After President Denis Sassou Nguesso come back to power after de June, October 1997 civil war, dem organize one National Reconciliation Forum for January 1998. As de forum end, dem elect Koumba as President of de National Transitional Council (CNT) on 14 January 1998. Dis CNT be 75-member body wey act as temporary parliament. Even though Koumba na southerner, majority of de CNT members be northerners, wey reflect how northerners dey control de politics under Sassou Nguesso. From 1998 to 2002, dis CNT body dey criticised say e be just one "embarrassingly compliant rubber stamp." For May 2000, as e dey talk on Radio France Internationale, Koumba accuse former Prime Minister Bernard Kolelas, wey be Sassou Nguesso ein political rival wey dey exile, say e be murderer. Koumba talk say Kolelas build prison for ein house and e get proof for all de crimes. But Kolelas deny all de accusations. Koumba na de President of de Alliance for Congo (l'Alliance pour le Congo, APC), wey dem form for 2001, plus e support Sassou Nguesso. Before dis, e no ever join any political party before. After de CNT wey Koumba dey head run for over four years, dem do parliamentary election for May–June 2002 to replace am plus elected National Assembly. Koumba contest de election as APC candidate for Banda constituency for Niari, and e win de seat for first round wey e get 58.70% of de vote. But e no show for de first meeting of de National Assembly wey dem elect Jean-Pierre Thystère Tchicaya as President of de National Assembly on 10 August 2002. One year later, on 13 August 2003, Sassou Nguesso appoint am as one of 45 members for de National Human Rights Commission. Then on 2 September 2003, de Commission elect am as dem President. On 26 May 2007, APC talk say dem go join body plus Sassou Nguesso ein Congolese Labour Party (PCT). After Koumba comot as President of de National Human Rights Commission, e contest de June–August 2007 parliamentary election as PCT candidate for Banda constituency, and dem re-elect am go de National Assembly. For de first round, e get 36.70% of de vote, so e enter second round plus Jean-Claude Moussavou from Action Movement for Renewal. Koumba beat Moussavou for dat round come win de seat. Then for 4 September 2007, wey be de opening session for de new parliamentary term, dem elect Koumba as President of de National Assembly. E be de only candidate, and e get 121 votes from de 129 deputies wey vote. Dem choose am sake of say e be southerner (wey be de custom for dat position), plus people believe say e dey more loyal to President Sassou Nguesso pass de former head, Thystère Tchicaya. As Congo-Brazzaville mark dem 50 years of independence for 2010, Koumba talk for de opening of de National Assembly ein ninth ordinary session for mid-2010 say, "after half a century of political sovereignty, we for now get economic sovereignty too." For October 2010, Koumba go Iran go visit, wey e meet plus Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad. E talk say e dey hope make de two countries build better cooperation. E sana visit de tomb wey Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini dey and praise Khomeini sake of how e lead de 1979 Iranian Revolution. === Activities since 2012 === For de July–August 2012 parliamentary election, Koumba win back ein seat for de National Assembly as de PCT candidate for Banda constituency; e grab de seat straight from de first round, get 62.71% of de vote. As de National Assembly start dey meet for dem new parliamentary term, de MPs re-elect Koumba as President of de National Assembly on 5 September 2012. Na only he dey contest for de position, and e collect 135 votes out of de 138 MPs wey vote. Alexandre-Ferdinand Nguendet, wey be President of de National Transitional Council for Central African Republic, meet plus Koumba on 5 June 2013 make e get advice on how to manage transitional parliament work, since Koumba self don head Congo-Brazzaville ein transitional parliament from 1998 go 2002. On 2 December 2013, Koumba go Paris go meet Claude Bartolone, President of de National Assembly of France. Dem talk about how de two parliaments fit work together and de kasala wey dey happen for Central African Republic. Later on 14 February 2014, Central African Prime Minister André Nzapayéké come meet Koumba for Brazzaville. Dem yarn about wetin dey go on for ein country and he thank de people of Congo-Brazzaville for de support wey dem show inside de crisis. Wen Sassou Nguesso visit Niari for March 2014, Koumba plus Pierre Mabiala beg am make e gree change de constitution so say e fit contest for anoda presidential term for 2016. Right afta dat, on 6 April 2014, dem form one group wey dem call Citizen Front for Changing de Constitution, wey Koumba be de President. Koumba talk say de aim of dis new group na to ginger people support for de proposal so say de govment go gree act on top am. Even tho plenty pipol believe say na Sassou Nguesso dey push de matter, Koumba make clear say dem no dey do am under ein order. For late April 2014, Koumba call de deputies make dem tink about how state institutions dey work, say e fit be say dem no dey fit well again for how de kontri be now. E talk say e get hope say dem go "sincerely plus in peace" find better solution wey go match how society dey change. Koumba open one African regional meeting of de Parliamentary Assembly of de Francophonie wey dem hold for Brazzaville from 26 go 28 May 2014. As e dey talk for de program, e talk say "de work wey parliamentarians dey do important pass for Africa governance, because we get power to make law. De pipol wey elect we put dem hope for how we go take show face plus adapt for different situations." [[Category:Living people]] nhti52x0aqm0x83a8qk15ujr3uglq44 68995 68994 2025-07-05T15:24:45Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 68995 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Justin Koumba''' (born 5 April 1947) be one Congolese politician wey serve as President of de National Assembly of Congo-Brazzaville from 2007 reach 2017. Before dat, e be official for United Nations, plus e serve for Congo-Brazzaville ein govment as Minister of National Education for 1992. Later, e be President of de National Transitional Council from 1998 to 2002, plus e lead de National Human Rights Commission from 2003 go 2007. == Political career == Koumba dem born am for Gango insyd Kibangou District, wey dey Niari Department. E start work as UN official from 1976. During de 1991–1992 period wey Congo dey move go multiparty elections, dem appoint am for de transitional govment under Prime Minister André Milongo as Minister of National Education on 26 January 1992. Dem still keep am for de same post after reshuffle on 21 May 1992, plus dem add science, technology, youth, sports, culture, and arts to ein role. After de transitional period end later for 1992, Koumba go back to ein work for UN, where e become UNESCO ein rep for Central Africa plus Great Lakes countries. After President Denis Sassou Nguesso come back to power after de June, October 1997 civil war, dem organize one National Reconciliation Forum for January 1998. As de forum end, dem elect Koumba as President of de National Transitional Council (CNT) on 14 January 1998. Dis CNT be 75-member body wey act as temporary parliament. Even though Koumba na southerner, majority of de CNT members be northerners, wey reflect how northerners dey control de politics under Sassou Nguesso. From 1998 to 2002, dis CNT body dey criticised say e be just one "embarrassingly compliant rubber stamp." For May 2000, as e dey talk on Radio France Internationale, Koumba accuse former Prime Minister Bernard Kolelas, wey be Sassou Nguesso ein political rival wey dey exile, say e be murderer. Koumba talk say Kolelas build prison for ein house and e get proof for all de crimes. But Kolelas deny all de accusations. Koumba na de President of de Alliance for Congo (l'Alliance pour le Congo, APC), wey dem form for 2001, plus e support Sassou Nguesso. Before dis, e no ever join any political party before. After de CNT wey Koumba dey head run for over four years, dem do parliamentary election for May–June 2002 to replace am plus elected National Assembly. Koumba contest de election as APC candidate for Banda constituency for Niari, and e win de seat for first round wey e get 58.70% of de vote. But e no show for de first meeting of de National Assembly wey dem elect Jean-Pierre Thystère Tchicaya as President of de National Assembly on 10 August 2002. One year later, on 13 August 2003, Sassou Nguesso appoint am as one of 45 members for de National Human Rights Commission. Then on 2 September 2003, de Commission elect am as dem President. On 26 May 2007, APC talk say dem go join body plus Sassou Nguesso ein Congolese Labour Party (PCT). After Koumba comot as President of de National Human Rights Commission, e contest de June–August 2007 parliamentary election as PCT candidate for Banda constituency, and dem re-elect am go de National Assembly. For de first round, e get 36.70% of de vote, so e enter second round plus Jean-Claude Moussavou from Action Movement for Renewal. Koumba beat Moussavou for dat round come win de seat. Then for 4 September 2007, wey be de opening session for de new parliamentary term, dem elect Koumba as President of de National Assembly. E be de only candidate, and e get 121 votes from de 129 deputies wey vote. Dem choose am sake of say e be southerner (wey be de custom for dat position), plus people believe say e dey more loyal to President Sassou Nguesso pass de former head, Thystère Tchicaya. As Congo-Brazzaville mark dem 50 years of independence for 2010, Koumba talk for de opening of de National Assembly ein ninth ordinary session for mid-2010 say, "after half a century of political sovereignty, we for now get economic sovereignty too." For October 2010, Koumba go Iran go visit, wey e meet plus Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad. E talk say e dey hope make de two countries build better cooperation. E sana visit de tomb wey Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini dey and praise Khomeini sake of how e lead de 1979 Iranian Revolution. === Activities since 2012 === For de July–August 2012 parliamentary election, Koumba win back ein seat for de National Assembly as de PCT candidate for Banda constituency; e grab de seat straight from de first round, get 62.71% of de vote. As de National Assembly start dey meet for dem new parliamentary term, de MPs re-elect Koumba as President of de National Assembly on 5 September 2012. Na only he dey contest for de position, and e collect 135 votes out of de 138 MPs wey vote. Alexandre-Ferdinand Nguendet, wey be President of de National Transitional Council for Central African Republic, meet plus Koumba on 5 June 2013 make e get advice on how to manage transitional parliament work, since Koumba self don head Congo-Brazzaville ein transitional parliament from 1998 go 2002. On 2 December 2013, Koumba go Paris go meet Claude Bartolone, President of de National Assembly of France. Dem talk about how de two parliaments fit work together and de kasala wey dey happen for Central African Republic. Later on 14 February 2014, Central African Prime Minister André Nzapayéké come meet Koumba for Brazzaville. Dem yarn about wetin dey go on for ein country and he thank de people of Congo-Brazzaville for de support wey dem show inside de crisis. Wen Sassou Nguesso visit Niari for March 2014, Koumba plus Pierre Mabiala beg am make e gree change de constitution so say e fit contest for anoda presidential term for 2016. Right afta dat, on 6 April 2014, dem form one group wey dem call Citizen Front for Changing de Constitution, wey Koumba be de President. Koumba talk say de aim of dis new group na to ginger people support for de proposal so say de govment go gree act on top am. Even tho plenty pipol believe say na Sassou Nguesso dey push de matter, Koumba make clear say dem no dey do am under ein order. For late April 2014, Koumba call de deputies make dem tink about how state institutions dey work, say e fit be say dem no dey fit well again for how de kontri be now. E talk say e get hope say dem go "sincerely plus in peace" find better solution wey go match how society dey change. Koumba open one African regional meeting of de Parliamentary Assembly of de Francophonie wey dem hold for Brazzaville from 26 go 28 May 2014. As e dey talk for de program, e talk say "de work wey parliamentarians dey do important pass for Africa governance, because we get power to make law. De pipol wey elect we put dem hope for how we go take show face plus adapt for different situations." For July 2017 parliamentary election inside, dem re-elect Koumba go de National Assembly as de PCT candidate for Banda, wey e win de seat for first round plus 99% of de vote. As de National Assembly start dem new term on 19 August 2017, na Isidore Mvouba dem elect make e take over from Koumba as President of de National Assembly. [[Category:Living people]] hvdc48zu6pahciniix0csqtu3ycy64t 68996 68995 2025-07-05T15:25:16Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 68996 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Justin Koumba''' (born 5 April 1947) be one Congolese politician wey serve as President of de National Assembly of Congo-Brazzaville from 2007 reach 2017. Before dat, e be official for United Nations, plus e serve for Congo-Brazzaville ein govment as Minister of National Education for 1992. Later, e be President of de National Transitional Council from 1998 to 2002, plus e lead de National Human Rights Commission from 2003 go 2007. == Political career == Koumba dem born am for Gango insyd Kibangou District, wey dey Niari Department. E start work as UN official from 1976. During de 1991–1992 period wey Congo dey move go multiparty elections, dem appoint am for de transitional govment under Prime Minister André Milongo as Minister of National Education on 26 January 1992. Dem still keep am for de same post after reshuffle on 21 May 1992, plus dem add science, technology, youth, sports, culture, and arts to ein role. After de transitional period end later for 1992, Koumba go back to ein work for UN, where e become UNESCO ein rep for Central Africa plus Great Lakes countries. After President Denis Sassou Nguesso come back to power after de June, October 1997 civil war, dem organize one National Reconciliation Forum for January 1998. As de forum end, dem elect Koumba as President of de National Transitional Council (CNT) on 14 January 1998. Dis CNT be 75-member body wey act as temporary parliament. Even though Koumba na southerner, majority of de CNT members be northerners, wey reflect how northerners dey control de politics under Sassou Nguesso. From 1998 to 2002, dis CNT body dey criticised say e be just one "embarrassingly compliant rubber stamp." For May 2000, as e dey talk on Radio France Internationale, Koumba accuse former Prime Minister Bernard Kolelas, wey be Sassou Nguesso ein political rival wey dey exile, say e be murderer. Koumba talk say Kolelas build prison for ein house and e get proof for all de crimes. But Kolelas deny all de accusations. Koumba na de President of de Alliance for Congo (l'Alliance pour le Congo, APC), wey dem form for 2001, plus e support Sassou Nguesso. Before dis, e no ever join any political party before. After de CNT wey Koumba dey head run for over four years, dem do parliamentary election for May–June 2002 to replace am plus elected National Assembly. Koumba contest de election as APC candidate for Banda constituency for Niari, and e win de seat for first round wey e get 58.70% of de vote. But e no show for de first meeting of de National Assembly wey dem elect Jean-Pierre Thystère Tchicaya as President of de National Assembly on 10 August 2002. One year later, on 13 August 2003, Sassou Nguesso appoint am as one of 45 members for de National Human Rights Commission. Then on 2 September 2003, de Commission elect am as dem President. On 26 May 2007, APC talk say dem go join body plus Sassou Nguesso ein Congolese Labour Party (PCT). After Koumba comot as President of de National Human Rights Commission, e contest de June–August 2007 parliamentary election as PCT candidate for Banda constituency, and dem re-elect am go de National Assembly. For de first round, e get 36.70% of de vote, so e enter second round plus Jean-Claude Moussavou from Action Movement for Renewal. Koumba beat Moussavou for dat round come win de seat. Then for 4 September 2007, wey be de opening session for de new parliamentary term, dem elect Koumba as President of de National Assembly. E be de only candidate, and e get 121 votes from de 129 deputies wey vote. Dem choose am sake of say e be southerner (wey be de custom for dat position), plus people believe say e dey more loyal to President Sassou Nguesso pass de former head, Thystère Tchicaya. As Congo-Brazzaville mark dem 50 years of independence for 2010, Koumba talk for de opening of de National Assembly ein ninth ordinary session for mid-2010 say, "after half a century of political sovereignty, we for now get economic sovereignty too." For October 2010, Koumba go Iran go visit, wey e meet plus Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad. E talk say e dey hope make de two countries build better cooperation. E sana visit de tomb wey Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini dey and praise Khomeini sake of how e lead de 1979 Iranian Revolution. === Activities since 2012 === For de July–August 2012 parliamentary election, Koumba win back ein seat for de National Assembly as de PCT candidate for Banda constituency; e grab de seat straight from de first round, get 62.71% of de vote. As de National Assembly start dey meet for dem new parliamentary term, de MPs re-elect Koumba as President of de National Assembly on 5 September 2012. Na only he dey contest for de position, and e collect 135 votes out of de 138 MPs wey vote. Alexandre-Ferdinand Nguendet, wey be President of de National Transitional Council for Central African Republic, meet plus Koumba on 5 June 2013 make e get advice on how to manage transitional parliament work, since Koumba self don head Congo-Brazzaville ein transitional parliament from 1998 go 2002. On 2 December 2013, Koumba go Paris go meet Claude Bartolone, President of de National Assembly of France. Dem talk about how de two parliaments fit work together and de kasala wey dey happen for Central African Republic. Later on 14 February 2014, Central African Prime Minister André Nzapayéké come meet Koumba for Brazzaville. Dem yarn about wetin dey go on for ein country and he thank de people of Congo-Brazzaville for de support wey dem show inside de crisis. Wen Sassou Nguesso visit Niari for March 2014, Koumba plus Pierre Mabiala beg am make e gree change de constitution so say e fit contest for anoda presidential term for 2016. Right afta dat, on 6 April 2014, dem form one group wey dem call Citizen Front for Changing de Constitution, wey Koumba be de President. Koumba talk say de aim of dis new group na to ginger people support for de proposal so say de govment go gree act on top am. Even tho plenty pipol believe say na Sassou Nguesso dey push de matter, Koumba make clear say dem no dey do am under ein order. For late April 2014, Koumba call de deputies make dem tink about how state institutions dey work, say e fit be say dem no dey fit well again for how de kontri be now. E talk say e get hope say dem go "sincerely plus in peace" find better solution wey go match how society dey change. Koumba open one African regional meeting of de Parliamentary Assembly of de Francophonie wey dem hold for Brazzaville from 26 go 28 May 2014. As e dey talk for de program, e talk say "de work wey parliamentarians dey do important pass for Africa governance, because we get power to make law. De pipol wey elect we put dem hope for how we go take show face plus adapt for different situations." For July 2017 parliamentary election inside, dem re-elect Koumba go de National Assembly as de PCT candidate for Banda, wey e win de seat for first round plus 99% of de vote. As de National Assembly start dem new term on 19 August 2017, na Isidore Mvouba dem elect make e take over from Koumba as President of de National Assembly. == References == [[Category:Living people]] ppoausphz0miqbs9uxeckzgjgpen60o Bernard Kolélas 0 18349 68998 2025-07-05T15:30:43Z KISUMAR123 1270 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1286566994|Bernard Kolélas]]" 68998 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Bernard Bakana Kolélas''' (12 June 1933 &#x2013; 13 November 2009) be one Congo politician wey be de Presido of de Congolese Movement for Democracy plus Integral Development (MCDDI). Kolélas fight against de one-party rule wey de Congolese Labour Party (PCT) dey do long time. Wen dem introduce multiparty politics for early 1990s, Kolélas come turn one of de top political leaders for Congo-Brazzaville. For August 1992 presidential election inside, e come second afta Pascal Lissouba. Later, e be Mayor for Brazzaville, de capital city, during mid-1990s, plus e serve small time as Prime Minister during de 1997 civil war. But as rebel forces win de war, e run go exile for 8 years. Afta dem grant amnesty, e fit come back, plus dem elect am go de National Assembly for 2007. e0qrjluo9xdf08wnfugb2b1fpac30z7 68999 68998 2025-07-05T15:32:54Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 68999 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Bernard Bakana Kolélas''' (12 June 1933 &#x2013; 13 November 2009) be one Congo politician wey be de Presido of de Congolese Movement for Democracy plus Integral Development (MCDDI). Kolélas fight against de one-party rule wey de Congolese Labour Party (PCT) dey do long time. Wen dem introduce multiparty politics for early 1990s, Kolélas come turn one of de top political leaders for Congo-Brazzaville. For August 1992 presidential election inside, e come second afta Pascal Lissouba. Later, e be Mayor for Brazzaville, de capital city, during mid-1990s, plus e serve small time as Prime Minister during de 1997 civil war. But as rebel forces win de war, e run go exile for 8 years. Afta dem grant amnesty, e fit come back, plus dem elect am go de National Assembly for 2007. == Education den early political career == hx26nhlpaatvdskxf4fl7jyyryb88tx 69000 68999 2025-07-05T15:37:08Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69000 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Bernard Bakana Kolélas''' (12 June 1933 &#x2013; 13 November 2009) be one Congo politician wey be de Presido of de Congolese Movement for Democracy plus Integral Development (MCDDI). Kolélas fight against de one-party rule wey de Congolese Labour Party (PCT) dey do long time. Wen dem introduce multiparty politics for early 1990s, Kolélas come turn one of de top political leaders for Congo-Brazzaville. For August 1992 presidential election inside, e come second afta Pascal Lissouba. Later, e be Mayor for Brazzaville, de capital city, during mid-1990s, plus e serve small time as Prime Minister during de 1997 civil war. But as rebel forces win de war, e run go exile for 8 years. Afta dem grant amnesty, e fit come back, plus dem elect am go de National Assembly for 2007. == Education den early political career == Kolélas be native from Congo-Brazzaville ein Pool Region. Dem born am for Mboloki (wey dem dey call Mpayaka), wey dey insyd Pool ein Kinkala District, for 1933. He go primary plus secondary school for de nearby administrative capital, Brazzaville. He join Union for de Defense of de Interests of Africans (UDDIA) for 1958. Under Fulbert Youlou, wey be Congo-Brazzaville ein first President, Kolélas serve small time as Secretary-General for de Ministry of Foreign Affairs for 1961. But after dem oust Youlou and Alphonse Massemba-Débat take power for August 1963, dem appoint Kolélas as Minister of Foreign Affairs, but he no wan take am; he talk say de post for go to David Charles Ganao. After dat, dem arrest Kolélas for September 1963, he stay one month for jail. Dem arrest am again for February 1964, but dem release am because of Prime Minister Pascal Lissouba ein request. After dat, he go exile cross de Congo River go Kinshasa, wey be de capital of Democratic Republic of de Congo, and he start one opposition newspaper, ''La Résistance''. == Activities during PCT rule == For November 1969, Kolélas try make coup d'état against President Marien Ngouabi, but e no succeed. Dem sentence am to death, but later dem grant am reprieve and release am on 1 January 1972. Later, dem arrest am again for August 1978 say e dey part of another plot, but dem release am for 1980. After dat, he go live for Brazzaville ein Bacongo district. Kolélas write letters give President Denis Sassou Nguesso on 7 November 1988 plus 20 November 1989, wey he take propose make dem do national roundtable discussion about de country ein problems. bz7v24e1vg9cdnao2nmepw9gmoa9z3v 69001 69000 2025-07-05T15:40:02Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69001 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Bernard Bakana Kolélas''' (12 June 1933 &#x2013; 13 November 2009) be one Congo politician wey be de Presido of de Congolese Movement for Democracy plus Integral Development (MCDDI). Kolélas fight against de one-party rule wey de Congolese Labour Party (PCT) dey do long time. Wen dem introduce multiparty politics for early 1990s, Kolélas come turn one of de top political leaders for Congo-Brazzaville. For August 1992 presidential election inside, e come second afta Pascal Lissouba. Later, e be Mayor for Brazzaville, de capital city, during mid-1990s, plus e serve small time as Prime Minister during de 1997 civil war. But as rebel forces win de war, e run go exile for 8 years. Afta dem grant amnesty, e fit come back, plus dem elect am go de National Assembly for 2007. == Education den early political career == Kolélas be native from Congo-Brazzaville ein Pool Region. Dem born am for Mboloki (wey dem dey call Mpayaka), wey dey insyd Pool ein Kinkala District, for 1933. He go primary plus secondary school for de nearby administrative capital, Brazzaville. He join Union for de Defense of de Interests of Africans (UDDIA) for 1958. Under Fulbert Youlou, wey be Congo-Brazzaville ein first President, Kolélas serve small time as Secretary-General for de Ministry of Foreign Affairs for 1961. But after dem oust Youlou and Alphonse Massemba-Débat take power for August 1963, dem appoint Kolélas as Minister of Foreign Affairs, but he no wan take am; he talk say de post for go to David Charles Ganao. After dat, dem arrest Kolélas for September 1963, he stay one month for jail. Dem arrest am again for February 1964, but dem release am because of Prime Minister Pascal Lissouba ein request. After dat, he go exile cross de Congo River go Kinshasa, wey be de capital of Democratic Republic of de Congo, and he start one opposition newspaper, ''La Résistance''. == Activities during PCT rule == For November 1969, Kolélas try make coup d'état against President Marien Ngouabi, but e no succeed. Dem sentence am to death, but later dem grant am reprieve and release am on 1 January 1972. Later, dem arrest am again for August 1978 say e dey part of another plot, but dem release am for 1980. After dat, he go live for Brazzaville ein Bacongo district. Kolélas write letters give President Denis Sassou Nguesso on 7 November 1988 plus 20 November 1989, wey he take propose make dem do national roundtable discussion about de country ein problems. == MCDDI den URD == Later Kolélas form ein own political party, wey be de MCDDI; dem file de party ein statutes for de Ministry of de Interior on 3 August 1989. For de June–July 1992 parliamentary election, he win seat for National Assembly as MCDDI candidate for Goma Tsé-Tsé constituency wey dey insyd Pool Region. Kolélas then contest as MCDDI candidate for de August 1992 presidential election, where he come second. For de first round, he get 20.32% of de vote, behind Pascal Lissouba of de Pan-African Union for Social Democracy (UPADS) plus ahead of PCT demma candidate, President Sassou Nguesso. E get strong support for Pool Region, where he win 64.4% for de first round; he no win any other region for first round, but he come first for Brazzaville plus 29.9%. For second round, de PCT support Lissouba, and Kolélas lose, get 38.68%. But he win second round majority for Pool Region (88.71%), Brazzaville (56.80%), plus Kouilou Region (50.77%), even though he do very bad for de rest of de country. After de 1992 election, Congo politics enter wahala time. Kolélas lead opposition coalition wey dem call Union for Democratic Renewal (URD), wey form alliance plus de PCT—even though Kolélas bin oppose de PCT before. De fight between de government plus opposition turn more bloody after de May–June 1993 parliamentary election. Around 2,000 people die for political violence between 1993 and 1994. For January 1994, army block Brazzaville ein Bacongo district—Kolélas ein Ninja militia stronghold—and attack dem heavy. But on 30 January 1994, dem sign agreement wey reduce de violence, and by June 1994, Lissouba and Kolélas show public reconciliation. For July 1994, Kolélas win as Mayor of Brazzaville. jhlu4ypks9sf66tn846vmmghg3l3l92 69002 69001 2025-07-05T15:43:45Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69002 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Bernard Bakana Kolélas''' (12 June 1933 &#x2013; 13 November 2009) be one Congo politician wey be de Presido of de Congolese Movement for Democracy plus Integral Development (MCDDI). Kolélas fight against de one-party rule wey de Congolese Labour Party (PCT) dey do long time. Wen dem introduce multiparty politics for early 1990s, Kolélas come turn one of de top political leaders for Congo-Brazzaville. For August 1992 presidential election inside, e come second afta Pascal Lissouba. Later, e be Mayor for Brazzaville, de capital city, during mid-1990s, plus e serve small time as Prime Minister during de 1997 civil war. But as rebel forces win de war, e run go exile for 8 years. Afta dem grant amnesty, e fit come back, plus dem elect am go de National Assembly for 2007. == Education den early political career == Kolélas be native from Congo-Brazzaville ein Pool Region. Dem born am for Mboloki (wey dem dey call Mpayaka), wey dey insyd Pool ein Kinkala District, for 1933. He go primary plus secondary school for de nearby administrative capital, Brazzaville. He join Union for de Defense of de Interests of Africans (UDDIA) for 1958. Under Fulbert Youlou, wey be Congo-Brazzaville ein first President, Kolélas serve small time as Secretary-General for de Ministry of Foreign Affairs for 1961. But after dem oust Youlou and Alphonse Massemba-Débat take power for August 1963, dem appoint Kolélas as Minister of Foreign Affairs, but he no wan take am; he talk say de post for go to David Charles Ganao. After dat, dem arrest Kolélas for September 1963, he stay one month for jail. Dem arrest am again for February 1964, but dem release am because of Prime Minister Pascal Lissouba ein request. After dat, he go exile cross de Congo River go Kinshasa, wey be de capital of Democratic Republic of de Congo, and he start one opposition newspaper, ''La Résistance''. == Activities during PCT rule == For November 1969, Kolélas try make coup d'état against President Marien Ngouabi, but e no succeed. Dem sentence am to death, but later dem grant am reprieve and release am on 1 January 1972. Later, dem arrest am again for August 1978 say e dey part of another plot, but dem release am for 1980. After dat, he go live for Brazzaville ein Bacongo district. Kolélas write letters give President Denis Sassou Nguesso on 7 November 1988 plus 20 November 1989, wey he take propose make dem do national roundtable discussion about de country ein problems. == MCDDI den URD == Later Kolélas form ein own political party, wey be de MCDDI; dem file de party ein statutes for de Ministry of de Interior on 3 August 1989. For de June–July 1992 parliamentary election, he win seat for National Assembly as MCDDI candidate for Goma Tsé-Tsé constituency wey dey insyd Pool Region. Kolélas then contest as MCDDI candidate for de August 1992 presidential election, where he come second. For de first round, he get 20.32% of de vote, behind Pascal Lissouba of de Pan-African Union for Social Democracy (UPADS) plus ahead of PCT demma candidate, President Sassou Nguesso. E get strong support for Pool Region, where he win 64.4% for de first round; he no win any other region for first round, but he come first for Brazzaville plus 29.9%. For second round, de PCT support Lissouba, and Kolélas lose, get 38.68%. But he win second round majority for Pool Region (88.71%), Brazzaville (56.80%), plus Kouilou Region (50.77%), even though he do very bad for de rest of de country. After de 1992 election, Congo politics enter wahala time. Kolélas lead opposition coalition wey dem call Union for Democratic Renewal (URD), wey form alliance plus de PCT—even though Kolélas bin oppose de PCT before. De fight between de government plus opposition turn more bloody after de May–June 1993 parliamentary election. Around 2,000 people die for political violence between 1993 and 1994. For January 1994, army block Brazzaville ein Bacongo district—Kolélas ein Ninja militia stronghold—and attack dem heavy. But on 30 January 1994, dem sign agreement wey reduce de violence, and by June 1994, Lissouba and Kolélas show public reconciliation. For July 1994, Kolélas win as Mayor of Brazzaville. == 1997 civil war == During de 1997 civil war, Kolélas be de President for de National Mediation Committee. President Lissouba, wey dey try hold ein position tight and settle de gbege by bringing opponents enter government, appoint Kolélas as Prime Minister to lead one government of national unity for September 1997. Dis Kolélas ein government get 41 members. Even though dem offer some minister positions to de rebel coalition wey dey support Sassou Nguesso, de rebels no gree—dem reject de offer. Lissouba plus Kolélas dem both get overthrown and run enter exile after Sassou-Nguesso ein loyal forces capture Brazzaville on 14 October 1997. Ninja rebels wey dey loyal to Kolélas still dey fight small time afta dat. For November 1998, Kolélas ignore government offer make dem do dialogue. Then for December 1998, some pro-Kolélas rebels try capture Brazzaville but dem no succeed. Kolélas wey dey U.S. at dat time talk say ein forces dey control de city proper, and hint say he fit come back to come lead de country. But government brush off ein claims talk say na dem army dey run tins pass. Few days later, Kolélas talk say de rebellion na de youth dem rise up, but dem fail because Angola soldiers help de government crush am. asr2zu4292v8mkky8v1sn1yxgi2h136 69003 69002 2025-07-05T15:46:50Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69003 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Bernard Bakana Kolélas''' (12 June 1933 &#x2013; 13 November 2009) be one Congo politician wey be de Presido of de Congolese Movement for Democracy plus Integral Development (MCDDI). Kolélas fight against de one-party rule wey de Congolese Labour Party (PCT) dey do long time. Wen dem introduce multiparty politics for early 1990s, Kolélas come turn one of de top political leaders for Congo-Brazzaville. For August 1992 presidential election inside, e come second afta Pascal Lissouba. Later, e be Mayor for Brazzaville, de capital city, during mid-1990s, plus e serve small time as Prime Minister during de 1997 civil war. But as rebel forces win de war, e run go exile for 8 years. Afta dem grant amnesty, e fit come back, plus dem elect am go de National Assembly for 2007. == Education den early political career == Kolélas be native from Congo-Brazzaville ein Pool Region. Dem born am for Mboloki (wey dem dey call Mpayaka), wey dey insyd Pool ein Kinkala District, for 1933. He go primary plus secondary school for de nearby administrative capital, Brazzaville. He join Union for de Defense of de Interests of Africans (UDDIA) for 1958. Under Fulbert Youlou, wey be Congo-Brazzaville ein first President, Kolélas serve small time as Secretary-General for de Ministry of Foreign Affairs for 1961. But after dem oust Youlou and Alphonse Massemba-Débat take power for August 1963, dem appoint Kolélas as Minister of Foreign Affairs, but he no wan take am; he talk say de post for go to David Charles Ganao. After dat, dem arrest Kolélas for September 1963, he stay one month for jail. Dem arrest am again for February 1964, but dem release am because of Prime Minister Pascal Lissouba ein request. After dat, he go exile cross de Congo River go Kinshasa, wey be de capital of Democratic Republic of de Congo, and he start one opposition newspaper, ''La Résistance''. == Activities during PCT rule == For November 1969, Kolélas try make coup d'état against President Marien Ngouabi, but e no succeed. Dem sentence am to death, but later dem grant am reprieve and release am on 1 January 1972. Later, dem arrest am again for August 1978 say e dey part of another plot, but dem release am for 1980. After dat, he go live for Brazzaville ein Bacongo district. Kolélas write letters give President Denis Sassou Nguesso on 7 November 1988 plus 20 November 1989, wey he take propose make dem do national roundtable discussion about de country ein problems. == MCDDI den URD == Later Kolélas form ein own political party, wey be de MCDDI; dem file de party ein statutes for de Ministry of de Interior on 3 August 1989. For de June–July 1992 parliamentary election, he win seat for National Assembly as MCDDI candidate for Goma Tsé-Tsé constituency wey dey insyd Pool Region. Kolélas then contest as MCDDI candidate for de August 1992 presidential election, where he come second. For de first round, he get 20.32% of de vote, behind Pascal Lissouba of de Pan-African Union for Social Democracy (UPADS) plus ahead of PCT demma candidate, President Sassou Nguesso. E get strong support for Pool Region, where he win 64.4% for de first round; he no win any other region for first round, but he come first for Brazzaville plus 29.9%. For second round, de PCT support Lissouba, and Kolélas lose, get 38.68%. But he win second round majority for Pool Region (88.71%), Brazzaville (56.80%), plus Kouilou Region (50.77%), even though he do very bad for de rest of de country. After de 1992 election, Congo politics enter wahala time. Kolélas lead opposition coalition wey dem call Union for Democratic Renewal (URD), wey form alliance plus de PCT—even though Kolélas bin oppose de PCT before. De fight between de government plus opposition turn more bloody after de May–June 1993 parliamentary election. Around 2,000 people die for political violence between 1993 and 1994. For January 1994, army block Brazzaville ein Bacongo district—Kolélas ein Ninja militia stronghold—and attack dem heavy. But on 30 January 1994, dem sign agreement wey reduce de violence, and by June 1994, Lissouba and Kolélas show public reconciliation. For July 1994, Kolélas win as Mayor of Brazzaville. == 1997 civil war == During de 1997 civil war, Kolélas be de President for de National Mediation Committee. President Lissouba, wey dey try hold ein position tight and settle de gbege by bringing opponents enter government, appoint Kolélas as Prime Minister to lead one government of national unity for September 1997. Dis Kolélas ein government get 41 members. Even though dem offer some minister positions to de rebel coalition wey dey support Sassou Nguesso, de rebels no gree—dem reject de offer. Lissouba plus Kolélas dem both get overthrown and run enter exile after Sassou-Nguesso ein loyal forces capture Brazzaville on 14 October 1997. Ninja rebels wey dey loyal to Kolélas still dey fight small time afta dat. For November 1998, Kolélas ignore government offer make dem do dialogue. Then for December 1998, some pro-Kolélas rebels try capture Brazzaville but dem no succeed. Kolélas wey dey U.S. at dat time talk say ein forces dey control de city proper, and hint say he fit come back to come lead de country. But government brush off ein claims talk say na dem army dey run tins pass. Few days later, Kolélas talk say de rebellion na de youth dem rise up, but dem fail because Angola soldiers help de government crush am. == Exile den return == On 4 May 2000, one Congolese court sentence Kolélas to death in absentia for illegal arrest, kidnapping, plus rape. But for October 2005, he return come Congo from exile to attend ein wife Jacqueline ein funeral. President Sassou Nguesso give am special amnesty on humanitarian grounds make e fit come. As Kolélas dey come back, excitement for Bacongo district (ein stronghold) turn yawa—clashes happen between ein supporters plus police on 13 October just before ein arrival. Then on 23 November 2005, de National Assembly pass law wey grant Kolélas full amnesty. On behalf of ein party, Kolélas sign agreement plus de Congolese Labour Party (PCT) on 24 April 2007 to create electoral alliance. For de 2007 parliamentary election wey come after, Kolélas win de National Assembly seat for Goma Tsé-Tsé constituency as MCDDI candidate. He beat two challengers and win am straight for de first round wit 86.44% of de vote. As de oldest MP wey enter de new National Assembly, na Kolélas preside over de first meeting on 4 September 2007 wey dem take elect de Assembly bureau. But later, dem report say Kolélas dey suffer from Alzheimer disease, and he land for hospital for Paris end of 2007. By 2009, he still dey Paris for long medical treatment before he die there early morning of 13 November 2009. He be 76 years old. m7e2rgt30q8v5fxn5ltrccmy8uirs5c 69004 69003 2025-07-05T15:47:17Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69004 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Bernard Bakana Kolélas''' (12 June 1933 &#x2013; 13 November 2009) be one Congo politician wey be de Presido of de Congolese Movement for Democracy plus Integral Development (MCDDI). Kolélas fight against de one-party rule wey de Congolese Labour Party (PCT) dey do long time. Wen dem introduce multiparty politics for early 1990s, Kolélas come turn one of de top political leaders for Congo-Brazzaville. For August 1992 presidential election inside, e come second afta Pascal Lissouba. Later, e be Mayor for Brazzaville, de capital city, during mid-1990s, plus e serve small time as Prime Minister during de 1997 civil war. But as rebel forces win de war, e run go exile for 8 years. Afta dem grant amnesty, e fit come back, plus dem elect am go de National Assembly for 2007. == Education den early political career == Kolélas be native from Congo-Brazzaville ein Pool Region. Dem born am for Mboloki (wey dem dey call Mpayaka), wey dey insyd Pool ein Kinkala District, for 1933. He go primary plus secondary school for de nearby administrative capital, Brazzaville. He join Union for de Defense of de Interests of Africans (UDDIA) for 1958. Under Fulbert Youlou, wey be Congo-Brazzaville ein first President, Kolélas serve small time as Secretary-General for de Ministry of Foreign Affairs for 1961. But after dem oust Youlou and Alphonse Massemba-Débat take power for August 1963, dem appoint Kolélas as Minister of Foreign Affairs, but he no wan take am; he talk say de post for go to David Charles Ganao. After dat, dem arrest Kolélas for September 1963, he stay one month for jail. Dem arrest am again for February 1964, but dem release am because of Prime Minister Pascal Lissouba ein request. After dat, he go exile cross de Congo River go Kinshasa, wey be de capital of Democratic Republic of de Congo, and he start one opposition newspaper, ''La Résistance''. == Activities during PCT rule == For November 1969, Kolélas try make coup d'état against President Marien Ngouabi, but e no succeed. Dem sentence am to death, but later dem grant am reprieve and release am on 1 January 1972. Later, dem arrest am again for August 1978 say e dey part of another plot, but dem release am for 1980. After dat, he go live for Brazzaville ein Bacongo district. Kolélas write letters give President Denis Sassou Nguesso on 7 November 1988 plus 20 November 1989, wey he take propose make dem do national roundtable discussion about de country ein problems. == MCDDI den URD == Later Kolélas form ein own political party, wey be de MCDDI; dem file de party ein statutes for de Ministry of de Interior on 3 August 1989. For de June–July 1992 parliamentary election, he win seat for National Assembly as MCDDI candidate for Goma Tsé-Tsé constituency wey dey insyd Pool Region. Kolélas then contest as MCDDI candidate for de August 1992 presidential election, where he come second. For de first round, he get 20.32% of de vote, behind Pascal Lissouba of de Pan-African Union for Social Democracy (UPADS) plus ahead of PCT demma candidate, President Sassou Nguesso. E get strong support for Pool Region, where he win 64.4% for de first round; he no win any other region for first round, but he come first for Brazzaville plus 29.9%. For second round, de PCT support Lissouba, and Kolélas lose, get 38.68%. But he win second round majority for Pool Region (88.71%), Brazzaville (56.80%), plus Kouilou Region (50.77%), even though he do very bad for de rest of de country. After de 1992 election, Congo politics enter wahala time. Kolélas lead opposition coalition wey dem call Union for Democratic Renewal (URD), wey form alliance plus de PCT—even though Kolélas bin oppose de PCT before. De fight between de government plus opposition turn more bloody after de May–June 1993 parliamentary election. Around 2,000 people die for political violence between 1993 and 1994. For January 1994, army block Brazzaville ein Bacongo district—Kolélas ein Ninja militia stronghold—and attack dem heavy. But on 30 January 1994, dem sign agreement wey reduce de violence, and by June 1994, Lissouba and Kolélas show public reconciliation. For July 1994, Kolélas win as Mayor of Brazzaville. == 1997 civil war == During de 1997 civil war, Kolélas be de President for de National Mediation Committee. President Lissouba, wey dey try hold ein position tight and settle de gbege by bringing opponents enter government, appoint Kolélas as Prime Minister to lead one government of national unity for September 1997. Dis Kolélas ein government get 41 members. Even though dem offer some minister positions to de rebel coalition wey dey support Sassou Nguesso, de rebels no gree—dem reject de offer. Lissouba plus Kolélas dem both get overthrown and run enter exile after Sassou-Nguesso ein loyal forces capture Brazzaville on 14 October 1997. Ninja rebels wey dey loyal to Kolélas still dey fight small time afta dat. For November 1998, Kolélas ignore government offer make dem do dialogue. Then for December 1998, some pro-Kolélas rebels try capture Brazzaville but dem no succeed. Kolélas wey dey U.S. at dat time talk say ein forces dey control de city proper, and hint say he fit come back to come lead de country. But government brush off ein claims talk say na dem army dey run tins pass. Few days later, Kolélas talk say de rebellion na de youth dem rise up, but dem fail because Angola soldiers help de government crush am. == Exile den return == On 4 May 2000, one Congolese court sentence Kolélas to death in absentia for illegal arrest, kidnapping, plus rape. But for October 2005, he return come Congo from exile to attend ein wife Jacqueline ein funeral. President Sassou Nguesso give am special amnesty on humanitarian grounds make e fit come. As Kolélas dey come back, excitement for Bacongo district (ein stronghold) turn yawa—clashes happen between ein supporters plus police on 13 October just before ein arrival. Then on 23 November 2005, de National Assembly pass law wey grant Kolélas full amnesty. On behalf of ein party, Kolélas sign agreement plus de Congolese Labour Party (PCT) on 24 April 2007 to create electoral alliance. For de 2007 parliamentary election wey come after, Kolélas win de National Assembly seat for Goma Tsé-Tsé constituency as MCDDI candidate. He beat two challengers and win am straight for de first round wit 86.44% of de vote. As de oldest MP wey enter de new National Assembly, na Kolélas preside over de first meeting on 4 September 2007 wey dem take elect de Assembly bureau. But later, dem report say Kolélas dey suffer from Alzheimer disease, and he land for hospital for Paris end of 2007. By 2009, he still dey Paris for long medical treatment before he die there early morning of 13 November 2009. He be 76 years old. == References == czu14o3h47qtbxqh7q7en4rzvk51cuv Marien Ngouabi 0 18350 69006 2025-07-05T15:49:21Z KISUMAR123 1270 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1296703435|Marien Ngouabi]]" 69006 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Marien Ngouabi''' (December 31, 1938 – March 18, 1977) be a Congolese politician den military officer who served as de fourth President of de People ein Republic of de Congo from 1969 until ein assassination insyd 1977. aw9javpcel9qc47n765cjmp5q5e8w01 69008 69006 2025-07-05T15:54:34Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69008 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Marien Ngouabi''' (December 31, 1938 – March 18, 1977) be a Congolese politician den military officer who served as de fourth President of de People ein Republic of de Congo from 1969 until ein assassination insyd 1977. == Biography == === Origins === Marien Ngouabi born on 31 December 1938 for Ombellé village insyd Cuvette Department, wey dey for Kouyou territory. Him poppie be Dominique Osséré m'Opoma and him mommie na Antoinette Mboualé-Abemba. Ngouabi be Kuyu man from humble family. From 1947 go 1953, he do him primary school for Owando. Then on 14 September 1953, he go start study for ''École des enfants de troupes Général Leclerc'' wey dey Brazzaville. By 1957, dem move am go Bouar for Oubangui-Chari (wey be Central African Republic now). After Ngouabi serve for Cameroon between 1958 and 1960 as Sergeant insyd de second battalion of de tirailleurs, he go France for September 1960 go train for École Militaire Préparatoire for Strasbourg. From there, he enter École Inter-armes for Coëtquidan Saint-Cyr in 1961.By 1962, he come back Congo as Second Lieutenant and dem post am for Pointe-Noire garrison as deputy commander of one infantry battalion. Na for 1963 dem promote am to Lieutenant. cvow5zh9ql4zme81wmwdl9p20ql9wml 69010 69008 2025-07-05T15:58:21Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69010 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Marien Ngouabi''' (December 31, 1938 – March 18, 1977) be a Congolese politician den military officer who served as de fourth President of de People ein Republic of de Congo from 1969 until ein assassination insyd 1977. == Biography == === Origins === Marien Ngouabi born on 31 December 1938 for Ombellé village insyd Cuvette Department, wey dey for Kouyou territory. Him poppie be Dominique Osséré m'Opoma and him mommie na Antoinette Mboualé-Abemba. Ngouabi be Kuyu man from humble family. From 1947 go 1953, he do him primary school for Owando. Then on 14 September 1953, he go start study for ''École des enfants de troupes Général Leclerc'' wey dey Brazzaville. By 1957, dem move am go Bouar for Oubangui-Chari (wey be Central African Republic now). After Ngouabi serve for Cameroon between 1958 and 1960 as Sergeant insyd de second battalion of de tirailleurs, he go France for September 1960 go train for École Militaire Préparatoire for Strasbourg. From there, he enter École Inter-armes for Coëtquidan Saint-Cyr in 1961.By 1962, he come back Congo as Second Lieutenant and dem post am for Pointe-Noire garrison as deputy commander of one infantry battalion. Na for 1963 dem promote am to Lieutenant. === Rise to power === For 1965, Ngouabi create de first battalion of paratroopers for Republic of Congo. As person wey get strong leftist beliefs, dem demote am go soldier second class for April 1966 sake of say he refuse to accept reposting go Pointe-Noire. He rebel against de army ein political rigidity plus criticize de president seriously. Na President Alphonse Massamba-Débat arrest Ngouabi plus Second Lieutenant Eyabo for 29 July 1968. But de arrest vex plenty soldiers, so by 31 July, some Civil Defense soldiers free Ngouabi. Then dem form de National Revolutionary Council (CNR) under Ngouabi ein leadership for 5 August 1968. By 1 October 1968, Ngouabi get promotion to Commanding Officer, wey be de rank he hold till he die. As de CNR reduce Massamba-Débat ein power, de man resign for 4 September, and Prime Minister Alfred Raoul act as Head of State till 31 December 1968, wey be when CNR officially become de highest authority and Ngouabi take over as president. === Head of state === lcd4x9qyfvktfmsb1nluz6e10mhm7ss 69011 69010 2025-07-05T16:02:12Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Head of state */ Improve article 69011 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Marien Ngouabi''' (December 31, 1938 – March 18, 1977) be a Congolese politician den military officer who served as de fourth President of de People ein Republic of de Congo from 1969 until ein assassination insyd 1977. == Biography == === Origins === Marien Ngouabi born on 31 December 1938 for Ombellé village insyd Cuvette Department, wey dey for Kouyou territory. Him poppie be Dominique Osséré m'Opoma and him mommie na Antoinette Mboualé-Abemba. Ngouabi be Kuyu man from humble family. From 1947 go 1953, he do him primary school for Owando. Then on 14 September 1953, he go start study for ''École des enfants de troupes Général Leclerc'' wey dey Brazzaville. By 1957, dem move am go Bouar for Oubangui-Chari (wey be Central African Republic now). After Ngouabi serve for Cameroon between 1958 and 1960 as Sergeant insyd de second battalion of de tirailleurs, he go France for September 1960 go train for École Militaire Préparatoire for Strasbourg. From there, he enter École Inter-armes for Coëtquidan Saint-Cyr in 1961.By 1962, he come back Congo as Second Lieutenant and dem post am for Pointe-Noire garrison as deputy commander of one infantry battalion. Na for 1963 dem promote am to Lieutenant. === Rise to power === For 1965, Ngouabi create de first battalion of paratroopers for Republic of Congo. As person wey get strong leftist beliefs, dem demote am go soldier second class for April 1966 sake of say he refuse to accept reposting go Pointe-Noire. He rebel against de army ein political rigidity plus criticize de president seriously. Na President Alphonse Massamba-Débat arrest Ngouabi plus Second Lieutenant Eyabo for 29 July 1968. But de arrest vex plenty soldiers, so by 31 July, some Civil Defense soldiers free Ngouabi. Then dem form de National Revolutionary Council (CNR) under Ngouabi ein leadership for 5 August 1968. By 1 October 1968, Ngouabi get promotion to Commanding Officer, wey be de rank he hold till he die. As de CNR reduce Massamba-Débat ein power, de man resign for 4 September, and Prime Minister Alfred Raoul act as Head of State till 31 December 1968, wey be when CNR officially become de highest authority and Ngouabi take over as president. === Head of state === As Ngouabi take power finish, he change de country ein name go People's Republic of de Congo, declare say na de first Marxist–Leninist state for Africa. He come establish de Congolese Workers' Party (Parti Congolais du Travail, PCT) as de only legal political party wey go operate for de country. Ngouabi be Mbochi man wey come from northern Congo, so as he enter power, control of de country shift from south go north. Dis move vex plenty people, especially for Brazzaville wey politics dey hot pass. Im government start to dey operate like bureaucratic centralism, dey use repression, and de party system (PCT) turn into something wey dem dey call “mechanism” — tight control wey no dey give chance to opposition. Because Ngouabi dey favor Mbochi people and people from La Cuvette (ein home region), opposition grow, even from inside de Communist Party itself, especially from de youth wing. For late 1971, students for Brazzaville and Pointe-Noire go on strike, but government clamp down on dem hard. E make de whole country dey unstable. By February 1972, one coup attempt happen, wey lead to plenty purging of opposition members. Some people believe say France dey pressure Ngouabi make he annex Cabinda enclave (oil-rich area wey belong to Portuguese Angola). But as Ngouabi no gree do am, dem talk say France withdraw support, and even sponsor some coups to remove am. From February 1973, Ngouabi send army go Goma Tse-tse region to fight one insurgent group called M22, wey former army officer Ange Diawara dey lead. That same month, he expose another coup plan from Diawara, arrest 45 people including Pascal Lissouba and Sylvain Bemba (Minister of Information). Dem do trial between March 16–23, some people chop sentence, but Lissouba waka free (acquitted). oph9wtd2jdulrw3t5xe4v99kwtu2o0v 69013 69011 2025-07-05T16:05:49Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69013 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Marien Ngouabi''' (December 31, 1938 – March 18, 1977) be a Congolese politician den military officer who served as de fourth President of de People ein Republic of de Congo from 1969 until ein assassination insyd 1977. == Biography == === Origins === Marien Ngouabi born on 31 December 1938 for Ombellé village insyd Cuvette Department, wey dey for Kouyou territory. Him poppie be Dominique Osséré m'Opoma and him mommie na Antoinette Mboualé-Abemba. Ngouabi be Kuyu man from humble family. From 1947 go 1953, he do him primary school for Owando. Then on 14 September 1953, he go start study for ''École des enfants de troupes Général Leclerc'' wey dey Brazzaville. By 1957, dem move am go Bouar for Oubangui-Chari (wey be Central African Republic now). After Ngouabi serve for Cameroon between 1958 and 1960 as Sergeant insyd de second battalion of de tirailleurs, he go France for September 1960 go train for École Militaire Préparatoire for Strasbourg. From there, he enter École Inter-armes for Coëtquidan Saint-Cyr in 1961.By 1962, he come back Congo as Second Lieutenant and dem post am for Pointe-Noire garrison as deputy commander of one infantry battalion. Na for 1963 dem promote am to Lieutenant. === Rise to power === For 1965, Ngouabi create de first battalion of paratroopers for Republic of Congo. As person wey get strong leftist beliefs, dem demote am go soldier second class for April 1966 sake of say he refuse to accept reposting go Pointe-Noire. He rebel against de army ein political rigidity plus criticize de president seriously. Na President Alphonse Massamba-Débat arrest Ngouabi plus Second Lieutenant Eyabo for 29 July 1968. But de arrest vex plenty soldiers, so by 31 July, some Civil Defense soldiers free Ngouabi. Then dem form de National Revolutionary Council (CNR) under Ngouabi ein leadership for 5 August 1968. By 1 October 1968, Ngouabi get promotion to Commanding Officer, wey be de rank he hold till he die. As de CNR reduce Massamba-Débat ein power, de man resign for 4 September, and Prime Minister Alfred Raoul act as Head of State till 31 December 1968, wey be when CNR officially become de highest authority and Ngouabi take over as president. === Head of state === As Ngouabi take power finish, he change de country ein name go People's Republic of de Congo, declare say na de first Marxist–Leninist state for Africa. He come establish de Congolese Workers' Party (Parti Congolais du Travail, PCT) as de only legal political party wey go operate for de country. Ngouabi be Mbochi man wey come from northern Congo, so as he enter power, control of de country shift from south go north. Dis move vex plenty people, especially for Brazzaville wey politics dey hot pass. Im government start to dey operate like bureaucratic centralism, dey use repression, and de party system (PCT) turn into something wey dem dey call “mechanism” — tight control wey no dey give chance to opposition. Because Ngouabi dey favor Mbochi people and people from La Cuvette (ein home region), opposition grow, even from inside de Communist Party itself, especially from de youth wing. For late 1971, students for Brazzaville and Pointe-Noire go on strike, but government clamp down on dem hard. E make de whole country dey unstable. By February 1972, one coup attempt happen, wey lead to plenty purging of opposition members. Some people believe say France dey pressure Ngouabi make he annex Cabinda enclave (oil-rich area wey belong to Portuguese Angola). But as Ngouabi no gree do am, dem talk say France withdraw support, and even sponsor some coups to remove am. From February 1973, Ngouabi send army go Goma Tse-tse region to fight one insurgent group called M22, wey former army officer Ange Diawara dey lead. That same month, he expose another coup plan from Diawara, arrest 45 people including Pascal Lissouba and Sylvain Bemba (Minister of Information). Dem do trial between March 16–23, some people chop sentence, but Lissouba waka free (acquitted). De whole M22 rebellion matter end sharp-sharp on April 24, 1973, as dem capture den execute de rebel leaders — Ange Diawara, Ikoko, den Bakekolo. Ngouabi no just stop deh. He carry demma dead bodies go round Brazzaville, den even display dem by einself for public gathering wey happen for Stade de la Révolution. Dis public display of lifeless bodies vex plenty Congolese people, because for Congo culture, you no dey disrespect dead bodies — dem dey expect reverence and dignity. So Ngouabi’s move cause national condemnation. Insyd July 1973, he travel go People’s Republic of China, wey show say he dey keep strong ties plus oda socialist states. Later, on December 30, 1974, Ngouabi get re-elected as Chairman of de PCT Central Committee, den dem add am as Permanent Secretary of de party. Dem swear am insyd as President again on January 9, 1975. For that same 1975, Ngouabi still tighten him socialist alliances by signing economic aid deal plus Soviet Union. 42mn07jpzjukoutox2cbr6n1w24ft1l 69015 69013 2025-07-05T16:10:40Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69015 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Marien Ngouabi''' (December 31, 1938 – March 18, 1977) be a Congolese politician den military officer who served as de fourth President of de People ein Republic of de Congo from 1969 until ein assassination insyd 1977. == Biography == === Origins === Marien Ngouabi born on 31 December 1938 for Ombellé village insyd Cuvette Department, wey dey for Kouyou territory. Him poppie be Dominique Osséré m'Opoma and him mommie na Antoinette Mboualé-Abemba. Ngouabi be Kuyu man from humble family. From 1947 go 1953, he do him primary school for Owando. Then on 14 September 1953, he go start study for ''École des enfants de troupes Général Leclerc'' wey dey Brazzaville. By 1957, dem move am go Bouar for Oubangui-Chari (wey be Central African Republic now). After Ngouabi serve for Cameroon between 1958 and 1960 as Sergeant insyd de second battalion of de tirailleurs, he go France for September 1960 go train for École Militaire Préparatoire for Strasbourg. From there, he enter École Inter-armes for Coëtquidan Saint-Cyr in 1961.By 1962, he come back Congo as Second Lieutenant and dem post am for Pointe-Noire garrison as deputy commander of one infantry battalion. Na for 1963 dem promote am to Lieutenant. === Rise to power === For 1965, Ngouabi create de first battalion of paratroopers for Republic of Congo. As person wey get strong leftist beliefs, dem demote am go soldier second class for April 1966 sake of say he refuse to accept reposting go Pointe-Noire. He rebel against de army ein political rigidity plus criticize de president seriously. Na President Alphonse Massamba-Débat arrest Ngouabi plus Second Lieutenant Eyabo for 29 July 1968. But de arrest vex plenty soldiers, so by 31 July, some Civil Defense soldiers free Ngouabi. Then dem form de National Revolutionary Council (CNR) under Ngouabi ein leadership for 5 August 1968. By 1 October 1968, Ngouabi get promotion to Commanding Officer, wey be de rank he hold till he die. As de CNR reduce Massamba-Débat ein power, de man resign for 4 September, and Prime Minister Alfred Raoul act as Head of State till 31 December 1968, wey be when CNR officially become de highest authority and Ngouabi take over as president. === Head of state === As Ngouabi take power finish, he change de country ein name go People's Republic of de Congo, declare say na de first Marxist–Leninist state for Africa. He come establish de Congolese Workers' Party (Parti Congolais du Travail, PCT) as de only legal political party wey go operate for de country. Ngouabi be Mbochi man wey come from northern Congo, so as he enter power, control of de country shift from south go north. Dis move vex plenty people, especially for Brazzaville wey politics dey hot pass. Im government start to dey operate like bureaucratic centralism, dey use repression, and de party system (PCT) turn into something wey dem dey call “mechanism” — tight control wey no dey give chance to opposition. Because Ngouabi dey favor Mbochi people and people from La Cuvette (ein home region), opposition grow, even from inside de Communist Party itself, especially from de youth wing. For late 1971, students for Brazzaville and Pointe-Noire go on strike, but government clamp down on dem hard. E make de whole country dey unstable. By February 1972, one coup attempt happen, wey lead to plenty purging of opposition members. Some people believe say France dey pressure Ngouabi make he annex Cabinda enclave (oil-rich area wey belong to Portuguese Angola). But as Ngouabi no gree do am, dem talk say France withdraw support, and even sponsor some coups to remove am. From February 1973, Ngouabi send army go Goma Tse-tse region to fight one insurgent group called M22, wey former army officer Ange Diawara dey lead. That same month, he expose another coup plan from Diawara, arrest 45 people including Pascal Lissouba and Sylvain Bemba (Minister of Information). Dem do trial between March 16–23, some people chop sentence, but Lissouba waka free (acquitted). De whole M22 rebellion matter end sharp-sharp on April 24, 1973, as dem capture den execute de rebel leaders — Ange Diawara, Ikoko, den Bakekolo. Ngouabi no just stop deh. He carry demma dead bodies go round Brazzaville, den even display dem by einself for public gathering wey happen for Stade de la Révolution. Dis public display of lifeless bodies vex plenty Congolese people, because for Congo culture, you no dey disrespect dead bodies — dem dey expect reverence and dignity. So Ngouabi’s move cause national condemnation. Insyd July 1973, he travel go People’s Republic of China, wey show say he dey keep strong ties plus oda socialist states. Later, on December 30, 1974, Ngouabi get re-elected as Chairman of de PCT Central Committee, den dem add am as Permanent Secretary of de party. Dem swear am insyd as President again on January 9, 1975. For that same 1975, Ngouabi still tighten him socialist alliances by signing economic aid deal plus Soviet Union. On March 23, Lieutenant General Pierre Kinganga, wey dey exile for Kinshasa insyd Zaire (now DRC) since him alleged coup attempt for June 1969, land back for Brazzaville plus one commando squad to try overthrow Marien Ngouabi ein government. But di coup attempt flop. Dem shoot Kinganga dead close to de national radio station wey he just capture. Him body plus de other commando members wey die follow am remain dey exposed for long for front of de radio building. Some youth supporters wey join Kinganga en route self carry arms. Captain Augustin Poignet, wey dem say follow plan di coup, manage run go back Kinshasa. One week later, three accomplices — Miawouama, Nkoutou, and Mengo — wey military court-martial sentence, dem execute dem. All de other soldiers and gendarmes wey join de mission face trial from de revolutionary court, and dem find dem guilty. After all dis gbegbe, Ngouabi accuse de CIA and Mobutu Sese Seko, de President of Zaire, say dem dey behind de attempted coup. 7g37wzhsw0527kwv1p95keb0ap4dqqf 69019 69015 2025-07-05T16:17:46Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69019 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Marien Ngouabi''' (December 31, 1938 – March 18, 1977) be a Congolese politician den military officer who served as de fourth President of de People ein Republic of de Congo from 1969 until ein assassination insyd 1977. == Biography == === Origins === Marien Ngouabi born on 31 December 1938 for Ombellé village insyd Cuvette Department, wey dey for Kouyou territory. Him poppie be Dominique Osséré m'Opoma and him mommie na Antoinette Mboualé-Abemba. Ngouabi be Kuyu man from humble family. From 1947 go 1953, he do him primary school for Owando. Then on 14 September 1953, he go start study for ''École des enfants de troupes Général Leclerc'' wey dey Brazzaville. By 1957, dem move am go Bouar for Oubangui-Chari (wey be Central African Republic now). After Ngouabi serve for Cameroon between 1958 and 1960 as Sergeant insyd de second battalion of de tirailleurs, he go France for September 1960 go train for École Militaire Préparatoire for Strasbourg. From there, he enter École Inter-armes for Coëtquidan Saint-Cyr in 1961.By 1962, he come back Congo as Second Lieutenant and dem post am for Pointe-Noire garrison as deputy commander of one infantry battalion. Na for 1963 dem promote am to Lieutenant. === Rise to power === For 1965, Ngouabi create de first battalion of paratroopers for Republic of Congo. As person wey get strong leftist beliefs, dem demote am go soldier second class for April 1966 sake of say he refuse to accept reposting go Pointe-Noire. He rebel against de army ein political rigidity plus criticize de president seriously. Na President Alphonse Massamba-Débat arrest Ngouabi plus Second Lieutenant Eyabo for 29 July 1968. But de arrest vex plenty soldiers, so by 31 July, some Civil Defense soldiers free Ngouabi. Then dem form de National Revolutionary Council (CNR) under Ngouabi ein leadership for 5 August 1968. By 1 October 1968, Ngouabi get promotion to Commanding Officer, wey be de rank he hold till he die. As de CNR reduce Massamba-Débat ein power, de man resign for 4 September, and Prime Minister Alfred Raoul act as Head of State till 31 December 1968, wey be when CNR officially become de highest authority and Ngouabi take over as president. === Head of state === As Ngouabi take power finish, he change de country ein name go People's Republic of de Congo, declare say na de first Marxist–Leninist state for Africa. He come establish de Congolese Workers' Party (Parti Congolais du Travail, PCT) as de only legal political party wey go operate for de country. Ngouabi be Mbochi man wey come from northern Congo, so as he enter power, control of de country shift from south go north. Dis move vex plenty people, especially for Brazzaville wey politics dey hot pass. Im government start to dey operate like bureaucratic centralism, dey use repression, and de party system (PCT) turn into something wey dem dey call “mechanism” — tight control wey no dey give chance to opposition. Because Ngouabi dey favor Mbochi people and people from La Cuvette (ein home region), opposition grow, even from inside de Communist Party itself, especially from de youth wing. For late 1971, students for Brazzaville and Pointe-Noire go on strike, but government clamp down on dem hard. E make de whole country dey unstable. By February 1972, one coup attempt happen, wey lead to plenty purging of opposition members. Some people believe say France dey pressure Ngouabi make he annex Cabinda enclave (oil-rich area wey belong to Portuguese Angola). But as Ngouabi no gree do am, dem talk say France withdraw support, and even sponsor some coups to remove am. From February 1973, Ngouabi send army go Goma Tse-tse region to fight one insurgent group called M22, wey former army officer Ange Diawara dey lead. That same month, he expose another coup plan from Diawara, arrest 45 people including Pascal Lissouba and Sylvain Bemba (Minister of Information). Dem do trial between March 16–23, some people chop sentence, but Lissouba waka free (acquitted). De whole M22 rebellion matter end sharp-sharp on April 24, 1973, as dem capture den execute de rebel leaders — Ange Diawara, Ikoko, den Bakekolo. Ngouabi no just stop deh. He carry demma dead bodies go round Brazzaville, den even display dem by einself for public gathering wey happen for Stade de la Révolution. Dis public display of lifeless bodies vex plenty Congolese people, because for Congo culture, you no dey disrespect dead bodies — dem dey expect reverence and dignity. So Ngouabi’s move cause national condemnation. Insyd July 1973, he travel go People’s Republic of China, wey show say he dey keep strong ties plus oda socialist states. Later, on December 30, 1974, Ngouabi get re-elected as Chairman of de PCT Central Committee, den dem add am as Permanent Secretary of de party. Dem swear am insyd as President again on January 9, 1975. For that same 1975, Ngouabi still tighten him socialist alliances by signing economic aid deal plus Soviet Union. On March 23, Lieutenant General Pierre Kinganga, wey dey exile for Kinshasa insyd Zaire (now DRC) since him alleged coup attempt for June 1969, land back for Brazzaville plus one commando squad to try overthrow Marien Ngouabi ein government. But di coup attempt flop. Dem shoot Kinganga dead close to de national radio station wey he just capture. Him body plus de other commando members wey die follow am remain dey exposed for long for front of de radio building. Some youth supporters wey join Kinganga en route self carry arms. Captain Augustin Poignet, wey dem say follow plan di coup, manage run go back Kinshasa. One week later, three accomplices — Miawouama, Nkoutou, and Mengo — wey military court-martial sentence, dem execute dem. All de other soldiers and gendarmes wey join de mission face trial from de revolutionary court, and dem find dem guilty. After all dis gbegbe, Ngouabi accuse de CIA and Mobutu Sese Seko, de President of Zaire, say dem dey behind de attempted coup. Afta dis coup attempt, PCT hold one extraordinary congress from 30 March to 2 April 1970. Dem expand de Political Bureau to 10 members, wey favour people like Ambroise Noumazalaye and Captain Denis Sassou N'Guesso. Dem dissolve de Gendarmerie sake of say e no show full loyalty, and dem merge am plus de regular army. Council of State too get reshuffle. Later, for 29 August 1970, dem arrest former minister Stéphane-Maurice Bongo-Nouarra for counter-revolutionary plot, and court sentence am to 10 years hard labour. === Assassination === On 18 March 1977, around 2:30 pm, President Marien Ngouabi get assassinated. De government quickly hold trial for de people dem accuse say dem join for de killing. Some of dem wey court find guilty face execution, including former President Alphonse Massamba-Débat. Afta dem kill President Ngouabi, dem form one interim government wey dem call Military Committee of de Party (CMP). Na Colonel Joachim Yhombi-Opango, wey be conservative, dem put as Head of State for dat time. == References == ejgsdssu45spex1r58y4hbn3n3qkb0s Alphonse Massamba-Débat 0 18351 69020 2025-07-05T16:20:54Z KISUMAR123 1270 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1281055986|Alphonse Massamba-Débat]]" 69020 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Alphonse Massamba-Débat''' (February 11, 1921 – March 25, 1977) be a political figure of de Republic of the Congo who lead de country from 1963 until 1968 insyd a one-party system. 6fu5sxd2dbbctqxfcdcayr9y7p033iv 69031 69020 2025-07-05T17:08:03Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69031 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Alphonse Massamba-Débat''' (February 11, 1921 – March 25, 1977) be a political figure of de Republic of the Congo who lead de country from 1963 until 1968 insyd a one-party system. == Biography == === Early life === E born for one small village dem dey call Nkolo, wey dey Boko District for inside French Equatorial Africa around 1921, insyd Kongo family. E go missionary school plus primary school for Boko Regional School. Later, e train to be teacher for Edouard Renard school for Brazzaville. By age 13, e don already dey teach, and between 1945 to 1948, e go Chad go teach. By 1940, e join Chadian Progressive Party, wey be anti-colonialist movement, and for 1945, e be General Secretary of Association for de Development of Chad. E come return to Congo for 1947, be principal for Mossendjo from 1948 to 1953, den move to Mindouli from 1953 to 1956. For 1957, e be Headmaster of Bakongo Secular School for Brazzaville, and e join Congolese Progressive Party (PPC). === Career === By 1957, Massamba-Débat don join Fulbert Youlou ein party wey dem dey call Democratic Union for de Defense of African Interests (UDDIA). E stop teaching come be Minister of Education. Two years later, dem elect am go de national assembly. For 1959, dem make am president of de assembly, and e remain for power, later serve as Minister of State plus Planning. But e start dey criticize Youlou ein government, wey many people believe say e dey lean too much on France. When dem overthrow President Fulbert Youlou for coup on August 15, 1963, dem suspend de presidency. De next day, Massamba-Débat, wey be Chairman of de National Council of the Revolution, become Prime Minister, and dem declare say de National Council of the Revolution go be de only legal political party for de country. On December 19, 1963, dem elect Massamba-Débat as President, den Pascal Lissouba come take over as new Prime Minister. ==== Congo under Massamba-Débat (1963–1968) ==== Massamba-Débat ein government try follow one political economic style dem dey call "scientific socialism." By July 1964, Massamba-Débat ein people declare say na only one party go rule, wey be de National Movement of de Revolution, plus dem start nationalize plenty tins. For outside matter, Massamba-Débat join body plus USSR plus Communist China, and e gree make some guerilla fighters wey dey claim say dem be communist stay for Congo land. Under Massamba-Débat, Congo carry ideologies wey lean go socialist countries like Cuba plus China, and e comot body from capitalist countries. Che Guevara come meet Massamba-Débat for January 1965, plus dem break diplomatic relationship plus de United States. De relation between Congo-Brazzaville and dem neighbour Democratic Republic of de Congo no too good, as Mobutu own style start dey influence dem political road. So because of dat, de Tshombe government comot all Congo-Brazzaville people wey dey live for former Belgian Congo. For economic plus social level, Massamba-Débat lead de country wey dey manage tins well plus strict. Under ein presidency, Congo start dey do industrialization, wey make de standard of living for Congolese people better pass before. Dem build some big factories wey employ plenty people: like de textile factory for Kinsoundi, palm plantations for Etoumbi, match factory for Bétou, shipyards for Yoro, and so on. Dem build health centers plus plenty school groups (colleges plus primary schools). Congo ein school enrollment rate turn de highest for all Black Africa. Same time, Brazzaville turn base for left-wing people wey run from other Central African countries. 1m3wx8bsxc8r7fxiuh48x9w1wcbs26i 69035 69031 2025-07-05T17:13:03Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69035 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Alphonse Massamba-Débat''' (February 11, 1921 – March 25, 1977) be a political figure of de Republic of the Congo who lead de country from 1963 until 1968 insyd a one-party system. == Biography == === Early life === E born for one small village dem dey call Nkolo, wey dey Boko District for inside French Equatorial Africa around 1921, insyd Kongo family. E go missionary school plus primary school for Boko Regional School. Later, e train to be teacher for Edouard Renard school for Brazzaville. By age 13, e don already dey teach, and between 1945 to 1948, e go Chad go teach. By 1940, e join Chadian Progressive Party, wey be anti-colonialist movement, and for 1945, e be General Secretary of Association for de Development of Chad. E come return to Congo for 1947, be principal for Mossendjo from 1948 to 1953, den move to Mindouli from 1953 to 1956. For 1957, e be Headmaster of Bakongo Secular School for Brazzaville, and e join Congolese Progressive Party (PPC). === Career === By 1957, Massamba-Débat don join Fulbert Youlou ein party wey dem dey call Democratic Union for de Defense of African Interests (UDDIA). E stop teaching come be Minister of Education. Two years later, dem elect am go de national assembly. For 1959, dem make am president of de assembly, and e remain for power, later serve as Minister of State plus Planning. But e start dey criticize Youlou ein government, wey many people believe say e dey lean too much on France. When dem overthrow President Fulbert Youlou for coup on August 15, 1963, dem suspend de presidency. De next day, Massamba-Débat, wey be Chairman of de National Council of the Revolution, become Prime Minister, and dem declare say de National Council of the Revolution go be de only legal political party for de country. On December 19, 1963, dem elect Massamba-Débat as President, den Pascal Lissouba come take over as new Prime Minister. ==== Congo under Massamba-Débat (1963–1968) ==== Massamba-Débat ein government try follow one political economic style dem dey call "scientific socialism." By July 1964, Massamba-Débat ein people declare say na only one party go rule, wey be de National Movement of de Revolution, plus dem start nationalize plenty tins. For outside matter, Massamba-Débat join body plus USSR plus Communist China, and e gree make some guerilla fighters wey dey claim say dem be communist stay for Congo land. Under Massamba-Débat, Congo carry ideologies wey lean go socialist countries like Cuba plus China, and e comot body from capitalist countries. Che Guevara come meet Massamba-Débat for January 1965, plus dem break diplomatic relationship plus de United States. De relation between Congo-Brazzaville and dem neighbour Democratic Republic of de Congo no too good, as Mobutu own style start dey influence dem political road. So because of dat, de Tshombe government comot all Congo-Brazzaville people wey dey live for former Belgian Congo. For economic plus social level, Massamba-Débat lead de country wey dey manage tins well plus strict. Under ein presidency, Congo start dey do industrialization, wey make de standard of living for Congolese people better pass before. Dem build some big factories wey employ plenty people: like de textile factory for Kinsoundi, palm plantations for Etoumbi, match factory for Bétou, shipyards for Yoro, and so on. Dem build health centers plus plenty school groups (colleges plus primary schools). Congo ein school enrollment rate turn de highest for all Black Africa. Same time, Brazzaville turn base for left-wing people wey run from other Central African countries. Massamba-Débat try form people militia units for 1966 plus Cuban army dem help am. But for June to July 1966, for 10 days, some military people try overthrow ein government after he try put all di army under one command. Inside dis coup attempt wey no succeed, plenty Cuban soldiers hide members of Massamba-Débat ein government. Later, he come back to power but he gree some of de coup leaders demma demands. Then on August 5, 1968, dem form new National Council of de Revolution (CNR) plus new government, wey get 40 people insyd, including Massamba-Débat. For July 1968, he arrest Captain Ngouabi, scatter de National Assembly plus de Political Bureau of de MNR, then suspend de 1963 Constitution. Dis action cause wahala between de Civil Defense people dem and some part of de army. Dem force am later make he free all political prisoners and try settle things plus ein opponents. But after de coup palaver, tension still dey between Massamba-Débat ein government and de military. Then on September 4, 1968, Marien Ngouabi, wey be chairman for de same party wey carry Massamba-Débat go power, overthrow am. ==== Life under house arrest ==== After de coup for 1968 wey no get bloodshed, dem force Massamba-Débat comot for politics, so he go back ein hometown. Few hours after dem kill Ngouabi, dem arrest Massamba-Débat. As Ngouabi die for 1977, dem arrest plenty people put dem on trial say dem plan de killing, and Massamba-Débat too dey among. Dem shoot am by firing squad on de night of March 25, 1977. qdgtne7x2sqwa4wc6kvdmpkgezyv9on 69036 69035 2025-07-05T17:13:47Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69036 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Alphonse Massamba-Débat''' (February 11, 1921 – March 25, 1977) be a political figure of de Republic of the Congo who lead de country from 1963 until 1968 insyd a one-party system. == Biography == === Early life === E born for one small village dem dey call Nkolo, wey dey Boko District for inside French Equatorial Africa around 1921, insyd Kongo family. E go missionary school plus primary school for Boko Regional School. Later, e train to be teacher for Edouard Renard school for Brazzaville. By age 13, e don already dey teach, and between 1945 to 1948, e go Chad go teach. By 1940, e join Chadian Progressive Party, wey be anti-colonialist movement, and for 1945, e be General Secretary of Association for de Development of Chad. E come return to Congo for 1947, be principal for Mossendjo from 1948 to 1953, den move to Mindouli from 1953 to 1956. For 1957, e be Headmaster of Bakongo Secular School for Brazzaville, and e join Congolese Progressive Party (PPC). === Career === By 1957, Massamba-Débat don join Fulbert Youlou ein party wey dem dey call Democratic Union for de Defense of African Interests (UDDIA). E stop teaching come be Minister of Education. Two years later, dem elect am go de national assembly. For 1959, dem make am president of de assembly, and e remain for power, later serve as Minister of State plus Planning. But e start dey criticize Youlou ein government, wey many people believe say e dey lean too much on France. When dem overthrow President Fulbert Youlou for coup on August 15, 1963, dem suspend de presidency. De next day, Massamba-Débat, wey be Chairman of de National Council of the Revolution, become Prime Minister, and dem declare say de National Council of the Revolution go be de only legal political party for de country. On December 19, 1963, dem elect Massamba-Débat as President, den Pascal Lissouba come take over as new Prime Minister. ==== Congo under Massamba-Débat (1963–1968) ==== Massamba-Débat ein government try follow one political economic style dem dey call "scientific socialism." By July 1964, Massamba-Débat ein people declare say na only one party go rule, wey be de National Movement of de Revolution, plus dem start nationalize plenty tins. For outside matter, Massamba-Débat join body plus USSR plus Communist China, and e gree make some guerilla fighters wey dey claim say dem be communist stay for Congo land. Under Massamba-Débat, Congo carry ideologies wey lean go socialist countries like Cuba plus China, and e comot body from capitalist countries. Che Guevara come meet Massamba-Débat for January 1965, plus dem break diplomatic relationship plus de United States. De relation between Congo-Brazzaville and dem neighbour Democratic Republic of de Congo no too good, as Mobutu own style start dey influence dem political road. So because of dat, de Tshombe government comot all Congo-Brazzaville people wey dey live for former Belgian Congo. For economic plus social level, Massamba-Débat lead de country wey dey manage tins well plus strict. Under ein presidency, Congo start dey do industrialization, wey make de standard of living for Congolese people better pass before. Dem build some big factories wey employ plenty people: like de textile factory for Kinsoundi, palm plantations for Etoumbi, match factory for Bétou, shipyards for Yoro, and so on. Dem build health centers plus plenty school groups (colleges plus primary schools). Congo ein school enrollment rate turn de highest for all Black Africa. Same time, Brazzaville turn base for left-wing people wey run from other Central African countries. Massamba-Débat try form people militia units for 1966 plus Cuban army dem help am. But for June to July 1966, for 10 days, some military people try overthrow ein government after he try put all di army under one command. Inside dis coup attempt wey no succeed, plenty Cuban soldiers hide members of Massamba-Débat ein government. Later, he come back to power but he gree some of de coup leaders demma demands. Then on August 5, 1968, dem form new National Council of de Revolution (CNR) plus new government, wey get 40 people insyd, including Massamba-Débat. For July 1968, he arrest Captain Ngouabi, scatter de National Assembly plus de Political Bureau of de MNR, then suspend de 1963 Constitution. Dis action cause wahala between de Civil Defense people dem and some part of de army. Dem force am later make he free all political prisoners and try settle things plus ein opponents. But after de coup palaver, tension still dey between Massamba-Débat ein government and de military. Then on September 4, 1968, Marien Ngouabi, wey be chairman for de same party wey carry Massamba-Débat go power, overthrow am. ==== Life under house arrest ==== After de coup for 1968 wey no get bloodshed, dem force Massamba-Débat comot for politics, so he go back ein hometown. Few hours after dem kill Ngouabi, dem arrest Massamba-Débat. As Ngouabi die for 1977, dem arrest plenty people put dem on trial say dem plan de killing, and Massamba-Débat too dey among. Dem shoot am by firing squad on de night of March 25, 1977. == Sanso see == * Cold War§Competition in the Third World * People's Republic of the Congo dg2j77sn72rctzh8xz31fyb6xm8n3gh 69037 69036 2025-07-05T17:14:06Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69037 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Alphonse Massamba-Débat''' (February 11, 1921 – March 25, 1977) be a political figure of de Republic of the Congo who lead de country from 1963 until 1968 insyd a one-party system. == Biography == === Early life === E born for one small village dem dey call Nkolo, wey dey Boko District for inside French Equatorial Africa around 1921, insyd Kongo family. E go missionary school plus primary school for Boko Regional School. Later, e train to be teacher for Edouard Renard school for Brazzaville. By age 13, e don already dey teach, and between 1945 to 1948, e go Chad go teach. By 1940, e join Chadian Progressive Party, wey be anti-colonialist movement, and for 1945, e be General Secretary of Association for de Development of Chad. E come return to Congo for 1947, be principal for Mossendjo from 1948 to 1953, den move to Mindouli from 1953 to 1956. For 1957, e be Headmaster of Bakongo Secular School for Brazzaville, and e join Congolese Progressive Party (PPC). === Career === By 1957, Massamba-Débat don join Fulbert Youlou ein party wey dem dey call Democratic Union for de Defense of African Interests (UDDIA). E stop teaching come be Minister of Education. Two years later, dem elect am go de national assembly. For 1959, dem make am president of de assembly, and e remain for power, later serve as Minister of State plus Planning. But e start dey criticize Youlou ein government, wey many people believe say e dey lean too much on France. When dem overthrow President Fulbert Youlou for coup on August 15, 1963, dem suspend de presidency. De next day, Massamba-Débat, wey be Chairman of de National Council of the Revolution, become Prime Minister, and dem declare say de National Council of the Revolution go be de only legal political party for de country. On December 19, 1963, dem elect Massamba-Débat as President, den Pascal Lissouba come take over as new Prime Minister. ==== Congo under Massamba-Débat (1963–1968) ==== Massamba-Débat ein government try follow one political economic style dem dey call "scientific socialism." By July 1964, Massamba-Débat ein people declare say na only one party go rule, wey be de National Movement of de Revolution, plus dem start nationalize plenty tins. For outside matter, Massamba-Débat join body plus USSR plus Communist China, and e gree make some guerilla fighters wey dey claim say dem be communist stay for Congo land. Under Massamba-Débat, Congo carry ideologies wey lean go socialist countries like Cuba plus China, and e comot body from capitalist countries. Che Guevara come meet Massamba-Débat for January 1965, plus dem break diplomatic relationship plus de United States. De relation between Congo-Brazzaville and dem neighbour Democratic Republic of de Congo no too good, as Mobutu own style start dey influence dem political road. So because of dat, de Tshombe government comot all Congo-Brazzaville people wey dey live for former Belgian Congo. For economic plus social level, Massamba-Débat lead de country wey dey manage tins well plus strict. Under ein presidency, Congo start dey do industrialization, wey make de standard of living for Congolese people better pass before. Dem build some big factories wey employ plenty people: like de textile factory for Kinsoundi, palm plantations for Etoumbi, match factory for Bétou, shipyards for Yoro, and so on. Dem build health centers plus plenty school groups (colleges plus primary schools). Congo ein school enrollment rate turn de highest for all Black Africa. Same time, Brazzaville turn base for left-wing people wey run from other Central African countries. Massamba-Débat try form people militia units for 1966 plus Cuban army dem help am. But for June to July 1966, for 10 days, some military people try overthrow ein government after he try put all di army under one command. Inside dis coup attempt wey no succeed, plenty Cuban soldiers hide members of Massamba-Débat ein government. Later, he come back to power but he gree some of de coup leaders demma demands. Then on August 5, 1968, dem form new National Council of de Revolution (CNR) plus new government, wey get 40 people insyd, including Massamba-Débat. For July 1968, he arrest Captain Ngouabi, scatter de National Assembly plus de Political Bureau of de MNR, then suspend de 1963 Constitution. Dis action cause wahala between de Civil Defense people dem and some part of de army. Dem force am later make he free all political prisoners and try settle things plus ein opponents. But after de coup palaver, tension still dey between Massamba-Débat ein government and de military. Then on September 4, 1968, Marien Ngouabi, wey be chairman for de same party wey carry Massamba-Débat go power, overthrow am. ==== Life under house arrest ==== After de coup for 1968 wey no get bloodshed, dem force Massamba-Débat comot for politics, so he go back ein hometown. Few hours after dem kill Ngouabi, dem arrest Massamba-Débat. As Ngouabi die for 1977, dem arrest plenty people put dem on trial say dem plan de killing, and Massamba-Débat too dey among. Dem shoot am by firing squad on de night of March 25, 1977. == Sanso see == * Cold War§Competition in the Third World * People's Republic of the Congo == References == htdd82o9zsenn9fo2vi64okpsfmaljq Dinosay 0 18352 69040 2025-07-05T18:04:40Z 103.179.196.209 Created page with "{{Infobox software | name = Dinosay | logo = | screenshot = Typical_output_format_of_the_Dinosay_command.png | screenshot size = 250px | caption = Dinosay show T. rex dinosaur | author = | developer = Community people | released = 2022 | latest release version = | latest release date = {{start date and age|2025}} | programming language = Python (prog..." 69040 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox software | name = Dinosay | logo = | screenshot = Typical_output_format_of_the_Dinosay_command.png | screenshot size = 250px | caption = Dinosay show T. rex dinosaur | author = | developer = Community people | released = 2022 | latest release version = | latest release date = {{start date and age|2025}} | programming language = [[Python (programming language)|Python]] | operating system = [[Cross-platform]] | language = [[English]] | genre = ASCII art, terminal tool | license = [[MIT License]], [[Artistic License]], [[GNU General Public License]] | website = }} '''Dinosay''' be one command-line software wey dey show dinosaur [[ASCII art]] plus any message wey you type. E dey use talk bubble or thought bubble take show the message, and you fit choose different dinosaur style from <code>.dino</code> template files. The software dem take [[Python]] write am, and e fit run for Unix-like systems plus Windows too.<ref>{{Cite web|title=10 Tools to Have Fun With ASCII Art in Linux Terminal|url=https://itsfoss.com/ascii-art-linux-terminal/|access-date=2025-07-05|website=It's FOSS}}</ref> Each dinosaur template get place to change eye or tongue, make e fit express emotion based on the command-line option. Some of the dinosaur styles be: <code>trex</code>, <code>bronto</code>, <code>raptor</code>, <code>stego</code>, and more. == Example == How e go look if you run dinosay: <syntaxhighlight lang="shell-session"> $ echo "Roar mean I dey love you for dino language." | dinosay ________________________________________ / Roar mean I dey love you for dino language. \ ---------------------------------------- \ __ \ / _) .-^^^-/ / __/ / <__.|_|-|_| (oo) U </syntaxhighlight> If you choose different dinosaur with <code>-f</code>: <syntaxhighlight lang="shell-session"> $ echo "Extinction be small time, legend last forever." | dinosay -f bronto -t ___________________________________________ ( Extinction be small time, legend last forever. ) ------------------------------------------- \ \ .-=-==--==--. \ ..-==" ,'o`) `. \ ,' `"' \ \ : ( `.__...._ \ \ `._ ___ | `-. \ ||._-._/___________|__________\ \ || || ||___________| \ || || || `-' `-' `-' (..) U </syntaxhighlight> Use <code>raptor</code> like Tux the Linux mascot: <syntaxhighlight lang="shell-session"> $ echo "Linux dey flow for my blood." | dinosay -f raptor _______________________________________ / Linux dey flow for my blood. \ --------------------------------------- \ \ .--. |oo | |:_/ | // \ \ (| | ) /'\_ _/`\ \___)=(___/ </syntaxhighlight> List all dinosaur templates: <syntaxhighlight lang="shell-session"> $ dinosay -l Dino files for /usr/share/dinosay/ascii: trex bronto raptor stego triceratops ptero alienrex ghostdino </syntaxhighlight> == Command Options == {| class="wikitable" |- ! Option ! Wetin e dey do |- | <code>-n</code> | E no go wrap the line, everything go continue |- | <code>-W</code> | Set how wide the bubble go be (default na 40) |- | <code>-t</code> | Use thought bubble instead of talk one |- | <code>-f</code> | Choose which dino to use |- | <code>-l</code> | Show all dino styles |- | <code>-e</code> | Set eye shape (like <code>^^</code> or <code>OO</code>) |- | <code>-T</code> | Set tongue shape (like <code>U</code> or <code>()</code>) |- | <code>-b</code> | Borg mode (eye go be <code>==</code>) |- | <code>-d</code> | Dead mode (eye <code>XX</code>, tongue <code>U</code>) |- | <code>-g</code> | Greedy mode (eye be <code>$$</code>) |- | <code>-p</code> | Paranoid mode (eye <code>@@</code>) |- | <code>-s</code> | Stoned mode (eye <code>**</code>, tongue <code>U</code>) |- | <code>-w</code> | Wired mode (eye <code>OO</code>) |- | <code>-y</code> | Youthful mode (eye <code>..</code>) |} == References == {{Reflist}} == See More == * Sandra Henry-Stocker (2020). [https://www.networkworld.com/article/3601114/creating-your-own-cowsay-messenger.html "How to make your own cowsay"]. ''Network World''. * Sreenath (2023). [https://itsfoss.com/cowsay/ "ASCII fun inside Linux terminal"]. ''It's FOSS''. * CLI Dino Fun Weekly (2025). "How dinosay roar enter Linux terminal". Vol. 1, Issue 3. * ASCII Enthusiast Journal (2025). "Open Python ASCII Tools". Issue 42. 2o577n7fxcu1uq0jgnmwht2oi9ml3mz 69041 69040 2025-07-05T18:04:50Z 103.179.196.209 69041 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Dinosay''' be one command-line software wey dey show dinosaur [[ASCII art]] plus any message wey you type. E dey use talk bubble or thought bubble take show the message, and you fit choose different dinosaur style from <code>.dino</code> template files. The software dem take [[Python]] write am, and e fit run for Unix-like systems plus Windows too.<ref>{{Cite web|title=10 Tools to Have Fun With ASCII Art in Linux Terminal|url=https://itsfoss.com/ascii-art-linux-terminal/|access-date=2025-07-05|website=It's FOSS}}</ref> Each dinosaur template get place to change eye or tongue, make e fit express emotion based on the command-line option. Some of the dinosaur styles be: <code>trex</code>, <code>bronto</code>, <code>raptor</code>, <code>stego</code>, and more. == Example == How e go look if you run dinosay: <syntaxhighlight lang="shell-session"> $ echo "Roar mean I dey love you for dino language." | dinosay ________________________________________ / Roar mean I dey love you for dino language. \ ---------------------------------------- \ __ \ / _) .-^^^-/ / __/ / <__.|_|-|_| (oo) U </syntaxhighlight> If you choose different dinosaur with <code>-f</code>: <syntaxhighlight lang="shell-session"> $ echo "Extinction be small time, legend last forever." | dinosay -f bronto -t ___________________________________________ ( Extinction be small time, legend last forever. ) ------------------------------------------- \ \ .-=-==--==--. \ ..-==" ,'o`) `. \ ,' `"' \ \ : ( `.__...._ \ \ `._ ___ | `-. \ ||._-._/___________|__________\ \ || || ||___________| \ || || || `-' `-' `-' (..) U </syntaxhighlight> Use <code>raptor</code> like Tux the Linux mascot: <syntaxhighlight lang="shell-session"> $ echo "Linux dey flow for my blood." | dinosay -f raptor _______________________________________ / Linux dey flow for my blood. \ --------------------------------------- \ \ .--. |oo | |:_/ | // \ \ (| | ) /'\_ _/`\ \___)=(___/ </syntaxhighlight> List all dinosaur templates: <syntaxhighlight lang="shell-session"> $ dinosay -l Dino files for /usr/share/dinosay/ascii: trex bronto raptor stego triceratops ptero alienrex ghostdino </syntaxhighlight> == Command Options == {| class="wikitable" |- ! Option ! Wetin e dey do |- | <code>-n</code> | E no go wrap the line, everything go continue |- | <code>-W</code> | Set how wide the bubble go be (default na 40) |- | <code>-t</code> | Use thought bubble instead of talk one |- | <code>-f</code> | Choose which dino to use |- | <code>-l</code> | Show all dino styles |- | <code>-e</code> | Set eye shape (like <code>^^</code> or <code>OO</code>) |- | <code>-T</code> | Set tongue shape (like <code>U</code> or <code>()</code>) |- | <code>-b</code> | Borg mode (eye go be <code>==</code>) |- | <code>-d</code> | Dead mode (eye <code>XX</code>, tongue <code>U</code>) |- | <code>-g</code> | Greedy mode (eye be <code>$$</code>) |- | <code>-p</code> | Paranoid mode (eye <code>@@</code>) |- | <code>-s</code> | Stoned mode (eye <code>**</code>, tongue <code>U</code>) |- | <code>-w</code> | Wired mode (eye <code>OO</code>) |- | <code>-y</code> | Youthful mode (eye <code>..</code>) |} == References == {{Reflist}} == See More == * Sandra Henry-Stocker (2020). [https://www.networkworld.com/article/3601114/creating-your-own-cowsay-messenger.html "How to make your own cowsay"]. ''Network World''. * Sreenath (2023). [https://itsfoss.com/cowsay/ "ASCII fun inside Linux terminal"]. ''It's FOSS''. * CLI Dino Fun Weekly (2025). "How dinosay roar enter Linux terminal". Vol. 1, Issue 3. * ASCII Enthusiast Journal (2025). "Open Python ASCII Tools". Issue 42. nmcnrwo6m9hrkenjrloaxk7ahlto22v Mobutu Sese Seko 0 18353 69069 2025-07-05T19:01:43Z KISUMAR123 1270 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1298843149|Mobutu Sese Seko]]" 69069 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu wa za Banga''' ; born '''Joseph-Désiré Mobutu'''; 14 October 1930 – 7 September 1997), people dey call am Mobutu Sese Seko or Mobutu and sana known by ein initials MSS, e be Congolese politician plus military officer wey be de first and only president of Zaire from 1971 to 1997. Before dat, Mobutu serve as de second president of de Democratic Republic of de Congo, from 1965 to 1971. E sana serve as de fifth chairperson of de Organisation of African Unity from 1967 to 1968. During de Congo Crisis insyd 1960, Mobutu, wey den be Chief of Staff insyd de Congolese Army, commot de nation ein democratically elected govment of Patrice Lumumba plus support from de U.S. and Belgium. Mobutu put govment insyd wey arrange make dem execute Lumumba for 1961, and e continue dey lead de country ein armed forces till e take power direct insyd another coup for 1965. {{Infobox officeholder|name=Mobutu Sese Seko|image=Mobutu (cropped).jpg|caption=Mobutu in 1983|office=[[President of Zaire]]|term_start=27 October 1971|term_end=16 May 1997|predecessor=[[Joseph Kasa-Vubu]]<br>{{small|(as President of the DRC)}}|successor=[[Laurent-Désiré Kabila]]<br>{{small|(as President of the DRC)}}|order1=2nd|office1=President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo|term_start1=24 November 1965|term_end1=27 October 1971|predecessor1=[[Joseph Kasa-Vubu]]|successor1=''Himself''<br>{{small|(as President of Zaire)}}|order2=5th|office2=Chairperson of the Organisation of African Unity|term_start2=11 September 1967|term_end2=14 September 1968|predecessor2=[[Haile Selassie]]|successor2=[[Houari Boumédiène]]|birth_name=Joseph-Désiré Mobutu|birth_date={{birth date|df=yes|1930|10|14}}|birth_place=[[Lisala]], [[Équateur (former province)|Équateur]], [[Belgian Congo]]|death_date={{death date and age|df=yes|1997|09|07|1930|10|14}}|death_place=[[Rabat]], [[Rabat-Salé-Kénitra]], Morocco|nationality=<!-- use only when necessary per [[WP:INFONAT]] -->|party=[[Popular Movement of the Revolution]]|spouse={{plainlist| * {{marriage|[[Marie-Antoinette Mobutu|Marie-Antoinette Gbiatibwa Gogbe Yetene]]|1955|1977|end=her death}} * {{marriage|[[Bobi Ladawa Mobutu|Bobi Ladawa]]|1980}} }}|children=16, including [[Nzanga Mobutu|Nzanga]] and [[Kongulu Mobutu|Kongulu]]|branch={{plainlist| * {{Flagicon|Belgian Congo}} [[Force Publique]] * {{Flagicon|COD|1964}} [[Armée Nationale Congolaise|Congolese National Army]] * {{flagicon|Zaire}} [[Forces Armées Zaïroises|Zairian Armed Forces]] }}|rank={{plainlist| * [[Marshal]] (Army) * [[Admiral]] (Navy) * [[Commander in chief]] (Military) }}|battles={{plainlist| * [[Congo Crisis]] *[[Katanga insurgency]] * [[Shaba invasions]] * [[First Congo War]] }}|allegiance={{Flagicon|Belgian Congo}} [[Belgian Congo]] (1949–1960)<br />{{Flagicon|COD|1964}} [[Congo-Léopoldville]] (1960–1971)<br />{{Flag|Zaire}}<br>(1971–1997)|serviceyears=1949–1997}}{{Mobutu}} '''Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu wa za Banga'''{{Efn|The name translates as "the warrior who goes from conquest to conquest, leaving fire in his path", "the warrior who leaves a trail of fire in his path", or "the warrior who knows no defeat because of his endurance and inflexible will and is all powerful, leaving fire in his wake as he goes from conquest to conquest".}} ({{IPAc-en|m|ə|ˈ|b|uː|t|uː|_|ˈ|s|ɛ|s|eɪ|_|ˈ|s|ɛ|k|oʊ|audio=En-us-Mobutu Sese Seko from Zaire pronunciation (Voice of America).ogg}} {{respell|mə|BOO|too|_|SESS|ay|_|SEK|oh}}; born '''Joseph-Désiré Mobutu'''; 14 October 1930 – 7 September 1997), often shortened to '''Mobutu Sese Seko''' or '''Mobutu''' and also known by his initials '''MSS''', was a Congolese politician and military officer who was the first and only president of Zaire from 1971 to 1997. Previously, Mobutu served as the second president of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, from 1965 to 1971. He also served as the fifth chairperson of the Organisation of African Unity from 1967 to 1968. During the Congo Crisis in 1960, Mobutu, then serving as Chief of Staff of the Congolese Army, deposed the nation's democratically elected government of [[Patrice Lumumba]] with the support of the U.S. and Belgium. Mobutu installed a government that arranged for Lumumba's execution in 1961, and continued to lead the country's armed forces until he took power directly in a second coup in 1965. owrl8qj2hp3mafgczffcamskzgflsun 69070 69069 2025-07-05T19:41:09Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69070 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu wa za Banga''' ; born '''Joseph-Désiré Mobutu'''; 14 October 1930 – 7 September 1997), people dey call am Mobutu Sese Seko or Mobutu and sana known by ein initials MSS, e be Congolese politician plus military officer wey be de first and only president of Zaire from 1971 to 1997. Before dat, Mobutu serve as de second president of de Democratic Republic of de Congo, from 1965 to 1971. E sana serve as de fifth chairperson of de Organisation of African Unity from 1967 to 1968. During de Congo Crisis insyd 1960, Mobutu, wey den be Chief of Staff insyd de Congolese Army, commot de nation ein democratically elected govment of Patrice Lumumba plus support from de U.S. and Belgium. Mobutu put govment insyd wey arrange make dem execute Lumumba for 1961, and e continue dey lead de country ein armed forces till e take power direct insyd another coup for 1965. To make sure say power no escape am, he create de Popular Movement of de Revolution as de only correct political party for 1967, change Congo ein name go Zaire for 1971, plus e own name turn Mobutu Sese Seko for 1972. Mobutu protect ein rule under hard autocratic regime and end up dey rule during time wey human rights violations spread everywhere. E try purge de country from all colonial culture tins through ein "national authenticity" program. Mobutu turn de main person wey everybody dey hype like say na cult of personality he dey carry. Mobutu talk say ein political ideology no be "left", no be "right", and no be "centre" too, but people mostly know am say e dey against communism for de Françafrique zone. Because of dat, United States, France, plus Belgium support am well-well—dem dash am military, diplomatic, and economic backing. E still build tight link plus apartheid South Africa, Israel, plus de Greek junta dem. Mobutu get strong name for corruption plus nepotism: dem talk say ein personal wealth fit reach from $50 million go $5 billion, all na from economic exploitation plus corruption as president. Some people call ein govment kleptocracy, ’cos e dey pile ein own money while Zaire ein economy suffer—plenty inflation, big debt, and serious currency wahala. E too known for ein flashy lifestyle, like how e dey fly go Paris on top de fast-fast Concorde jet just to do shopping. By 1990, as de economy start dey spoil plus tension dey rise, dem force Mobutu Sese Seko make e enter coalition plus political opponents and agree make dem do multiparty system. Even though e use ein soldiers try block de change, de movement no gree stop. By May 1997, rebel dem wey Laurent-Désiré Kabila lead take over de country and push Mobutu go exile. E already dey battle prostate cancer wey hard, so three months later, e die for Morocco. r4ghpu72b5ccq3obsf13br63u16aea8 69071 69070 2025-07-05T19:45:22Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69071 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu wa za Banga''' ; born '''Joseph-Désiré Mobutu'''; 14 October 1930 – 7 September 1997), people dey call am Mobutu Sese Seko or Mobutu and sana known by ein initials MSS, e be Congolese politician plus military officer wey be de first and only president of Zaire from 1971 to 1997. Before dat, Mobutu serve as de second president of de Democratic Republic of de Congo, from 1965 to 1971. E sana serve as de fifth chairperson of de Organisation of African Unity from 1967 to 1968. During de Congo Crisis insyd 1960, Mobutu, wey den be Chief of Staff insyd de Congolese Army, commot de nation ein democratically elected govment of Patrice Lumumba plus support from de U.S. and Belgium. Mobutu put govment insyd wey arrange make dem execute Lumumba for 1961, and e continue dey lead de country ein armed forces till e take power direct insyd another coup for 1965. To make sure say power no escape am, he create de Popular Movement of de Revolution as de only correct political party for 1967, change Congo ein name go Zaire for 1971, plus e own name turn Mobutu Sese Seko for 1972. Mobutu protect ein rule under hard autocratic regime and end up dey rule during time wey human rights violations spread everywhere. E try purge de country from all colonial culture tins through ein "national authenticity" program. Mobutu turn de main person wey everybody dey hype like say na cult of personality he dey carry. Mobutu talk say ein political ideology no be "left", no be "right", and no be "centre" too, but people mostly know am say e dey against communism for de Françafrique zone. Because of dat, United States, France, plus Belgium support am well-well—dem dash am military, diplomatic, and economic backing. E still build tight link plus apartheid South Africa, Israel, plus de Greek junta dem. Mobutu get strong name for corruption plus nepotism: dem talk say ein personal wealth fit reach from $50 million go $5 billion, all na from economic exploitation plus corruption as president. Some people call ein govment kleptocracy, ’cos e dey pile ein own money while Zaire ein economy suffer—plenty inflation, big debt, and serious currency wahala. E too known for ein flashy lifestyle, like how e dey fly go Paris on top de fast-fast Concorde jet just to do shopping. By 1990, as de economy start dey spoil plus tension dey rise, dem force Mobutu Sese Seko make e enter coalition plus political opponents and agree make dem do multiparty system. Even though e use ein soldiers try block de change, de movement no gree stop. By May 1997, rebel dem wey Laurent-Désiré Kabila lead take over de country and push Mobutu go exile. E already dey battle prostate cancer wey hard, so three months later, e die for Morocco. == Biography == === Early years den education === Mobutu, wey come from de Ngbandi ethnic group, dem born am for 1930 insyd Lisala, Belgian Congo. Mobutu ein mommie, Marie Madeleine Yemo, be hotel maid wey run go Lisala make she escape one local village chief ein harem. Na there she jam Albéric Gbemani, cook wey dey work for one Belgian judge, den she marry am. Not long after, she born Mobutu. Na one uncle pick de name “Mobutu” give am. Gbemani die when Mobutu be just eight years. After dat, one uncle plus ein grandfather raise am. De Belgian judge ein wife take fine eye see Mobutu, so she teach am how to speak, read plus write French well-well, wey be de official language of de colony. Ein mommie Yemo wey be widow, lean on family help to take care of her four pikin dem, and dem dey move from place to place often. Mobutu ein first schooling happen for capital town Léopoldville (wey now dem dey call Kinshasa). Later, ein mommie send am go ein uncle for Coquilhatville (now Mbandaka), where e attend Christian Brothers School, one Catholic-mission boarding school. Mobutu shine for books top and even run de class newspaper. People still know am for ein stubborn pranks and sharp small-boy sense of humor. One classmate remember say anytime de Belgian priests—wey ein main language be Dutch—make mistake for French, Mobutu go jump from ein seat for class top and point out de error sharp. For 1949, Mobutu sneak enter one boat wey dey go downriver to Léopoldville, where e jam one girl. Some weeks later, de priests find am. As school year end, instead of dem send am go prison, dem order make e serve seven years insyd de colonial army, Force Publique (FP). Dat kind punishment na normal tin for students wey dey act stubborn. dpv8ni39imey3ahla74waxagiabt2z3 69072 69071 2025-07-05T19:47:13Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69072 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu wa za Banga''' ; born '''Joseph-Désiré Mobutu'''; 14 October 1930 – 7 September 1997), people dey call am Mobutu Sese Seko or Mobutu and sana known by ein initials MSS, e be Congolese politician plus military officer wey be de first and only president of Zaire from 1971 to 1997. Before dat, Mobutu serve as de second president of de Democratic Republic of de Congo, from 1965 to 1971. E sana serve as de fifth chairperson of de Organisation of African Unity from 1967 to 1968. During de Congo Crisis insyd 1960, Mobutu, wey den be Chief of Staff insyd de Congolese Army, commot de nation ein democratically elected govment of Patrice Lumumba plus support from de U.S. and Belgium. Mobutu put govment insyd wey arrange make dem execute Lumumba for 1961, and e continue dey lead de country ein armed forces till e take power direct insyd another coup for 1965. To make sure say power no escape am, he create de Popular Movement of de Revolution as de only correct political party for 1967, change Congo ein name go Zaire for 1971, plus e own name turn Mobutu Sese Seko for 1972. Mobutu protect ein rule under hard autocratic regime and end up dey rule during time wey human rights violations spread everywhere. E try purge de country from all colonial culture tins through ein "national authenticity" program. Mobutu turn de main person wey everybody dey hype like say na cult of personality he dey carry. Mobutu talk say ein political ideology no be "left", no be "right", and no be "centre" too, but people mostly know am say e dey against communism for de Françafrique zone. Because of dat, United States, France, plus Belgium support am well-well—dem dash am military, diplomatic, and economic backing. E still build tight link plus apartheid South Africa, Israel, plus de Greek junta dem. Mobutu get strong name for corruption plus nepotism: dem talk say ein personal wealth fit reach from $50 million go $5 billion, all na from economic exploitation plus corruption as president. Some people call ein govment kleptocracy, ’cos e dey pile ein own money while Zaire ein economy suffer—plenty inflation, big debt, and serious currency wahala. E too known for ein flashy lifestyle, like how e dey fly go Paris on top de fast-fast Concorde jet just to do shopping. By 1990, as de economy start dey spoil plus tension dey rise, dem force Mobutu Sese Seko make e enter coalition plus political opponents and agree make dem do multiparty system. Even though e use ein soldiers try block de change, de movement no gree stop. By May 1997, rebel dem wey Laurent-Désiré Kabila lead take over de country and push Mobutu go exile. E already dey battle prostate cancer wey hard, so three months later, e die for Morocco. == Biography == === Early years den education === Mobutu, wey come from de Ngbandi ethnic group, dem born am for 1930 insyd Lisala, Belgian Congo. Mobutu ein mommie, Marie Madeleine Yemo, be hotel maid wey run go Lisala make she escape one local village chief ein harem. Na there she jam Albéric Gbemani, cook wey dey work for one Belgian judge, den she marry am. Not long after, she born Mobutu. Na one uncle pick de name “Mobutu” give am. Gbemani die when Mobutu be just eight years. After dat, one uncle plus ein grandfather raise am. De Belgian judge ein wife take fine eye see Mobutu, so she teach am how to speak, read plus write French well-well, wey be de official language of de colony. Ein mommie Yemo wey be widow, lean on family help to take care of her four pikin dem, and dem dey move from place to place often. Mobutu ein first schooling happen for capital town Léopoldville (wey now dem dey call Kinshasa). Later, ein mommie send am go ein uncle for Coquilhatville (now Mbandaka), where e attend Christian Brothers School, one Catholic-mission boarding school. Mobutu shine for books top and even run de class newspaper. People still know am for ein stubborn pranks and sharp small-boy sense of humor. One classmate remember say anytime de Belgian priests—wey ein main language be Dutch—make mistake for French, Mobutu go jump from ein seat for class top and point out de error sharp. For 1949, Mobutu sneak enter one boat wey dey go downriver to Léopoldville, where e jam one girl. Some weeks later, de priests find am. As school year end, instead of dem send am go prison, dem order make e serve seven years insyd de colonial army, Force Publique (FP). Dat kind punishment na normal tin for students wey dey act stubborn. === Army service === Mobutu find discipline for army life top, and e see father figure insyd Sergeant Louis Bobozo. Mobutu no stop ein studies—e dey borrow European newspapers from de Belgian officers plus pick books from anywhere e fit find, then e go read dem during sentry duty or any small chance e get. De ones wey e like pass be de writings of French president Charles de Gaulle, British prime minister Winston Churchill, plus de Italian Renaissance philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli. After e pass one course for accounting, Mobutu start small-small dey do journalism work proper. Still vexed about how e and de school priests jam wahala, e no marry for church. De only thing e fit bring for de wedding enjoyment be one crate of beer—na all ein army salary fit buy. === Early political involvement === h6m5f4ll44o0iodfhsjucnud8aln2bw 69073 69072 2025-07-05T19:51:09Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69073 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu wa za Banga''' ; born '''Joseph-Désiré Mobutu'''; 14 October 1930 – 7 September 1997), people dey call am Mobutu Sese Seko or Mobutu and sana known by ein initials MSS, e be Congolese politician plus military officer wey be de first and only president of Zaire from 1971 to 1997. Before dat, Mobutu serve as de second president of de Democratic Republic of de Congo, from 1965 to 1971. E sana serve as de fifth chairperson of de Organisation of African Unity from 1967 to 1968. During de Congo Crisis insyd 1960, Mobutu, wey den be Chief of Staff insyd de Congolese Army, commot de nation ein democratically elected govment of Patrice Lumumba plus support from de U.S. and Belgium. Mobutu put govment insyd wey arrange make dem execute Lumumba for 1961, and e continue dey lead de country ein armed forces till e take power direct insyd another coup for 1965. To make sure say power no escape am, he create de Popular Movement of de Revolution as de only correct political party for 1967, change Congo ein name go Zaire for 1971, plus e own name turn Mobutu Sese Seko for 1972. Mobutu protect ein rule under hard autocratic regime and end up dey rule during time wey human rights violations spread everywhere. E try purge de country from all colonial culture tins through ein "national authenticity" program. Mobutu turn de main person wey everybody dey hype like say na cult of personality he dey carry. Mobutu talk say ein political ideology no be "left", no be "right", and no be "centre" too, but people mostly know am say e dey against communism for de Françafrique zone. Because of dat, United States, France, plus Belgium support am well-well—dem dash am military, diplomatic, and economic backing. E still build tight link plus apartheid South Africa, Israel, plus de Greek junta dem. Mobutu get strong name for corruption plus nepotism: dem talk say ein personal wealth fit reach from $50 million go $5 billion, all na from economic exploitation plus corruption as president. Some people call ein govment kleptocracy, ’cos e dey pile ein own money while Zaire ein economy suffer—plenty inflation, big debt, and serious currency wahala. E too known for ein flashy lifestyle, like how e dey fly go Paris on top de fast-fast Concorde jet just to do shopping. By 1990, as de economy start dey spoil plus tension dey rise, dem force Mobutu Sese Seko make e enter coalition plus political opponents and agree make dem do multiparty system. Even though e use ein soldiers try block de change, de movement no gree stop. By May 1997, rebel dem wey Laurent-Désiré Kabila lead take over de country and push Mobutu go exile. E already dey battle prostate cancer wey hard, so three months later, e die for Morocco. == Biography == === Early years den education === Mobutu, wey come from de Ngbandi ethnic group, dem born am for 1930 insyd Lisala, Belgian Congo. Mobutu ein mommie, Marie Madeleine Yemo, be hotel maid wey run go Lisala make she escape one local village chief ein harem. Na there she jam Albéric Gbemani, cook wey dey work for one Belgian judge, den she marry am. Not long after, she born Mobutu. Na one uncle pick de name “Mobutu” give am. Gbemani die when Mobutu be just eight years. After dat, one uncle plus ein grandfather raise am. De Belgian judge ein wife take fine eye see Mobutu, so she teach am how to speak, read plus write French well-well, wey be de official language of de colony. Ein mommie Yemo wey be widow, lean on family help to take care of her four pikin dem, and dem dey move from place to place often. Mobutu ein first schooling happen for capital town Léopoldville (wey now dem dey call Kinshasa). Later, ein mommie send am go ein uncle for Coquilhatville (now Mbandaka), where e attend Christian Brothers School, one Catholic-mission boarding school. Mobutu shine for books top and even run de class newspaper. People still know am for ein stubborn pranks and sharp small-boy sense of humor. One classmate remember say anytime de Belgian priests—wey ein main language be Dutch—make mistake for French, Mobutu go jump from ein seat for class top and point out de error sharp. For 1949, Mobutu sneak enter one boat wey dey go downriver to Léopoldville, where e jam one girl. Some weeks later, de priests find am. As school year end, instead of dem send am go prison, dem order make e serve seven years insyd de colonial army, Force Publique (FP). Dat kind punishment na normal tin for students wey dey act stubborn. === Army service === Mobutu find discipline for army life top, and e see father figure insyd Sergeant Louis Bobozo. Mobutu no stop ein studies—e dey borrow European newspapers from de Belgian officers plus pick books from anywhere e fit find, then e go read dem during sentry duty or any small chance e get. De ones wey e like pass be de writings of French president Charles de Gaulle, British prime minister Winston Churchill, plus de Italian Renaissance philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli. After e pass one course for accounting, Mobutu start small-small dey do journalism work proper. Still vexed about how e and de school priests jam wahala, e no marry for church. De only thing e fit bring for de wedding enjoyment be one crate of beer—na all ein army salary fit buy. === Early political involvement === As soldier, Mobutu dey write politics matter under fake name for Actualités Africaines (African News), one magazine wey one Belgian colonial set up. For 1956, e comot from army and turn full-time journalist, dey write for Léopoldville daily L'Avenir. Two years later, e go Belgium to report de 1958 World Exposition, then e stay back make e learn journalism better. By dis time, Mobutu don meet plenty young Congolese intellectuals wey dey challenge colonial rule. E come build friendship plus Patrice Lumumba and join Lumumba ein party—Congolese National Movement (MNC). Mobutu later become Lumumba ein personal aide. Some people wey know de matter talk say Belgian intelligence fit don recruit Mobutu as informant give de government. During de 1960 talks wey happen for Brussels about Congolese independence, de US embassy organize one reception give de Congolese delegation. Each embassy staff get list of delegates wey dem suppose meet, and later dem come talk about de people dem meet. De ambassador talk say, “One name just dey pop up steady. But nobody get am for ein list 'cos e no be official delegation member—e be Lumumba ein secretary. But everybody agree say dis guy get strong brain, e be young, maybe small immature, but e get big future ahead.” After de general election, dem assign Lumumba make e form govment. E give Mobutu de position of Secretary of State to de Presidency. Mobutu carry plenty weight for deciding de rest of de govment people. But after independence land, e no fit see Lumumba one-on-one again like before, 'cos de new prime minister start dey busy plus plenty aides and colleagues surround am. From there, both of dem slowly start drift apart. 64gjluav4aw3yzu1hwh4ou9rx7g3nag 69074 69073 2025-07-05T19:52:51Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69074 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu wa za Banga''' ; born '''Joseph-Désiré Mobutu'''; 14 October 1930 – 7 September 1997), people dey call am Mobutu Sese Seko or Mobutu and sana known by ein initials MSS, e be Congolese politician plus military officer wey be de first and only president of Zaire from 1971 to 1997. Before dat, Mobutu serve as de second president of de Democratic Republic of de Congo, from 1965 to 1971. E sana serve as de fifth chairperson of de Organisation of African Unity from 1967 to 1968. During de Congo Crisis insyd 1960, Mobutu, wey den be Chief of Staff insyd de Congolese Army, commot de nation ein democratically elected govment of Patrice Lumumba plus support from de U.S. and Belgium. Mobutu put govment insyd wey arrange make dem execute Lumumba for 1961, and e continue dey lead de country ein armed forces till e take power direct insyd another coup for 1965. To make sure say power no escape am, he create de Popular Movement of de Revolution as de only correct political party for 1967, change Congo ein name go Zaire for 1971, plus e own name turn Mobutu Sese Seko for 1972. Mobutu protect ein rule under hard autocratic regime and end up dey rule during time wey human rights violations spread everywhere. E try purge de country from all colonial culture tins through ein "national authenticity" program. Mobutu turn de main person wey everybody dey hype like say na cult of personality he dey carry. Mobutu talk say ein political ideology no be "left", no be "right", and no be "centre" too, but people mostly know am say e dey against communism for de Françafrique zone. Because of dat, United States, France, plus Belgium support am well-well—dem dash am military, diplomatic, and economic backing. E still build tight link plus apartheid South Africa, Israel, plus de Greek junta dem. Mobutu get strong name for corruption plus nepotism: dem talk say ein personal wealth fit reach from $50 million go $5 billion, all na from economic exploitation plus corruption as president. Some people call ein govment kleptocracy, ’cos e dey pile ein own money while Zaire ein economy suffer—plenty inflation, big debt, and serious currency wahala. E too known for ein flashy lifestyle, like how e dey fly go Paris on top de fast-fast Concorde jet just to do shopping. By 1990, as de economy start dey spoil plus tension dey rise, dem force Mobutu Sese Seko make e enter coalition plus political opponents and agree make dem do multiparty system. Even though e use ein soldiers try block de change, de movement no gree stop. By May 1997, rebel dem wey Laurent-Désiré Kabila lead take over de country and push Mobutu go exile. E already dey battle prostate cancer wey hard, so three months later, e die for Morocco. == Biography == === Early years den education === Mobutu, wey come from de Ngbandi ethnic group, dem born am for 1930 insyd Lisala, Belgian Congo. Mobutu ein mommie, Marie Madeleine Yemo, be hotel maid wey run go Lisala make she escape one local village chief ein harem. Na there she jam Albéric Gbemani, cook wey dey work for one Belgian judge, den she marry am. Not long after, she born Mobutu. Na one uncle pick de name “Mobutu” give am. Gbemani die when Mobutu be just eight years. After dat, one uncle plus ein grandfather raise am. De Belgian judge ein wife take fine eye see Mobutu, so she teach am how to speak, read plus write French well-well, wey be de official language of de colony. Ein mommie Yemo wey be widow, lean on family help to take care of her four pikin dem, and dem dey move from place to place often. Mobutu ein first schooling happen for capital town Léopoldville (wey now dem dey call Kinshasa). Later, ein mommie send am go ein uncle for Coquilhatville (now Mbandaka), where e attend Christian Brothers School, one Catholic-mission boarding school. Mobutu shine for books top and even run de class newspaper. People still know am for ein stubborn pranks and sharp small-boy sense of humor. One classmate remember say anytime de Belgian priests—wey ein main language be Dutch—make mistake for French, Mobutu go jump from ein seat for class top and point out de error sharp. For 1949, Mobutu sneak enter one boat wey dey go downriver to Léopoldville, where e jam one girl. Some weeks later, de priests find am. As school year end, instead of dem send am go prison, dem order make e serve seven years insyd de colonial army, Force Publique (FP). Dat kind punishment na normal tin for students wey dey act stubborn. === Army service === Mobutu find discipline for army life top, and e see father figure insyd Sergeant Louis Bobozo. Mobutu no stop ein studies—e dey borrow European newspapers from de Belgian officers plus pick books from anywhere e fit find, then e go read dem during sentry duty or any small chance e get. De ones wey e like pass be de writings of French president Charles de Gaulle, British prime minister Winston Churchill, plus de Italian Renaissance philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli. After e pass one course for accounting, Mobutu start small-small dey do journalism work proper. Still vexed about how e and de school priests jam wahala, e no marry for church. De only thing e fit bring for de wedding enjoyment be one crate of beer—na all ein army salary fit buy. === Early political involvement === As soldier, Mobutu dey write politics matter under fake name for Actualités Africaines (African News), one magazine wey one Belgian colonial set up. For 1956, e comot from army and turn full-time journalist, dey write for Léopoldville daily L'Avenir. Two years later, e go Belgium to report de 1958 World Exposition, then e stay back make e learn journalism better. By dis time, Mobutu don meet plenty young Congolese intellectuals wey dey challenge colonial rule. E come build friendship plus Patrice Lumumba and join Lumumba ein party—Congolese National Movement (MNC). Mobutu later become Lumumba ein personal aide. Some people wey know de matter talk say Belgian intelligence fit don recruit Mobutu as informant give de government. During de 1960 talks wey happen for Brussels about Congolese independence, de US embassy organize one reception give de Congolese delegation. Each embassy staff get list of delegates wey dem suppose meet, and later dem come talk about de people dem meet. De ambassador talk say, “One name just dey pop up steady. But nobody get am for ein list 'cos e no be official delegation member—e be Lumumba ein secretary. But everybody agree say dis guy get strong brain, e be young, maybe small immature, but e get big future ahead.” After de general election, dem assign Lumumba make e form govment. E give Mobutu de position of Secretary of State to de Presidency. Mobutu carry plenty weight for deciding de rest of de govment people. But after independence land, e no fit see Lumumba one-on-one again like before, 'cos de new prime minister start dey busy plus plenty aides and colleagues surround am. From there, both of dem slowly start drift apart. === Congo Crisis === Main article: Congo Crisis On 5 July 1960, soldiers of de Force Publique wey dey Camp Léopold II for Léopoldville vex over dem all-white leaders and bad working conditions, so dem rise mutiny. Di revolt spread go other places sharp-sharp. Mobutu join other officials talk to de mutineers so dem fit free de officers plus dem families. Then on 8 July, de full Council of Ministers gather for one special meeting under President Joseph Kasa-Vubu ein chairmanship for Camp Léopold II to face de matter of Africanising de garrison. De ministers start dey argue who go fit take de top job as army chief of staff. Two people wey stand out be Minister of Youth and Sports Maurice Mpolo, plus Mobutu. Mpolo don already show say e get some control over de soldiers wey dey mutiny, but Kasa-Vubu plus de Bakongo ministers fear say if dem give am power, e fit run coup. Mobutu on de other hand, people see am as cool-head wey dey think before e act. Lumumba respect Mpolo for ein boldness, but e prefer Mobutu ein cautious style. As de argument go on, de cabinet start split based on who dem support to be chief of staff. Lumumba no wan lose any of de two camps, so e try keep both men for ein team. In de end, dem give Mobutu de position and promote am to colonel. Next day, govment teams comot from de capital to supervise how dem go Africanise de army; Mobutu own assignment na for Équateur. While Mobutu dey there, Mpolo begin act as ANC Chief of Staff. Mobutu no happy at all with dat move, so when e return to de capital, e face Lumumba inside cabinet meeting and tell am plain: “Either I no deserve am and you gots sack me, or I do de mission well and I go keep my rank plus position.” l38jsy0aycbt2zyjxy13uu6zhbxnuyy 69075 69074 2025-07-05T19:55:18Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69075 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu wa za Banga''' ; born '''Joseph-Désiré Mobutu'''; 14 October 1930 – 7 September 1997), people dey call am Mobutu Sese Seko or Mobutu and sana known by ein initials MSS, e be Congolese politician plus military officer wey be de first and only president of Zaire from 1971 to 1997. Before dat, Mobutu serve as de second president of de Democratic Republic of de Congo, from 1965 to 1971. E sana serve as de fifth chairperson of de Organisation of African Unity from 1967 to 1968. During de Congo Crisis insyd 1960, Mobutu, wey den be Chief of Staff insyd de Congolese Army, commot de nation ein democratically elected govment of Patrice Lumumba plus support from de U.S. and Belgium. Mobutu put govment insyd wey arrange make dem execute Lumumba for 1961, and e continue dey lead de country ein armed forces till e take power direct insyd another coup for 1965. To make sure say power no escape am, he create de Popular Movement of de Revolution as de only correct political party for 1967, change Congo ein name go Zaire for 1971, plus e own name turn Mobutu Sese Seko for 1972. Mobutu protect ein rule under hard autocratic regime and end up dey rule during time wey human rights violations spread everywhere. E try purge de country from all colonial culture tins through ein "national authenticity" program. Mobutu turn de main person wey everybody dey hype like say na cult of personality he dey carry. Mobutu talk say ein political ideology no be "left", no be "right", and no be "centre" too, but people mostly know am say e dey against communism for de Françafrique zone. Because of dat, United States, France, plus Belgium support am well-well—dem dash am military, diplomatic, and economic backing. E still build tight link plus apartheid South Africa, Israel, plus de Greek junta dem. Mobutu get strong name for corruption plus nepotism: dem talk say ein personal wealth fit reach from $50 million go $5 billion, all na from economic exploitation plus corruption as president. Some people call ein govment kleptocracy, ’cos e dey pile ein own money while Zaire ein economy suffer—plenty inflation, big debt, and serious currency wahala. E too known for ein flashy lifestyle, like how e dey fly go Paris on top de fast-fast Concorde jet just to do shopping. By 1990, as de economy start dey spoil plus tension dey rise, dem force Mobutu Sese Seko make e enter coalition plus political opponents and agree make dem do multiparty system. Even though e use ein soldiers try block de change, de movement no gree stop. By May 1997, rebel dem wey Laurent-Désiré Kabila lead take over de country and push Mobutu go exile. E already dey battle prostate cancer wey hard, so three months later, e die for Morocco. == Biography == === Early years den education === Mobutu, wey come from de Ngbandi ethnic group, dem born am for 1930 insyd Lisala, Belgian Congo. Mobutu ein mommie, Marie Madeleine Yemo, be hotel maid wey run go Lisala make she escape one local village chief ein harem. Na there she jam Albéric Gbemani, cook wey dey work for one Belgian judge, den she marry am. Not long after, she born Mobutu. Na one uncle pick de name “Mobutu” give am. Gbemani die when Mobutu be just eight years. After dat, one uncle plus ein grandfather raise am. De Belgian judge ein wife take fine eye see Mobutu, so she teach am how to speak, read plus write French well-well, wey be de official language of de colony. Ein mommie Yemo wey be widow, lean on family help to take care of her four pikin dem, and dem dey move from place to place often. Mobutu ein first schooling happen for capital town Léopoldville (wey now dem dey call Kinshasa). Later, ein mommie send am go ein uncle for Coquilhatville (now Mbandaka), where e attend Christian Brothers School, one Catholic-mission boarding school. Mobutu shine for books top and even run de class newspaper. People still know am for ein stubborn pranks and sharp small-boy sense of humor. One classmate remember say anytime de Belgian priests—wey ein main language be Dutch—make mistake for French, Mobutu go jump from ein seat for class top and point out de error sharp. For 1949, Mobutu sneak enter one boat wey dey go downriver to Léopoldville, where e jam one girl. Some weeks later, de priests find am. As school year end, instead of dem send am go prison, dem order make e serve seven years insyd de colonial army, Force Publique (FP). Dat kind punishment na normal tin for students wey dey act stubborn. === Army service === Mobutu find discipline for army life top, and e see father figure insyd Sergeant Louis Bobozo. Mobutu no stop ein studies—e dey borrow European newspapers from de Belgian officers plus pick books from anywhere e fit find, then e go read dem during sentry duty or any small chance e get. De ones wey e like pass be de writings of French president Charles de Gaulle, British prime minister Winston Churchill, plus de Italian Renaissance philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli. After e pass one course for accounting, Mobutu start small-small dey do journalism work proper. Still vexed about how e and de school priests jam wahala, e no marry for church. De only thing e fit bring for de wedding enjoyment be one crate of beer—na all ein army salary fit buy. === Early political involvement === As soldier, Mobutu dey write politics matter under fake name for Actualités Africaines (African News), one magazine wey one Belgian colonial set up. For 1956, e comot from army and turn full-time journalist, dey write for Léopoldville daily L'Avenir. Two years later, e go Belgium to report de 1958 World Exposition, then e stay back make e learn journalism better. By dis time, Mobutu don meet plenty young Congolese intellectuals wey dey challenge colonial rule. E come build friendship plus Patrice Lumumba and join Lumumba ein party—Congolese National Movement (MNC). Mobutu later become Lumumba ein personal aide. Some people wey know de matter talk say Belgian intelligence fit don recruit Mobutu as informant give de government. During de 1960 talks wey happen for Brussels about Congolese independence, de US embassy organize one reception give de Congolese delegation. Each embassy staff get list of delegates wey dem suppose meet, and later dem come talk about de people dem meet. De ambassador talk say, “One name just dey pop up steady. But nobody get am for ein list 'cos e no be official delegation member—e be Lumumba ein secretary. But everybody agree say dis guy get strong brain, e be young, maybe small immature, but e get big future ahead.” After de general election, dem assign Lumumba make e form govment. E give Mobutu de position of Secretary of State to de Presidency. Mobutu carry plenty weight for deciding de rest of de govment people. But after independence land, e no fit see Lumumba one-on-one again like before, 'cos de new prime minister start dey busy plus plenty aides and colleagues surround am. From there, both of dem slowly start drift apart. === Congo Crisis === Main article: Congo Crisis On 5 July 1960, soldiers of de Force Publique wey dey Camp Léopold II for Léopoldville vex over dem all-white leaders and bad working conditions, so dem rise mutiny. Di revolt spread go other places sharp-sharp. Mobutu join other officials talk to de mutineers so dem fit free de officers plus dem families. Then on 8 July, de full Council of Ministers gather for one special meeting under President Joseph Kasa-Vubu ein chairmanship for Camp Léopold II to face de matter of Africanising de garrison. De ministers start dey argue who go fit take de top job as army chief of staff. Two people wey stand out be Minister of Youth and Sports Maurice Mpolo, plus Mobutu. Mpolo don already show say e get some control over de soldiers wey dey mutiny, but Kasa-Vubu plus de Bakongo ministers fear say if dem give am power, e fit run coup. Mobutu on de other hand, people see am as cool-head wey dey think before e act. Lumumba respect Mpolo for ein boldness, but e prefer Mobutu ein cautious style. As de argument go on, de cabinet start split based on who dem support to be chief of staff. Lumumba no wan lose any of de two camps, so e try keep both men for ein team. In de end, dem give Mobutu de position and promote am to colonel. Next day, govment teams comot from de capital to supervise how dem go Africanise de army; Mobutu own assignment na for Équateur. While Mobutu dey there, Mpolo begin act as ANC Chief of Staff. Mobutu no happy at all with dat move, so when e return to de capital, e face Lumumba inside cabinet meeting and tell am plain: “Either I no deserve am and you gots sack me, or I do de mission well and I go keep my rank plus position.” De British diplomat Brian Urquhart, wey dey work plus de United Nations, yarn say: “When I first meet Mobutu for July 1960, e be Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba ein chief military assistant and e just promote himself from sergeant go lieutenant-colonel. Compared to ein boss, Mobutu be like pillar of common sense and sharp reasoning. Na to am we go when Lumumba ein hashish-high guards arrest our people. Na Mobutu too dey casually bring up Lumumba ein wild requests—like say make UN pay salary give Congolese army wey fit mutiny. For dem early days, Mobutu look like reasonable young man, wey maybe, just maybe, dey reason good for ein new independent country.” Backed by Belgian govment wey wan still hold tight to de rich Congolese mines, secessionist violence burst out for south. As UN soldiers wey dem send come restore order no dey help crush de secession, Lumumba go turn to Soviet Union for help. Inside six weeks, e receive serious military aid plus about thousand Soviet technical advisers. Since na Cold War time, US govment fear say dis Soviet move be trick to spread communist power for Central Africa. US and Belgium come ginger Kasa-Vubu make e sack Lumumba, and on 5 September, e do am. Lumumba vex rough and say Kasa-Vubu no be president again. Parliament no gree sack any of dem, instead dem beg for reconciliation, but no headway. Lumumba plus Kasa-Vubu each tell Mobutu make e arrest de other one. As Army Chief of Staff, Mobutu start face heavy pressure from all angle. Western countries' embassies—wey dey pay soldiers salary—plus Kasa-Vubu and Mobutu ein own men, all dem want make Soviet people pack. So on 14 September, Mobutu do coup wey no draw blood, announce say both Kasa-Vubu and Lumumba dey “neutralised” and form one new govment of university graduates—dem call am College of Commissioners-General. Lumumba no accept am but dem force am retire go ein house, where UN peacekeepers block Mobutu ein soldiers make dem no arrest am. Urquhart talk say on de coup day, Mobutu just waka enter UN headquarters for Léopoldville without invite and no gree comot till radio announce de coup; na dat time Mobutu begin repeat “C’est moi!”—“Na me!” Urquhart realise say Mobutu just land there in case de coup mess up, so e tell am to comot. 5pjvbo2lo42lkqw7juvtt6t0wq84z9f 69076 69075 2025-07-05T19:57:09Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69076 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu wa za Banga''' ; born '''Joseph-Désiré Mobutu'''; 14 October 1930 – 7 September 1997), people dey call am Mobutu Sese Seko or Mobutu and sana known by ein initials MSS, e be Congolese politician plus military officer wey be de first and only president of Zaire from 1971 to 1997. Before dat, Mobutu serve as de second president of de Democratic Republic of de Congo, from 1965 to 1971. E sana serve as de fifth chairperson of de Organisation of African Unity from 1967 to 1968. During de Congo Crisis insyd 1960, Mobutu, wey den be Chief of Staff insyd de Congolese Army, commot de nation ein democratically elected govment of Patrice Lumumba plus support from de U.S. and Belgium. Mobutu put govment insyd wey arrange make dem execute Lumumba for 1961, and e continue dey lead de country ein armed forces till e take power direct insyd another coup for 1965. To make sure say power no escape am, he create de Popular Movement of de Revolution as de only correct political party for 1967, change Congo ein name go Zaire for 1971, plus e own name turn Mobutu Sese Seko for 1972. Mobutu protect ein rule under hard autocratic regime and end up dey rule during time wey human rights violations spread everywhere. E try purge de country from all colonial culture tins through ein "national authenticity" program. Mobutu turn de main person wey everybody dey hype like say na cult of personality he dey carry. Mobutu talk say ein political ideology no be "left", no be "right", and no be "centre" too, but people mostly know am say e dey against communism for de Françafrique zone. Because of dat, United States, France, plus Belgium support am well-well—dem dash am military, diplomatic, and economic backing. E still build tight link plus apartheid South Africa, Israel, plus de Greek junta dem. Mobutu get strong name for corruption plus nepotism: dem talk say ein personal wealth fit reach from $50 million go $5 billion, all na from economic exploitation plus corruption as president. Some people call ein govment kleptocracy, ’cos e dey pile ein own money while Zaire ein economy suffer—plenty inflation, big debt, and serious currency wahala. E too known for ein flashy lifestyle, like how e dey fly go Paris on top de fast-fast Concorde jet just to do shopping. By 1990, as de economy start dey spoil plus tension dey rise, dem force Mobutu Sese Seko make e enter coalition plus political opponents and agree make dem do multiparty system. Even though e use ein soldiers try block de change, de movement no gree stop. By May 1997, rebel dem wey Laurent-Désiré Kabila lead take over de country and push Mobutu go exile. E already dey battle prostate cancer wey hard, so three months later, e die for Morocco. == Biography == === Early years den education === Mobutu, wey come from de Ngbandi ethnic group, dem born am for 1930 insyd Lisala, Belgian Congo. Mobutu ein mommie, Marie Madeleine Yemo, be hotel maid wey run go Lisala make she escape one local village chief ein harem. Na there she jam Albéric Gbemani, cook wey dey work for one Belgian judge, den she marry am. Not long after, she born Mobutu. Na one uncle pick de name “Mobutu” give am. Gbemani die when Mobutu be just eight years. After dat, one uncle plus ein grandfather raise am. De Belgian judge ein wife take fine eye see Mobutu, so she teach am how to speak, read plus write French well-well, wey be de official language of de colony. Ein mommie Yemo wey be widow, lean on family help to take care of her four pikin dem, and dem dey move from place to place often. Mobutu ein first schooling happen for capital town Léopoldville (wey now dem dey call Kinshasa). Later, ein mommie send am go ein uncle for Coquilhatville (now Mbandaka), where e attend Christian Brothers School, one Catholic-mission boarding school. Mobutu shine for books top and even run de class newspaper. People still know am for ein stubborn pranks and sharp small-boy sense of humor. One classmate remember say anytime de Belgian priests—wey ein main language be Dutch—make mistake for French, Mobutu go jump from ein seat for class top and point out de error sharp. For 1949, Mobutu sneak enter one boat wey dey go downriver to Léopoldville, where e jam one girl. Some weeks later, de priests find am. As school year end, instead of dem send am go prison, dem order make e serve seven years insyd de colonial army, Force Publique (FP). Dat kind punishment na normal tin for students wey dey act stubborn. === Army service === Mobutu find discipline for army life top, and e see father figure insyd Sergeant Louis Bobozo. Mobutu no stop ein studies—e dey borrow European newspapers from de Belgian officers plus pick books from anywhere e fit find, then e go read dem during sentry duty or any small chance e get. De ones wey e like pass be de writings of French president Charles de Gaulle, British prime minister Winston Churchill, plus de Italian Renaissance philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli. After e pass one course for accounting, Mobutu start small-small dey do journalism work proper. Still vexed about how e and de school priests jam wahala, e no marry for church. De only thing e fit bring for de wedding enjoyment be one crate of beer—na all ein army salary fit buy. === Early political involvement === As soldier, Mobutu dey write politics matter under fake name for Actualités Africaines (African News), one magazine wey one Belgian colonial set up. For 1956, e comot from army and turn full-time journalist, dey write for Léopoldville daily L'Avenir. Two years later, e go Belgium to report de 1958 World Exposition, then e stay back make e learn journalism better. By dis time, Mobutu don meet plenty young Congolese intellectuals wey dey challenge colonial rule. E come build friendship plus Patrice Lumumba and join Lumumba ein party—Congolese National Movement (MNC). Mobutu later become Lumumba ein personal aide. Some people wey know de matter talk say Belgian intelligence fit don recruit Mobutu as informant give de government. During de 1960 talks wey happen for Brussels about Congolese independence, de US embassy organize one reception give de Congolese delegation. Each embassy staff get list of delegates wey dem suppose meet, and later dem come talk about de people dem meet. De ambassador talk say, “One name just dey pop up steady. But nobody get am for ein list 'cos e no be official delegation member—e be Lumumba ein secretary. But everybody agree say dis guy get strong brain, e be young, maybe small immature, but e get big future ahead.” After de general election, dem assign Lumumba make e form govment. E give Mobutu de position of Secretary of State to de Presidency. Mobutu carry plenty weight for deciding de rest of de govment people. But after independence land, e no fit see Lumumba one-on-one again like before, 'cos de new prime minister start dey busy plus plenty aides and colleagues surround am. From there, both of dem slowly start drift apart. === Congo Crisis === Main article: Congo Crisis On 5 July 1960, soldiers of de Force Publique wey dey Camp Léopold II for Léopoldville vex over dem all-white leaders and bad working conditions, so dem rise mutiny. Di revolt spread go other places sharp-sharp. Mobutu join other officials talk to de mutineers so dem fit free de officers plus dem families. Then on 8 July, de full Council of Ministers gather for one special meeting under President Joseph Kasa-Vubu ein chairmanship for Camp Léopold II to face de matter of Africanising de garrison. De ministers start dey argue who go fit take de top job as army chief of staff. Two people wey stand out be Minister of Youth and Sports Maurice Mpolo, plus Mobutu. Mpolo don already show say e get some control over de soldiers wey dey mutiny, but Kasa-Vubu plus de Bakongo ministers fear say if dem give am power, e fit run coup. Mobutu on de other hand, people see am as cool-head wey dey think before e act. Lumumba respect Mpolo for ein boldness, but e prefer Mobutu ein cautious style. As de argument go on, de cabinet start split based on who dem support to be chief of staff. Lumumba no wan lose any of de two camps, so e try keep both men for ein team. In de end, dem give Mobutu de position and promote am to colonel. Next day, govment teams comot from de capital to supervise how dem go Africanise de army; Mobutu own assignment na for Équateur. While Mobutu dey there, Mpolo begin act as ANC Chief of Staff. Mobutu no happy at all with dat move, so when e return to de capital, e face Lumumba inside cabinet meeting and tell am plain: “Either I no deserve am and you gots sack me, or I do de mission well and I go keep my rank plus position.” De British diplomat Brian Urquhart, wey dey work plus de United Nations, yarn say: “When I first meet Mobutu for July 1960, e be Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba ein chief military assistant and e just promote himself from sergeant go lieutenant-colonel. Compared to ein boss, Mobutu be like pillar of common sense and sharp reasoning. Na to am we go when Lumumba ein hashish-high guards arrest our people. Na Mobutu too dey casually bring up Lumumba ein wild requests—like say make UN pay salary give Congolese army wey fit mutiny. For dem early days, Mobutu look like reasonable young man, wey maybe, just maybe, dey reason good for ein new independent country.” Backed by Belgian govment wey wan still hold tight to de rich Congolese mines, secessionist violence burst out for south. As UN soldiers wey dem send come restore order no dey help crush de secession, Lumumba go turn to Soviet Union for help. Inside six weeks, e receive serious military aid plus about thousand Soviet technical advisers. Since na Cold War time, US govment fear say dis Soviet move be trick to spread communist power for Central Africa. US and Belgium come ginger Kasa-Vubu make e sack Lumumba, and on 5 September, e do am. Lumumba vex rough and say Kasa-Vubu no be president again. Parliament no gree sack any of dem, instead dem beg for reconciliation, but no headway. Lumumba plus Kasa-Vubu each tell Mobutu make e arrest de other one. As Army Chief of Staff, Mobutu start face heavy pressure from all angle. Western countries' embassies—wey dey pay soldiers salary—plus Kasa-Vubu and Mobutu ein own men, all dem want make Soviet people pack. So on 14 September, Mobutu do coup wey no draw blood, announce say both Kasa-Vubu and Lumumba dey “neutralised” and form one new govment of university graduates—dem call am College of Commissioners-General. Lumumba no accept am but dem force am retire go ein house, where UN peacekeepers block Mobutu ein soldiers make dem no arrest am. Urquhart talk say on de coup day, Mobutu just waka enter UN headquarters for Léopoldville without invite and no gree comot till radio announce de coup; na dat time Mobutu begin repeat “C’est moi!”—“Na me!” Urquhart realise say Mobutu just land there in case de coup mess up, so e tell am to comot. As confidence drop say de international community go support am come back to power, Lumumba run commot for late November go meet ein supporters for Stanleyville to form new govment. Early December, Mobutu ein soldiers catch am, then keep am for ein base insyd Thysville. But Mobutu still see am as danger, so on 17 January 1961, e move Lumumba go de rebel State of Katanga. From dat point, nobody see Lumumba again. Later dem find out say same day wey dem move am, de secessionist forces under Moise Tshombe execute am, after Mobutu ein govment hand am over. On 23 January 1961, Kasa-Vubu promote Mobutu go major-general. One historian, De Witte, talk say na political move wey aim to make de army stronger, since na de president ein only support, and to boost Mobutu ein stand inside de army. For 1964, Pierre Mulele lead some fighters start another rebellion. Dem fast take over two-thirds of Congo. Mobutu lead de Congolese army respond, and by 1965, dem take back de whole land. 2gfyubk9wsxg9v4fi007kxsk4v88q30 69077 69076 2025-07-05T20:00:56Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69077 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu wa za Banga''' ; born '''Joseph-Désiré Mobutu'''; 14 October 1930 – 7 September 1997), people dey call am Mobutu Sese Seko or Mobutu and sana known by ein initials MSS, e be Congolese politician plus military officer wey be de first and only president of Zaire from 1971 to 1997. Before dat, Mobutu serve as de second president of de Democratic Republic of de Congo, from 1965 to 1971. E sana serve as de fifth chairperson of de Organisation of African Unity from 1967 to 1968. During de Congo Crisis insyd 1960, Mobutu, wey den be Chief of Staff insyd de Congolese Army, commot de nation ein democratically elected govment of Patrice Lumumba plus support from de U.S. and Belgium. Mobutu put govment insyd wey arrange make dem execute Lumumba for 1961, and e continue dey lead de country ein armed forces till e take power direct insyd another coup for 1965. To make sure say power no escape am, he create de Popular Movement of de Revolution as de only correct political party for 1967, change Congo ein name go Zaire for 1971, plus e own name turn Mobutu Sese Seko for 1972. Mobutu protect ein rule under hard autocratic regime and end up dey rule during time wey human rights violations spread everywhere. E try purge de country from all colonial culture tins through ein "national authenticity" program. Mobutu turn de main person wey everybody dey hype like say na cult of personality he dey carry. Mobutu talk say ein political ideology no be "left", no be "right", and no be "centre" too, but people mostly know am say e dey against communism for de Françafrique zone. Because of dat, United States, France, plus Belgium support am well-well—dem dash am military, diplomatic, and economic backing. E still build tight link plus apartheid South Africa, Israel, plus de Greek junta dem. Mobutu get strong name for corruption plus nepotism: dem talk say ein personal wealth fit reach from $50 million go $5 billion, all na from economic exploitation plus corruption as president. Some people call ein govment kleptocracy, ’cos e dey pile ein own money while Zaire ein economy suffer—plenty inflation, big debt, and serious currency wahala. E too known for ein flashy lifestyle, like how e dey fly go Paris on top de fast-fast Concorde jet just to do shopping. By 1990, as de economy start dey spoil plus tension dey rise, dem force Mobutu Sese Seko make e enter coalition plus political opponents and agree make dem do multiparty system. Even though e use ein soldiers try block de change, de movement no gree stop. By May 1997, rebel dem wey Laurent-Désiré Kabila lead take over de country and push Mobutu go exile. E already dey battle prostate cancer wey hard, so three months later, e die for Morocco. == Biography == === Early years den education === Mobutu, wey come from de Ngbandi ethnic group, dem born am for 1930 insyd Lisala, Belgian Congo. Mobutu ein mommie, Marie Madeleine Yemo, be hotel maid wey run go Lisala make she escape one local village chief ein harem. Na there she jam Albéric Gbemani, cook wey dey work for one Belgian judge, den she marry am. Not long after, she born Mobutu. Na one uncle pick de name “Mobutu” give am. Gbemani die when Mobutu be just eight years. After dat, one uncle plus ein grandfather raise am. De Belgian judge ein wife take fine eye see Mobutu, so she teach am how to speak, read plus write French well-well, wey be de official language of de colony. Ein mommie Yemo wey be widow, lean on family help to take care of her four pikin dem, and dem dey move from place to place often. Mobutu ein first schooling happen for capital town Léopoldville (wey now dem dey call Kinshasa). Later, ein mommie send am go ein uncle for Coquilhatville (now Mbandaka), where e attend Christian Brothers School, one Catholic-mission boarding school. Mobutu shine for books top and even run de class newspaper. People still know am for ein stubborn pranks and sharp small-boy sense of humor. One classmate remember say anytime de Belgian priests—wey ein main language be Dutch—make mistake for French, Mobutu go jump from ein seat for class top and point out de error sharp. For 1949, Mobutu sneak enter one boat wey dey go downriver to Léopoldville, where e jam one girl. Some weeks later, de priests find am. As school year end, instead of dem send am go prison, dem order make e serve seven years insyd de colonial army, Force Publique (FP). Dat kind punishment na normal tin for students wey dey act stubborn. === Army service === Mobutu find discipline for army life top, and e see father figure insyd Sergeant Louis Bobozo. Mobutu no stop ein studies—e dey borrow European newspapers from de Belgian officers plus pick books from anywhere e fit find, then e go read dem during sentry duty or any small chance e get. De ones wey e like pass be de writings of French president Charles de Gaulle, British prime minister Winston Churchill, plus de Italian Renaissance philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli. After e pass one course for accounting, Mobutu start small-small dey do journalism work proper. Still vexed about how e and de school priests jam wahala, e no marry for church. De only thing e fit bring for de wedding enjoyment be one crate of beer—na all ein army salary fit buy. === Early political involvement === As soldier, Mobutu dey write politics matter under fake name for Actualités Africaines (African News), one magazine wey one Belgian colonial set up. For 1956, e comot from army and turn full-time journalist, dey write for Léopoldville daily L'Avenir. Two years later, e go Belgium to report de 1958 World Exposition, then e stay back make e learn journalism better. By dis time, Mobutu don meet plenty young Congolese intellectuals wey dey challenge colonial rule. E come build friendship plus Patrice Lumumba and join Lumumba ein party—Congolese National Movement (MNC). Mobutu later become Lumumba ein personal aide. Some people wey know de matter talk say Belgian intelligence fit don recruit Mobutu as informant give de government. During de 1960 talks wey happen for Brussels about Congolese independence, de US embassy organize one reception give de Congolese delegation. Each embassy staff get list of delegates wey dem suppose meet, and later dem come talk about de people dem meet. De ambassador talk say, “One name just dey pop up steady. But nobody get am for ein list 'cos e no be official delegation member—e be Lumumba ein secretary. But everybody agree say dis guy get strong brain, e be young, maybe small immature, but e get big future ahead.” After de general election, dem assign Lumumba make e form govment. E give Mobutu de position of Secretary of State to de Presidency. Mobutu carry plenty weight for deciding de rest of de govment people. But after independence land, e no fit see Lumumba one-on-one again like before, 'cos de new prime minister start dey busy plus plenty aides and colleagues surround am. From there, both of dem slowly start drift apart. === Congo Crisis === Main article: Congo Crisis On 5 July 1960, soldiers of de Force Publique wey dey Camp Léopold II for Léopoldville vex over dem all-white leaders and bad working conditions, so dem rise mutiny. Di revolt spread go other places sharp-sharp. Mobutu join other officials talk to de mutineers so dem fit free de officers plus dem families. Then on 8 July, de full Council of Ministers gather for one special meeting under President Joseph Kasa-Vubu ein chairmanship for Camp Léopold II to face de matter of Africanising de garrison. De ministers start dey argue who go fit take de top job as army chief of staff. Two people wey stand out be Minister of Youth and Sports Maurice Mpolo, plus Mobutu. Mpolo don already show say e get some control over de soldiers wey dey mutiny, but Kasa-Vubu plus de Bakongo ministers fear say if dem give am power, e fit run coup. Mobutu on de other hand, people see am as cool-head wey dey think before e act. Lumumba respect Mpolo for ein boldness, but e prefer Mobutu ein cautious style. As de argument go on, de cabinet start split based on who dem support to be chief of staff. Lumumba no wan lose any of de two camps, so e try keep both men for ein team. In de end, dem give Mobutu de position and promote am to colonel. Next day, govment teams comot from de capital to supervise how dem go Africanise de army; Mobutu own assignment na for Équateur. While Mobutu dey there, Mpolo begin act as ANC Chief of Staff. Mobutu no happy at all with dat move, so when e return to de capital, e face Lumumba inside cabinet meeting and tell am plain: “Either I no deserve am and you gots sack me, or I do de mission well and I go keep my rank plus position.” De British diplomat Brian Urquhart, wey dey work plus de United Nations, yarn say: “When I first meet Mobutu for July 1960, e be Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba ein chief military assistant and e just promote himself from sergeant go lieutenant-colonel. Compared to ein boss, Mobutu be like pillar of common sense and sharp reasoning. Na to am we go when Lumumba ein hashish-high guards arrest our people. Na Mobutu too dey casually bring up Lumumba ein wild requests—like say make UN pay salary give Congolese army wey fit mutiny. For dem early days, Mobutu look like reasonable young man, wey maybe, just maybe, dey reason good for ein new independent country.” Backed by Belgian govment wey wan still hold tight to de rich Congolese mines, secessionist violence burst out for south. As UN soldiers wey dem send come restore order no dey help crush de secession, Lumumba go turn to Soviet Union for help. Inside six weeks, e receive serious military aid plus about thousand Soviet technical advisers. Since na Cold War time, US govment fear say dis Soviet move be trick to spread communist power for Central Africa. US and Belgium come ginger Kasa-Vubu make e sack Lumumba, and on 5 September, e do am. Lumumba vex rough and say Kasa-Vubu no be president again. Parliament no gree sack any of dem, instead dem beg for reconciliation, but no headway. Lumumba plus Kasa-Vubu each tell Mobutu make e arrest de other one. As Army Chief of Staff, Mobutu start face heavy pressure from all angle. Western countries' embassies—wey dey pay soldiers salary—plus Kasa-Vubu and Mobutu ein own men, all dem want make Soviet people pack. So on 14 September, Mobutu do coup wey no draw blood, announce say both Kasa-Vubu and Lumumba dey “neutralised” and form one new govment of university graduates—dem call am College of Commissioners-General. Lumumba no accept am but dem force am retire go ein house, where UN peacekeepers block Mobutu ein soldiers make dem no arrest am. Urquhart talk say on de coup day, Mobutu just waka enter UN headquarters for Léopoldville without invite and no gree comot till radio announce de coup; na dat time Mobutu begin repeat “C’est moi!”—“Na me!” Urquhart realise say Mobutu just land there in case de coup mess up, so e tell am to comot. As confidence drop say de international community go support am come back to power, Lumumba run commot for late November go meet ein supporters for Stanleyville to form new govment. Early December, Mobutu ein soldiers catch am, then keep am for ein base insyd Thysville. But Mobutu still see am as danger, so on 17 January 1961, e move Lumumba go de rebel State of Katanga. From dat point, nobody see Lumumba again. Later dem find out say same day wey dem move am, de secessionist forces under Moise Tshombe execute am, after Mobutu ein govment hand am over. On 23 January 1961, Kasa-Vubu promote Mobutu go major-general. One historian, De Witte, talk say na political move wey aim to make de army stronger, since na de president ein only support, and to boost Mobutu ein stand inside de army. For 1964, Pierre Mulele lead some fighters start another rebellion. Dem fast take over two-thirds of Congo. Mobutu lead de Congolese army respond, and by 1965, dem take back de whole land. === Second ''coup'' and consolidation of power === Sanso see: Second Mobutu coup d'état Prime Minister Moise Tshombe ein party, de Congolese National Convention, win big majority for March 1965 elections, but Kasa-Vubu appoint Évariste Kimba, one anti-Tshombe man, as prime minister-designate. Parliament no gree approve am two times. As de govment almost jam dead end, Mobutu take over power through coup wey no draw blood on 24 November—he just turn 35 one month before. Under one system wey dem call state of exception (regime d'exception), Mobutu grab full—almost absolute—power for five years. For ein first speech after e take power, Mobutu talk give big crowd for Léopoldville main stadium say, since na politicians spoil Congo within five years, e go need at least dat same time to fix am. So, for dat reason, no political party go do anything for five years. On 30 November 1965, Parliament pass law wey give Mobutu plus ein cabinet most of de legislative powers, but still hold small power to check ein decrees. By early March 1966, when Parliament start new session, Mobutu announce say he dey cancel dat review power, and two weeks after, ein govment shutdown Parliament for good and collect all de remaining authority. At de start, Mobutu ein govment come out like say e no dey into politics—or even dey against am. People begin see “politician” as bad word, wey mean person wey wicked or corrupt. For 1966, dem set up de Corps of Volunteers of de Republic, one strong frontline group wey aim to gather plenty public support behind Mobutu. Na same year dem hail am as de country ein “Second National Hero” after Lumumba. Even though Mobutu play role for how Lumumba commot power, e try package himself like person wey dey carry Lumumba ein legacy continue. One of de key things wey Mobutu dey preach for early part of ein rule be “authentic Congolese nationalism”. Na dat 1966 too e begin change city names wey get European roots to names wey sound more African—na so Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Stanleyville become Kisangani, and Élisabethville change to Lubumbashi. Then for 1967, Mobutu bring out de Popular Movement of de Revolution (MPR). From dat time go reach 1990, na only dat party dem dey allow for politics. Inside de MPR ein beliefs—wey dem write for Manifesto of N'Sele—dem push nationalism, revolution, plus “authenticity”. Dem describe revolution as “truly national and very practical,” wey reject both capitalism and communism. One popular slogan from de MPR be “Neither left nor right,” and later dem add “nor even center” join. e1uidswhm2ad3dokabzez8qsnnmovvz 69078 69077 2025-07-05T20:03:31Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69078 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu wa za Banga''' ; born '''Joseph-Désiré Mobutu'''; 14 October 1930 – 7 September 1997), people dey call am Mobutu Sese Seko or Mobutu and sana known by ein initials MSS, e be Congolese politician plus military officer wey be de first and only president of Zaire from 1971 to 1997. Before dat, Mobutu serve as de second president of de Democratic Republic of de Congo, from 1965 to 1971. E sana serve as de fifth chairperson of de Organisation of African Unity from 1967 to 1968. During de Congo Crisis insyd 1960, Mobutu, wey den be Chief of Staff insyd de Congolese Army, commot de nation ein democratically elected govment of Patrice Lumumba plus support from de U.S. and Belgium. Mobutu put govment insyd wey arrange make dem execute Lumumba for 1961, and e continue dey lead de country ein armed forces till e take power direct insyd another coup for 1965. To make sure say power no escape am, he create de Popular Movement of de Revolution as de only correct political party for 1967, change Congo ein name go Zaire for 1971, plus e own name turn Mobutu Sese Seko for 1972. Mobutu protect ein rule under hard autocratic regime and end up dey rule during time wey human rights violations spread everywhere. E try purge de country from all colonial culture tins through ein "national authenticity" program. Mobutu turn de main person wey everybody dey hype like say na cult of personality he dey carry. Mobutu talk say ein political ideology no be "left", no be "right", and no be "centre" too, but people mostly know am say e dey against communism for de Françafrique zone. Because of dat, United States, France, plus Belgium support am well-well—dem dash am military, diplomatic, and economic backing. E still build tight link plus apartheid South Africa, Israel, plus de Greek junta dem. Mobutu get strong name for corruption plus nepotism: dem talk say ein personal wealth fit reach from $50 million go $5 billion, all na from economic exploitation plus corruption as president. Some people call ein govment kleptocracy, ’cos e dey pile ein own money while Zaire ein economy suffer—plenty inflation, big debt, and serious currency wahala. E too known for ein flashy lifestyle, like how e dey fly go Paris on top de fast-fast Concorde jet just to do shopping. By 1990, as de economy start dey spoil plus tension dey rise, dem force Mobutu Sese Seko make e enter coalition plus political opponents and agree make dem do multiparty system. Even though e use ein soldiers try block de change, de movement no gree stop. By May 1997, rebel dem wey Laurent-Désiré Kabila lead take over de country and push Mobutu go exile. E already dey battle prostate cancer wey hard, so three months later, e die for Morocco. == Biography == === Early years den education === Mobutu, wey come from de Ngbandi ethnic group, dem born am for 1930 insyd Lisala, Belgian Congo. Mobutu ein mommie, Marie Madeleine Yemo, be hotel maid wey run go Lisala make she escape one local village chief ein harem. Na there she jam Albéric Gbemani, cook wey dey work for one Belgian judge, den she marry am. Not long after, she born Mobutu. Na one uncle pick de name “Mobutu” give am. Gbemani die when Mobutu be just eight years. After dat, one uncle plus ein grandfather raise am. De Belgian judge ein wife take fine eye see Mobutu, so she teach am how to speak, read plus write French well-well, wey be de official language of de colony. Ein mommie Yemo wey be widow, lean on family help to take care of her four pikin dem, and dem dey move from place to place often. Mobutu ein first schooling happen for capital town Léopoldville (wey now dem dey call Kinshasa). Later, ein mommie send am go ein uncle for Coquilhatville (now Mbandaka), where e attend Christian Brothers School, one Catholic-mission boarding school. Mobutu shine for books top and even run de class newspaper. People still know am for ein stubborn pranks and sharp small-boy sense of humor. One classmate remember say anytime de Belgian priests—wey ein main language be Dutch—make mistake for French, Mobutu go jump from ein seat for class top and point out de error sharp. For 1949, Mobutu sneak enter one boat wey dey go downriver to Léopoldville, where e jam one girl. Some weeks later, de priests find am. As school year end, instead of dem send am go prison, dem order make e serve seven years insyd de colonial army, Force Publique (FP). Dat kind punishment na normal tin for students wey dey act stubborn. === Army service === Mobutu find discipline for army life top, and e see father figure insyd Sergeant Louis Bobozo. Mobutu no stop ein studies—e dey borrow European newspapers from de Belgian officers plus pick books from anywhere e fit find, then e go read dem during sentry duty or any small chance e get. De ones wey e like pass be de writings of French president Charles de Gaulle, British prime minister Winston Churchill, plus de Italian Renaissance philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli. After e pass one course for accounting, Mobutu start small-small dey do journalism work proper. Still vexed about how e and de school priests jam wahala, e no marry for church. De only thing e fit bring for de wedding enjoyment be one crate of beer—na all ein army salary fit buy. === Early political involvement === As soldier, Mobutu dey write politics matter under fake name for Actualités Africaines (African News), one magazine wey one Belgian colonial set up. For 1956, e comot from army and turn full-time journalist, dey write for Léopoldville daily L'Avenir. Two years later, e go Belgium to report de 1958 World Exposition, then e stay back make e learn journalism better. By dis time, Mobutu don meet plenty young Congolese intellectuals wey dey challenge colonial rule. E come build friendship plus Patrice Lumumba and join Lumumba ein party—Congolese National Movement (MNC). Mobutu later become Lumumba ein personal aide. Some people wey know de matter talk say Belgian intelligence fit don recruit Mobutu as informant give de government. During de 1960 talks wey happen for Brussels about Congolese independence, de US embassy organize one reception give de Congolese delegation. Each embassy staff get list of delegates wey dem suppose meet, and later dem come talk about de people dem meet. De ambassador talk say, “One name just dey pop up steady. But nobody get am for ein list 'cos e no be official delegation member—e be Lumumba ein secretary. But everybody agree say dis guy get strong brain, e be young, maybe small immature, but e get big future ahead.” After de general election, dem assign Lumumba make e form govment. E give Mobutu de position of Secretary of State to de Presidency. Mobutu carry plenty weight for deciding de rest of de govment people. But after independence land, e no fit see Lumumba one-on-one again like before, 'cos de new prime minister start dey busy plus plenty aides and colleagues surround am. From there, both of dem slowly start drift apart. === Congo Crisis === Main article: Congo Crisis On 5 July 1960, soldiers of de Force Publique wey dey Camp Léopold II for Léopoldville vex over dem all-white leaders and bad working conditions, so dem rise mutiny. Di revolt spread go other places sharp-sharp. Mobutu join other officials talk to de mutineers so dem fit free de officers plus dem families. Then on 8 July, de full Council of Ministers gather for one special meeting under President Joseph Kasa-Vubu ein chairmanship for Camp Léopold II to face de matter of Africanising de garrison. De ministers start dey argue who go fit take de top job as army chief of staff. Two people wey stand out be Minister of Youth and Sports Maurice Mpolo, plus Mobutu. Mpolo don already show say e get some control over de soldiers wey dey mutiny, but Kasa-Vubu plus de Bakongo ministers fear say if dem give am power, e fit run coup. Mobutu on de other hand, people see am as cool-head wey dey think before e act. Lumumba respect Mpolo for ein boldness, but e prefer Mobutu ein cautious style. As de argument go on, de cabinet start split based on who dem support to be chief of staff. Lumumba no wan lose any of de two camps, so e try keep both men for ein team. In de end, dem give Mobutu de position and promote am to colonel. Next day, govment teams comot from de capital to supervise how dem go Africanise de army; Mobutu own assignment na for Équateur. While Mobutu dey there, Mpolo begin act as ANC Chief of Staff. Mobutu no happy at all with dat move, so when e return to de capital, e face Lumumba inside cabinet meeting and tell am plain: “Either I no deserve am and you gots sack me, or I do de mission well and I go keep my rank plus position.” De British diplomat Brian Urquhart, wey dey work plus de United Nations, yarn say: “When I first meet Mobutu for July 1960, e be Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba ein chief military assistant and e just promote himself from sergeant go lieutenant-colonel. Compared to ein boss, Mobutu be like pillar of common sense and sharp reasoning. Na to am we go when Lumumba ein hashish-high guards arrest our people. Na Mobutu too dey casually bring up Lumumba ein wild requests—like say make UN pay salary give Congolese army wey fit mutiny. For dem early days, Mobutu look like reasonable young man, wey maybe, just maybe, dey reason good for ein new independent country.” Backed by Belgian govment wey wan still hold tight to de rich Congolese mines, secessionist violence burst out for south. As UN soldiers wey dem send come restore order no dey help crush de secession, Lumumba go turn to Soviet Union for help. Inside six weeks, e receive serious military aid plus about thousand Soviet technical advisers. Since na Cold War time, US govment fear say dis Soviet move be trick to spread communist power for Central Africa. US and Belgium come ginger Kasa-Vubu make e sack Lumumba, and on 5 September, e do am. Lumumba vex rough and say Kasa-Vubu no be president again. Parliament no gree sack any of dem, instead dem beg for reconciliation, but no headway. Lumumba plus Kasa-Vubu each tell Mobutu make e arrest de other one. As Army Chief of Staff, Mobutu start face heavy pressure from all angle. Western countries' embassies—wey dey pay soldiers salary—plus Kasa-Vubu and Mobutu ein own men, all dem want make Soviet people pack. So on 14 September, Mobutu do coup wey no draw blood, announce say both Kasa-Vubu and Lumumba dey “neutralised” and form one new govment of university graduates—dem call am College of Commissioners-General. Lumumba no accept am but dem force am retire go ein house, where UN peacekeepers block Mobutu ein soldiers make dem no arrest am. Urquhart talk say on de coup day, Mobutu just waka enter UN headquarters for Léopoldville without invite and no gree comot till radio announce de coup; na dat time Mobutu begin repeat “C’est moi!”—“Na me!” Urquhart realise say Mobutu just land there in case de coup mess up, so e tell am to comot. As confidence drop say de international community go support am come back to power, Lumumba run commot for late November go meet ein supporters for Stanleyville to form new govment. Early December, Mobutu ein soldiers catch am, then keep am for ein base insyd Thysville. But Mobutu still see am as danger, so on 17 January 1961, e move Lumumba go de rebel State of Katanga. From dat point, nobody see Lumumba again. Later dem find out say same day wey dem move am, de secessionist forces under Moise Tshombe execute am, after Mobutu ein govment hand am over. On 23 January 1961, Kasa-Vubu promote Mobutu go major-general. One historian, De Witte, talk say na political move wey aim to make de army stronger, since na de president ein only support, and to boost Mobutu ein stand inside de army. For 1964, Pierre Mulele lead some fighters start another rebellion. Dem fast take over two-thirds of Congo. Mobutu lead de Congolese army respond, and by 1965, dem take back de whole land. === Second ''coup'' and consolidation of power === Sanso see: Second Mobutu coup d'état Prime Minister Moise Tshombe ein party, de Congolese National Convention, win big majority for March 1965 elections, but Kasa-Vubu appoint Évariste Kimba, one anti-Tshombe man, as prime minister-designate. Parliament no gree approve am two times. As de govment almost jam dead end, Mobutu take over power through coup wey no draw blood on 24 November—he just turn 35 one month before. Under one system wey dem call state of exception (regime d'exception), Mobutu grab full—almost absolute—power for five years. For ein first speech after e take power, Mobutu talk give big crowd for Léopoldville main stadium say, since na politicians spoil Congo within five years, e go need at least dat same time to fix am. So, for dat reason, no political party go do anything for five years. On 30 November 1965, Parliament pass law wey give Mobutu plus ein cabinet most of de legislative powers, but still hold small power to check ein decrees. By early March 1966, when Parliament start new session, Mobutu announce say he dey cancel dat review power, and two weeks after, ein govment shutdown Parliament for good and collect all de remaining authority. At de start, Mobutu ein govment come out like say e no dey into politics—or even dey against am. People begin see “politician” as bad word, wey mean person wey wicked or corrupt. For 1966, dem set up de Corps of Volunteers of de Republic, one strong frontline group wey aim to gather plenty public support behind Mobutu. Na same year dem hail am as de country ein “Second National Hero” after Lumumba. Even though Mobutu play role for how Lumumba commot power, e try package himself like person wey dey carry Lumumba ein legacy continue. One of de key things wey Mobutu dey preach for early part of ein rule be “authentic Congolese nationalism”. Na dat 1966 too e begin change city names wey get European roots to names wey sound more African—na so Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Stanleyville become Kisangani, and Élisabethville change to Lubumbashi. Then for 1967, Mobutu bring out de Popular Movement of de Revolution (MPR). From dat time go reach 1990, na only dat party dem dey allow for politics. Inside de MPR ein beliefs—wey dem write for Manifesto of N'Sele—dem push nationalism, revolution, plus “authenticity”. Dem describe revolution as “truly national and very practical,” wey reject both capitalism and communism. One popular slogan from de MPR be “Neither left nor right,” and later dem add “nor even center” join. That same year, all de trade unions dem join body into one single union—National Union of Zairian Workers—and de govment take full control over am. Mobutu plan say de union no go operate on ein own, but rather support govment policy like tool. From dat time till 1991, any independent trade union be illegal. As e face plenty wahala for de beginning of ein rule, Mobutu use favour-sharing (patronage) win over most of ein opposition; de ones wey no gree, e handle dem rough. For 1966, four cabinet members chop arrest because dem say dem join plan coup. Military court try dem case, then dem do public execution wey over 50,000 people watch live for open ground. Former Katangan gendarmeries wey rise also face Mobutu ein force and dem smash dem down—same as de Stanleyville mutinies of 1967 wey white mercenaries lead. By 1970, almost all de people wey fit challenge Mobutu power don fall, and for most parts of de country, law plus order start dey show face. That 1970 be de peak time of Mobutu ein power and respect. For 1970, King Baudouin of Belgium come Kinshasa do big state visit wey go well. Dat same year, dem hold presidential plus legislative elections. Even though de constitution say two parties fit dey, na only MPR dem allow nominate candidates. For de presidential election, Mobutu be de only person wey run. Voting no dey private; if you support Mobutu, you go drop green paper, but if you no dey support am, na red paper you go use. Green vote mean say you dey vote for hope, while red vote mean chaos. Under dat kind condition, de result no be surprise—official result talk say Mobutu win with almost everybody behind am, collect 10,131,669 votes, and only 157 people say “no”. Later dem come find out say over 30,500 more votes appear pass de number of voters wey register. Dem run de legislative elections same style. People get just one list from MPR; official result talk say unbelievable 98.33% people vote for de MPR list. As Mobutu dey cement ein power, e build different military groups wey na only to protect am dem dey. These groups include de Special Presidential Division, Civil Guard plus Service for Action, and Military Intelligence (SNIP). lmxbl9pipwi2fl12dbrxaewabm4u8y9 69079 69078 2025-07-05T20:05:16Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69079 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu wa za Banga''' ; born '''Joseph-Désiré Mobutu'''; 14 October 1930 – 7 September 1997), people dey call am Mobutu Sese Seko or Mobutu and sana known by ein initials MSS, e be Congolese politician plus military officer wey be de first and only president of Zaire from 1971 to 1997. Before dat, Mobutu serve as de second president of de Democratic Republic of de Congo, from 1965 to 1971. E sana serve as de fifth chairperson of de Organisation of African Unity from 1967 to 1968. During de Congo Crisis insyd 1960, Mobutu, wey den be Chief of Staff insyd de Congolese Army, commot de nation ein democratically elected govment of Patrice Lumumba plus support from de U.S. and Belgium. Mobutu put govment insyd wey arrange make dem execute Lumumba for 1961, and e continue dey lead de country ein armed forces till e take power direct insyd another coup for 1965. To make sure say power no escape am, he create de Popular Movement of de Revolution as de only correct political party for 1967, change Congo ein name go Zaire for 1971, plus e own name turn Mobutu Sese Seko for 1972. Mobutu protect ein rule under hard autocratic regime and end up dey rule during time wey human rights violations spread everywhere. E try purge de country from all colonial culture tins through ein "national authenticity" program. Mobutu turn de main person wey everybody dey hype like say na cult of personality he dey carry. Mobutu talk say ein political ideology no be "left", no be "right", and no be "centre" too, but people mostly know am say e dey against communism for de Françafrique zone. Because of dat, United States, France, plus Belgium support am well-well—dem dash am military, diplomatic, and economic backing. E still build tight link plus apartheid South Africa, Israel, plus de Greek junta dem. Mobutu get strong name for corruption plus nepotism: dem talk say ein personal wealth fit reach from $50 million go $5 billion, all na from economic exploitation plus corruption as president. Some people call ein govment kleptocracy, ’cos e dey pile ein own money while Zaire ein economy suffer—plenty inflation, big debt, and serious currency wahala. E too known for ein flashy lifestyle, like how e dey fly go Paris on top de fast-fast Concorde jet just to do shopping. By 1990, as de economy start dey spoil plus tension dey rise, dem force Mobutu Sese Seko make e enter coalition plus political opponents and agree make dem do multiparty system. Even though e use ein soldiers try block de change, de movement no gree stop. By May 1997, rebel dem wey Laurent-Désiré Kabila lead take over de country and push Mobutu go exile. E already dey battle prostate cancer wey hard, so three months later, e die for Morocco. == Biography == === Early years den education === Mobutu, wey come from de Ngbandi ethnic group, dem born am for 1930 insyd Lisala, Belgian Congo. Mobutu ein mommie, Marie Madeleine Yemo, be hotel maid wey run go Lisala make she escape one local village chief ein harem. Na there she jam Albéric Gbemani, cook wey dey work for one Belgian judge, den she marry am. Not long after, she born Mobutu. Na one uncle pick de name “Mobutu” give am. Gbemani die when Mobutu be just eight years. After dat, one uncle plus ein grandfather raise am. De Belgian judge ein wife take fine eye see Mobutu, so she teach am how to speak, read plus write French well-well, wey be de official language of de colony. Ein mommie Yemo wey be widow, lean on family help to take care of her four pikin dem, and dem dey move from place to place often. Mobutu ein first schooling happen for capital town Léopoldville (wey now dem dey call Kinshasa). Later, ein mommie send am go ein uncle for Coquilhatville (now Mbandaka), where e attend Christian Brothers School, one Catholic-mission boarding school. Mobutu shine for books top and even run de class newspaper. People still know am for ein stubborn pranks and sharp small-boy sense of humor. One classmate remember say anytime de Belgian priests—wey ein main language be Dutch—make mistake for French, Mobutu go jump from ein seat for class top and point out de error sharp. For 1949, Mobutu sneak enter one boat wey dey go downriver to Léopoldville, where e jam one girl. Some weeks later, de priests find am. As school year end, instead of dem send am go prison, dem order make e serve seven years insyd de colonial army, Force Publique (FP). Dat kind punishment na normal tin for students wey dey act stubborn. === Army service === Mobutu find discipline for army life top, and e see father figure insyd Sergeant Louis Bobozo. Mobutu no stop ein studies—e dey borrow European newspapers from de Belgian officers plus pick books from anywhere e fit find, then e go read dem during sentry duty or any small chance e get. De ones wey e like pass be de writings of French president Charles de Gaulle, British prime minister Winston Churchill, plus de Italian Renaissance philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli. After e pass one course for accounting, Mobutu start small-small dey do journalism work proper. Still vexed about how e and de school priests jam wahala, e no marry for church. De only thing e fit bring for de wedding enjoyment be one crate of beer—na all ein army salary fit buy. === Early political involvement === As soldier, Mobutu dey write politics matter under fake name for Actualités Africaines (African News), one magazine wey one Belgian colonial set up. For 1956, e comot from army and turn full-time journalist, dey write for Léopoldville daily L'Avenir. Two years later, e go Belgium to report de 1958 World Exposition, then e stay back make e learn journalism better. By dis time, Mobutu don meet plenty young Congolese intellectuals wey dey challenge colonial rule. E come build friendship plus Patrice Lumumba and join Lumumba ein party—Congolese National Movement (MNC). Mobutu later become Lumumba ein personal aide. Some people wey know de matter talk say Belgian intelligence fit don recruit Mobutu as informant give de government. During de 1960 talks wey happen for Brussels about Congolese independence, de US embassy organize one reception give de Congolese delegation. Each embassy staff get list of delegates wey dem suppose meet, and later dem come talk about de people dem meet. De ambassador talk say, “One name just dey pop up steady. But nobody get am for ein list 'cos e no be official delegation member—e be Lumumba ein secretary. But everybody agree say dis guy get strong brain, e be young, maybe small immature, but e get big future ahead.” After de general election, dem assign Lumumba make e form govment. E give Mobutu de position of Secretary of State to de Presidency. Mobutu carry plenty weight for deciding de rest of de govment people. But after independence land, e no fit see Lumumba one-on-one again like before, 'cos de new prime minister start dey busy plus plenty aides and colleagues surround am. From there, both of dem slowly start drift apart. === Congo Crisis === Main article: Congo Crisis On 5 July 1960, soldiers of de Force Publique wey dey Camp Léopold II for Léopoldville vex over dem all-white leaders and bad working conditions, so dem rise mutiny. Di revolt spread go other places sharp-sharp. Mobutu join other officials talk to de mutineers so dem fit free de officers plus dem families. Then on 8 July, de full Council of Ministers gather for one special meeting under President Joseph Kasa-Vubu ein chairmanship for Camp Léopold II to face de matter of Africanising de garrison. De ministers start dey argue who go fit take de top job as army chief of staff. Two people wey stand out be Minister of Youth and Sports Maurice Mpolo, plus Mobutu. Mpolo don already show say e get some control over de soldiers wey dey mutiny, but Kasa-Vubu plus de Bakongo ministers fear say if dem give am power, e fit run coup. Mobutu on de other hand, people see am as cool-head wey dey think before e act. Lumumba respect Mpolo for ein boldness, but e prefer Mobutu ein cautious style. As de argument go on, de cabinet start split based on who dem support to be chief of staff. Lumumba no wan lose any of de two camps, so e try keep both men for ein team. In de end, dem give Mobutu de position and promote am to colonel. Next day, govment teams comot from de capital to supervise how dem go Africanise de army; Mobutu own assignment na for Équateur. While Mobutu dey there, Mpolo begin act as ANC Chief of Staff. Mobutu no happy at all with dat move, so when e return to de capital, e face Lumumba inside cabinet meeting and tell am plain: “Either I no deserve am and you gots sack me, or I do de mission well and I go keep my rank plus position.” De British diplomat Brian Urquhart, wey dey work plus de United Nations, yarn say: “When I first meet Mobutu for July 1960, e be Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba ein chief military assistant and e just promote himself from sergeant go lieutenant-colonel. Compared to ein boss, Mobutu be like pillar of common sense and sharp reasoning. Na to am we go when Lumumba ein hashish-high guards arrest our people. Na Mobutu too dey casually bring up Lumumba ein wild requests—like say make UN pay salary give Congolese army wey fit mutiny. For dem early days, Mobutu look like reasonable young man, wey maybe, just maybe, dey reason good for ein new independent country.” Backed by Belgian govment wey wan still hold tight to de rich Congolese mines, secessionist violence burst out for south. As UN soldiers wey dem send come restore order no dey help crush de secession, Lumumba go turn to Soviet Union for help. Inside six weeks, e receive serious military aid plus about thousand Soviet technical advisers. Since na Cold War time, US govment fear say dis Soviet move be trick to spread communist power for Central Africa. US and Belgium come ginger Kasa-Vubu make e sack Lumumba, and on 5 September, e do am. Lumumba vex rough and say Kasa-Vubu no be president again. Parliament no gree sack any of dem, instead dem beg for reconciliation, but no headway. Lumumba plus Kasa-Vubu each tell Mobutu make e arrest de other one. As Army Chief of Staff, Mobutu start face heavy pressure from all angle. Western countries' embassies—wey dey pay soldiers salary—plus Kasa-Vubu and Mobutu ein own men, all dem want make Soviet people pack. So on 14 September, Mobutu do coup wey no draw blood, announce say both Kasa-Vubu and Lumumba dey “neutralised” and form one new govment of university graduates—dem call am College of Commissioners-General. Lumumba no accept am but dem force am retire go ein house, where UN peacekeepers block Mobutu ein soldiers make dem no arrest am. Urquhart talk say on de coup day, Mobutu just waka enter UN headquarters for Léopoldville without invite and no gree comot till radio announce de coup; na dat time Mobutu begin repeat “C’est moi!”—“Na me!” Urquhart realise say Mobutu just land there in case de coup mess up, so e tell am to comot. As confidence drop say de international community go support am come back to power, Lumumba run commot for late November go meet ein supporters for Stanleyville to form new govment. Early December, Mobutu ein soldiers catch am, then keep am for ein base insyd Thysville. But Mobutu still see am as danger, so on 17 January 1961, e move Lumumba go de rebel State of Katanga. From dat point, nobody see Lumumba again. Later dem find out say same day wey dem move am, de secessionist forces under Moise Tshombe execute am, after Mobutu ein govment hand am over. On 23 January 1961, Kasa-Vubu promote Mobutu go major-general. One historian, De Witte, talk say na political move wey aim to make de army stronger, since na de president ein only support, and to boost Mobutu ein stand inside de army. For 1964, Pierre Mulele lead some fighters start another rebellion. Dem fast take over two-thirds of Congo. Mobutu lead de Congolese army respond, and by 1965, dem take back de whole land. === Second ''coup'' and consolidation of power === Sanso see: Second Mobutu coup d'état Prime Minister Moise Tshombe ein party, de Congolese National Convention, win big majority for March 1965 elections, but Kasa-Vubu appoint Évariste Kimba, one anti-Tshombe man, as prime minister-designate. Parliament no gree approve am two times. As de govment almost jam dead end, Mobutu take over power through coup wey no draw blood on 24 November—he just turn 35 one month before. Under one system wey dem call state of exception (regime d'exception), Mobutu grab full—almost absolute—power for five years. For ein first speech after e take power, Mobutu talk give big crowd for Léopoldville main stadium say, since na politicians spoil Congo within five years, e go need at least dat same time to fix am. So, for dat reason, no political party go do anything for five years. On 30 November 1965, Parliament pass law wey give Mobutu plus ein cabinet most of de legislative powers, but still hold small power to check ein decrees. By early March 1966, when Parliament start new session, Mobutu announce say he dey cancel dat review power, and two weeks after, ein govment shutdown Parliament for good and collect all de remaining authority. At de start, Mobutu ein govment come out like say e no dey into politics—or even dey against am. People begin see “politician” as bad word, wey mean person wey wicked or corrupt. For 1966, dem set up de Corps of Volunteers of de Republic, one strong frontline group wey aim to gather plenty public support behind Mobutu. Na same year dem hail am as de country ein “Second National Hero” after Lumumba. Even though Mobutu play role for how Lumumba commot power, e try package himself like person wey dey carry Lumumba ein legacy continue. One of de key things wey Mobutu dey preach for early part of ein rule be “authentic Congolese nationalism”. Na dat 1966 too e begin change city names wey get European roots to names wey sound more African—na so Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Stanleyville become Kisangani, and Élisabethville change to Lubumbashi. Then for 1967, Mobutu bring out de Popular Movement of de Revolution (MPR). From dat time go reach 1990, na only dat party dem dey allow for politics. Inside de MPR ein beliefs—wey dem write for Manifesto of N'Sele—dem push nationalism, revolution, plus “authenticity”. Dem describe revolution as “truly national and very practical,” wey reject both capitalism and communism. One popular slogan from de MPR be “Neither left nor right,” and later dem add “nor even center” join. That same year, all de trade unions dem join body into one single union—National Union of Zairian Workers—and de govment take full control over am. Mobutu plan say de union no go operate on ein own, but rather support govment policy like tool. From dat time till 1991, any independent trade union be illegal. As e face plenty wahala for de beginning of ein rule, Mobutu use favour-sharing (patronage) win over most of ein opposition; de ones wey no gree, e handle dem rough. For 1966, four cabinet members chop arrest because dem say dem join plan coup. Military court try dem case, then dem do public execution wey over 50,000 people watch live for open ground. Former Katangan gendarmeries wey rise also face Mobutu ein force and dem smash dem down—same as de Stanleyville mutinies of 1967 wey white mercenaries lead. By 1970, almost all de people wey fit challenge Mobutu power don fall, and for most parts of de country, law plus order start dey show face. That 1970 be de peak time of Mobutu ein power and respect. For 1970, King Baudouin of Belgium come Kinshasa do big state visit wey go well. Dat same year, dem hold presidential plus legislative elections. Even though de constitution say two parties fit dey, na only MPR dem allow nominate candidates. For de presidential election, Mobutu be de only person wey run. Voting no dey private; if you support Mobutu, you go drop green paper, but if you no dey support am, na red paper you go use. Green vote mean say you dey vote for hope, while red vote mean chaos. Under dat kind condition, de result no be surprise—official result talk say Mobutu win with almost everybody behind am, collect 10,131,669 votes, and only 157 people say “no”. Later dem come find out say over 30,500 more votes appear pass de number of voters wey register. Dem run de legislative elections same style. People get just one list from MPR; official result talk say unbelievable 98.33% people vote for de MPR list. As Mobutu dey cement ein power, e build different military groups wey na only to protect am dem dey. These groups include de Special Presidential Division, Civil Guard plus Service for Action, and Military Intelligence (SNIP). === Authenticity campaign === Main article: Authenticité (Zaire) Mobutu start big campaign wey promote African culture wey dem call ''authenticité''. As part of am, on 1 June 1966, e begin change city names wey show colonial past—Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Elisabethville change to Lubumbashi, and Stanleyville become Kisangani. For October 1971, e change de country ein name to Republic of Zaire. E order people make dem drop dem European names for African ones, and warn priests say if dem baptize Zairian pikin plus European name, dem go chop five years for prison. Western dressing and neck tie come dey banned, and men must wear one Mao-style tunic dem dey call ''abacost'' (short for ''à bas le costume'' wey mean “down with de suit”). Even Christmas move from December go June because Mobutu say dat one be more “authentic” date. Then for 1972, Mobutu follow ein own rule from previous year and change ein name to Mobutu Sese Seko Nkuku Ngbendu Wa Za Banga (wey mean “De all-powerful warrior wey, because of ein endurance and strong will to win, dey move from victory to victory, and leave fire behind”). Around dat time, e drop de army uniform and start wear ein signature look—tall and commanding, plus walking stick, abacost, thick glasses, and leopard-skin cap wey dem sew for Paris. 4c1sxbajprnzr8h2tiwtcb4kgu0vfpe 69080 69079 2025-07-05T20:06:51Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69080 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu wa za Banga''' ; born '''Joseph-Désiré Mobutu'''; 14 October 1930 – 7 September 1997), people dey call am Mobutu Sese Seko or Mobutu and sana known by ein initials MSS, e be Congolese politician plus military officer wey be de first and only president of Zaire from 1971 to 1997. Before dat, Mobutu serve as de second president of de Democratic Republic of de Congo, from 1965 to 1971. E sana serve as de fifth chairperson of de Organisation of African Unity from 1967 to 1968. During de Congo Crisis insyd 1960, Mobutu, wey den be Chief of Staff insyd de Congolese Army, commot de nation ein democratically elected govment of Patrice Lumumba plus support from de U.S. and Belgium. Mobutu put govment insyd wey arrange make dem execute Lumumba for 1961, and e continue dey lead de country ein armed forces till e take power direct insyd another coup for 1965. To make sure say power no escape am, he create de Popular Movement of de Revolution as de only correct political party for 1967, change Congo ein name go Zaire for 1971, plus e own name turn Mobutu Sese Seko for 1972. Mobutu protect ein rule under hard autocratic regime and end up dey rule during time wey human rights violations spread everywhere. E try purge de country from all colonial culture tins through ein "national authenticity" program. Mobutu turn de main person wey everybody dey hype like say na cult of personality he dey carry. Mobutu talk say ein political ideology no be "left", no be "right", and no be "centre" too, but people mostly know am say e dey against communism for de Françafrique zone. Because of dat, United States, France, plus Belgium support am well-well—dem dash am military, diplomatic, and economic backing. E still build tight link plus apartheid South Africa, Israel, plus de Greek junta dem. Mobutu get strong name for corruption plus nepotism: dem talk say ein personal wealth fit reach from $50 million go $5 billion, all na from economic exploitation plus corruption as president. Some people call ein govment kleptocracy, ’cos e dey pile ein own money while Zaire ein economy suffer—plenty inflation, big debt, and serious currency wahala. E too known for ein flashy lifestyle, like how e dey fly go Paris on top de fast-fast Concorde jet just to do shopping. By 1990, as de economy start dey spoil plus tension dey rise, dem force Mobutu Sese Seko make e enter coalition plus political opponents and agree make dem do multiparty system. Even though e use ein soldiers try block de change, de movement no gree stop. By May 1997, rebel dem wey Laurent-Désiré Kabila lead take over de country and push Mobutu go exile. E already dey battle prostate cancer wey hard, so three months later, e die for Morocco. == Biography == === Early years den education === Mobutu, wey come from de Ngbandi ethnic group, dem born am for 1930 insyd Lisala, Belgian Congo. Mobutu ein mommie, Marie Madeleine Yemo, be hotel maid wey run go Lisala make she escape one local village chief ein harem. Na there she jam Albéric Gbemani, cook wey dey work for one Belgian judge, den she marry am. Not long after, she born Mobutu. Na one uncle pick de name “Mobutu” give am. Gbemani die when Mobutu be just eight years. After dat, one uncle plus ein grandfather raise am. De Belgian judge ein wife take fine eye see Mobutu, so she teach am how to speak, read plus write French well-well, wey be de official language of de colony. Ein mommie Yemo wey be widow, lean on family help to take care of her four pikin dem, and dem dey move from place to place often. Mobutu ein first schooling happen for capital town Léopoldville (wey now dem dey call Kinshasa). Later, ein mommie send am go ein uncle for Coquilhatville (now Mbandaka), where e attend Christian Brothers School, one Catholic-mission boarding school. Mobutu shine for books top and even run de class newspaper. People still know am for ein stubborn pranks and sharp small-boy sense of humor. One classmate remember say anytime de Belgian priests—wey ein main language be Dutch—make mistake for French, Mobutu go jump from ein seat for class top and point out de error sharp. For 1949, Mobutu sneak enter one boat wey dey go downriver to Léopoldville, where e jam one girl. Some weeks later, de priests find am. As school year end, instead of dem send am go prison, dem order make e serve seven years insyd de colonial army, Force Publique (FP). Dat kind punishment na normal tin for students wey dey act stubborn. === Army service === Mobutu find discipline for army life top, and e see father figure insyd Sergeant Louis Bobozo. Mobutu no stop ein studies—e dey borrow European newspapers from de Belgian officers plus pick books from anywhere e fit find, then e go read dem during sentry duty or any small chance e get. De ones wey e like pass be de writings of French president Charles de Gaulle, British prime minister Winston Churchill, plus de Italian Renaissance philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli. After e pass one course for accounting, Mobutu start small-small dey do journalism work proper. Still vexed about how e and de school priests jam wahala, e no marry for church. De only thing e fit bring for de wedding enjoyment be one crate of beer—na all ein army salary fit buy. === Early political involvement === As soldier, Mobutu dey write politics matter under fake name for Actualités Africaines (African News), one magazine wey one Belgian colonial set up. For 1956, e comot from army and turn full-time journalist, dey write for Léopoldville daily L'Avenir. Two years later, e go Belgium to report de 1958 World Exposition, then e stay back make e learn journalism better. By dis time, Mobutu don meet plenty young Congolese intellectuals wey dey challenge colonial rule. E come build friendship plus Patrice Lumumba and join Lumumba ein party—Congolese National Movement (MNC). Mobutu later become Lumumba ein personal aide. Some people wey know de matter talk say Belgian intelligence fit don recruit Mobutu as informant give de government. During de 1960 talks wey happen for Brussels about Congolese independence, de US embassy organize one reception give de Congolese delegation. Each embassy staff get list of delegates wey dem suppose meet, and later dem come talk about de people dem meet. De ambassador talk say, “One name just dey pop up steady. But nobody get am for ein list 'cos e no be official delegation member—e be Lumumba ein secretary. But everybody agree say dis guy get strong brain, e be young, maybe small immature, but e get big future ahead.” After de general election, dem assign Lumumba make e form govment. E give Mobutu de position of Secretary of State to de Presidency. Mobutu carry plenty weight for deciding de rest of de govment people. But after independence land, e no fit see Lumumba one-on-one again like before, 'cos de new prime minister start dey busy plus plenty aides and colleagues surround am. From there, both of dem slowly start drift apart. === Congo Crisis === Main article: Congo Crisis On 5 July 1960, soldiers of de Force Publique wey dey Camp Léopold II for Léopoldville vex over dem all-white leaders and bad working conditions, so dem rise mutiny. Di revolt spread go other places sharp-sharp. Mobutu join other officials talk to de mutineers so dem fit free de officers plus dem families. Then on 8 July, de full Council of Ministers gather for one special meeting under President Joseph Kasa-Vubu ein chairmanship for Camp Léopold II to face de matter of Africanising de garrison. De ministers start dey argue who go fit take de top job as army chief of staff. Two people wey stand out be Minister of Youth and Sports Maurice Mpolo, plus Mobutu. Mpolo don already show say e get some control over de soldiers wey dey mutiny, but Kasa-Vubu plus de Bakongo ministers fear say if dem give am power, e fit run coup. Mobutu on de other hand, people see am as cool-head wey dey think before e act. Lumumba respect Mpolo for ein boldness, but e prefer Mobutu ein cautious style. As de argument go on, de cabinet start split based on who dem support to be chief of staff. Lumumba no wan lose any of de two camps, so e try keep both men for ein team. In de end, dem give Mobutu de position and promote am to colonel. Next day, govment teams comot from de capital to supervise how dem go Africanise de army; Mobutu own assignment na for Équateur. While Mobutu dey there, Mpolo begin act as ANC Chief of Staff. Mobutu no happy at all with dat move, so when e return to de capital, e face Lumumba inside cabinet meeting and tell am plain: “Either I no deserve am and you gots sack me, or I do de mission well and I go keep my rank plus position.” De British diplomat Brian Urquhart, wey dey work plus de United Nations, yarn say: “When I first meet Mobutu for July 1960, e be Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba ein chief military assistant and e just promote himself from sergeant go lieutenant-colonel. Compared to ein boss, Mobutu be like pillar of common sense and sharp reasoning. Na to am we go when Lumumba ein hashish-high guards arrest our people. Na Mobutu too dey casually bring up Lumumba ein wild requests—like say make UN pay salary give Congolese army wey fit mutiny. For dem early days, Mobutu look like reasonable young man, wey maybe, just maybe, dey reason good for ein new independent country.” Backed by Belgian govment wey wan still hold tight to de rich Congolese mines, secessionist violence burst out for south. As UN soldiers wey dem send come restore order no dey help crush de secession, Lumumba go turn to Soviet Union for help. Inside six weeks, e receive serious military aid plus about thousand Soviet technical advisers. Since na Cold War time, US govment fear say dis Soviet move be trick to spread communist power for Central Africa. US and Belgium come ginger Kasa-Vubu make e sack Lumumba, and on 5 September, e do am. Lumumba vex rough and say Kasa-Vubu no be president again. Parliament no gree sack any of dem, instead dem beg for reconciliation, but no headway. Lumumba plus Kasa-Vubu each tell Mobutu make e arrest de other one. As Army Chief of Staff, Mobutu start face heavy pressure from all angle. Western countries' embassies—wey dey pay soldiers salary—plus Kasa-Vubu and Mobutu ein own men, all dem want make Soviet people pack. So on 14 September, Mobutu do coup wey no draw blood, announce say both Kasa-Vubu and Lumumba dey “neutralised” and form one new govment of university graduates—dem call am College of Commissioners-General. Lumumba no accept am but dem force am retire go ein house, where UN peacekeepers block Mobutu ein soldiers make dem no arrest am. Urquhart talk say on de coup day, Mobutu just waka enter UN headquarters for Léopoldville without invite and no gree comot till radio announce de coup; na dat time Mobutu begin repeat “C’est moi!”—“Na me!” Urquhart realise say Mobutu just land there in case de coup mess up, so e tell am to comot. As confidence drop say de international community go support am come back to power, Lumumba run commot for late November go meet ein supporters for Stanleyville to form new govment. Early December, Mobutu ein soldiers catch am, then keep am for ein base insyd Thysville. But Mobutu still see am as danger, so on 17 January 1961, e move Lumumba go de rebel State of Katanga. From dat point, nobody see Lumumba again. Later dem find out say same day wey dem move am, de secessionist forces under Moise Tshombe execute am, after Mobutu ein govment hand am over. On 23 January 1961, Kasa-Vubu promote Mobutu go major-general. One historian, De Witte, talk say na political move wey aim to make de army stronger, since na de president ein only support, and to boost Mobutu ein stand inside de army. For 1964, Pierre Mulele lead some fighters start another rebellion. Dem fast take over two-thirds of Congo. Mobutu lead de Congolese army respond, and by 1965, dem take back de whole land. === Second ''coup'' and consolidation of power === Sanso see: Second Mobutu coup d'état Prime Minister Moise Tshombe ein party, de Congolese National Convention, win big majority for March 1965 elections, but Kasa-Vubu appoint Évariste Kimba, one anti-Tshombe man, as prime minister-designate. Parliament no gree approve am two times. As de govment almost jam dead end, Mobutu take over power through coup wey no draw blood on 24 November—he just turn 35 one month before. Under one system wey dem call state of exception (regime d'exception), Mobutu grab full—almost absolute—power for five years. For ein first speech after e take power, Mobutu talk give big crowd for Léopoldville main stadium say, since na politicians spoil Congo within five years, e go need at least dat same time to fix am. So, for dat reason, no political party go do anything for five years. On 30 November 1965, Parliament pass law wey give Mobutu plus ein cabinet most of de legislative powers, but still hold small power to check ein decrees. By early March 1966, when Parliament start new session, Mobutu announce say he dey cancel dat review power, and two weeks after, ein govment shutdown Parliament for good and collect all de remaining authority. At de start, Mobutu ein govment come out like say e no dey into politics—or even dey against am. People begin see “politician” as bad word, wey mean person wey wicked or corrupt. For 1966, dem set up de Corps of Volunteers of de Republic, one strong frontline group wey aim to gather plenty public support behind Mobutu. Na same year dem hail am as de country ein “Second National Hero” after Lumumba. Even though Mobutu play role for how Lumumba commot power, e try package himself like person wey dey carry Lumumba ein legacy continue. One of de key things wey Mobutu dey preach for early part of ein rule be “authentic Congolese nationalism”. Na dat 1966 too e begin change city names wey get European roots to names wey sound more African—na so Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Stanleyville become Kisangani, and Élisabethville change to Lubumbashi. Then for 1967, Mobutu bring out de Popular Movement of de Revolution (MPR). From dat time go reach 1990, na only dat party dem dey allow for politics. Inside de MPR ein beliefs—wey dem write for Manifesto of N'Sele—dem push nationalism, revolution, plus “authenticity”. Dem describe revolution as “truly national and very practical,” wey reject both capitalism and communism. One popular slogan from de MPR be “Neither left nor right,” and later dem add “nor even center” join. That same year, all de trade unions dem join body into one single union—National Union of Zairian Workers—and de govment take full control over am. Mobutu plan say de union no go operate on ein own, but rather support govment policy like tool. From dat time till 1991, any independent trade union be illegal. As e face plenty wahala for de beginning of ein rule, Mobutu use favour-sharing (patronage) win over most of ein opposition; de ones wey no gree, e handle dem rough. For 1966, four cabinet members chop arrest because dem say dem join plan coup. Military court try dem case, then dem do public execution wey over 50,000 people watch live for open ground. Former Katangan gendarmeries wey rise also face Mobutu ein force and dem smash dem down—same as de Stanleyville mutinies of 1967 wey white mercenaries lead. By 1970, almost all de people wey fit challenge Mobutu power don fall, and for most parts of de country, law plus order start dey show face. That 1970 be de peak time of Mobutu ein power and respect. For 1970, King Baudouin of Belgium come Kinshasa do big state visit wey go well. Dat same year, dem hold presidential plus legislative elections. Even though de constitution say two parties fit dey, na only MPR dem allow nominate candidates. For de presidential election, Mobutu be de only person wey run. Voting no dey private; if you support Mobutu, you go drop green paper, but if you no dey support am, na red paper you go use. Green vote mean say you dey vote for hope, while red vote mean chaos. Under dat kind condition, de result no be surprise—official result talk say Mobutu win with almost everybody behind am, collect 10,131,669 votes, and only 157 people say “no”. Later dem come find out say over 30,500 more votes appear pass de number of voters wey register. Dem run de legislative elections same style. People get just one list from MPR; official result talk say unbelievable 98.33% people vote for de MPR list. As Mobutu dey cement ein power, e build different military groups wey na only to protect am dem dey. These groups include de Special Presidential Division, Civil Guard plus Service for Action, and Military Intelligence (SNIP). === Authenticity campaign === Main article: Authenticité (Zaire) Mobutu start big campaign wey promote African culture wey dem call ''authenticité''. As part of am, on 1 June 1966, e begin change city names wey show colonial past—Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Elisabethville change to Lubumbashi, and Stanleyville become Kisangani. For October 1971, e change de country ein name to Republic of Zaire. E order people make dem drop dem European names for African ones, and warn priests say if dem baptize Zairian pikin plus European name, dem go chop five years for prison. Western dressing and neck tie come dey banned, and men must wear one Mao-style tunic dem dey call ''abacost'' (short for ''à bas le costume'' wey mean “down with de suit”). Even Christmas move from December go June because Mobutu say dat one be more “authentic” date. Then for 1972, Mobutu follow ein own rule from previous year and change ein name to Mobutu Sese Seko Nkuku Ngbendu Wa Za Banga (wey mean “De all-powerful warrior wey, because of ein endurance and strong will to win, dey move from victory to victory, and leave fire behind”). Around dat time, e drop de army uniform and start wear ein signature look—tall and commanding, plus walking stick, abacost, thick glasses, and leopard-skin cap wey dem sew for Paris. For 1974, new constitution land wey tighten Mobutu ein hold on de country. Dis constitution talk say MPR be de “single institution” for de nation. Dem even define am as “de nation politically organized”—which mean say de state just be machine wey dey push party agenda. Every citizen automatically turn MPR member from de moment dem born. De constitution explain say de MPR dey inside de body of de party ein president, wey dem dey elect every seven years during national convention. But at de same time, dat same president automatically turn de only person wey go run for president of de country. Den dem go use referendum confirm am. De document come turn Mobutu ein emergency powers wey e dey use since 1965 into legal backing; e give am full authority—wey dem write as “plenitude of power exercise”—so all power now dey Mobutu ein hand. Mobutu win election three times under dis system, and each time, dem talk say e win with over 98 percent of de votes. For de legislative side, dem dey bring one single MPR list every five years, and de results dey show crazy numbers—either everybody vote for dem, or almost everybody. One of dem elections for 1975, dem no even vote at all—dem just show candidates around public places make people clap give dem. Dat one na how voting be. 3y1lbp9qdtfrn054kz8fjftbpczturf 69081 69080 2025-07-05T20:09:31Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69081 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu wa za Banga''' ; born '''Joseph-Désiré Mobutu'''; 14 October 1930 – 7 September 1997), people dey call am Mobutu Sese Seko or Mobutu and sana known by ein initials MSS, e be Congolese politician plus military officer wey be de first and only president of Zaire from 1971 to 1997. Before dat, Mobutu serve as de second president of de Democratic Republic of de Congo, from 1965 to 1971. E sana serve as de fifth chairperson of de Organisation of African Unity from 1967 to 1968. During de Congo Crisis insyd 1960, Mobutu, wey den be Chief of Staff insyd de Congolese Army, commot de nation ein democratically elected govment of Patrice Lumumba plus support from de U.S. and Belgium. Mobutu put govment insyd wey arrange make dem execute Lumumba for 1961, and e continue dey lead de country ein armed forces till e take power direct insyd another coup for 1965. To make sure say power no escape am, he create de Popular Movement of de Revolution as de only correct political party for 1967, change Congo ein name go Zaire for 1971, plus e own name turn Mobutu Sese Seko for 1972. Mobutu protect ein rule under hard autocratic regime and end up dey rule during time wey human rights violations spread everywhere. E try purge de country from all colonial culture tins through ein "national authenticity" program. Mobutu turn de main person wey everybody dey hype like say na cult of personality he dey carry. Mobutu talk say ein political ideology no be "left", no be "right", and no be "centre" too, but people mostly know am say e dey against communism for de Françafrique zone. Because of dat, United States, France, plus Belgium support am well-well—dem dash am military, diplomatic, and economic backing. E still build tight link plus apartheid South Africa, Israel, plus de Greek junta dem. Mobutu get strong name for corruption plus nepotism: dem talk say ein personal wealth fit reach from $50 million go $5 billion, all na from economic exploitation plus corruption as president. Some people call ein govment kleptocracy, ’cos e dey pile ein own money while Zaire ein economy suffer—plenty inflation, big debt, and serious currency wahala. E too known for ein flashy lifestyle, like how e dey fly go Paris on top de fast-fast Concorde jet just to do shopping. By 1990, as de economy start dey spoil plus tension dey rise, dem force Mobutu Sese Seko make e enter coalition plus political opponents and agree make dem do multiparty system. Even though e use ein soldiers try block de change, de movement no gree stop. By May 1997, rebel dem wey Laurent-Désiré Kabila lead take over de country and push Mobutu go exile. E already dey battle prostate cancer wey hard, so three months later, e die for Morocco. == Biography == === Early years den education === Mobutu, wey come from de Ngbandi ethnic group, dem born am for 1930 insyd Lisala, Belgian Congo. Mobutu ein mommie, Marie Madeleine Yemo, be hotel maid wey run go Lisala make she escape one local village chief ein harem. Na there she jam Albéric Gbemani, cook wey dey work for one Belgian judge, den she marry am. Not long after, she born Mobutu. Na one uncle pick de name “Mobutu” give am. Gbemani die when Mobutu be just eight years. After dat, one uncle plus ein grandfather raise am. De Belgian judge ein wife take fine eye see Mobutu, so she teach am how to speak, read plus write French well-well, wey be de official language of de colony. Ein mommie Yemo wey be widow, lean on family help to take care of her four pikin dem, and dem dey move from place to place often. Mobutu ein first schooling happen for capital town Léopoldville (wey now dem dey call Kinshasa). Later, ein mommie send am go ein uncle for Coquilhatville (now Mbandaka), where e attend Christian Brothers School, one Catholic-mission boarding school. Mobutu shine for books top and even run de class newspaper. People still know am for ein stubborn pranks and sharp small-boy sense of humor. One classmate remember say anytime de Belgian priests—wey ein main language be Dutch—make mistake for French, Mobutu go jump from ein seat for class top and point out de error sharp. For 1949, Mobutu sneak enter one boat wey dey go downriver to Léopoldville, where e jam one girl. Some weeks later, de priests find am. As school year end, instead of dem send am go prison, dem order make e serve seven years insyd de colonial army, Force Publique (FP). Dat kind punishment na normal tin for students wey dey act stubborn. === Army service === Mobutu find discipline for army life top, and e see father figure insyd Sergeant Louis Bobozo. Mobutu no stop ein studies—e dey borrow European newspapers from de Belgian officers plus pick books from anywhere e fit find, then e go read dem during sentry duty or any small chance e get. De ones wey e like pass be de writings of French president Charles de Gaulle, British prime minister Winston Churchill, plus de Italian Renaissance philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli. After e pass one course for accounting, Mobutu start small-small dey do journalism work proper. Still vexed about how e and de school priests jam wahala, e no marry for church. De only thing e fit bring for de wedding enjoyment be one crate of beer—na all ein army salary fit buy. === Early political involvement === As soldier, Mobutu dey write politics matter under fake name for Actualités Africaines (African News), one magazine wey one Belgian colonial set up. For 1956, e comot from army and turn full-time journalist, dey write for Léopoldville daily L'Avenir. Two years later, e go Belgium to report de 1958 World Exposition, then e stay back make e learn journalism better. By dis time, Mobutu don meet plenty young Congolese intellectuals wey dey challenge colonial rule. E come build friendship plus Patrice Lumumba and join Lumumba ein party—Congolese National Movement (MNC). Mobutu later become Lumumba ein personal aide. Some people wey know de matter talk say Belgian intelligence fit don recruit Mobutu as informant give de government. During de 1960 talks wey happen for Brussels about Congolese independence, de US embassy organize one reception give de Congolese delegation. Each embassy staff get list of delegates wey dem suppose meet, and later dem come talk about de people dem meet. De ambassador talk say, “One name just dey pop up steady. But nobody get am for ein list 'cos e no be official delegation member—e be Lumumba ein secretary. But everybody agree say dis guy get strong brain, e be young, maybe small immature, but e get big future ahead.” After de general election, dem assign Lumumba make e form govment. E give Mobutu de position of Secretary of State to de Presidency. Mobutu carry plenty weight for deciding de rest of de govment people. But after independence land, e no fit see Lumumba one-on-one again like before, 'cos de new prime minister start dey busy plus plenty aides and colleagues surround am. From there, both of dem slowly start drift apart. === Congo Crisis === Main article: Congo Crisis On 5 July 1960, soldiers of de Force Publique wey dey Camp Léopold II for Léopoldville vex over dem all-white leaders and bad working conditions, so dem rise mutiny. Di revolt spread go other places sharp-sharp. Mobutu join other officials talk to de mutineers so dem fit free de officers plus dem families. Then on 8 July, de full Council of Ministers gather for one special meeting under President Joseph Kasa-Vubu ein chairmanship for Camp Léopold II to face de matter of Africanising de garrison. De ministers start dey argue who go fit take de top job as army chief of staff. Two people wey stand out be Minister of Youth and Sports Maurice Mpolo, plus Mobutu. Mpolo don already show say e get some control over de soldiers wey dey mutiny, but Kasa-Vubu plus de Bakongo ministers fear say if dem give am power, e fit run coup. Mobutu on de other hand, people see am as cool-head wey dey think before e act. Lumumba respect Mpolo for ein boldness, but e prefer Mobutu ein cautious style. As de argument go on, de cabinet start split based on who dem support to be chief of staff. Lumumba no wan lose any of de two camps, so e try keep both men for ein team. In de end, dem give Mobutu de position and promote am to colonel. Next day, govment teams comot from de capital to supervise how dem go Africanise de army; Mobutu own assignment na for Équateur. While Mobutu dey there, Mpolo begin act as ANC Chief of Staff. Mobutu no happy at all with dat move, so when e return to de capital, e face Lumumba inside cabinet meeting and tell am plain: “Either I no deserve am and you gots sack me, or I do de mission well and I go keep my rank plus position.” De British diplomat Brian Urquhart, wey dey work plus de United Nations, yarn say: “When I first meet Mobutu for July 1960, e be Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba ein chief military assistant and e just promote himself from sergeant go lieutenant-colonel. Compared to ein boss, Mobutu be like pillar of common sense and sharp reasoning. Na to am we go when Lumumba ein hashish-high guards arrest our people. Na Mobutu too dey casually bring up Lumumba ein wild requests—like say make UN pay salary give Congolese army wey fit mutiny. For dem early days, Mobutu look like reasonable young man, wey maybe, just maybe, dey reason good for ein new independent country.” Backed by Belgian govment wey wan still hold tight to de rich Congolese mines, secessionist violence burst out for south. As UN soldiers wey dem send come restore order no dey help crush de secession, Lumumba go turn to Soviet Union for help. Inside six weeks, e receive serious military aid plus about thousand Soviet technical advisers. Since na Cold War time, US govment fear say dis Soviet move be trick to spread communist power for Central Africa. US and Belgium come ginger Kasa-Vubu make e sack Lumumba, and on 5 September, e do am. Lumumba vex rough and say Kasa-Vubu no be president again. Parliament no gree sack any of dem, instead dem beg for reconciliation, but no headway. Lumumba plus Kasa-Vubu each tell Mobutu make e arrest de other one. As Army Chief of Staff, Mobutu start face heavy pressure from all angle. Western countries' embassies—wey dey pay soldiers salary—plus Kasa-Vubu and Mobutu ein own men, all dem want make Soviet people pack. So on 14 September, Mobutu do coup wey no draw blood, announce say both Kasa-Vubu and Lumumba dey “neutralised” and form one new govment of university graduates—dem call am College of Commissioners-General. Lumumba no accept am but dem force am retire go ein house, where UN peacekeepers block Mobutu ein soldiers make dem no arrest am. Urquhart talk say on de coup day, Mobutu just waka enter UN headquarters for Léopoldville without invite and no gree comot till radio announce de coup; na dat time Mobutu begin repeat “C’est moi!”—“Na me!” Urquhart realise say Mobutu just land there in case de coup mess up, so e tell am to comot. As confidence drop say de international community go support am come back to power, Lumumba run commot for late November go meet ein supporters for Stanleyville to form new govment. Early December, Mobutu ein soldiers catch am, then keep am for ein base insyd Thysville. But Mobutu still see am as danger, so on 17 January 1961, e move Lumumba go de rebel State of Katanga. From dat point, nobody see Lumumba again. Later dem find out say same day wey dem move am, de secessionist forces under Moise Tshombe execute am, after Mobutu ein govment hand am over. On 23 January 1961, Kasa-Vubu promote Mobutu go major-general. One historian, De Witte, talk say na political move wey aim to make de army stronger, since na de president ein only support, and to boost Mobutu ein stand inside de army. For 1964, Pierre Mulele lead some fighters start another rebellion. Dem fast take over two-thirds of Congo. Mobutu lead de Congolese army respond, and by 1965, dem take back de whole land. === Second ''coup'' and consolidation of power === Sanso see: Second Mobutu coup d'état Prime Minister Moise Tshombe ein party, de Congolese National Convention, win big majority for March 1965 elections, but Kasa-Vubu appoint Évariste Kimba, one anti-Tshombe man, as prime minister-designate. Parliament no gree approve am two times. As de govment almost jam dead end, Mobutu take over power through coup wey no draw blood on 24 November—he just turn 35 one month before. Under one system wey dem call state of exception (regime d'exception), Mobutu grab full—almost absolute—power for five years. For ein first speech after e take power, Mobutu talk give big crowd for Léopoldville main stadium say, since na politicians spoil Congo within five years, e go need at least dat same time to fix am. So, for dat reason, no political party go do anything for five years. On 30 November 1965, Parliament pass law wey give Mobutu plus ein cabinet most of de legislative powers, but still hold small power to check ein decrees. By early March 1966, when Parliament start new session, Mobutu announce say he dey cancel dat review power, and two weeks after, ein govment shutdown Parliament for good and collect all de remaining authority. At de start, Mobutu ein govment come out like say e no dey into politics—or even dey against am. People begin see “politician” as bad word, wey mean person wey wicked or corrupt. For 1966, dem set up de Corps of Volunteers of de Republic, one strong frontline group wey aim to gather plenty public support behind Mobutu. Na same year dem hail am as de country ein “Second National Hero” after Lumumba. Even though Mobutu play role for how Lumumba commot power, e try package himself like person wey dey carry Lumumba ein legacy continue. One of de key things wey Mobutu dey preach for early part of ein rule be “authentic Congolese nationalism”. Na dat 1966 too e begin change city names wey get European roots to names wey sound more African—na so Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Stanleyville become Kisangani, and Élisabethville change to Lubumbashi. Then for 1967, Mobutu bring out de Popular Movement of de Revolution (MPR). From dat time go reach 1990, na only dat party dem dey allow for politics. Inside de MPR ein beliefs—wey dem write for Manifesto of N'Sele—dem push nationalism, revolution, plus “authenticity”. Dem describe revolution as “truly national and very practical,” wey reject both capitalism and communism. One popular slogan from de MPR be “Neither left nor right,” and later dem add “nor even center” join. That same year, all de trade unions dem join body into one single union—National Union of Zairian Workers—and de govment take full control over am. Mobutu plan say de union no go operate on ein own, but rather support govment policy like tool. From dat time till 1991, any independent trade union be illegal. As e face plenty wahala for de beginning of ein rule, Mobutu use favour-sharing (patronage) win over most of ein opposition; de ones wey no gree, e handle dem rough. For 1966, four cabinet members chop arrest because dem say dem join plan coup. Military court try dem case, then dem do public execution wey over 50,000 people watch live for open ground. Former Katangan gendarmeries wey rise also face Mobutu ein force and dem smash dem down—same as de Stanleyville mutinies of 1967 wey white mercenaries lead. By 1970, almost all de people wey fit challenge Mobutu power don fall, and for most parts of de country, law plus order start dey show face. That 1970 be de peak time of Mobutu ein power and respect. For 1970, King Baudouin of Belgium come Kinshasa do big state visit wey go well. Dat same year, dem hold presidential plus legislative elections. Even though de constitution say two parties fit dey, na only MPR dem allow nominate candidates. For de presidential election, Mobutu be de only person wey run. Voting no dey private; if you support Mobutu, you go drop green paper, but if you no dey support am, na red paper you go use. Green vote mean say you dey vote for hope, while red vote mean chaos. Under dat kind condition, de result no be surprise—official result talk say Mobutu win with almost everybody behind am, collect 10,131,669 votes, and only 157 people say “no”. Later dem come find out say over 30,500 more votes appear pass de number of voters wey register. Dem run de legislative elections same style. People get just one list from MPR; official result talk say unbelievable 98.33% people vote for de MPR list. As Mobutu dey cement ein power, e build different military groups wey na only to protect am dem dey. These groups include de Special Presidential Division, Civil Guard plus Service for Action, and Military Intelligence (SNIP). === Authenticity campaign === Main article: Authenticité (Zaire) Mobutu start big campaign wey promote African culture wey dem call ''authenticité''. As part of am, on 1 June 1966, e begin change city names wey show colonial past—Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Elisabethville change to Lubumbashi, and Stanleyville become Kisangani. For October 1971, e change de country ein name to Republic of Zaire. E order people make dem drop dem European names for African ones, and warn priests say if dem baptize Zairian pikin plus European name, dem go chop five years for prison. Western dressing and neck tie come dey banned, and men must wear one Mao-style tunic dem dey call ''abacost'' (short for ''à bas le costume'' wey mean “down with de suit”). Even Christmas move from December go June because Mobutu say dat one be more “authentic” date. Then for 1972, Mobutu follow ein own rule from previous year and change ein name to Mobutu Sese Seko Nkuku Ngbendu Wa Za Banga (wey mean “De all-powerful warrior wey, because of ein endurance and strong will to win, dey move from victory to victory, and leave fire behind”). Around dat time, e drop de army uniform and start wear ein signature look—tall and commanding, plus walking stick, abacost, thick glasses, and leopard-skin cap wey dem sew for Paris. For 1974, new constitution land wey tighten Mobutu ein hold on de country. Dis constitution talk say MPR be de “single institution” for de nation. Dem even define am as “de nation politically organized”—which mean say de state just be machine wey dey push party agenda. Every citizen automatically turn MPR member from de moment dem born. De constitution explain say de MPR dey inside de body of de party ein president, wey dem dey elect every seven years during national convention. But at de same time, dat same president automatically turn de only person wey go run for president of de country. Den dem go use referendum confirm am. De document come turn Mobutu ein emergency powers wey e dey use since 1965 into legal backing; e give am full authority—wey dem write as “plenitude of power exercise”—so all power now dey Mobutu ein hand. Mobutu win election three times under dis system, and each time, dem talk say e win with over 98 percent of de votes. For de legislative side, dem dey bring one single MPR list every five years, and de results dey show crazy numbers—either everybody vote for dem, or almost everybody. One of dem elections for 1975, dem no even vote at all—dem just show candidates around public places make people clap give dem. Dat one na how voting be. == One-man rule == Mobutu start use public executions early insyd ein rule to stamp ein power well-well. Any political rival, secessionist, coup planner, or anybody wey e see as threat, e go deal with dem hard. Many of dem people chop hanging for front big crowd. One serious example be former Prime Minister Évariste Kimba. Mobutu govment carry Kimba plus three of ein cabinet members—Jérôme Anany (Defense Minister), Emmanuel Bamba (Finance Minister), and Alexandre Mahamba (Minister of Mines and Energy)—put for trial May 1966. By 30 May, dem hang all four men in front of over 50,000 people. Dem say dem dey link up plus Colonel Alphonse Bangala and Major Pierre Efomi to run coup. Mobutu come talk say, “One had to strike through a spectacular example, and create the conditions of regime discipline. When a chief takes a decision, he decides – period.” Then for 1968, Pierre Mulele—Lumumba ein Education Minister and big rebel during de 1964 Simba uprising—Mobutu people trick am come out from exile for Brazzaville by telling am say amnesty go dey. But instead of peace, dem torture and kill am bad. Before Mulele die, dem gouge ein eyes, tear off ein genitals, and cut off ein limbs one by one. Mobutu later change ein strategy—e start dey buy political opponents instead of always use force. E like repeat one slogan: “Keep your friends close, but your enemies closer still,” to show how e dey use bribe pull rivals to ein side. One trick wey Mobutu really enjoy be “musical chairs”—e dey rotate ministers like game, change cabinet list anyhow, so nobody go build power wey fit threaten am. From November 1965 to April 1997, Mobutu reshuffle cabinet 60 times. Dis constant shuffle put fear inside ministers, because everybody know say Mobutu go change people anyhow, no matter whether you dey work well or not. Because ministers no sabi how long dem go last for position, e lead to serious stealing—everybody dey rush grab wetin dem fit while dem still dey office. Mobutu still dey arrest, even torture, some dissident govment members—then later forgive dem and even give dem bigger posts. E be like e just use power play confuse everybody. Congolese historian Emizet F. Kisangani talk say plenty public officials believe say no matter how corrupt or useless dem be, dem fit come back to govment position. To hold post no require management skill or clean conscience. In fact, if you too correct or too honest, dem see you as obstacle. Wetin Mobutu want be total loyalty in exchange for chance to chop money. By 1970, reports talk say Mobutu don carry 60% of de national budget enter ein pocket—people begin see am as one of de most corrupt leaders for Africa and de whole world. Kisangani add say Mobutu build full system of corruption wey spoil public values and reward greed and selfishness. 1v6fkphrrd6c5rmrpldfub4ix1y9y7t 69082 69081 2025-07-05T20:11:38Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69082 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu wa za Banga''' ; born '''Joseph-Désiré Mobutu'''; 14 October 1930 – 7 September 1997), people dey call am Mobutu Sese Seko or Mobutu and sana known by ein initials MSS, e be Congolese politician plus military officer wey be de first and only president of Zaire from 1971 to 1997. Before dat, Mobutu serve as de second president of de Democratic Republic of de Congo, from 1965 to 1971. E sana serve as de fifth chairperson of de Organisation of African Unity from 1967 to 1968. During de Congo Crisis insyd 1960, Mobutu, wey den be Chief of Staff insyd de Congolese Army, commot de nation ein democratically elected govment of Patrice Lumumba plus support from de U.S. and Belgium. Mobutu put govment insyd wey arrange make dem execute Lumumba for 1961, and e continue dey lead de country ein armed forces till e take power direct insyd another coup for 1965. To make sure say power no escape am, he create de Popular Movement of de Revolution as de only correct political party for 1967, change Congo ein name go Zaire for 1971, plus e own name turn Mobutu Sese Seko for 1972. Mobutu protect ein rule under hard autocratic regime and end up dey rule during time wey human rights violations spread everywhere. E try purge de country from all colonial culture tins through ein "national authenticity" program. Mobutu turn de main person wey everybody dey hype like say na cult of personality he dey carry. Mobutu talk say ein political ideology no be "left", no be "right", and no be "centre" too, but people mostly know am say e dey against communism for de Françafrique zone. Because of dat, United States, France, plus Belgium support am well-well—dem dash am military, diplomatic, and economic backing. E still build tight link plus apartheid South Africa, Israel, plus de Greek junta dem. Mobutu get strong name for corruption plus nepotism: dem talk say ein personal wealth fit reach from $50 million go $5 billion, all na from economic exploitation plus corruption as president. Some people call ein govment kleptocracy, ’cos e dey pile ein own money while Zaire ein economy suffer—plenty inflation, big debt, and serious currency wahala. E too known for ein flashy lifestyle, like how e dey fly go Paris on top de fast-fast Concorde jet just to do shopping. By 1990, as de economy start dey spoil plus tension dey rise, dem force Mobutu Sese Seko make e enter coalition plus political opponents and agree make dem do multiparty system. Even though e use ein soldiers try block de change, de movement no gree stop. By May 1997, rebel dem wey Laurent-Désiré Kabila lead take over de country and push Mobutu go exile. E already dey battle prostate cancer wey hard, so three months later, e die for Morocco. == Biography == === Early years den education === Mobutu, wey come from de Ngbandi ethnic group, dem born am for 1930 insyd Lisala, Belgian Congo. Mobutu ein mommie, Marie Madeleine Yemo, be hotel maid wey run go Lisala make she escape one local village chief ein harem. Na there she jam Albéric Gbemani, cook wey dey work for one Belgian judge, den she marry am. Not long after, she born Mobutu. Na one uncle pick de name “Mobutu” give am. Gbemani die when Mobutu be just eight years. After dat, one uncle plus ein grandfather raise am. De Belgian judge ein wife take fine eye see Mobutu, so she teach am how to speak, read plus write French well-well, wey be de official language of de colony. Ein mommie Yemo wey be widow, lean on family help to take care of her four pikin dem, and dem dey move from place to place often. Mobutu ein first schooling happen for capital town Léopoldville (wey now dem dey call Kinshasa). Later, ein mommie send am go ein uncle for Coquilhatville (now Mbandaka), where e attend Christian Brothers School, one Catholic-mission boarding school. Mobutu shine for books top and even run de class newspaper. People still know am for ein stubborn pranks and sharp small-boy sense of humor. One classmate remember say anytime de Belgian priests—wey ein main language be Dutch—make mistake for French, Mobutu go jump from ein seat for class top and point out de error sharp. For 1949, Mobutu sneak enter one boat wey dey go downriver to Léopoldville, where e jam one girl. Some weeks later, de priests find am. As school year end, instead of dem send am go prison, dem order make e serve seven years insyd de colonial army, Force Publique (FP). Dat kind punishment na normal tin for students wey dey act stubborn. === Army service === Mobutu find discipline for army life top, and e see father figure insyd Sergeant Louis Bobozo. Mobutu no stop ein studies—e dey borrow European newspapers from de Belgian officers plus pick books from anywhere e fit find, then e go read dem during sentry duty or any small chance e get. De ones wey e like pass be de writings of French president Charles de Gaulle, British prime minister Winston Churchill, plus de Italian Renaissance philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli. After e pass one course for accounting, Mobutu start small-small dey do journalism work proper. Still vexed about how e and de school priests jam wahala, e no marry for church. De only thing e fit bring for de wedding enjoyment be one crate of beer—na all ein army salary fit buy. === Early political involvement === As soldier, Mobutu dey write politics matter under fake name for Actualités Africaines (African News), one magazine wey one Belgian colonial set up. For 1956, e comot from army and turn full-time journalist, dey write for Léopoldville daily L'Avenir. Two years later, e go Belgium to report de 1958 World Exposition, then e stay back make e learn journalism better. By dis time, Mobutu don meet plenty young Congolese intellectuals wey dey challenge colonial rule. E come build friendship plus Patrice Lumumba and join Lumumba ein party—Congolese National Movement (MNC). Mobutu later become Lumumba ein personal aide. Some people wey know de matter talk say Belgian intelligence fit don recruit Mobutu as informant give de government. During de 1960 talks wey happen for Brussels about Congolese independence, de US embassy organize one reception give de Congolese delegation. Each embassy staff get list of delegates wey dem suppose meet, and later dem come talk about de people dem meet. De ambassador talk say, “One name just dey pop up steady. But nobody get am for ein list 'cos e no be official delegation member—e be Lumumba ein secretary. But everybody agree say dis guy get strong brain, e be young, maybe small immature, but e get big future ahead.” After de general election, dem assign Lumumba make e form govment. E give Mobutu de position of Secretary of State to de Presidency. Mobutu carry plenty weight for deciding de rest of de govment people. But after independence land, e no fit see Lumumba one-on-one again like before, 'cos de new prime minister start dey busy plus plenty aides and colleagues surround am. From there, both of dem slowly start drift apart. === Congo Crisis === Main article: Congo Crisis On 5 July 1960, soldiers of de Force Publique wey dey Camp Léopold II for Léopoldville vex over dem all-white leaders and bad working conditions, so dem rise mutiny. Di revolt spread go other places sharp-sharp. Mobutu join other officials talk to de mutineers so dem fit free de officers plus dem families. Then on 8 July, de full Council of Ministers gather for one special meeting under President Joseph Kasa-Vubu ein chairmanship for Camp Léopold II to face de matter of Africanising de garrison. De ministers start dey argue who go fit take de top job as army chief of staff. Two people wey stand out be Minister of Youth and Sports Maurice Mpolo, plus Mobutu. Mpolo don already show say e get some control over de soldiers wey dey mutiny, but Kasa-Vubu plus de Bakongo ministers fear say if dem give am power, e fit run coup. Mobutu on de other hand, people see am as cool-head wey dey think before e act. Lumumba respect Mpolo for ein boldness, but e prefer Mobutu ein cautious style. As de argument go on, de cabinet start split based on who dem support to be chief of staff. Lumumba no wan lose any of de two camps, so e try keep both men for ein team. In de end, dem give Mobutu de position and promote am to colonel. Next day, govment teams comot from de capital to supervise how dem go Africanise de army; Mobutu own assignment na for Équateur. While Mobutu dey there, Mpolo begin act as ANC Chief of Staff. Mobutu no happy at all with dat move, so when e return to de capital, e face Lumumba inside cabinet meeting and tell am plain: “Either I no deserve am and you gots sack me, or I do de mission well and I go keep my rank plus position.” De British diplomat Brian Urquhart, wey dey work plus de United Nations, yarn say: “When I first meet Mobutu for July 1960, e be Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba ein chief military assistant and e just promote himself from sergeant go lieutenant-colonel. Compared to ein boss, Mobutu be like pillar of common sense and sharp reasoning. Na to am we go when Lumumba ein hashish-high guards arrest our people. Na Mobutu too dey casually bring up Lumumba ein wild requests—like say make UN pay salary give Congolese army wey fit mutiny. For dem early days, Mobutu look like reasonable young man, wey maybe, just maybe, dey reason good for ein new independent country.” Backed by Belgian govment wey wan still hold tight to de rich Congolese mines, secessionist violence burst out for south. As UN soldiers wey dem send come restore order no dey help crush de secession, Lumumba go turn to Soviet Union for help. Inside six weeks, e receive serious military aid plus about thousand Soviet technical advisers. Since na Cold War time, US govment fear say dis Soviet move be trick to spread communist power for Central Africa. US and Belgium come ginger Kasa-Vubu make e sack Lumumba, and on 5 September, e do am. Lumumba vex rough and say Kasa-Vubu no be president again. Parliament no gree sack any of dem, instead dem beg for reconciliation, but no headway. Lumumba plus Kasa-Vubu each tell Mobutu make e arrest de other one. As Army Chief of Staff, Mobutu start face heavy pressure from all angle. Western countries' embassies—wey dey pay soldiers salary—plus Kasa-Vubu and Mobutu ein own men, all dem want make Soviet people pack. So on 14 September, Mobutu do coup wey no draw blood, announce say both Kasa-Vubu and Lumumba dey “neutralised” and form one new govment of university graduates—dem call am College of Commissioners-General. Lumumba no accept am but dem force am retire go ein house, where UN peacekeepers block Mobutu ein soldiers make dem no arrest am. Urquhart talk say on de coup day, Mobutu just waka enter UN headquarters for Léopoldville without invite and no gree comot till radio announce de coup; na dat time Mobutu begin repeat “C’est moi!”—“Na me!” Urquhart realise say Mobutu just land there in case de coup mess up, so e tell am to comot. As confidence drop say de international community go support am come back to power, Lumumba run commot for late November go meet ein supporters for Stanleyville to form new govment. Early December, Mobutu ein soldiers catch am, then keep am for ein base insyd Thysville. But Mobutu still see am as danger, so on 17 January 1961, e move Lumumba go de rebel State of Katanga. From dat point, nobody see Lumumba again. Later dem find out say same day wey dem move am, de secessionist forces under Moise Tshombe execute am, after Mobutu ein govment hand am over. On 23 January 1961, Kasa-Vubu promote Mobutu go major-general. One historian, De Witte, talk say na political move wey aim to make de army stronger, since na de president ein only support, and to boost Mobutu ein stand inside de army. For 1964, Pierre Mulele lead some fighters start another rebellion. Dem fast take over two-thirds of Congo. Mobutu lead de Congolese army respond, and by 1965, dem take back de whole land. === Second ''coup'' and consolidation of power === Sanso see: Second Mobutu coup d'état Prime Minister Moise Tshombe ein party, de Congolese National Convention, win big majority for March 1965 elections, but Kasa-Vubu appoint Évariste Kimba, one anti-Tshombe man, as prime minister-designate. Parliament no gree approve am two times. As de govment almost jam dead end, Mobutu take over power through coup wey no draw blood on 24 November—he just turn 35 one month before. Under one system wey dem call state of exception (regime d'exception), Mobutu grab full—almost absolute—power for five years. For ein first speech after e take power, Mobutu talk give big crowd for Léopoldville main stadium say, since na politicians spoil Congo within five years, e go need at least dat same time to fix am. So, for dat reason, no political party go do anything for five years. On 30 November 1965, Parliament pass law wey give Mobutu plus ein cabinet most of de legislative powers, but still hold small power to check ein decrees. By early March 1966, when Parliament start new session, Mobutu announce say he dey cancel dat review power, and two weeks after, ein govment shutdown Parliament for good and collect all de remaining authority. At de start, Mobutu ein govment come out like say e no dey into politics—or even dey against am. People begin see “politician” as bad word, wey mean person wey wicked or corrupt. For 1966, dem set up de Corps of Volunteers of de Republic, one strong frontline group wey aim to gather plenty public support behind Mobutu. Na same year dem hail am as de country ein “Second National Hero” after Lumumba. Even though Mobutu play role for how Lumumba commot power, e try package himself like person wey dey carry Lumumba ein legacy continue. One of de key things wey Mobutu dey preach for early part of ein rule be “authentic Congolese nationalism”. Na dat 1966 too e begin change city names wey get European roots to names wey sound more African—na so Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Stanleyville become Kisangani, and Élisabethville change to Lubumbashi. Then for 1967, Mobutu bring out de Popular Movement of de Revolution (MPR). From dat time go reach 1990, na only dat party dem dey allow for politics. Inside de MPR ein beliefs—wey dem write for Manifesto of N'Sele—dem push nationalism, revolution, plus “authenticity”. Dem describe revolution as “truly national and very practical,” wey reject both capitalism and communism. One popular slogan from de MPR be “Neither left nor right,” and later dem add “nor even center” join. That same year, all de trade unions dem join body into one single union—National Union of Zairian Workers—and de govment take full control over am. Mobutu plan say de union no go operate on ein own, but rather support govment policy like tool. From dat time till 1991, any independent trade union be illegal. As e face plenty wahala for de beginning of ein rule, Mobutu use favour-sharing (patronage) win over most of ein opposition; de ones wey no gree, e handle dem rough. For 1966, four cabinet members chop arrest because dem say dem join plan coup. Military court try dem case, then dem do public execution wey over 50,000 people watch live for open ground. Former Katangan gendarmeries wey rise also face Mobutu ein force and dem smash dem down—same as de Stanleyville mutinies of 1967 wey white mercenaries lead. By 1970, almost all de people wey fit challenge Mobutu power don fall, and for most parts of de country, law plus order start dey show face. That 1970 be de peak time of Mobutu ein power and respect. For 1970, King Baudouin of Belgium come Kinshasa do big state visit wey go well. Dat same year, dem hold presidential plus legislative elections. Even though de constitution say two parties fit dey, na only MPR dem allow nominate candidates. For de presidential election, Mobutu be de only person wey run. Voting no dey private; if you support Mobutu, you go drop green paper, but if you no dey support am, na red paper you go use. Green vote mean say you dey vote for hope, while red vote mean chaos. Under dat kind condition, de result no be surprise—official result talk say Mobutu win with almost everybody behind am, collect 10,131,669 votes, and only 157 people say “no”. Later dem come find out say over 30,500 more votes appear pass de number of voters wey register. Dem run de legislative elections same style. People get just one list from MPR; official result talk say unbelievable 98.33% people vote for de MPR list. As Mobutu dey cement ein power, e build different military groups wey na only to protect am dem dey. These groups include de Special Presidential Division, Civil Guard plus Service for Action, and Military Intelligence (SNIP). === Authenticity campaign === Main article: Authenticité (Zaire) Mobutu start big campaign wey promote African culture wey dem call ''authenticité''. As part of am, on 1 June 1966, e begin change city names wey show colonial past—Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Elisabethville change to Lubumbashi, and Stanleyville become Kisangani. For October 1971, e change de country ein name to Republic of Zaire. E order people make dem drop dem European names for African ones, and warn priests say if dem baptize Zairian pikin plus European name, dem go chop five years for prison. Western dressing and neck tie come dey banned, and men must wear one Mao-style tunic dem dey call ''abacost'' (short for ''à bas le costume'' wey mean “down with de suit”). Even Christmas move from December go June because Mobutu say dat one be more “authentic” date. Then for 1972, Mobutu follow ein own rule from previous year and change ein name to Mobutu Sese Seko Nkuku Ngbendu Wa Za Banga (wey mean “De all-powerful warrior wey, because of ein endurance and strong will to win, dey move from victory to victory, and leave fire behind”). Around dat time, e drop de army uniform and start wear ein signature look—tall and commanding, plus walking stick, abacost, thick glasses, and leopard-skin cap wey dem sew for Paris. For 1974, new constitution land wey tighten Mobutu ein hold on de country. Dis constitution talk say MPR be de “single institution” for de nation. Dem even define am as “de nation politically organized”—which mean say de state just be machine wey dey push party agenda. Every citizen automatically turn MPR member from de moment dem born. De constitution explain say de MPR dey inside de body of de party ein president, wey dem dey elect every seven years during national convention. But at de same time, dat same president automatically turn de only person wey go run for president of de country. Den dem go use referendum confirm am. De document come turn Mobutu ein emergency powers wey e dey use since 1965 into legal backing; e give am full authority—wey dem write as “plenitude of power exercise”—so all power now dey Mobutu ein hand. Mobutu win election three times under dis system, and each time, dem talk say e win with over 98 percent of de votes. For de legislative side, dem dey bring one single MPR list every five years, and de results dey show crazy numbers—either everybody vote for dem, or almost everybody. One of dem elections for 1975, dem no even vote at all—dem just show candidates around public places make people clap give dem. Dat one na how voting be. == One-man rule == Mobutu start use public executions early insyd ein rule to stamp ein power well-well. Any political rival, secessionist, coup planner, or anybody wey e see as threat, e go deal with dem hard. Many of dem people chop hanging for front big crowd. One serious example be former Prime Minister Évariste Kimba. Mobutu govment carry Kimba plus three of ein cabinet members—Jérôme Anany (Defense Minister), Emmanuel Bamba (Finance Minister), and Alexandre Mahamba (Minister of Mines and Energy)—put for trial May 1966. By 30 May, dem hang all four men in front of over 50,000 people. Dem say dem dey link up plus Colonel Alphonse Bangala and Major Pierre Efomi to run coup. Mobutu come talk say, “One had to strike through a spectacular example, and create the conditions of regime discipline. When a chief takes a decision, he decides – period.” Then for 1968, Pierre Mulele—Lumumba ein Education Minister and big rebel during de 1964 Simba uprising—Mobutu people trick am come out from exile for Brazzaville by telling am say amnesty go dey. But instead of peace, dem torture and kill am bad. Before Mulele die, dem gouge ein eyes, tear off ein genitals, and cut off ein limbs one by one. Mobutu later change ein strategy—e start dey buy political opponents instead of always use force. E like repeat one slogan: “Keep your friends close, but your enemies closer still,” to show how e dey use bribe pull rivals to ein side. One trick wey Mobutu really enjoy be “musical chairs”—e dey rotate ministers like game, change cabinet list anyhow, so nobody go build power wey fit threaten am. From November 1965 to April 1997, Mobutu reshuffle cabinet 60 times. Dis constant shuffle put fear inside ministers, because everybody know say Mobutu go change people anyhow, no matter whether you dey work well or not. Because ministers no sabi how long dem go last for position, e lead to serious stealing—everybody dey rush grab wetin dem fit while dem still dey office. Mobutu still dey arrest, even torture, some dissident govment members—then later forgive dem and even give dem bigger posts. E be like e just use power play confuse everybody. Congolese historian Emizet F. Kisangani talk say plenty public officials believe say no matter how corrupt or useless dem be, dem fit come back to govment position. To hold post no require management skill or clean conscience. In fact, if you too correct or too honest, dem see you as obstacle. Wetin Mobutu want be total loyalty in exchange for chance to chop money. By 1970, reports talk say Mobutu don carry 60% of de national budget enter ein pocket—people begin see am as one of de most corrupt leaders for Africa and de whole world. Kisangani add say Mobutu build full system of corruption wey spoil public values and reward greed and selfishness. Mobutu no slow down with de self-promotion moves—man try for 1972 make dem crown am president for life, but that one no land well. Then for June 1983, e raise himself go military top-top level as Marshal. Na General Likulia Bolongo sign dat order. Shortly after, Victor Nendaka Bika—de number two man for country as Vice-President of de Bureau of de Central Committee—drop one big speech full of praise give Mobutu. To chop revenue from Congo ein natural resources, Mobutu first chase out European investors and nationalize plenty foreign companies. But instead of letting dem run proper, e dash control of these firms give ein relatives and close padi dem—wey quickly use am do corruption and chop company assets clean. For 1973–1974, Mobutu start one big “Zairianization” program, take over more foreign businesses and hand dem to Zairians. But e no end there. By October 1973, de Arab oil shock come crash global economy—the same one wey don dey grow steady since 1945. One serious side effect be say copper price fall by 50% in 1974, and since copper na Zaire ein number one export, e hit dem hard. As American historian Thomas Odom talk, Zaire shift from “prosperity to bankruptcy almost overnight.” Because de economy break down, Zaire run go International Monetary Fund (IMF) for help to manage dem debt, but when IMF dig into dem books, dem discover heavy corruption. Mobutu come waka go China for 1974, take inspiration from Cultural Revolution. E come back wearing Mao jacket and call himself “Citoyen Mobutu” or “Citizen Mobutu.” E say he go “radicalize de Zairian revolution.” Di same businesses wey e first give to Zairians, Mobutu come collect dem back, nationalize everything under full state control. As if dat no do, e cut government workers ein salaries by 50%, wey provoke one failed coup attempt against am for June 1975. 5uvo4472ga05ntm0wubmjmwqzw6luvq 69083 69082 2025-07-05T20:12:45Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69083 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu wa za Banga''' ; born '''Joseph-Désiré Mobutu'''; 14 October 1930 – 7 September 1997), people dey call am Mobutu Sese Seko or Mobutu and sana known by ein initials MSS, e be Congolese politician plus military officer wey be de first and only president of Zaire from 1971 to 1997. Before dat, Mobutu serve as de second president of de Democratic Republic of de Congo, from 1965 to 1971. E sana serve as de fifth chairperson of de Organisation of African Unity from 1967 to 1968. During de Congo Crisis insyd 1960, Mobutu, wey den be Chief of Staff insyd de Congolese Army, commot de nation ein democratically elected govment of Patrice Lumumba plus support from de U.S. and Belgium. Mobutu put govment insyd wey arrange make dem execute Lumumba for 1961, and e continue dey lead de country ein armed forces till e take power direct insyd another coup for 1965. To make sure say power no escape am, he create de Popular Movement of de Revolution as de only correct political party for 1967, change Congo ein name go Zaire for 1971, plus e own name turn Mobutu Sese Seko for 1972. Mobutu protect ein rule under hard autocratic regime and end up dey rule during time wey human rights violations spread everywhere. E try purge de country from all colonial culture tins through ein "national authenticity" program. Mobutu turn de main person wey everybody dey hype like say na cult of personality he dey carry. Mobutu talk say ein political ideology no be "left", no be "right", and no be "centre" too, but people mostly know am say e dey against communism for de Françafrique zone. Because of dat, United States, France, plus Belgium support am well-well—dem dash am military, diplomatic, and economic backing. E still build tight link plus apartheid South Africa, Israel, plus de Greek junta dem. Mobutu get strong name for corruption plus nepotism: dem talk say ein personal wealth fit reach from $50 million go $5 billion, all na from economic exploitation plus corruption as president. Some people call ein govment kleptocracy, ’cos e dey pile ein own money while Zaire ein economy suffer—plenty inflation, big debt, and serious currency wahala. E too known for ein flashy lifestyle, like how e dey fly go Paris on top de fast-fast Concorde jet just to do shopping. By 1990, as de economy start dey spoil plus tension dey rise, dem force Mobutu Sese Seko make e enter coalition plus political opponents and agree make dem do multiparty system. Even though e use ein soldiers try block de change, de movement no gree stop. By May 1997, rebel dem wey Laurent-Désiré Kabila lead take over de country and push Mobutu go exile. E already dey battle prostate cancer wey hard, so three months later, e die for Morocco. == Biography == === Early years den education === Mobutu, wey come from de Ngbandi ethnic group, dem born am for 1930 insyd Lisala, Belgian Congo. Mobutu ein mommie, Marie Madeleine Yemo, be hotel maid wey run go Lisala make she escape one local village chief ein harem. Na there she jam Albéric Gbemani, cook wey dey work for one Belgian judge, den she marry am. Not long after, she born Mobutu. Na one uncle pick de name “Mobutu” give am. Gbemani die when Mobutu be just eight years. After dat, one uncle plus ein grandfather raise am. De Belgian judge ein wife take fine eye see Mobutu, so she teach am how to speak, read plus write French well-well, wey be de official language of de colony. Ein mommie Yemo wey be widow, lean on family help to take care of her four pikin dem, and dem dey move from place to place often. Mobutu ein first schooling happen for capital town Léopoldville (wey now dem dey call Kinshasa). Later, ein mommie send am go ein uncle for Coquilhatville (now Mbandaka), where e attend Christian Brothers School, one Catholic-mission boarding school. Mobutu shine for books top and even run de class newspaper. People still know am for ein stubborn pranks and sharp small-boy sense of humor. One classmate remember say anytime de Belgian priests—wey ein main language be Dutch—make mistake for French, Mobutu go jump from ein seat for class top and point out de error sharp. For 1949, Mobutu sneak enter one boat wey dey go downriver to Léopoldville, where e jam one girl. Some weeks later, de priests find am. As school year end, instead of dem send am go prison, dem order make e serve seven years insyd de colonial army, Force Publique (FP). Dat kind punishment na normal tin for students wey dey act stubborn. === Army service === Mobutu find discipline for army life top, and e see father figure insyd Sergeant Louis Bobozo. Mobutu no stop ein studies—e dey borrow European newspapers from de Belgian officers plus pick books from anywhere e fit find, then e go read dem during sentry duty or any small chance e get. De ones wey e like pass be de writings of French president Charles de Gaulle, British prime minister Winston Churchill, plus de Italian Renaissance philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli. After e pass one course for accounting, Mobutu start small-small dey do journalism work proper. Still vexed about how e and de school priests jam wahala, e no marry for church. De only thing e fit bring for de wedding enjoyment be one crate of beer—na all ein army salary fit buy. === Early political involvement === As soldier, Mobutu dey write politics matter under fake name for Actualités Africaines (African News), one magazine wey one Belgian colonial set up. For 1956, e comot from army and turn full-time journalist, dey write for Léopoldville daily L'Avenir. Two years later, e go Belgium to report de 1958 World Exposition, then e stay back make e learn journalism better. By dis time, Mobutu don meet plenty young Congolese intellectuals wey dey challenge colonial rule. E come build friendship plus Patrice Lumumba and join Lumumba ein party—Congolese National Movement (MNC). Mobutu later become Lumumba ein personal aide. Some people wey know de matter talk say Belgian intelligence fit don recruit Mobutu as informant give de government. During de 1960 talks wey happen for Brussels about Congolese independence, de US embassy organize one reception give de Congolese delegation. Each embassy staff get list of delegates wey dem suppose meet, and later dem come talk about de people dem meet. De ambassador talk say, “One name just dey pop up steady. But nobody get am for ein list 'cos e no be official delegation member—e be Lumumba ein secretary. But everybody agree say dis guy get strong brain, e be young, maybe small immature, but e get big future ahead.” After de general election, dem assign Lumumba make e form govment. E give Mobutu de position of Secretary of State to de Presidency. Mobutu carry plenty weight for deciding de rest of de govment people. But after independence land, e no fit see Lumumba one-on-one again like before, 'cos de new prime minister start dey busy plus plenty aides and colleagues surround am. From there, both of dem slowly start drift apart. === Congo Crisis === Main article: Congo Crisis On 5 July 1960, soldiers of de Force Publique wey dey Camp Léopold II for Léopoldville vex over dem all-white leaders and bad working conditions, so dem rise mutiny. Di revolt spread go other places sharp-sharp. Mobutu join other officials talk to de mutineers so dem fit free de officers plus dem families. Then on 8 July, de full Council of Ministers gather for one special meeting under President Joseph Kasa-Vubu ein chairmanship for Camp Léopold II to face de matter of Africanising de garrison. De ministers start dey argue who go fit take de top job as army chief of staff. Two people wey stand out be Minister of Youth and Sports Maurice Mpolo, plus Mobutu. Mpolo don already show say e get some control over de soldiers wey dey mutiny, but Kasa-Vubu plus de Bakongo ministers fear say if dem give am power, e fit run coup. Mobutu on de other hand, people see am as cool-head wey dey think before e act. Lumumba respect Mpolo for ein boldness, but e prefer Mobutu ein cautious style. As de argument go on, de cabinet start split based on who dem support to be chief of staff. Lumumba no wan lose any of de two camps, so e try keep both men for ein team. In de end, dem give Mobutu de position and promote am to colonel. Next day, govment teams comot from de capital to supervise how dem go Africanise de army; Mobutu own assignment na for Équateur. While Mobutu dey there, Mpolo begin act as ANC Chief of Staff. Mobutu no happy at all with dat move, so when e return to de capital, e face Lumumba inside cabinet meeting and tell am plain: “Either I no deserve am and you gots sack me, or I do de mission well and I go keep my rank plus position.” De British diplomat Brian Urquhart, wey dey work plus de United Nations, yarn say: “When I first meet Mobutu for July 1960, e be Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba ein chief military assistant and e just promote himself from sergeant go lieutenant-colonel. Compared to ein boss, Mobutu be like pillar of common sense and sharp reasoning. Na to am we go when Lumumba ein hashish-high guards arrest our people. Na Mobutu too dey casually bring up Lumumba ein wild requests—like say make UN pay salary give Congolese army wey fit mutiny. For dem early days, Mobutu look like reasonable young man, wey maybe, just maybe, dey reason good for ein new independent country.” Backed by Belgian govment wey wan still hold tight to de rich Congolese mines, secessionist violence burst out for south. As UN soldiers wey dem send come restore order no dey help crush de secession, Lumumba go turn to Soviet Union for help. Inside six weeks, e receive serious military aid plus about thousand Soviet technical advisers. Since na Cold War time, US govment fear say dis Soviet move be trick to spread communist power for Central Africa. US and Belgium come ginger Kasa-Vubu make e sack Lumumba, and on 5 September, e do am. Lumumba vex rough and say Kasa-Vubu no be president again. Parliament no gree sack any of dem, instead dem beg for reconciliation, but no headway. Lumumba plus Kasa-Vubu each tell Mobutu make e arrest de other one. As Army Chief of Staff, Mobutu start face heavy pressure from all angle. Western countries' embassies—wey dey pay soldiers salary—plus Kasa-Vubu and Mobutu ein own men, all dem want make Soviet people pack. So on 14 September, Mobutu do coup wey no draw blood, announce say both Kasa-Vubu and Lumumba dey “neutralised” and form one new govment of university graduates—dem call am College of Commissioners-General. Lumumba no accept am but dem force am retire go ein house, where UN peacekeepers block Mobutu ein soldiers make dem no arrest am. Urquhart talk say on de coup day, Mobutu just waka enter UN headquarters for Léopoldville without invite and no gree comot till radio announce de coup; na dat time Mobutu begin repeat “C’est moi!”—“Na me!” Urquhart realise say Mobutu just land there in case de coup mess up, so e tell am to comot. As confidence drop say de international community go support am come back to power, Lumumba run commot for late November go meet ein supporters for Stanleyville to form new govment. Early December, Mobutu ein soldiers catch am, then keep am for ein base insyd Thysville. But Mobutu still see am as danger, so on 17 January 1961, e move Lumumba go de rebel State of Katanga. From dat point, nobody see Lumumba again. Later dem find out say same day wey dem move am, de secessionist forces under Moise Tshombe execute am, after Mobutu ein govment hand am over. On 23 January 1961, Kasa-Vubu promote Mobutu go major-general. One historian, De Witte, talk say na political move wey aim to make de army stronger, since na de president ein only support, and to boost Mobutu ein stand inside de army. For 1964, Pierre Mulele lead some fighters start another rebellion. Dem fast take over two-thirds of Congo. Mobutu lead de Congolese army respond, and by 1965, dem take back de whole land. === Second ''coup'' and consolidation of power === Sanso see: Second Mobutu coup d'état Prime Minister Moise Tshombe ein party, de Congolese National Convention, win big majority for March 1965 elections, but Kasa-Vubu appoint Évariste Kimba, one anti-Tshombe man, as prime minister-designate. Parliament no gree approve am two times. As de govment almost jam dead end, Mobutu take over power through coup wey no draw blood on 24 November—he just turn 35 one month before. Under one system wey dem call state of exception (regime d'exception), Mobutu grab full—almost absolute—power for five years. For ein first speech after e take power, Mobutu talk give big crowd for Léopoldville main stadium say, since na politicians spoil Congo within five years, e go need at least dat same time to fix am. So, for dat reason, no political party go do anything for five years. On 30 November 1965, Parliament pass law wey give Mobutu plus ein cabinet most of de legislative powers, but still hold small power to check ein decrees. By early March 1966, when Parliament start new session, Mobutu announce say he dey cancel dat review power, and two weeks after, ein govment shutdown Parliament for good and collect all de remaining authority. At de start, Mobutu ein govment come out like say e no dey into politics—or even dey against am. People begin see “politician” as bad word, wey mean person wey wicked or corrupt. For 1966, dem set up de Corps of Volunteers of de Republic, one strong frontline group wey aim to gather plenty public support behind Mobutu. Na same year dem hail am as de country ein “Second National Hero” after Lumumba. Even though Mobutu play role for how Lumumba commot power, e try package himself like person wey dey carry Lumumba ein legacy continue. One of de key things wey Mobutu dey preach for early part of ein rule be “authentic Congolese nationalism”. Na dat 1966 too e begin change city names wey get European roots to names wey sound more African—na so Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Stanleyville become Kisangani, and Élisabethville change to Lubumbashi. Then for 1967, Mobutu bring out de Popular Movement of de Revolution (MPR). From dat time go reach 1990, na only dat party dem dey allow for politics. Inside de MPR ein beliefs—wey dem write for Manifesto of N'Sele—dem push nationalism, revolution, plus “authenticity”. Dem describe revolution as “truly national and very practical,” wey reject both capitalism and communism. One popular slogan from de MPR be “Neither left nor right,” and later dem add “nor even center” join. That same year, all de trade unions dem join body into one single union—National Union of Zairian Workers—and de govment take full control over am. Mobutu plan say de union no go operate on ein own, but rather support govment policy like tool. From dat time till 1991, any independent trade union be illegal. As e face plenty wahala for de beginning of ein rule, Mobutu use favour-sharing (patronage) win over most of ein opposition; de ones wey no gree, e handle dem rough. For 1966, four cabinet members chop arrest because dem say dem join plan coup. Military court try dem case, then dem do public execution wey over 50,000 people watch live for open ground. Former Katangan gendarmeries wey rise also face Mobutu ein force and dem smash dem down—same as de Stanleyville mutinies of 1967 wey white mercenaries lead. By 1970, almost all de people wey fit challenge Mobutu power don fall, and for most parts of de country, law plus order start dey show face. That 1970 be de peak time of Mobutu ein power and respect. For 1970, King Baudouin of Belgium come Kinshasa do big state visit wey go well. Dat same year, dem hold presidential plus legislative elections. Even though de constitution say two parties fit dey, na only MPR dem allow nominate candidates. For de presidential election, Mobutu be de only person wey run. Voting no dey private; if you support Mobutu, you go drop green paper, but if you no dey support am, na red paper you go use. Green vote mean say you dey vote for hope, while red vote mean chaos. Under dat kind condition, de result no be surprise—official result talk say Mobutu win with almost everybody behind am, collect 10,131,669 votes, and only 157 people say “no”. Later dem come find out say over 30,500 more votes appear pass de number of voters wey register. Dem run de legislative elections same style. People get just one list from MPR; official result talk say unbelievable 98.33% people vote for de MPR list. As Mobutu dey cement ein power, e build different military groups wey na only to protect am dem dey. These groups include de Special Presidential Division, Civil Guard plus Service for Action, and Military Intelligence (SNIP). === Authenticity campaign === Main article: Authenticité (Zaire) Mobutu start big campaign wey promote African culture wey dem call ''authenticité''. As part of am, on 1 June 1966, e begin change city names wey show colonial past—Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Elisabethville change to Lubumbashi, and Stanleyville become Kisangani. For October 1971, e change de country ein name to Republic of Zaire. E order people make dem drop dem European names for African ones, and warn priests say if dem baptize Zairian pikin plus European name, dem go chop five years for prison. Western dressing and neck tie come dey banned, and men must wear one Mao-style tunic dem dey call ''abacost'' (short for ''à bas le costume'' wey mean “down with de suit”). Even Christmas move from December go June because Mobutu say dat one be more “authentic” date. Then for 1972, Mobutu follow ein own rule from previous year and change ein name to Mobutu Sese Seko Nkuku Ngbendu Wa Za Banga (wey mean “De all-powerful warrior wey, because of ein endurance and strong will to win, dey move from victory to victory, and leave fire behind”). Around dat time, e drop de army uniform and start wear ein signature look—tall and commanding, plus walking stick, abacost, thick glasses, and leopard-skin cap wey dem sew for Paris. For 1974, new constitution land wey tighten Mobutu ein hold on de country. Dis constitution talk say MPR be de “single institution” for de nation. Dem even define am as “de nation politically organized”—which mean say de state just be machine wey dey push party agenda. Every citizen automatically turn MPR member from de moment dem born. De constitution explain say de MPR dey inside de body of de party ein president, wey dem dey elect every seven years during national convention. But at de same time, dat same president automatically turn de only person wey go run for president of de country. Den dem go use referendum confirm am. De document come turn Mobutu ein emergency powers wey e dey use since 1965 into legal backing; e give am full authority—wey dem write as “plenitude of power exercise”—so all power now dey Mobutu ein hand. Mobutu win election three times under dis system, and each time, dem talk say e win with over 98 percent of de votes. For de legislative side, dem dey bring one single MPR list every five years, and de results dey show crazy numbers—either everybody vote for dem, or almost everybody. One of dem elections for 1975, dem no even vote at all—dem just show candidates around public places make people clap give dem. Dat one na how voting be. == One-man rule == Mobutu start use public executions early insyd ein rule to stamp ein power well-well. Any political rival, secessionist, coup planner, or anybody wey e see as threat, e go deal with dem hard. Many of dem people chop hanging for front big crowd. One serious example be former Prime Minister Évariste Kimba. Mobutu govment carry Kimba plus three of ein cabinet members—Jérôme Anany (Defense Minister), Emmanuel Bamba (Finance Minister), and Alexandre Mahamba (Minister of Mines and Energy)—put for trial May 1966. By 30 May, dem hang all four men in front of over 50,000 people. Dem say dem dey link up plus Colonel Alphonse Bangala and Major Pierre Efomi to run coup. Mobutu come talk say, “One had to strike through a spectacular example, and create the conditions of regime discipline. When a chief takes a decision, he decides – period.” Then for 1968, Pierre Mulele—Lumumba ein Education Minister and big rebel during de 1964 Simba uprising—Mobutu people trick am come out from exile for Brazzaville by telling am say amnesty go dey. But instead of peace, dem torture and kill am bad. Before Mulele die, dem gouge ein eyes, tear off ein genitals, and cut off ein limbs one by one. Mobutu later change ein strategy—e start dey buy political opponents instead of always use force. E like repeat one slogan: “Keep your friends close, but your enemies closer still,” to show how e dey use bribe pull rivals to ein side. One trick wey Mobutu really enjoy be “musical chairs”—e dey rotate ministers like game, change cabinet list anyhow, so nobody go build power wey fit threaten am. From November 1965 to April 1997, Mobutu reshuffle cabinet 60 times. Dis constant shuffle put fear inside ministers, because everybody know say Mobutu go change people anyhow, no matter whether you dey work well or not. Because ministers no sabi how long dem go last for position, e lead to serious stealing—everybody dey rush grab wetin dem fit while dem still dey office. Mobutu still dey arrest, even torture, some dissident govment members—then later forgive dem and even give dem bigger posts. E be like e just use power play confuse everybody. Congolese historian Emizet F. Kisangani talk say plenty public officials believe say no matter how corrupt or useless dem be, dem fit come back to govment position. To hold post no require management skill or clean conscience. In fact, if you too correct or too honest, dem see you as obstacle. Wetin Mobutu want be total loyalty in exchange for chance to chop money. By 1970, reports talk say Mobutu don carry 60% of de national budget enter ein pocket—people begin see am as one of de most corrupt leaders for Africa and de whole world. Kisangani add say Mobutu build full system of corruption wey spoil public values and reward greed and selfishness. Mobutu no slow down with de self-promotion moves—man try for 1972 make dem crown am president for life, but that one no land well. Then for June 1983, e raise himself go military top-top level as Marshal. Na General Likulia Bolongo sign dat order. Shortly after, Victor Nendaka Bika—de number two man for country as Vice-President of de Bureau of de Central Committee—drop one big speech full of praise give Mobutu. To chop revenue from Congo ein natural resources, Mobutu first chase out European investors and nationalize plenty foreign companies. But instead of letting dem run proper, e dash control of these firms give ein relatives and close padi dem—wey quickly use am do corruption and chop company assets clean. For 1973–1974, Mobutu start one big “Zairianization” program, take over more foreign businesses and hand dem to Zairians. But e no end there. By October 1973, de Arab oil shock come crash global economy—the same one wey don dey grow steady since 1945. One serious side effect be say copper price fall by 50% in 1974, and since copper na Zaire ein number one export, e hit dem hard. As American historian Thomas Odom talk, Zaire shift from “prosperity to bankruptcy almost overnight.” Because de economy break down, Zaire run go International Monetary Fund (IMF) for help to manage dem debt, but when IMF dig into dem books, dem discover heavy corruption. Mobutu come waka go China for 1974, take inspiration from Cultural Revolution. E come back wearing Mao jacket and call himself “Citoyen Mobutu” or “Citizen Mobutu.” E say he go “radicalize de Zairian revolution.” Di same businesses wey e first give to Zairians, Mobutu come collect dem back, nationalize everything under full state control. As if dat no do, e cut government workers ein salaries by 50%, wey provoke one failed coup attempt against am for June 1975. By 1977, Mobutu ein earlier move to nationalize foreign businesses don backfire hard—e economy don fall serious, and e no get choice but to beg foreign investors come back. But before e fit recover, Katangan rebels wey base for Angola storm Zaire dat same year, as payback for Mobutu ein support to anti-MPLA fighters. France respond quick—dem airlift 1,500 Moroccan paratroopers into Zaire, push de rebels back, and end di crisis wey dem call ''Shaba I''. But no long after, for 1978, de rebels regroup with even more numbers and invade again—this time na ''Shaba II''. Belgium and France come deploy troops again, backed by US logistics, and dem manage stop de attack once more. Mobutu get big embarrassment from how badly de Zairian Army perform for both invasions—e need foreign help to fight small rebel forces. Yet, instead of reforming de army, e just reduce am from 51,000 troops in 1978 to 23,000 by 1980. By dat time, about 90% of de army be Ngbandi—Mobutu ein own ethnic group—’cos e no trust other ethnic groups with weapons. De most loyal and strongest force Mobutu get be ein bodyguards—the ''Special Presidential Division''—trained by Israel, made up only of Ngbandi, and always led by Mobutu ein relative. 01awj65bqguojvph61d73b77woooi1m 69084 69083 2025-07-05T20:19:39Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69084 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu wa za Banga''' ; born '''Joseph-Désiré Mobutu'''; 14 October 1930 – 7 September 1997), people dey call am Mobutu Sese Seko or Mobutu and sana known by ein initials MSS, e be Congolese politician plus military officer wey be de first and only president of Zaire from 1971 to 1997. Before dat, Mobutu serve as de second president of de Democratic Republic of de Congo, from 1965 to 1971. E sana serve as de fifth chairperson of de Organisation of African Unity from 1967 to 1968. During de Congo Crisis insyd 1960, Mobutu, wey den be Chief of Staff insyd de Congolese Army, commot de nation ein democratically elected govment of Patrice Lumumba plus support from de U.S. and Belgium. Mobutu put govment insyd wey arrange make dem execute Lumumba for 1961, and e continue dey lead de country ein armed forces till e take power direct insyd another coup for 1965. To make sure say power no escape am, he create de Popular Movement of de Revolution as de only correct political party for 1967, change Congo ein name go Zaire for 1971, plus e own name turn Mobutu Sese Seko for 1972. Mobutu protect ein rule under hard autocratic regime and end up dey rule during time wey human rights violations spread everywhere. E try purge de country from all colonial culture tins through ein "national authenticity" program. Mobutu turn de main person wey everybody dey hype like say na cult of personality he dey carry. Mobutu talk say ein political ideology no be "left", no be "right", and no be "centre" too, but people mostly know am say e dey against communism for de Françafrique zone. Because of dat, United States, France, plus Belgium support am well-well—dem dash am military, diplomatic, and economic backing. E still build tight link plus apartheid South Africa, Israel, plus de Greek junta dem. Mobutu get strong name for corruption plus nepotism: dem talk say ein personal wealth fit reach from $50 million go $5 billion, all na from economic exploitation plus corruption as president. Some people call ein govment kleptocracy, ’cos e dey pile ein own money while Zaire ein economy suffer—plenty inflation, big debt, and serious currency wahala. E too known for ein flashy lifestyle, like how e dey fly go Paris on top de fast-fast Concorde jet just to do shopping. By 1990, as de economy start dey spoil plus tension dey rise, dem force Mobutu Sese Seko make e enter coalition plus political opponents and agree make dem do multiparty system. Even though e use ein soldiers try block de change, de movement no gree stop. By May 1997, rebel dem wey Laurent-Désiré Kabila lead take over de country and push Mobutu go exile. E already dey battle prostate cancer wey hard, so three months later, e die for Morocco. == Biography == === Early years den education === Mobutu, wey come from de Ngbandi ethnic group, dem born am for 1930 insyd Lisala, Belgian Congo. Mobutu ein mommie, Marie Madeleine Yemo, be hotel maid wey run go Lisala make she escape one local village chief ein harem. Na there she jam Albéric Gbemani, cook wey dey work for one Belgian judge, den she marry am. Not long after, she born Mobutu. Na one uncle pick de name “Mobutu” give am. Gbemani die when Mobutu be just eight years. After dat, one uncle plus ein grandfather raise am. De Belgian judge ein wife take fine eye see Mobutu, so she teach am how to speak, read plus write French well-well, wey be de official language of de colony. Ein mommie Yemo wey be widow, lean on family help to take care of her four pikin dem, and dem dey move from place to place often. Mobutu ein first schooling happen for capital town Léopoldville (wey now dem dey call Kinshasa). Later, ein mommie send am go ein uncle for Coquilhatville (now Mbandaka), where e attend Christian Brothers School, one Catholic-mission boarding school. Mobutu shine for books top and even run de class newspaper. People still know am for ein stubborn pranks and sharp small-boy sense of humor. One classmate remember say anytime de Belgian priests—wey ein main language be Dutch—make mistake for French, Mobutu go jump from ein seat for class top and point out de error sharp. For 1949, Mobutu sneak enter one boat wey dey go downriver to Léopoldville, where e jam one girl. Some weeks later, de priests find am. As school year end, instead of dem send am go prison, dem order make e serve seven years insyd de colonial army, Force Publique (FP). Dat kind punishment na normal tin for students wey dey act stubborn. === Army service === Mobutu find discipline for army life top, and e see father figure insyd Sergeant Louis Bobozo. Mobutu no stop ein studies—e dey borrow European newspapers from de Belgian officers plus pick books from anywhere e fit find, then e go read dem during sentry duty or any small chance e get. De ones wey e like pass be de writings of French president Charles de Gaulle, British prime minister Winston Churchill, plus de Italian Renaissance philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli. After e pass one course for accounting, Mobutu start small-small dey do journalism work proper. Still vexed about how e and de school priests jam wahala, e no marry for church. De only thing e fit bring for de wedding enjoyment be one crate of beer—na all ein army salary fit buy. === Early political involvement === As soldier, Mobutu dey write politics matter under fake name for Actualités Africaines (African News), one magazine wey one Belgian colonial set up. For 1956, e comot from army and turn full-time journalist, dey write for Léopoldville daily L'Avenir. Two years later, e go Belgium to report de 1958 World Exposition, then e stay back make e learn journalism better. By dis time, Mobutu don meet plenty young Congolese intellectuals wey dey challenge colonial rule. E come build friendship plus Patrice Lumumba and join Lumumba ein party—Congolese National Movement (MNC). Mobutu later become Lumumba ein personal aide. Some people wey know de matter talk say Belgian intelligence fit don recruit Mobutu as informant give de government. During de 1960 talks wey happen for Brussels about Congolese independence, de US embassy organize one reception give de Congolese delegation. Each embassy staff get list of delegates wey dem suppose meet, and later dem come talk about de people dem meet. De ambassador talk say, “One name just dey pop up steady. But nobody get am for ein list 'cos e no be official delegation member—e be Lumumba ein secretary. But everybody agree say dis guy get strong brain, e be young, maybe small immature, but e get big future ahead.” After de general election, dem assign Lumumba make e form govment. E give Mobutu de position of Secretary of State to de Presidency. Mobutu carry plenty weight for deciding de rest of de govment people. But after independence land, e no fit see Lumumba one-on-one again like before, 'cos de new prime minister start dey busy plus plenty aides and colleagues surround am. From there, both of dem slowly start drift apart. === Congo Crisis === Main article: Congo Crisis On 5 July 1960, soldiers of de Force Publique wey dey Camp Léopold II for Léopoldville vex over dem all-white leaders and bad working conditions, so dem rise mutiny. Di revolt spread go other places sharp-sharp. Mobutu join other officials talk to de mutineers so dem fit free de officers plus dem families. Then on 8 July, de full Council of Ministers gather for one special meeting under President Joseph Kasa-Vubu ein chairmanship for Camp Léopold II to face de matter of Africanising de garrison. De ministers start dey argue who go fit take de top job as army chief of staff. Two people wey stand out be Minister of Youth and Sports Maurice Mpolo, plus Mobutu. Mpolo don already show say e get some control over de soldiers wey dey mutiny, but Kasa-Vubu plus de Bakongo ministers fear say if dem give am power, e fit run coup. Mobutu on de other hand, people see am as cool-head wey dey think before e act. Lumumba respect Mpolo for ein boldness, but e prefer Mobutu ein cautious style. As de argument go on, de cabinet start split based on who dem support to be chief of staff. Lumumba no wan lose any of de two camps, so e try keep both men for ein team. In de end, dem give Mobutu de position and promote am to colonel. Next day, govment teams comot from de capital to supervise how dem go Africanise de army; Mobutu own assignment na for Équateur. While Mobutu dey there, Mpolo begin act as ANC Chief of Staff. Mobutu no happy at all with dat move, so when e return to de capital, e face Lumumba inside cabinet meeting and tell am plain: “Either I no deserve am and you gots sack me, or I do de mission well and I go keep my rank plus position.” De British diplomat Brian Urquhart, wey dey work plus de United Nations, yarn say: “When I first meet Mobutu for July 1960, e be Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba ein chief military assistant and e just promote himself from sergeant go lieutenant-colonel. Compared to ein boss, Mobutu be like pillar of common sense and sharp reasoning. Na to am we go when Lumumba ein hashish-high guards arrest our people. Na Mobutu too dey casually bring up Lumumba ein wild requests—like say make UN pay salary give Congolese army wey fit mutiny. For dem early days, Mobutu look like reasonable young man, wey maybe, just maybe, dey reason good for ein new independent country.” Backed by Belgian govment wey wan still hold tight to de rich Congolese mines, secessionist violence burst out for south. As UN soldiers wey dem send come restore order no dey help crush de secession, Lumumba go turn to Soviet Union for help. Inside six weeks, e receive serious military aid plus about thousand Soviet technical advisers. Since na Cold War time, US govment fear say dis Soviet move be trick to spread communist power for Central Africa. US and Belgium come ginger Kasa-Vubu make e sack Lumumba, and on 5 September, e do am. Lumumba vex rough and say Kasa-Vubu no be president again. Parliament no gree sack any of dem, instead dem beg for reconciliation, but no headway. Lumumba plus Kasa-Vubu each tell Mobutu make e arrest de other one. As Army Chief of Staff, Mobutu start face heavy pressure from all angle. Western countries' embassies—wey dey pay soldiers salary—plus Kasa-Vubu and Mobutu ein own men, all dem want make Soviet people pack. So on 14 September, Mobutu do coup wey no draw blood, announce say both Kasa-Vubu and Lumumba dey “neutralised” and form one new govment of university graduates—dem call am College of Commissioners-General. Lumumba no accept am but dem force am retire go ein house, where UN peacekeepers block Mobutu ein soldiers make dem no arrest am. Urquhart talk say on de coup day, Mobutu just waka enter UN headquarters for Léopoldville without invite and no gree comot till radio announce de coup; na dat time Mobutu begin repeat “C’est moi!”—“Na me!” Urquhart realise say Mobutu just land there in case de coup mess up, so e tell am to comot. As confidence drop say de international community go support am come back to power, Lumumba run commot for late November go meet ein supporters for Stanleyville to form new govment. Early December, Mobutu ein soldiers catch am, then keep am for ein base insyd Thysville. But Mobutu still see am as danger, so on 17 January 1961, e move Lumumba go de rebel State of Katanga. From dat point, nobody see Lumumba again. Later dem find out say same day wey dem move am, de secessionist forces under Moise Tshombe execute am, after Mobutu ein govment hand am over. On 23 January 1961, Kasa-Vubu promote Mobutu go major-general. One historian, De Witte, talk say na political move wey aim to make de army stronger, since na de president ein only support, and to boost Mobutu ein stand inside de army. For 1964, Pierre Mulele lead some fighters start another rebellion. Dem fast take over two-thirds of Congo. Mobutu lead de Congolese army respond, and by 1965, dem take back de whole land. === Second ''coup'' and consolidation of power === Sanso see: Second Mobutu coup d'état Prime Minister Moise Tshombe ein party, de Congolese National Convention, win big majority for March 1965 elections, but Kasa-Vubu appoint Évariste Kimba, one anti-Tshombe man, as prime minister-designate. Parliament no gree approve am two times. As de govment almost jam dead end, Mobutu take over power through coup wey no draw blood on 24 November—he just turn 35 one month before. Under one system wey dem call state of exception (regime d'exception), Mobutu grab full—almost absolute—power for five years. For ein first speech after e take power, Mobutu talk give big crowd for Léopoldville main stadium say, since na politicians spoil Congo within five years, e go need at least dat same time to fix am. So, for dat reason, no political party go do anything for five years. On 30 November 1965, Parliament pass law wey give Mobutu plus ein cabinet most of de legislative powers, but still hold small power to check ein decrees. By early March 1966, when Parliament start new session, Mobutu announce say he dey cancel dat review power, and two weeks after, ein govment shutdown Parliament for good and collect all de remaining authority. At de start, Mobutu ein govment come out like say e no dey into politics—or even dey against am. People begin see “politician” as bad word, wey mean person wey wicked or corrupt. For 1966, dem set up de Corps of Volunteers of de Republic, one strong frontline group wey aim to gather plenty public support behind Mobutu. Na same year dem hail am as de country ein “Second National Hero” after Lumumba. Even though Mobutu play role for how Lumumba commot power, e try package himself like person wey dey carry Lumumba ein legacy continue. One of de key things wey Mobutu dey preach for early part of ein rule be “authentic Congolese nationalism”. Na dat 1966 too e begin change city names wey get European roots to names wey sound more African—na so Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Stanleyville become Kisangani, and Élisabethville change to Lubumbashi. Then for 1967, Mobutu bring out de Popular Movement of de Revolution (MPR). From dat time go reach 1990, na only dat party dem dey allow for politics. Inside de MPR ein beliefs—wey dem write for Manifesto of N'Sele—dem push nationalism, revolution, plus “authenticity”. Dem describe revolution as “truly national and very practical,” wey reject both capitalism and communism. One popular slogan from de MPR be “Neither left nor right,” and later dem add “nor even center” join. That same year, all de trade unions dem join body into one single union—National Union of Zairian Workers—and de govment take full control over am. Mobutu plan say de union no go operate on ein own, but rather support govment policy like tool. From dat time till 1991, any independent trade union be illegal. As e face plenty wahala for de beginning of ein rule, Mobutu use favour-sharing (patronage) win over most of ein opposition; de ones wey no gree, e handle dem rough. For 1966, four cabinet members chop arrest because dem say dem join plan coup. Military court try dem case, then dem do public execution wey over 50,000 people watch live for open ground. Former Katangan gendarmeries wey rise also face Mobutu ein force and dem smash dem down—same as de Stanleyville mutinies of 1967 wey white mercenaries lead. By 1970, almost all de people wey fit challenge Mobutu power don fall, and for most parts of de country, law plus order start dey show face. That 1970 be de peak time of Mobutu ein power and respect. For 1970, King Baudouin of Belgium come Kinshasa do big state visit wey go well. Dat same year, dem hold presidential plus legislative elections. Even though de constitution say two parties fit dey, na only MPR dem allow nominate candidates. For de presidential election, Mobutu be de only person wey run. Voting no dey private; if you support Mobutu, you go drop green paper, but if you no dey support am, na red paper you go use. Green vote mean say you dey vote for hope, while red vote mean chaos. Under dat kind condition, de result no be surprise—official result talk say Mobutu win with almost everybody behind am, collect 10,131,669 votes, and only 157 people say “no”. Later dem come find out say over 30,500 more votes appear pass de number of voters wey register. Dem run de legislative elections same style. People get just one list from MPR; official result talk say unbelievable 98.33% people vote for de MPR list. As Mobutu dey cement ein power, e build different military groups wey na only to protect am dem dey. These groups include de Special Presidential Division, Civil Guard plus Service for Action, and Military Intelligence (SNIP). === Authenticity campaign === Main article: Authenticité (Zaire) Mobutu start big campaign wey promote African culture wey dem call ''authenticité''. As part of am, on 1 June 1966, e begin change city names wey show colonial past—Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Elisabethville change to Lubumbashi, and Stanleyville become Kisangani. For October 1971, e change de country ein name to Republic of Zaire. E order people make dem drop dem European names for African ones, and warn priests say if dem baptize Zairian pikin plus European name, dem go chop five years for prison. Western dressing and neck tie come dey banned, and men must wear one Mao-style tunic dem dey call ''abacost'' (short for ''à bas le costume'' wey mean “down with de suit”). Even Christmas move from December go June because Mobutu say dat one be more “authentic” date. Then for 1972, Mobutu follow ein own rule from previous year and change ein name to Mobutu Sese Seko Nkuku Ngbendu Wa Za Banga (wey mean “De all-powerful warrior wey, because of ein endurance and strong will to win, dey move from victory to victory, and leave fire behind”). Around dat time, e drop de army uniform and start wear ein signature look—tall and commanding, plus walking stick, abacost, thick glasses, and leopard-skin cap wey dem sew for Paris. For 1974, new constitution land wey tighten Mobutu ein hold on de country. Dis constitution talk say MPR be de “single institution” for de nation. Dem even define am as “de nation politically organized”—which mean say de state just be machine wey dey push party agenda. Every citizen automatically turn MPR member from de moment dem born. De constitution explain say de MPR dey inside de body of de party ein president, wey dem dey elect every seven years during national convention. But at de same time, dat same president automatically turn de only person wey go run for president of de country. Den dem go use referendum confirm am. De document come turn Mobutu ein emergency powers wey e dey use since 1965 into legal backing; e give am full authority—wey dem write as “plenitude of power exercise”—so all power now dey Mobutu ein hand. Mobutu win election three times under dis system, and each time, dem talk say e win with over 98 percent of de votes. For de legislative side, dem dey bring one single MPR list every five years, and de results dey show crazy numbers—either everybody vote for dem, or almost everybody. One of dem elections for 1975, dem no even vote at all—dem just show candidates around public places make people clap give dem. Dat one na how voting be. == One-man rule == Mobutu start use public executions early insyd ein rule to stamp ein power well-well. Any political rival, secessionist, coup planner, or anybody wey e see as threat, e go deal with dem hard. Many of dem people chop hanging for front big crowd. One serious example be former Prime Minister Évariste Kimba. Mobutu govment carry Kimba plus three of ein cabinet members—Jérôme Anany (Defense Minister), Emmanuel Bamba (Finance Minister), and Alexandre Mahamba (Minister of Mines and Energy)—put for trial May 1966. By 30 May, dem hang all four men in front of over 50,000 people. Dem say dem dey link up plus Colonel Alphonse Bangala and Major Pierre Efomi to run coup. Mobutu come talk say, “One had to strike through a spectacular example, and create the conditions of regime discipline. When a chief takes a decision, he decides – period.” Then for 1968, Pierre Mulele—Lumumba ein Education Minister and big rebel during de 1964 Simba uprising—Mobutu people trick am come out from exile for Brazzaville by telling am say amnesty go dey. But instead of peace, dem torture and kill am bad. Before Mulele die, dem gouge ein eyes, tear off ein genitals, and cut off ein limbs one by one. Mobutu later change ein strategy—e start dey buy political opponents instead of always use force. E like repeat one slogan: “Keep your friends close, but your enemies closer still,” to show how e dey use bribe pull rivals to ein side. One trick wey Mobutu really enjoy be “musical chairs”—e dey rotate ministers like game, change cabinet list anyhow, so nobody go build power wey fit threaten am. From November 1965 to April 1997, Mobutu reshuffle cabinet 60 times. Dis constant shuffle put fear inside ministers, because everybody know say Mobutu go change people anyhow, no matter whether you dey work well or not. Because ministers no sabi how long dem go last for position, e lead to serious stealing—everybody dey rush grab wetin dem fit while dem still dey office. Mobutu still dey arrest, even torture, some dissident govment members—then later forgive dem and even give dem bigger posts. E be like e just use power play confuse everybody. Congolese historian Emizet F. Kisangani talk say plenty public officials believe say no matter how corrupt or useless dem be, dem fit come back to govment position. To hold post no require management skill or clean conscience. In fact, if you too correct or too honest, dem see you as obstacle. Wetin Mobutu want be total loyalty in exchange for chance to chop money. By 1970, reports talk say Mobutu don carry 60% of de national budget enter ein pocket—people begin see am as one of de most corrupt leaders for Africa and de whole world. Kisangani add say Mobutu build full system of corruption wey spoil public values and reward greed and selfishness. Mobutu no slow down with de self-promotion moves—man try for 1972 make dem crown am president for life, but that one no land well. Then for June 1983, e raise himself go military top-top level as Marshal. Na General Likulia Bolongo sign dat order. Shortly after, Victor Nendaka Bika—de number two man for country as Vice-President of de Bureau of de Central Committee—drop one big speech full of praise give Mobutu. To chop revenue from Congo ein natural resources, Mobutu first chase out European investors and nationalize plenty foreign companies. But instead of letting dem run proper, e dash control of these firms give ein relatives and close padi dem—wey quickly use am do corruption and chop company assets clean. For 1973–1974, Mobutu start one big “Zairianization” program, take over more foreign businesses and hand dem to Zairians. But e no end there. By October 1973, de Arab oil shock come crash global economy—the same one wey don dey grow steady since 1945. One serious side effect be say copper price fall by 50% in 1974, and since copper na Zaire ein number one export, e hit dem hard. As American historian Thomas Odom talk, Zaire shift from “prosperity to bankruptcy almost overnight.” Because de economy break down, Zaire run go International Monetary Fund (IMF) for help to manage dem debt, but when IMF dig into dem books, dem discover heavy corruption. Mobutu come waka go China for 1974, take inspiration from Cultural Revolution. E come back wearing Mao jacket and call himself “Citoyen Mobutu” or “Citizen Mobutu.” E say he go “radicalize de Zairian revolution.” Di same businesses wey e first give to Zairians, Mobutu come collect dem back, nationalize everything under full state control. As if dat no do, e cut government workers ein salaries by 50%, wey provoke one failed coup attempt against am for June 1975. By 1977, Mobutu ein earlier move to nationalize foreign businesses don backfire hard—e economy don fall serious, and e no get choice but to beg foreign investors come back. But before e fit recover, Katangan rebels wey base for Angola storm Zaire dat same year, as payback for Mobutu ein support to anti-MPLA fighters. France respond quick—dem airlift 1,500 Moroccan paratroopers into Zaire, push de rebels back, and end di crisis wey dem call ''Shaba I''. But no long after, for 1978, de rebels regroup with even more numbers and invade again—this time na ''Shaba II''. Belgium and France come deploy troops again, backed by US logistics, and dem manage stop de attack once more. Mobutu get big embarrassment from how badly de Zairian Army perform for both invasions—e need foreign help to fight small rebel forces. Yet, instead of reforming de army, e just reduce am from 51,000 troops in 1978 to 23,000 by 1980. By dat time, about 90% of de army be Ngbandi—Mobutu ein own ethnic group—’cos e no trust other ethnic groups with weapons. De most loyal and strongest force Mobutu get be ein bodyguards—the ''Special Presidential Division''—trained by Israel, made up only of Ngbandi, and always led by Mobutu ein relative. Mobutu win election again for 1977 and 1984, but nobody dey run against am. E use most of ein time dey build ein own fortune, and by 1988, dem estimate say ein money reach no less than $50 million. Most of de money e hide am abroad, especially for Swiss banks—but when dem remove am later, dem only find small $3.4 million there. Funny enough, ein fortune nearly match de whole country ein foreign debt dat time. One time for 20 May 1976, Mobutu talk for stadium wey hold like 70,000 people for Kinshasa. E talk say, “If you wan thief, thief small and style am nice. But if you thief too much to turn rich fast-fast, dem go catch you.” By 1989, Zaire govment no fit pay dem loans again from Belgium. Mobutu dey ride in fleet of Mercedes-Benz from one palace to another, while roads dey spoil and people dey hungry. Workers no dey get pay for months, ’cos de national money dey disappear go Mobutu, ein family, and top political plus army people. Na only Special Presidential Division wey dey protect Mobutu wey dem dey pay correct and on time. Dem even get saying wey go like dis: “De civil servants dey pretend say dem dey work, while de state dey pretend say e dey pay dem.” De national army—Forces Armées Zaïroises (FAZ)—no get morale at all. Salaries no dey come, living conditions bad, supplies no dey, and officers dey chop people. De army soldiers just turn like armed thieves—dey rob civilians anyhow. Roadblocks full everywhere, and dem dey extort money from anybody wey dey pass with car or truck. t9om696jp223fd336i83isr6730ckgo 69085 69084 2025-07-05T20:24:03Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69085 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu wa za Banga''' ; born '''Joseph-Désiré Mobutu'''; 14 October 1930 – 7 September 1997), people dey call am Mobutu Sese Seko or Mobutu and sana known by ein initials MSS, e be Congolese politician plus military officer wey be de first and only president of Zaire from 1971 to 1997. Before dat, Mobutu serve as de second president of de Democratic Republic of de Congo, from 1965 to 1971. E sana serve as de fifth chairperson of de Organisation of African Unity from 1967 to 1968. During de Congo Crisis insyd 1960, Mobutu, wey den be Chief of Staff insyd de Congolese Army, commot de nation ein democratically elected govment of Patrice Lumumba plus support from de U.S. and Belgium. Mobutu put govment insyd wey arrange make dem execute Lumumba for 1961, and e continue dey lead de country ein armed forces till e take power direct insyd another coup for 1965. To make sure say power no escape am, he create de Popular Movement of de Revolution as de only correct political party for 1967, change Congo ein name go Zaire for 1971, plus e own name turn Mobutu Sese Seko for 1972. Mobutu protect ein rule under hard autocratic regime and end up dey rule during time wey human rights violations spread everywhere. E try purge de country from all colonial culture tins through ein "national authenticity" program. Mobutu turn de main person wey everybody dey hype like say na cult of personality he dey carry. Mobutu talk say ein political ideology no be "left", no be "right", and no be "centre" too, but people mostly know am say e dey against communism for de Françafrique zone. Because of dat, United States, France, plus Belgium support am well-well—dem dash am military, diplomatic, and economic backing. E still build tight link plus apartheid South Africa, Israel, plus de Greek junta dem. Mobutu get strong name for corruption plus nepotism: dem talk say ein personal wealth fit reach from $50 million go $5 billion, all na from economic exploitation plus corruption as president. Some people call ein govment kleptocracy, ’cos e dey pile ein own money while Zaire ein economy suffer—plenty inflation, big debt, and serious currency wahala. E too known for ein flashy lifestyle, like how e dey fly go Paris on top de fast-fast Concorde jet just to do shopping. By 1990, as de economy start dey spoil plus tension dey rise, dem force Mobutu Sese Seko make e enter coalition plus political opponents and agree make dem do multiparty system. Even though e use ein soldiers try block de change, de movement no gree stop. By May 1997, rebel dem wey Laurent-Désiré Kabila lead take over de country and push Mobutu go exile. E already dey battle prostate cancer wey hard, so three months later, e die for Morocco. == Biography == === Early years den education === Mobutu, wey come from de Ngbandi ethnic group, dem born am for 1930 insyd Lisala, Belgian Congo. Mobutu ein mommie, Marie Madeleine Yemo, be hotel maid wey run go Lisala make she escape one local village chief ein harem. Na there she jam Albéric Gbemani, cook wey dey work for one Belgian judge, den she marry am. Not long after, she born Mobutu. Na one uncle pick de name “Mobutu” give am. Gbemani die when Mobutu be just eight years. After dat, one uncle plus ein grandfather raise am. De Belgian judge ein wife take fine eye see Mobutu, so she teach am how to speak, read plus write French well-well, wey be de official language of de colony. Ein mommie Yemo wey be widow, lean on family help to take care of her four pikin dem, and dem dey move from place to place often. Mobutu ein first schooling happen for capital town Léopoldville (wey now dem dey call Kinshasa). Later, ein mommie send am go ein uncle for Coquilhatville (now Mbandaka), where e attend Christian Brothers School, one Catholic-mission boarding school. Mobutu shine for books top and even run de class newspaper. People still know am for ein stubborn pranks and sharp small-boy sense of humor. One classmate remember say anytime de Belgian priests—wey ein main language be Dutch—make mistake for French, Mobutu go jump from ein seat for class top and point out de error sharp. For 1949, Mobutu sneak enter one boat wey dey go downriver to Léopoldville, where e jam one girl. Some weeks later, de priests find am. As school year end, instead of dem send am go prison, dem order make e serve seven years insyd de colonial army, Force Publique (FP). Dat kind punishment na normal tin for students wey dey act stubborn. === Army service === Mobutu find discipline for army life top, and e see father figure insyd Sergeant Louis Bobozo. Mobutu no stop ein studies—e dey borrow European newspapers from de Belgian officers plus pick books from anywhere e fit find, then e go read dem during sentry duty or any small chance e get. De ones wey e like pass be de writings of French president Charles de Gaulle, British prime minister Winston Churchill, plus de Italian Renaissance philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli. After e pass one course for accounting, Mobutu start small-small dey do journalism work proper. Still vexed about how e and de school priests jam wahala, e no marry for church. De only thing e fit bring for de wedding enjoyment be one crate of beer—na all ein army salary fit buy. === Early political involvement === As soldier, Mobutu dey write politics matter under fake name for Actualités Africaines (African News), one magazine wey one Belgian colonial set up. For 1956, e comot from army and turn full-time journalist, dey write for Léopoldville daily L'Avenir. Two years later, e go Belgium to report de 1958 World Exposition, then e stay back make e learn journalism better. By dis time, Mobutu don meet plenty young Congolese intellectuals wey dey challenge colonial rule. E come build friendship plus Patrice Lumumba and join Lumumba ein party—Congolese National Movement (MNC). Mobutu later become Lumumba ein personal aide. Some people wey know de matter talk say Belgian intelligence fit don recruit Mobutu as informant give de government. During de 1960 talks wey happen for Brussels about Congolese independence, de US embassy organize one reception give de Congolese delegation. Each embassy staff get list of delegates wey dem suppose meet, and later dem come talk about de people dem meet. De ambassador talk say, “One name just dey pop up steady. But nobody get am for ein list 'cos e no be official delegation member—e be Lumumba ein secretary. But everybody agree say dis guy get strong brain, e be young, maybe small immature, but e get big future ahead.” After de general election, dem assign Lumumba make e form govment. E give Mobutu de position of Secretary of State to de Presidency. Mobutu carry plenty weight for deciding de rest of de govment people. But after independence land, e no fit see Lumumba one-on-one again like before, 'cos de new prime minister start dey busy plus plenty aides and colleagues surround am. From there, both of dem slowly start drift apart. === Congo Crisis === Main article: Congo Crisis On 5 July 1960, soldiers of de Force Publique wey dey Camp Léopold II for Léopoldville vex over dem all-white leaders and bad working conditions, so dem rise mutiny. Di revolt spread go other places sharp-sharp. Mobutu join other officials talk to de mutineers so dem fit free de officers plus dem families. Then on 8 July, de full Council of Ministers gather for one special meeting under President Joseph Kasa-Vubu ein chairmanship for Camp Léopold II to face de matter of Africanising de garrison. De ministers start dey argue who go fit take de top job as army chief of staff. Two people wey stand out be Minister of Youth and Sports Maurice Mpolo, plus Mobutu. Mpolo don already show say e get some control over de soldiers wey dey mutiny, but Kasa-Vubu plus de Bakongo ministers fear say if dem give am power, e fit run coup. Mobutu on de other hand, people see am as cool-head wey dey think before e act. Lumumba respect Mpolo for ein boldness, but e prefer Mobutu ein cautious style. As de argument go on, de cabinet start split based on who dem support to be chief of staff. Lumumba no wan lose any of de two camps, so e try keep both men for ein team. In de end, dem give Mobutu de position and promote am to colonel. Next day, govment teams comot from de capital to supervise how dem go Africanise de army; Mobutu own assignment na for Équateur. While Mobutu dey there, Mpolo begin act as ANC Chief of Staff. Mobutu no happy at all with dat move, so when e return to de capital, e face Lumumba inside cabinet meeting and tell am plain: “Either I no deserve am and you gots sack me, or I do de mission well and I go keep my rank plus position.” De British diplomat Brian Urquhart, wey dey work plus de United Nations, yarn say: “When I first meet Mobutu for July 1960, e be Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba ein chief military assistant and e just promote himself from sergeant go lieutenant-colonel. Compared to ein boss, Mobutu be like pillar of common sense and sharp reasoning. Na to am we go when Lumumba ein hashish-high guards arrest our people. Na Mobutu too dey casually bring up Lumumba ein wild requests—like say make UN pay salary give Congolese army wey fit mutiny. For dem early days, Mobutu look like reasonable young man, wey maybe, just maybe, dey reason good for ein new independent country.” Backed by Belgian govment wey wan still hold tight to de rich Congolese mines, secessionist violence burst out for south. As UN soldiers wey dem send come restore order no dey help crush de secession, Lumumba go turn to Soviet Union for help. Inside six weeks, e receive serious military aid plus about thousand Soviet technical advisers. Since na Cold War time, US govment fear say dis Soviet move be trick to spread communist power for Central Africa. US and Belgium come ginger Kasa-Vubu make e sack Lumumba, and on 5 September, e do am. Lumumba vex rough and say Kasa-Vubu no be president again. Parliament no gree sack any of dem, instead dem beg for reconciliation, but no headway. Lumumba plus Kasa-Vubu each tell Mobutu make e arrest de other one. As Army Chief of Staff, Mobutu start face heavy pressure from all angle. Western countries' embassies—wey dey pay soldiers salary—plus Kasa-Vubu and Mobutu ein own men, all dem want make Soviet people pack. So on 14 September, Mobutu do coup wey no draw blood, announce say both Kasa-Vubu and Lumumba dey “neutralised” and form one new govment of university graduates—dem call am College of Commissioners-General. Lumumba no accept am but dem force am retire go ein house, where UN peacekeepers block Mobutu ein soldiers make dem no arrest am. Urquhart talk say on de coup day, Mobutu just waka enter UN headquarters for Léopoldville without invite and no gree comot till radio announce de coup; na dat time Mobutu begin repeat “C’est moi!”—“Na me!” Urquhart realise say Mobutu just land there in case de coup mess up, so e tell am to comot. As confidence drop say de international community go support am come back to power, Lumumba run commot for late November go meet ein supporters for Stanleyville to form new govment. Early December, Mobutu ein soldiers catch am, then keep am for ein base insyd Thysville. But Mobutu still see am as danger, so on 17 January 1961, e move Lumumba go de rebel State of Katanga. From dat point, nobody see Lumumba again. Later dem find out say same day wey dem move am, de secessionist forces under Moise Tshombe execute am, after Mobutu ein govment hand am over. On 23 January 1961, Kasa-Vubu promote Mobutu go major-general. One historian, De Witte, talk say na political move wey aim to make de army stronger, since na de president ein only support, and to boost Mobutu ein stand inside de army. For 1964, Pierre Mulele lead some fighters start another rebellion. Dem fast take over two-thirds of Congo. Mobutu lead de Congolese army respond, and by 1965, dem take back de whole land. === Second ''coup'' and consolidation of power === Sanso see: Second Mobutu coup d'état Prime Minister Moise Tshombe ein party, de Congolese National Convention, win big majority for March 1965 elections, but Kasa-Vubu appoint Évariste Kimba, one anti-Tshombe man, as prime minister-designate. Parliament no gree approve am two times. As de govment almost jam dead end, Mobutu take over power through coup wey no draw blood on 24 November—he just turn 35 one month before. Under one system wey dem call state of exception (regime d'exception), Mobutu grab full—almost absolute—power for five years. For ein first speech after e take power, Mobutu talk give big crowd for Léopoldville main stadium say, since na politicians spoil Congo within five years, e go need at least dat same time to fix am. So, for dat reason, no political party go do anything for five years. On 30 November 1965, Parliament pass law wey give Mobutu plus ein cabinet most of de legislative powers, but still hold small power to check ein decrees. By early March 1966, when Parliament start new session, Mobutu announce say he dey cancel dat review power, and two weeks after, ein govment shutdown Parliament for good and collect all de remaining authority. At de start, Mobutu ein govment come out like say e no dey into politics—or even dey against am. People begin see “politician” as bad word, wey mean person wey wicked or corrupt. For 1966, dem set up de Corps of Volunteers of de Republic, one strong frontline group wey aim to gather plenty public support behind Mobutu. Na same year dem hail am as de country ein “Second National Hero” after Lumumba. Even though Mobutu play role for how Lumumba commot power, e try package himself like person wey dey carry Lumumba ein legacy continue. One of de key things wey Mobutu dey preach for early part of ein rule be “authentic Congolese nationalism”. Na dat 1966 too e begin change city names wey get European roots to names wey sound more African—na so Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Stanleyville become Kisangani, and Élisabethville change to Lubumbashi. Then for 1967, Mobutu bring out de Popular Movement of de Revolution (MPR). From dat time go reach 1990, na only dat party dem dey allow for politics. Inside de MPR ein beliefs—wey dem write for Manifesto of N'Sele—dem push nationalism, revolution, plus “authenticity”. Dem describe revolution as “truly national and very practical,” wey reject both capitalism and communism. One popular slogan from de MPR be “Neither left nor right,” and later dem add “nor even center” join. That same year, all de trade unions dem join body into one single union—National Union of Zairian Workers—and de govment take full control over am. Mobutu plan say de union no go operate on ein own, but rather support govment policy like tool. From dat time till 1991, any independent trade union be illegal. As e face plenty wahala for de beginning of ein rule, Mobutu use favour-sharing (patronage) win over most of ein opposition; de ones wey no gree, e handle dem rough. For 1966, four cabinet members chop arrest because dem say dem join plan coup. Military court try dem case, then dem do public execution wey over 50,000 people watch live for open ground. Former Katangan gendarmeries wey rise also face Mobutu ein force and dem smash dem down—same as de Stanleyville mutinies of 1967 wey white mercenaries lead. By 1970, almost all de people wey fit challenge Mobutu power don fall, and for most parts of de country, law plus order start dey show face. That 1970 be de peak time of Mobutu ein power and respect. For 1970, King Baudouin of Belgium come Kinshasa do big state visit wey go well. Dat same year, dem hold presidential plus legislative elections. Even though de constitution say two parties fit dey, na only MPR dem allow nominate candidates. For de presidential election, Mobutu be de only person wey run. Voting no dey private; if you support Mobutu, you go drop green paper, but if you no dey support am, na red paper you go use. Green vote mean say you dey vote for hope, while red vote mean chaos. Under dat kind condition, de result no be surprise—official result talk say Mobutu win with almost everybody behind am, collect 10,131,669 votes, and only 157 people say “no”. Later dem come find out say over 30,500 more votes appear pass de number of voters wey register. Dem run de legislative elections same style. People get just one list from MPR; official result talk say unbelievable 98.33% people vote for de MPR list. As Mobutu dey cement ein power, e build different military groups wey na only to protect am dem dey. These groups include de Special Presidential Division, Civil Guard plus Service for Action, and Military Intelligence (SNIP). === Authenticity campaign === Main article: Authenticité (Zaire) Mobutu start big campaign wey promote African culture wey dem call ''authenticité''. As part of am, on 1 June 1966, e begin change city names wey show colonial past—Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Elisabethville change to Lubumbashi, and Stanleyville become Kisangani. For October 1971, e change de country ein name to Republic of Zaire. E order people make dem drop dem European names for African ones, and warn priests say if dem baptize Zairian pikin plus European name, dem go chop five years for prison. Western dressing and neck tie come dey banned, and men must wear one Mao-style tunic dem dey call ''abacost'' (short for ''à bas le costume'' wey mean “down with de suit”). Even Christmas move from December go June because Mobutu say dat one be more “authentic” date. Then for 1972, Mobutu follow ein own rule from previous year and change ein name to Mobutu Sese Seko Nkuku Ngbendu Wa Za Banga (wey mean “De all-powerful warrior wey, because of ein endurance and strong will to win, dey move from victory to victory, and leave fire behind”). Around dat time, e drop de army uniform and start wear ein signature look—tall and commanding, plus walking stick, abacost, thick glasses, and leopard-skin cap wey dem sew for Paris. For 1974, new constitution land wey tighten Mobutu ein hold on de country. Dis constitution talk say MPR be de “single institution” for de nation. Dem even define am as “de nation politically organized”—which mean say de state just be machine wey dey push party agenda. Every citizen automatically turn MPR member from de moment dem born. De constitution explain say de MPR dey inside de body of de party ein president, wey dem dey elect every seven years during national convention. But at de same time, dat same president automatically turn de only person wey go run for president of de country. Den dem go use referendum confirm am. De document come turn Mobutu ein emergency powers wey e dey use since 1965 into legal backing; e give am full authority—wey dem write as “plenitude of power exercise”—so all power now dey Mobutu ein hand. Mobutu win election three times under dis system, and each time, dem talk say e win with over 98 percent of de votes. For de legislative side, dem dey bring one single MPR list every five years, and de results dey show crazy numbers—either everybody vote for dem, or almost everybody. One of dem elections for 1975, dem no even vote at all—dem just show candidates around public places make people clap give dem. Dat one na how voting be. == One-man rule == Mobutu start use public executions early insyd ein rule to stamp ein power well-well. Any political rival, secessionist, coup planner, or anybody wey e see as threat, e go deal with dem hard. Many of dem people chop hanging for front big crowd. One serious example be former Prime Minister Évariste Kimba. Mobutu govment carry Kimba plus three of ein cabinet members—Jérôme Anany (Defense Minister), Emmanuel Bamba (Finance Minister), and Alexandre Mahamba (Minister of Mines and Energy)—put for trial May 1966. By 30 May, dem hang all four men in front of over 50,000 people. Dem say dem dey link up plus Colonel Alphonse Bangala and Major Pierre Efomi to run coup. Mobutu come talk say, “One had to strike through a spectacular example, and create the conditions of regime discipline. When a chief takes a decision, he decides – period.” Then for 1968, Pierre Mulele—Lumumba ein Education Minister and big rebel during de 1964 Simba uprising—Mobutu people trick am come out from exile for Brazzaville by telling am say amnesty go dey. But instead of peace, dem torture and kill am bad. Before Mulele die, dem gouge ein eyes, tear off ein genitals, and cut off ein limbs one by one. Mobutu later change ein strategy—e start dey buy political opponents instead of always use force. E like repeat one slogan: “Keep your friends close, but your enemies closer still,” to show how e dey use bribe pull rivals to ein side. One trick wey Mobutu really enjoy be “musical chairs”—e dey rotate ministers like game, change cabinet list anyhow, so nobody go build power wey fit threaten am. From November 1965 to April 1997, Mobutu reshuffle cabinet 60 times. Dis constant shuffle put fear inside ministers, because everybody know say Mobutu go change people anyhow, no matter whether you dey work well or not. Because ministers no sabi how long dem go last for position, e lead to serious stealing—everybody dey rush grab wetin dem fit while dem still dey office. Mobutu still dey arrest, even torture, some dissident govment members—then later forgive dem and even give dem bigger posts. E be like e just use power play confuse everybody. Congolese historian Emizet F. Kisangani talk say plenty public officials believe say no matter how corrupt or useless dem be, dem fit come back to govment position. To hold post no require management skill or clean conscience. In fact, if you too correct or too honest, dem see you as obstacle. Wetin Mobutu want be total loyalty in exchange for chance to chop money. By 1970, reports talk say Mobutu don carry 60% of de national budget enter ein pocket—people begin see am as one of de most corrupt leaders for Africa and de whole world. Kisangani add say Mobutu build full system of corruption wey spoil public values and reward greed and selfishness. Mobutu no slow down with de self-promotion moves—man try for 1972 make dem crown am president for life, but that one no land well. Then for June 1983, e raise himself go military top-top level as Marshal. Na General Likulia Bolongo sign dat order. Shortly after, Victor Nendaka Bika—de number two man for country as Vice-President of de Bureau of de Central Committee—drop one big speech full of praise give Mobutu. To chop revenue from Congo ein natural resources, Mobutu first chase out European investors and nationalize plenty foreign companies. But instead of letting dem run proper, e dash control of these firms give ein relatives and close padi dem—wey quickly use am do corruption and chop company assets clean. For 1973–1974, Mobutu start one big “Zairianization” program, take over more foreign businesses and hand dem to Zairians. But e no end there. By October 1973, de Arab oil shock come crash global economy—the same one wey don dey grow steady since 1945. One serious side effect be say copper price fall by 50% in 1974, and since copper na Zaire ein number one export, e hit dem hard. As American historian Thomas Odom talk, Zaire shift from “prosperity to bankruptcy almost overnight.” Because de economy break down, Zaire run go International Monetary Fund (IMF) for help to manage dem debt, but when IMF dig into dem books, dem discover heavy corruption. Mobutu come waka go China for 1974, take inspiration from Cultural Revolution. E come back wearing Mao jacket and call himself “Citoyen Mobutu” or “Citizen Mobutu.” E say he go “radicalize de Zairian revolution.” Di same businesses wey e first give to Zairians, Mobutu come collect dem back, nationalize everything under full state control. As if dat no do, e cut government workers ein salaries by 50%, wey provoke one failed coup attempt against am for June 1975. By 1977, Mobutu ein earlier move to nationalize foreign businesses don backfire hard—e economy don fall serious, and e no get choice but to beg foreign investors come back. But before e fit recover, Katangan rebels wey base for Angola storm Zaire dat same year, as payback for Mobutu ein support to anti-MPLA fighters. France respond quick—dem airlift 1,500 Moroccan paratroopers into Zaire, push de rebels back, and end di crisis wey dem call ''Shaba I''. But no long after, for 1978, de rebels regroup with even more numbers and invade again—this time na ''Shaba II''. Belgium and France come deploy troops again, backed by US logistics, and dem manage stop de attack once more. Mobutu get big embarrassment from how badly de Zairian Army perform for both invasions—e need foreign help to fight small rebel forces. Yet, instead of reforming de army, e just reduce am from 51,000 troops in 1978 to 23,000 by 1980. By dat time, about 90% of de army be Ngbandi—Mobutu ein own ethnic group—’cos e no trust other ethnic groups with weapons. De most loyal and strongest force Mobutu get be ein bodyguards—the ''Special Presidential Division''—trained by Israel, made up only of Ngbandi, and always led by Mobutu ein relative. Mobutu win election again for 1977 and 1984, but nobody dey run against am. E use most of ein time dey build ein own fortune, and by 1988, dem estimate say ein money reach no less than $50 million. Most of de money e hide am abroad, especially for Swiss banks—but when dem remove am later, dem only find small $3.4 million there. Funny enough, ein fortune nearly match de whole country ein foreign debt dat time. One time for 20 May 1976, Mobutu talk for stadium wey hold like 70,000 people for Kinshasa. E talk say, “If you wan thief, thief small and style am nice. But if you thief too much to turn rich fast-fast, dem go catch you.” By 1989, Zaire govment no fit pay dem loans again from Belgium. Mobutu dey ride in fleet of Mercedes-Benz from one palace to another, while roads dey spoil and people dey hungry. Workers no dey get pay for months, ’cos de national money dey disappear go Mobutu, ein family, and top political plus army people. Na only Special Presidential Division wey dey protect Mobutu wey dem dey pay correct and on time. Dem even get saying wey go like dis: “De civil servants dey pretend say dem dey work, while de state dey pretend say e dey pay dem.” De national army—Forces Armées Zaïroises (FAZ)—no get morale at all. Salaries no dey come, living conditions bad, supplies no dey, and officers dey chop people. De army soldiers just turn like armed thieves—dey rob civilians anyhow. Roadblocks full everywhere, and dem dey extort money from anybody wey dey pass with car or truck. Mobutu ein poor handling of de economy cause serious inflation wey mess up de value of people dem salaries. As money value dey drop fast, plenty public servants start dey do their own way—corruption plus dishonesty turn daily survival style for workers all across de system. Mobutu himself live large. E cruise for de Congo River inside ein yacht, Kamanyola. For Gbadolite, e build one huge mansion wey people dey call “Versailles of de jungle.” Anytime e wan go shopping for Paris, e go charter Air France ein Concorde jet. E even build Gbadolite Airport with long runway make Concorde fit land and take off there. For 1989 alone, e use dat jet fly go give speech for United Nations in New York, attend de French bicentennial party as President François Mitterrand ein guest, and carry Zaire youth choir from Paris to Gbadolite, then fly go Marseille—all with Concorde. Mobutu also get villa for French Riviera wey dem call ''Villa del Mere''. Ein whole leadership style come be example of real kleptocracy and nepotism. Mobutu dey put ein Ngbandi tribe people plus close relatives for top positions inside de military and govment. E dey groom ein first-born son, Nyiwa, to take over presidency from am, but Nyiwa die from AIDS for 1994. Mobutu rule be one of de longest autocracies for Africa. E stash over $50 million from Congo ein natural resources, while ordinary people dey suffer. E form one totalitarian system wey break plenty human rights, try wipe out Belgian influence from de country, and still hold strong anti-communist position to gain favor from international powers. Mobutu ein personality cult reach levels wey few leaders for history fit match. De evening news go start with video wey show am dey descend from cloud top like some god figure. Ein face full public places everywhere—portrait hang for walls, and govment workers dey wear lapel pins wey carry ein photo. Dem give am plenty grand titles: “Father of de Nation,” “Messiah,” “Guide of de Revolution,” “Helmsman,” “Founder,” “Savior of de People,” and “Supreme Combatant.” For de 1996 documentary about de legendary 1974 Foreman–Ali boxing match wey happen for Zaire, you go hear dancers chant “Sese Seko, Sese Seko!” as dem welcome de fighters—na clear sign of how deep e presence dey everywhere, even inside pop culture moments. For early 1975, e reach point wey Mobutu no gree make media call anybody ein name—only Mobutu fit be called by name, everybody else dem just refer to dem position. E really build one kind system wey make am look like dem no fit mention Congo without mention am. 9yrn6vwel22r1h9mbxk8a2p55jc632y 69087 69085 2025-07-05T20:51:57Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69087 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu wa za Banga''' ; born '''Joseph-Désiré Mobutu'''; 14 October 1930 – 7 September 1997), people dey call am Mobutu Sese Seko or Mobutu and sana known by ein initials MSS, e be Congolese politician plus military officer wey be de first and only president of Zaire from 1971 to 1997. Before dat, Mobutu serve as de second president of de Democratic Republic of de Congo, from 1965 to 1971. E sana serve as de fifth chairperson of de Organisation of African Unity from 1967 to 1968. During de Congo Crisis insyd 1960, Mobutu, wey den be Chief of Staff insyd de Congolese Army, commot de nation ein democratically elected govment of Patrice Lumumba plus support from de U.S. and Belgium. Mobutu put govment insyd wey arrange make dem execute Lumumba for 1961, and e continue dey lead de country ein armed forces till e take power direct insyd another coup for 1965. To make sure say power no escape am, he create de Popular Movement of de Revolution as de only correct political party for 1967, change Congo ein name go Zaire for 1971, plus e own name turn Mobutu Sese Seko for 1972. Mobutu protect ein rule under hard autocratic regime and end up dey rule during time wey human rights violations spread everywhere. E try purge de country from all colonial culture tins through ein "national authenticity" program. Mobutu turn de main person wey everybody dey hype like say na cult of personality he dey carry. Mobutu talk say ein political ideology no be "left", no be "right", and no be "centre" too, but people mostly know am say e dey against communism for de Françafrique zone. Because of dat, United States, France, plus Belgium support am well-well—dem dash am military, diplomatic, and economic backing. E still build tight link plus apartheid South Africa, Israel, plus de Greek junta dem. Mobutu get strong name for corruption plus nepotism: dem talk say ein personal wealth fit reach from $50 million go $5 billion, all na from economic exploitation plus corruption as president. Some people call ein govment kleptocracy, ’cos e dey pile ein own money while Zaire ein economy suffer—plenty inflation, big debt, and serious currency wahala. E too known for ein flashy lifestyle, like how e dey fly go Paris on top de fast-fast Concorde jet just to do shopping. By 1990, as de economy start dey spoil plus tension dey rise, dem force Mobutu Sese Seko make e enter coalition plus political opponents and agree make dem do multiparty system. Even though e use ein soldiers try block de change, de movement no gree stop. By May 1997, rebel dem wey Laurent-Désiré Kabila lead take over de country and push Mobutu go exile. E already dey battle prostate cancer wey hard, so three months later, e die for Morocco. == Biography == === Early years den education === Mobutu, wey come from de Ngbandi ethnic group, dem born am for 1930 insyd Lisala, Belgian Congo. Mobutu ein mommie, Marie Madeleine Yemo, be hotel maid wey run go Lisala make she escape one local village chief ein harem. Na there she jam Albéric Gbemani, cook wey dey work for one Belgian judge, den she marry am. Not long after, she born Mobutu. Na one uncle pick de name “Mobutu” give am. Gbemani die when Mobutu be just eight years. After dat, one uncle plus ein grandfather raise am. De Belgian judge ein wife take fine eye see Mobutu, so she teach am how to speak, read plus write French well-well, wey be de official language of de colony. Ein mommie Yemo wey be widow, lean on family help to take care of her four pikin dem, and dem dey move from place to place often. Mobutu ein first schooling happen for capital town Léopoldville (wey now dem dey call Kinshasa). Later, ein mommie send am go ein uncle for Coquilhatville (now Mbandaka), where e attend Christian Brothers School, one Catholic-mission boarding school. Mobutu shine for books top and even run de class newspaper. People still know am for ein stubborn pranks and sharp small-boy sense of humor. One classmate remember say anytime de Belgian priests—wey ein main language be Dutch—make mistake for French, Mobutu go jump from ein seat for class top and point out de error sharp. For 1949, Mobutu sneak enter one boat wey dey go downriver to Léopoldville, where e jam one girl. Some weeks later, de priests find am. As school year end, instead of dem send am go prison, dem order make e serve seven years insyd de colonial army, Force Publique (FP). Dat kind punishment na normal tin for students wey dey act stubborn. === Army service === Mobutu find discipline for army life top, and e see father figure insyd Sergeant Louis Bobozo. Mobutu no stop ein studies—e dey borrow European newspapers from de Belgian officers plus pick books from anywhere e fit find, then e go read dem during sentry duty or any small chance e get. De ones wey e like pass be de writings of French president Charles de Gaulle, British prime minister Winston Churchill, plus de Italian Renaissance philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli. After e pass one course for accounting, Mobutu start small-small dey do journalism work proper. Still vexed about how e and de school priests jam wahala, e no marry for church. De only thing e fit bring for de wedding enjoyment be one crate of beer—na all ein army salary fit buy. === Early political involvement === As soldier, Mobutu dey write politics matter under fake name for Actualités Africaines (African News), one magazine wey one Belgian colonial set up. For 1956, e comot from army and turn full-time journalist, dey write for Léopoldville daily L'Avenir. Two years later, e go Belgium to report de 1958 World Exposition, then e stay back make e learn journalism better. By dis time, Mobutu don meet plenty young Congolese intellectuals wey dey challenge colonial rule. E come build friendship plus Patrice Lumumba and join Lumumba ein party—Congolese National Movement (MNC). Mobutu later become Lumumba ein personal aide. Some people wey know de matter talk say Belgian intelligence fit don recruit Mobutu as informant give de government. During de 1960 talks wey happen for Brussels about Congolese independence, de US embassy organize one reception give de Congolese delegation. Each embassy staff get list of delegates wey dem suppose meet, and later dem come talk about de people dem meet. De ambassador talk say, “One name just dey pop up steady. But nobody get am for ein list 'cos e no be official delegation member—e be Lumumba ein secretary. But everybody agree say dis guy get strong brain, e be young, maybe small immature, but e get big future ahead.” After de general election, dem assign Lumumba make e form govment. E give Mobutu de position of Secretary of State to de Presidency. Mobutu carry plenty weight for deciding de rest of de govment people. But after independence land, e no fit see Lumumba one-on-one again like before, 'cos de new prime minister start dey busy plus plenty aides and colleagues surround am. From there, both of dem slowly start drift apart. === Congo Crisis === Main article: Congo Crisis On 5 July 1960, soldiers of de Force Publique wey dey Camp Léopold II for Léopoldville vex over dem all-white leaders and bad working conditions, so dem rise mutiny. Di revolt spread go other places sharp-sharp. Mobutu join other officials talk to de mutineers so dem fit free de officers plus dem families. Then on 8 July, de full Council of Ministers gather for one special meeting under President Joseph Kasa-Vubu ein chairmanship for Camp Léopold II to face de matter of Africanising de garrison. De ministers start dey argue who go fit take de top job as army chief of staff. Two people wey stand out be Minister of Youth and Sports Maurice Mpolo, plus Mobutu. Mpolo don already show say e get some control over de soldiers wey dey mutiny, but Kasa-Vubu plus de Bakongo ministers fear say if dem give am power, e fit run coup. Mobutu on de other hand, people see am as cool-head wey dey think before e act. Lumumba respect Mpolo for ein boldness, but e prefer Mobutu ein cautious style. As de argument go on, de cabinet start split based on who dem support to be chief of staff. Lumumba no wan lose any of de two camps, so e try keep both men for ein team. In de end, dem give Mobutu de position and promote am to colonel. Next day, govment teams comot from de capital to supervise how dem go Africanise de army; Mobutu own assignment na for Équateur. While Mobutu dey there, Mpolo begin act as ANC Chief of Staff. Mobutu no happy at all with dat move, so when e return to de capital, e face Lumumba inside cabinet meeting and tell am plain: “Either I no deserve am and you gots sack me, or I do de mission well and I go keep my rank plus position.” De British diplomat Brian Urquhart, wey dey work plus de United Nations, yarn say: “When I first meet Mobutu for July 1960, e be Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba ein chief military assistant and e just promote himself from sergeant go lieutenant-colonel. Compared to ein boss, Mobutu be like pillar of common sense and sharp reasoning. Na to am we go when Lumumba ein hashish-high guards arrest our people. Na Mobutu too dey casually bring up Lumumba ein wild requests—like say make UN pay salary give Congolese army wey fit mutiny. For dem early days, Mobutu look like reasonable young man, wey maybe, just maybe, dey reason good for ein new independent country.” Backed by Belgian govment wey wan still hold tight to de rich Congolese mines, secessionist violence burst out for south. As UN soldiers wey dem send come restore order no dey help crush de secession, Lumumba go turn to Soviet Union for help. Inside six weeks, e receive serious military aid plus about thousand Soviet technical advisers. Since na Cold War time, US govment fear say dis Soviet move be trick to spread communist power for Central Africa. US and Belgium come ginger Kasa-Vubu make e sack Lumumba, and on 5 September, e do am. Lumumba vex rough and say Kasa-Vubu no be president again. Parliament no gree sack any of dem, instead dem beg for reconciliation, but no headway. Lumumba plus Kasa-Vubu each tell Mobutu make e arrest de other one. As Army Chief of Staff, Mobutu start face heavy pressure from all angle. Western countries' embassies—wey dey pay soldiers salary—plus Kasa-Vubu and Mobutu ein own men, all dem want make Soviet people pack. So on 14 September, Mobutu do coup wey no draw blood, announce say both Kasa-Vubu and Lumumba dey “neutralised” and form one new govment of university graduates—dem call am College of Commissioners-General. Lumumba no accept am but dem force am retire go ein house, where UN peacekeepers block Mobutu ein soldiers make dem no arrest am. Urquhart talk say on de coup day, Mobutu just waka enter UN headquarters for Léopoldville without invite and no gree comot till radio announce de coup; na dat time Mobutu begin repeat “C’est moi!”—“Na me!” Urquhart realise say Mobutu just land there in case de coup mess up, so e tell am to comot. As confidence drop say de international community go support am come back to power, Lumumba run commot for late November go meet ein supporters for Stanleyville to form new govment. Early December, Mobutu ein soldiers catch am, then keep am for ein base insyd Thysville. But Mobutu still see am as danger, so on 17 January 1961, e move Lumumba go de rebel State of Katanga. From dat point, nobody see Lumumba again. Later dem find out say same day wey dem move am, de secessionist forces under Moise Tshombe execute am, after Mobutu ein govment hand am over. On 23 January 1961, Kasa-Vubu promote Mobutu go major-general. One historian, De Witte, talk say na political move wey aim to make de army stronger, since na de president ein only support, and to boost Mobutu ein stand inside de army. For 1964, Pierre Mulele lead some fighters start another rebellion. Dem fast take over two-thirds of Congo. Mobutu lead de Congolese army respond, and by 1965, dem take back de whole land. === Second ''coup'' and consolidation of power === Sanso see: Second Mobutu coup d'état Prime Minister Moise Tshombe ein party, de Congolese National Convention, win big majority for March 1965 elections, but Kasa-Vubu appoint Évariste Kimba, one anti-Tshombe man, as prime minister-designate. Parliament no gree approve am two times. As de govment almost jam dead end, Mobutu take over power through coup wey no draw blood on 24 November—he just turn 35 one month before. Under one system wey dem call state of exception (regime d'exception), Mobutu grab full—almost absolute—power for five years. For ein first speech after e take power, Mobutu talk give big crowd for Léopoldville main stadium say, since na politicians spoil Congo within five years, e go need at least dat same time to fix am. So, for dat reason, no political party go do anything for five years. On 30 November 1965, Parliament pass law wey give Mobutu plus ein cabinet most of de legislative powers, but still hold small power to check ein decrees. By early March 1966, when Parliament start new session, Mobutu announce say he dey cancel dat review power, and two weeks after, ein govment shutdown Parliament for good and collect all de remaining authority. At de start, Mobutu ein govment come out like say e no dey into politics—or even dey against am. People begin see “politician” as bad word, wey mean person wey wicked or corrupt. For 1966, dem set up de Corps of Volunteers of de Republic, one strong frontline group wey aim to gather plenty public support behind Mobutu. Na same year dem hail am as de country ein “Second National Hero” after Lumumba. Even though Mobutu play role for how Lumumba commot power, e try package himself like person wey dey carry Lumumba ein legacy continue. One of de key things wey Mobutu dey preach for early part of ein rule be “authentic Congolese nationalism”. Na dat 1966 too e begin change city names wey get European roots to names wey sound more African—na so Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Stanleyville become Kisangani, and Élisabethville change to Lubumbashi. Then for 1967, Mobutu bring out de Popular Movement of de Revolution (MPR). From dat time go reach 1990, na only dat party dem dey allow for politics. Inside de MPR ein beliefs—wey dem write for Manifesto of N'Sele—dem push nationalism, revolution, plus “authenticity”. Dem describe revolution as “truly national and very practical,” wey reject both capitalism and communism. One popular slogan from de MPR be “Neither left nor right,” and later dem add “nor even center” join. That same year, all de trade unions dem join body into one single union—National Union of Zairian Workers—and de govment take full control over am. Mobutu plan say de union no go operate on ein own, but rather support govment policy like tool. From dat time till 1991, any independent trade union be illegal. As e face plenty wahala for de beginning of ein rule, Mobutu use favour-sharing (patronage) win over most of ein opposition; de ones wey no gree, e handle dem rough. For 1966, four cabinet members chop arrest because dem say dem join plan coup. Military court try dem case, then dem do public execution wey over 50,000 people watch live for open ground. Former Katangan gendarmeries wey rise also face Mobutu ein force and dem smash dem down—same as de Stanleyville mutinies of 1967 wey white mercenaries lead. By 1970, almost all de people wey fit challenge Mobutu power don fall, and for most parts of de country, law plus order start dey show face. That 1970 be de peak time of Mobutu ein power and respect. For 1970, King Baudouin of Belgium come Kinshasa do big state visit wey go well. Dat same year, dem hold presidential plus legislative elections. Even though de constitution say two parties fit dey, na only MPR dem allow nominate candidates. For de presidential election, Mobutu be de only person wey run. Voting no dey private; if you support Mobutu, you go drop green paper, but if you no dey support am, na red paper you go use. Green vote mean say you dey vote for hope, while red vote mean chaos. Under dat kind condition, de result no be surprise—official result talk say Mobutu win with almost everybody behind am, collect 10,131,669 votes, and only 157 people say “no”. Later dem come find out say over 30,500 more votes appear pass de number of voters wey register. Dem run de legislative elections same style. People get just one list from MPR; official result talk say unbelievable 98.33% people vote for de MPR list. As Mobutu dey cement ein power, e build different military groups wey na only to protect am dem dey. These groups include de Special Presidential Division, Civil Guard plus Service for Action, and Military Intelligence (SNIP). === Authenticity campaign === Main article: Authenticité (Zaire) Mobutu start big campaign wey promote African culture wey dem call ''authenticité''. As part of am, on 1 June 1966, e begin change city names wey show colonial past—Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Elisabethville change to Lubumbashi, and Stanleyville become Kisangani. For October 1971, e change de country ein name to Republic of Zaire. E order people make dem drop dem European names for African ones, and warn priests say if dem baptize Zairian pikin plus European name, dem go chop five years for prison. Western dressing and neck tie come dey banned, and men must wear one Mao-style tunic dem dey call ''abacost'' (short for ''à bas le costume'' wey mean “down with de suit”). Even Christmas move from December go June because Mobutu say dat one be more “authentic” date. Then for 1972, Mobutu follow ein own rule from previous year and change ein name to Mobutu Sese Seko Nkuku Ngbendu Wa Za Banga (wey mean “De all-powerful warrior wey, because of ein endurance and strong will to win, dey move from victory to victory, and leave fire behind”). Around dat time, e drop de army uniform and start wear ein signature look—tall and commanding, plus walking stick, abacost, thick glasses, and leopard-skin cap wey dem sew for Paris. For 1974, new constitution land wey tighten Mobutu ein hold on de country. Dis constitution talk say MPR be de “single institution” for de nation. Dem even define am as “de nation politically organized”—which mean say de state just be machine wey dey push party agenda. Every citizen automatically turn MPR member from de moment dem born. De constitution explain say de MPR dey inside de body of de party ein president, wey dem dey elect every seven years during national convention. But at de same time, dat same president automatically turn de only person wey go run for president of de country. Den dem go use referendum confirm am. De document come turn Mobutu ein emergency powers wey e dey use since 1965 into legal backing; e give am full authority—wey dem write as “plenitude of power exercise”—so all power now dey Mobutu ein hand. Mobutu win election three times under dis system, and each time, dem talk say e win with over 98 percent of de votes. For de legislative side, dem dey bring one single MPR list every five years, and de results dey show crazy numbers—either everybody vote for dem, or almost everybody. One of dem elections for 1975, dem no even vote at all—dem just show candidates around public places make people clap give dem. Dat one na how voting be. == One-man rule == Mobutu start use public executions early insyd ein rule to stamp ein power well-well. Any political rival, secessionist, coup planner, or anybody wey e see as threat, e go deal with dem hard. Many of dem people chop hanging for front big crowd. One serious example be former Prime Minister Évariste Kimba. Mobutu govment carry Kimba plus three of ein cabinet members—Jérôme Anany (Defense Minister), Emmanuel Bamba (Finance Minister), and Alexandre Mahamba (Minister of Mines and Energy)—put for trial May 1966. By 30 May, dem hang all four men in front of over 50,000 people. Dem say dem dey link up plus Colonel Alphonse Bangala and Major Pierre Efomi to run coup. Mobutu come talk say, “One had to strike through a spectacular example, and create the conditions of regime discipline. When a chief takes a decision, he decides – period.” Then for 1968, Pierre Mulele—Lumumba ein Education Minister and big rebel during de 1964 Simba uprising—Mobutu people trick am come out from exile for Brazzaville by telling am say amnesty go dey. But instead of peace, dem torture and kill am bad. Before Mulele die, dem gouge ein eyes, tear off ein genitals, and cut off ein limbs one by one. Mobutu later change ein strategy—e start dey buy political opponents instead of always use force. E like repeat one slogan: “Keep your friends close, but your enemies closer still,” to show how e dey use bribe pull rivals to ein side. One trick wey Mobutu really enjoy be “musical chairs”—e dey rotate ministers like game, change cabinet list anyhow, so nobody go build power wey fit threaten am. From November 1965 to April 1997, Mobutu reshuffle cabinet 60 times. Dis constant shuffle put fear inside ministers, because everybody know say Mobutu go change people anyhow, no matter whether you dey work well or not. Because ministers no sabi how long dem go last for position, e lead to serious stealing—everybody dey rush grab wetin dem fit while dem still dey office. Mobutu still dey arrest, even torture, some dissident govment members—then later forgive dem and even give dem bigger posts. E be like e just use power play confuse everybody. Congolese historian Emizet F. Kisangani talk say plenty public officials believe say no matter how corrupt or useless dem be, dem fit come back to govment position. To hold post no require management skill or clean conscience. In fact, if you too correct or too honest, dem see you as obstacle. Wetin Mobutu want be total loyalty in exchange for chance to chop money. By 1970, reports talk say Mobutu don carry 60% of de national budget enter ein pocket—people begin see am as one of de most corrupt leaders for Africa and de whole world. Kisangani add say Mobutu build full system of corruption wey spoil public values and reward greed and selfishness. Mobutu no slow down with de self-promotion moves—man try for 1972 make dem crown am president for life, but that one no land well. Then for June 1983, e raise himself go military top-top level as Marshal. Na General Likulia Bolongo sign dat order. Shortly after, Victor Nendaka Bika—de number two man for country as Vice-President of de Bureau of de Central Committee—drop one big speech full of praise give Mobutu. To chop revenue from Congo ein natural resources, Mobutu first chase out European investors and nationalize plenty foreign companies. But instead of letting dem run proper, e dash control of these firms give ein relatives and close padi dem—wey quickly use am do corruption and chop company assets clean. For 1973–1974, Mobutu start one big “Zairianization” program, take over more foreign businesses and hand dem to Zairians. But e no end there. By October 1973, de Arab oil shock come crash global economy—the same one wey don dey grow steady since 1945. One serious side effect be say copper price fall by 50% in 1974, and since copper na Zaire ein number one export, e hit dem hard. As American historian Thomas Odom talk, Zaire shift from “prosperity to bankruptcy almost overnight.” Because de economy break down, Zaire run go International Monetary Fund (IMF) for help to manage dem debt, but when IMF dig into dem books, dem discover heavy corruption. Mobutu come waka go China for 1974, take inspiration from Cultural Revolution. E come back wearing Mao jacket and call himself “Citoyen Mobutu” or “Citizen Mobutu.” E say he go “radicalize de Zairian revolution.” Di same businesses wey e first give to Zairians, Mobutu come collect dem back, nationalize everything under full state control. As if dat no do, e cut government workers ein salaries by 50%, wey provoke one failed coup attempt against am for June 1975. By 1977, Mobutu ein earlier move to nationalize foreign businesses don backfire hard—e economy don fall serious, and e no get choice but to beg foreign investors come back. But before e fit recover, Katangan rebels wey base for Angola storm Zaire dat same year, as payback for Mobutu ein support to anti-MPLA fighters. France respond quick—dem airlift 1,500 Moroccan paratroopers into Zaire, push de rebels back, and end di crisis wey dem call ''Shaba I''. But no long after, for 1978, de rebels regroup with even more numbers and invade again—this time na ''Shaba II''. Belgium and France come deploy troops again, backed by US logistics, and dem manage stop de attack once more. Mobutu get big embarrassment from how badly de Zairian Army perform for both invasions—e need foreign help to fight small rebel forces. Yet, instead of reforming de army, e just reduce am from 51,000 troops in 1978 to 23,000 by 1980. By dat time, about 90% of de army be Ngbandi—Mobutu ein own ethnic group—’cos e no trust other ethnic groups with weapons. De most loyal and strongest force Mobutu get be ein bodyguards—the ''Special Presidential Division''—trained by Israel, made up only of Ngbandi, and always led by Mobutu ein relative. Mobutu win election again for 1977 and 1984, but nobody dey run against am. E use most of ein time dey build ein own fortune, and by 1988, dem estimate say ein money reach no less than $50 million. Most of de money e hide am abroad, especially for Swiss banks—but when dem remove am later, dem only find small $3.4 million there. Funny enough, ein fortune nearly match de whole country ein foreign debt dat time. One time for 20 May 1976, Mobutu talk for stadium wey hold like 70,000 people for Kinshasa. E talk say, “If you wan thief, thief small and style am nice. But if you thief too much to turn rich fast-fast, dem go catch you.” By 1989, Zaire govment no fit pay dem loans again from Belgium. Mobutu dey ride in fleet of Mercedes-Benz from one palace to another, while roads dey spoil and people dey hungry. Workers no dey get pay for months, ’cos de national money dey disappear go Mobutu, ein family, and top political plus army people. Na only Special Presidential Division wey dey protect Mobutu wey dem dey pay correct and on time. Dem even get saying wey go like dis: “De civil servants dey pretend say dem dey work, while de state dey pretend say e dey pay dem.” De national army—Forces Armées Zaïroises (FAZ)—no get morale at all. Salaries no dey come, living conditions bad, supplies no dey, and officers dey chop people. De army soldiers just turn like armed thieves—dey rob civilians anyhow. Roadblocks full everywhere, and dem dey extort money from anybody wey dey pass with car or truck. Mobutu ein poor handling of de economy cause serious inflation wey mess up de value of people dem salaries. As money value dey drop fast, plenty public servants start dey do their own way—corruption plus dishonesty turn daily survival style for workers all across de system. Mobutu himself live large. E cruise for de Congo River inside ein yacht, Kamanyola. For Gbadolite, e build one huge mansion wey people dey call “Versailles of de jungle.” Anytime e wan go shopping for Paris, e go charter Air France ein Concorde jet. E even build Gbadolite Airport with long runway make Concorde fit land and take off there. For 1989 alone, e use dat jet fly go give speech for United Nations in New York, attend de French bicentennial party as President François Mitterrand ein guest, and carry Zaire youth choir from Paris to Gbadolite, then fly go Marseille—all with Concorde. Mobutu also get villa for French Riviera wey dem call ''Villa del Mere''. Ein whole leadership style come be example of real kleptocracy and nepotism. Mobutu dey put ein Ngbandi tribe people plus close relatives for top positions inside de military and govment. E dey groom ein first-born son, Nyiwa, to take over presidency from am, but Nyiwa die from AIDS for 1994. Mobutu rule be one of de longest autocracies for Africa. E stash over $50 million from Congo ein natural resources, while ordinary people dey suffer. E form one totalitarian system wey break plenty human rights, try wipe out Belgian influence from de country, and still hold strong anti-communist position to gain favor from international powers. Mobutu ein personality cult reach levels wey few leaders for history fit match. De evening news go start with video wey show am dey descend from cloud top like some god figure. Ein face full public places everywhere—portrait hang for walls, and govment workers dey wear lapel pins wey carry ein photo. Dem give am plenty grand titles: “Father of de Nation,” “Messiah,” “Guide of de Revolution,” “Helmsman,” “Founder,” “Savior of de People,” and “Supreme Combatant.” For de 1996 documentary about de legendary 1974 Foreman–Ali boxing match wey happen for Zaire, you go hear dancers chant “Sese Seko, Sese Seko!” as dem welcome de fighters—na clear sign of how deep e presence dey everywhere, even inside pop culture moments. For early 1975, e reach point wey Mobutu no gree make media call anybody ein name—only Mobutu fit be called by name, everybody else dem just refer to dem position. E really build one kind system wey make am look like dem no fit mention Congo without mention am. Mobutu take advantage proper of de Cold War tension wey dey between de European countries plus de United States. He win strong support from de West plus dem international organizations like de International Monetary Fund (IMF). === Space program === For late 1970s, one West Germany company called OTRAG dey work on satellite launch wey dem talk say be peaceful mission to reduce cost. But because of one 1954 amendment to de Treaty of Brussels, dem no fit build or launch missile insyd Germany. So dem pay Mobutu $130 million make dem run de program for Zaire. For one 1978 agreement, Mobutu dash OTRAG 25 years lease for land insyd Zaire. De first rocket, OTRAG-1, launch on 18 May 1977 wey Mobutu dey watch from far. E take off well but e crash back down shortly after. By 6 June 1978, dem launch two more rockets but dem crash again for Zaire. Still, Mobutu push de program say over 200 Zairians dey work for there and say Zaire go benefit from royalties when dem begin sell rocket. But two years later, Soviet Union accuse de program say former Nazi scientists dey involved plus say dem dey use am spy for military reason. Mobutu gree to Soviet pressure, end de project, plus cut ties with OTRAG. k62726cwe8nlzipexw7t4eq464n4qhz 69088 69087 2025-07-05T20:55:42Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69088 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu wa za Banga''' ; born '''Joseph-Désiré Mobutu'''; 14 October 1930 – 7 September 1997), people dey call am Mobutu Sese Seko or Mobutu and sana known by ein initials MSS, e be Congolese politician plus military officer wey be de first and only president of Zaire from 1971 to 1997. Before dat, Mobutu serve as de second president of de Democratic Republic of de Congo, from 1965 to 1971. E sana serve as de fifth chairperson of de Organisation of African Unity from 1967 to 1968. During de Congo Crisis insyd 1960, Mobutu, wey den be Chief of Staff insyd de Congolese Army, commot de nation ein democratically elected govment of Patrice Lumumba plus support from de U.S. and Belgium. Mobutu put govment insyd wey arrange make dem execute Lumumba for 1961, and e continue dey lead de country ein armed forces till e take power direct insyd another coup for 1965. To make sure say power no escape am, he create de Popular Movement of de Revolution as de only correct political party for 1967, change Congo ein name go Zaire for 1971, plus e own name turn Mobutu Sese Seko for 1972. Mobutu protect ein rule under hard autocratic regime and end up dey rule during time wey human rights violations spread everywhere. E try purge de country from all colonial culture tins through ein "national authenticity" program. Mobutu turn de main person wey everybody dey hype like say na cult of personality he dey carry. Mobutu talk say ein political ideology no be "left", no be "right", and no be "centre" too, but people mostly know am say e dey against communism for de Françafrique zone. Because of dat, United States, France, plus Belgium support am well-well—dem dash am military, diplomatic, and economic backing. E still build tight link plus apartheid South Africa, Israel, plus de Greek junta dem. Mobutu get strong name for corruption plus nepotism: dem talk say ein personal wealth fit reach from $50 million go $5 billion, all na from economic exploitation plus corruption as president. Some people call ein govment kleptocracy, ’cos e dey pile ein own money while Zaire ein economy suffer—plenty inflation, big debt, and serious currency wahala. E too known for ein flashy lifestyle, like how e dey fly go Paris on top de fast-fast Concorde jet just to do shopping. By 1990, as de economy start dey spoil plus tension dey rise, dem force Mobutu Sese Seko make e enter coalition plus political opponents and agree make dem do multiparty system. Even though e use ein soldiers try block de change, de movement no gree stop. By May 1997, rebel dem wey Laurent-Désiré Kabila lead take over de country and push Mobutu go exile. E already dey battle prostate cancer wey hard, so three months later, e die for Morocco. == Biography == === Early years den education === Mobutu, wey come from de Ngbandi ethnic group, dem born am for 1930 insyd Lisala, Belgian Congo. Mobutu ein mommie, Marie Madeleine Yemo, be hotel maid wey run go Lisala make she escape one local village chief ein harem. Na there she jam Albéric Gbemani, cook wey dey work for one Belgian judge, den she marry am. Not long after, she born Mobutu. Na one uncle pick de name “Mobutu” give am. Gbemani die when Mobutu be just eight years. After dat, one uncle plus ein grandfather raise am. De Belgian judge ein wife take fine eye see Mobutu, so she teach am how to speak, read plus write French well-well, wey be de official language of de colony. Ein mommie Yemo wey be widow, lean on family help to take care of her four pikin dem, and dem dey move from place to place often. Mobutu ein first schooling happen for capital town Léopoldville (wey now dem dey call Kinshasa). Later, ein mommie send am go ein uncle for Coquilhatville (now Mbandaka), where e attend Christian Brothers School, one Catholic-mission boarding school. Mobutu shine for books top and even run de class newspaper. People still know am for ein stubborn pranks and sharp small-boy sense of humor. One classmate remember say anytime de Belgian priests—wey ein main language be Dutch—make mistake for French, Mobutu go jump from ein seat for class top and point out de error sharp. For 1949, Mobutu sneak enter one boat wey dey go downriver to Léopoldville, where e jam one girl. Some weeks later, de priests find am. As school year end, instead of dem send am go prison, dem order make e serve seven years insyd de colonial army, Force Publique (FP). Dat kind punishment na normal tin for students wey dey act stubborn. === Army service === Mobutu find discipline for army life top, and e see father figure insyd Sergeant Louis Bobozo. Mobutu no stop ein studies—e dey borrow European newspapers from de Belgian officers plus pick books from anywhere e fit find, then e go read dem during sentry duty or any small chance e get. De ones wey e like pass be de writings of French president Charles de Gaulle, British prime minister Winston Churchill, plus de Italian Renaissance philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli. After e pass one course for accounting, Mobutu start small-small dey do journalism work proper. Still vexed about how e and de school priests jam wahala, e no marry for church. De only thing e fit bring for de wedding enjoyment be one crate of beer—na all ein army salary fit buy. === Early political involvement === As soldier, Mobutu dey write politics matter under fake name for Actualités Africaines (African News), one magazine wey one Belgian colonial set up. For 1956, e comot from army and turn full-time journalist, dey write for Léopoldville daily L'Avenir. Two years later, e go Belgium to report de 1958 World Exposition, then e stay back make e learn journalism better. By dis time, Mobutu don meet plenty young Congolese intellectuals wey dey challenge colonial rule. E come build friendship plus Patrice Lumumba and join Lumumba ein party—Congolese National Movement (MNC). Mobutu later become Lumumba ein personal aide. Some people wey know de matter talk say Belgian intelligence fit don recruit Mobutu as informant give de government. During de 1960 talks wey happen for Brussels about Congolese independence, de US embassy organize one reception give de Congolese delegation. Each embassy staff get list of delegates wey dem suppose meet, and later dem come talk about de people dem meet. De ambassador talk say, “One name just dey pop up steady. But nobody get am for ein list 'cos e no be official delegation member—e be Lumumba ein secretary. But everybody agree say dis guy get strong brain, e be young, maybe small immature, but e get big future ahead.” After de general election, dem assign Lumumba make e form govment. E give Mobutu de position of Secretary of State to de Presidency. Mobutu carry plenty weight for deciding de rest of de govment people. But after independence land, e no fit see Lumumba one-on-one again like before, 'cos de new prime minister start dey busy plus plenty aides and colleagues surround am. From there, both of dem slowly start drift apart. === Congo Crisis === Main article: Congo Crisis On 5 July 1960, soldiers of de Force Publique wey dey Camp Léopold II for Léopoldville vex over dem all-white leaders and bad working conditions, so dem rise mutiny. Di revolt spread go other places sharp-sharp. Mobutu join other officials talk to de mutineers so dem fit free de officers plus dem families. Then on 8 July, de full Council of Ministers gather for one special meeting under President Joseph Kasa-Vubu ein chairmanship for Camp Léopold II to face de matter of Africanising de garrison. De ministers start dey argue who go fit take de top job as army chief of staff. Two people wey stand out be Minister of Youth and Sports Maurice Mpolo, plus Mobutu. Mpolo don already show say e get some control over de soldiers wey dey mutiny, but Kasa-Vubu plus de Bakongo ministers fear say if dem give am power, e fit run coup. Mobutu on de other hand, people see am as cool-head wey dey think before e act. Lumumba respect Mpolo for ein boldness, but e prefer Mobutu ein cautious style. As de argument go on, de cabinet start split based on who dem support to be chief of staff. Lumumba no wan lose any of de two camps, so e try keep both men for ein team. In de end, dem give Mobutu de position and promote am to colonel. Next day, govment teams comot from de capital to supervise how dem go Africanise de army; Mobutu own assignment na for Équateur. While Mobutu dey there, Mpolo begin act as ANC Chief of Staff. Mobutu no happy at all with dat move, so when e return to de capital, e face Lumumba inside cabinet meeting and tell am plain: “Either I no deserve am and you gots sack me, or I do de mission well and I go keep my rank plus position.” De British diplomat Brian Urquhart, wey dey work plus de United Nations, yarn say: “When I first meet Mobutu for July 1960, e be Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba ein chief military assistant and e just promote himself from sergeant go lieutenant-colonel. Compared to ein boss, Mobutu be like pillar of common sense and sharp reasoning. Na to am we go when Lumumba ein hashish-high guards arrest our people. Na Mobutu too dey casually bring up Lumumba ein wild requests—like say make UN pay salary give Congolese army wey fit mutiny. For dem early days, Mobutu look like reasonable young man, wey maybe, just maybe, dey reason good for ein new independent country.” Backed by Belgian govment wey wan still hold tight to de rich Congolese mines, secessionist violence burst out for south. As UN soldiers wey dem send come restore order no dey help crush de secession, Lumumba go turn to Soviet Union for help. Inside six weeks, e receive serious military aid plus about thousand Soviet technical advisers. Since na Cold War time, US govment fear say dis Soviet move be trick to spread communist power for Central Africa. US and Belgium come ginger Kasa-Vubu make e sack Lumumba, and on 5 September, e do am. Lumumba vex rough and say Kasa-Vubu no be president again. Parliament no gree sack any of dem, instead dem beg for reconciliation, but no headway. Lumumba plus Kasa-Vubu each tell Mobutu make e arrest de other one. As Army Chief of Staff, Mobutu start face heavy pressure from all angle. Western countries' embassies—wey dey pay soldiers salary—plus Kasa-Vubu and Mobutu ein own men, all dem want make Soviet people pack. So on 14 September, Mobutu do coup wey no draw blood, announce say both Kasa-Vubu and Lumumba dey “neutralised” and form one new govment of university graduates—dem call am College of Commissioners-General. Lumumba no accept am but dem force am retire go ein house, where UN peacekeepers block Mobutu ein soldiers make dem no arrest am. Urquhart talk say on de coup day, Mobutu just waka enter UN headquarters for Léopoldville without invite and no gree comot till radio announce de coup; na dat time Mobutu begin repeat “C’est moi!”—“Na me!” Urquhart realise say Mobutu just land there in case de coup mess up, so e tell am to comot. As confidence drop say de international community go support am come back to power, Lumumba run commot for late November go meet ein supporters for Stanleyville to form new govment. Early December, Mobutu ein soldiers catch am, then keep am for ein base insyd Thysville. But Mobutu still see am as danger, so on 17 January 1961, e move Lumumba go de rebel State of Katanga. From dat point, nobody see Lumumba again. Later dem find out say same day wey dem move am, de secessionist forces under Moise Tshombe execute am, after Mobutu ein govment hand am over. On 23 January 1961, Kasa-Vubu promote Mobutu go major-general. One historian, De Witte, talk say na political move wey aim to make de army stronger, since na de president ein only support, and to boost Mobutu ein stand inside de army. For 1964, Pierre Mulele lead some fighters start another rebellion. Dem fast take over two-thirds of Congo. Mobutu lead de Congolese army respond, and by 1965, dem take back de whole land. === Second ''coup'' and consolidation of power === Sanso see: Second Mobutu coup d'état Prime Minister Moise Tshombe ein party, de Congolese National Convention, win big majority for March 1965 elections, but Kasa-Vubu appoint Évariste Kimba, one anti-Tshombe man, as prime minister-designate. Parliament no gree approve am two times. As de govment almost jam dead end, Mobutu take over power through coup wey no draw blood on 24 November—he just turn 35 one month before. Under one system wey dem call state of exception (regime d'exception), Mobutu grab full—almost absolute—power for five years. For ein first speech after e take power, Mobutu talk give big crowd for Léopoldville main stadium say, since na politicians spoil Congo within five years, e go need at least dat same time to fix am. So, for dat reason, no political party go do anything for five years. On 30 November 1965, Parliament pass law wey give Mobutu plus ein cabinet most of de legislative powers, but still hold small power to check ein decrees. By early March 1966, when Parliament start new session, Mobutu announce say he dey cancel dat review power, and two weeks after, ein govment shutdown Parliament for good and collect all de remaining authority. At de start, Mobutu ein govment come out like say e no dey into politics—or even dey against am. People begin see “politician” as bad word, wey mean person wey wicked or corrupt. For 1966, dem set up de Corps of Volunteers of de Republic, one strong frontline group wey aim to gather plenty public support behind Mobutu. Na same year dem hail am as de country ein “Second National Hero” after Lumumba. Even though Mobutu play role for how Lumumba commot power, e try package himself like person wey dey carry Lumumba ein legacy continue. One of de key things wey Mobutu dey preach for early part of ein rule be “authentic Congolese nationalism”. Na dat 1966 too e begin change city names wey get European roots to names wey sound more African—na so Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Stanleyville become Kisangani, and Élisabethville change to Lubumbashi. Then for 1967, Mobutu bring out de Popular Movement of de Revolution (MPR). From dat time go reach 1990, na only dat party dem dey allow for politics. Inside de MPR ein beliefs—wey dem write for Manifesto of N'Sele—dem push nationalism, revolution, plus “authenticity”. Dem describe revolution as “truly national and very practical,” wey reject both capitalism and communism. One popular slogan from de MPR be “Neither left nor right,” and later dem add “nor even center” join. That same year, all de trade unions dem join body into one single union—National Union of Zairian Workers—and de govment take full control over am. Mobutu plan say de union no go operate on ein own, but rather support govment policy like tool. From dat time till 1991, any independent trade union be illegal. As e face plenty wahala for de beginning of ein rule, Mobutu use favour-sharing (patronage) win over most of ein opposition; de ones wey no gree, e handle dem rough. For 1966, four cabinet members chop arrest because dem say dem join plan coup. Military court try dem case, then dem do public execution wey over 50,000 people watch live for open ground. Former Katangan gendarmeries wey rise also face Mobutu ein force and dem smash dem down—same as de Stanleyville mutinies of 1967 wey white mercenaries lead. By 1970, almost all de people wey fit challenge Mobutu power don fall, and for most parts of de country, law plus order start dey show face. That 1970 be de peak time of Mobutu ein power and respect. For 1970, King Baudouin of Belgium come Kinshasa do big state visit wey go well. Dat same year, dem hold presidential plus legislative elections. Even though de constitution say two parties fit dey, na only MPR dem allow nominate candidates. For de presidential election, Mobutu be de only person wey run. Voting no dey private; if you support Mobutu, you go drop green paper, but if you no dey support am, na red paper you go use. Green vote mean say you dey vote for hope, while red vote mean chaos. Under dat kind condition, de result no be surprise—official result talk say Mobutu win with almost everybody behind am, collect 10,131,669 votes, and only 157 people say “no”. Later dem come find out say over 30,500 more votes appear pass de number of voters wey register. Dem run de legislative elections same style. People get just one list from MPR; official result talk say unbelievable 98.33% people vote for de MPR list. As Mobutu dey cement ein power, e build different military groups wey na only to protect am dem dey. These groups include de Special Presidential Division, Civil Guard plus Service for Action, and Military Intelligence (SNIP). === Authenticity campaign === Main article: Authenticité (Zaire) Mobutu start big campaign wey promote African culture wey dem call ''authenticité''. As part of am, on 1 June 1966, e begin change city names wey show colonial past—Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Elisabethville change to Lubumbashi, and Stanleyville become Kisangani. For October 1971, e change de country ein name to Republic of Zaire. E order people make dem drop dem European names for African ones, and warn priests say if dem baptize Zairian pikin plus European name, dem go chop five years for prison. Western dressing and neck tie come dey banned, and men must wear one Mao-style tunic dem dey call ''abacost'' (short for ''à bas le costume'' wey mean “down with de suit”). Even Christmas move from December go June because Mobutu say dat one be more “authentic” date. Then for 1972, Mobutu follow ein own rule from previous year and change ein name to Mobutu Sese Seko Nkuku Ngbendu Wa Za Banga (wey mean “De all-powerful warrior wey, because of ein endurance and strong will to win, dey move from victory to victory, and leave fire behind”). Around dat time, e drop de army uniform and start wear ein signature look—tall and commanding, plus walking stick, abacost, thick glasses, and leopard-skin cap wey dem sew for Paris. For 1974, new constitution land wey tighten Mobutu ein hold on de country. Dis constitution talk say MPR be de “single institution” for de nation. Dem even define am as “de nation politically organized”—which mean say de state just be machine wey dey push party agenda. Every citizen automatically turn MPR member from de moment dem born. De constitution explain say de MPR dey inside de body of de party ein president, wey dem dey elect every seven years during national convention. But at de same time, dat same president automatically turn de only person wey go run for president of de country. Den dem go use referendum confirm am. De document come turn Mobutu ein emergency powers wey e dey use since 1965 into legal backing; e give am full authority—wey dem write as “plenitude of power exercise”—so all power now dey Mobutu ein hand. Mobutu win election three times under dis system, and each time, dem talk say e win with over 98 percent of de votes. For de legislative side, dem dey bring one single MPR list every five years, and de results dey show crazy numbers—either everybody vote for dem, or almost everybody. One of dem elections for 1975, dem no even vote at all—dem just show candidates around public places make people clap give dem. Dat one na how voting be. == One-man rule == Mobutu start use public executions early insyd ein rule to stamp ein power well-well. Any political rival, secessionist, coup planner, or anybody wey e see as threat, e go deal with dem hard. Many of dem people chop hanging for front big crowd. One serious example be former Prime Minister Évariste Kimba. Mobutu govment carry Kimba plus three of ein cabinet members—Jérôme Anany (Defense Minister), Emmanuel Bamba (Finance Minister), and Alexandre Mahamba (Minister of Mines and Energy)—put for trial May 1966. By 30 May, dem hang all four men in front of over 50,000 people. Dem say dem dey link up plus Colonel Alphonse Bangala and Major Pierre Efomi to run coup. Mobutu come talk say, “One had to strike through a spectacular example, and create the conditions of regime discipline. When a chief takes a decision, he decides – period.” Then for 1968, Pierre Mulele—Lumumba ein Education Minister and big rebel during de 1964 Simba uprising—Mobutu people trick am come out from exile for Brazzaville by telling am say amnesty go dey. But instead of peace, dem torture and kill am bad. Before Mulele die, dem gouge ein eyes, tear off ein genitals, and cut off ein limbs one by one. Mobutu later change ein strategy—e start dey buy political opponents instead of always use force. E like repeat one slogan: “Keep your friends close, but your enemies closer still,” to show how e dey use bribe pull rivals to ein side. One trick wey Mobutu really enjoy be “musical chairs”—e dey rotate ministers like game, change cabinet list anyhow, so nobody go build power wey fit threaten am. From November 1965 to April 1997, Mobutu reshuffle cabinet 60 times. Dis constant shuffle put fear inside ministers, because everybody know say Mobutu go change people anyhow, no matter whether you dey work well or not. Because ministers no sabi how long dem go last for position, e lead to serious stealing—everybody dey rush grab wetin dem fit while dem still dey office. Mobutu still dey arrest, even torture, some dissident govment members—then later forgive dem and even give dem bigger posts. E be like e just use power play confuse everybody. Congolese historian Emizet F. Kisangani talk say plenty public officials believe say no matter how corrupt or useless dem be, dem fit come back to govment position. To hold post no require management skill or clean conscience. In fact, if you too correct or too honest, dem see you as obstacle. Wetin Mobutu want be total loyalty in exchange for chance to chop money. By 1970, reports talk say Mobutu don carry 60% of de national budget enter ein pocket—people begin see am as one of de most corrupt leaders for Africa and de whole world. Kisangani add say Mobutu build full system of corruption wey spoil public values and reward greed and selfishness. Mobutu no slow down with de self-promotion moves—man try for 1972 make dem crown am president for life, but that one no land well. Then for June 1983, e raise himself go military top-top level as Marshal. Na General Likulia Bolongo sign dat order. Shortly after, Victor Nendaka Bika—de number two man for country as Vice-President of de Bureau of de Central Committee—drop one big speech full of praise give Mobutu. To chop revenue from Congo ein natural resources, Mobutu first chase out European investors and nationalize plenty foreign companies. But instead of letting dem run proper, e dash control of these firms give ein relatives and close padi dem—wey quickly use am do corruption and chop company assets clean. For 1973–1974, Mobutu start one big “Zairianization” program, take over more foreign businesses and hand dem to Zairians. But e no end there. By October 1973, de Arab oil shock come crash global economy—the same one wey don dey grow steady since 1945. One serious side effect be say copper price fall by 50% in 1974, and since copper na Zaire ein number one export, e hit dem hard. As American historian Thomas Odom talk, Zaire shift from “prosperity to bankruptcy almost overnight.” Because de economy break down, Zaire run go International Monetary Fund (IMF) for help to manage dem debt, but when IMF dig into dem books, dem discover heavy corruption. Mobutu come waka go China for 1974, take inspiration from Cultural Revolution. E come back wearing Mao jacket and call himself “Citoyen Mobutu” or “Citizen Mobutu.” E say he go “radicalize de Zairian revolution.” Di same businesses wey e first give to Zairians, Mobutu come collect dem back, nationalize everything under full state control. As if dat no do, e cut government workers ein salaries by 50%, wey provoke one failed coup attempt against am for June 1975. By 1977, Mobutu ein earlier move to nationalize foreign businesses don backfire hard—e economy don fall serious, and e no get choice but to beg foreign investors come back. But before e fit recover, Katangan rebels wey base for Angola storm Zaire dat same year, as payback for Mobutu ein support to anti-MPLA fighters. France respond quick—dem airlift 1,500 Moroccan paratroopers into Zaire, push de rebels back, and end di crisis wey dem call ''Shaba I''. But no long after, for 1978, de rebels regroup with even more numbers and invade again—this time na ''Shaba II''. Belgium and France come deploy troops again, backed by US logistics, and dem manage stop de attack once more. Mobutu get big embarrassment from how badly de Zairian Army perform for both invasions—e need foreign help to fight small rebel forces. Yet, instead of reforming de army, e just reduce am from 51,000 troops in 1978 to 23,000 by 1980. By dat time, about 90% of de army be Ngbandi—Mobutu ein own ethnic group—’cos e no trust other ethnic groups with weapons. De most loyal and strongest force Mobutu get be ein bodyguards—the ''Special Presidential Division''—trained by Israel, made up only of Ngbandi, and always led by Mobutu ein relative. Mobutu win election again for 1977 and 1984, but nobody dey run against am. E use most of ein time dey build ein own fortune, and by 1988, dem estimate say ein money reach no less than $50 million. Most of de money e hide am abroad, especially for Swiss banks—but when dem remove am later, dem only find small $3.4 million there. Funny enough, ein fortune nearly match de whole country ein foreign debt dat time. One time for 20 May 1976, Mobutu talk for stadium wey hold like 70,000 people for Kinshasa. E talk say, “If you wan thief, thief small and style am nice. But if you thief too much to turn rich fast-fast, dem go catch you.” By 1989, Zaire govment no fit pay dem loans again from Belgium. Mobutu dey ride in fleet of Mercedes-Benz from one palace to another, while roads dey spoil and people dey hungry. Workers no dey get pay for months, ’cos de national money dey disappear go Mobutu, ein family, and top political plus army people. Na only Special Presidential Division wey dey protect Mobutu wey dem dey pay correct and on time. Dem even get saying wey go like dis: “De civil servants dey pretend say dem dey work, while de state dey pretend say e dey pay dem.” De national army—Forces Armées Zaïroises (FAZ)—no get morale at all. Salaries no dey come, living conditions bad, supplies no dey, and officers dey chop people. De army soldiers just turn like armed thieves—dey rob civilians anyhow. Roadblocks full everywhere, and dem dey extort money from anybody wey dey pass with car or truck. Mobutu ein poor handling of de economy cause serious inflation wey mess up de value of people dem salaries. As money value dey drop fast, plenty public servants start dey do their own way—corruption plus dishonesty turn daily survival style for workers all across de system. Mobutu himself live large. E cruise for de Congo River inside ein yacht, Kamanyola. For Gbadolite, e build one huge mansion wey people dey call “Versailles of de jungle.” Anytime e wan go shopping for Paris, e go charter Air France ein Concorde jet. E even build Gbadolite Airport with long runway make Concorde fit land and take off there. For 1989 alone, e use dat jet fly go give speech for United Nations in New York, attend de French bicentennial party as President François Mitterrand ein guest, and carry Zaire youth choir from Paris to Gbadolite, then fly go Marseille—all with Concorde. Mobutu also get villa for French Riviera wey dem call ''Villa del Mere''. Ein whole leadership style come be example of real kleptocracy and nepotism. Mobutu dey put ein Ngbandi tribe people plus close relatives for top positions inside de military and govment. E dey groom ein first-born son, Nyiwa, to take over presidency from am, but Nyiwa die from AIDS for 1994. Mobutu rule be one of de longest autocracies for Africa. E stash over $50 million from Congo ein natural resources, while ordinary people dey suffer. E form one totalitarian system wey break plenty human rights, try wipe out Belgian influence from de country, and still hold strong anti-communist position to gain favor from international powers. Mobutu ein personality cult reach levels wey few leaders for history fit match. De evening news go start with video wey show am dey descend from cloud top like some god figure. Ein face full public places everywhere—portrait hang for walls, and govment workers dey wear lapel pins wey carry ein photo. Dem give am plenty grand titles: “Father of de Nation,” “Messiah,” “Guide of de Revolution,” “Helmsman,” “Founder,” “Savior of de People,” and “Supreme Combatant.” For de 1996 documentary about de legendary 1974 Foreman–Ali boxing match wey happen for Zaire, you go hear dancers chant “Sese Seko, Sese Seko!” as dem welcome de fighters—na clear sign of how deep e presence dey everywhere, even inside pop culture moments. For early 1975, e reach point wey Mobutu no gree make media call anybody ein name—only Mobutu fit be called by name, everybody else dem just refer to dem position. E really build one kind system wey make am look like dem no fit mention Congo without mention am. Mobutu take advantage proper of de Cold War tension wey dey between de European countries plus de United States. He win strong support from de West plus dem international organizations like de International Monetary Fund (IMF). === Space program === For late 1970s, one West Germany company called OTRAG dey work on satellite launch wey dem talk say be peaceful mission to reduce cost. But because of one 1954 amendment to de Treaty of Brussels, dem no fit build or launch missile insyd Germany. So dem pay Mobutu $130 million make dem run de program for Zaire. For one 1978 agreement, Mobutu dash OTRAG 25 years lease for land insyd Zaire. De first rocket, OTRAG-1, launch on 18 May 1977 wey Mobutu dey watch from far. E take off well but e crash back down shortly after. By 6 June 1978, dem launch two more rockets but dem crash again for Zaire. Still, Mobutu push de program say over 200 Zairians dey work for there and say Zaire go benefit from royalties when dem begin sell rocket. But two years later, Soviet Union accuse de program say former Nazi scientists dey involved plus say dem dey use am spy for military reason. Mobutu gree to Soviet pressure, end de project, plus cut ties with OTRAG. === Foreign policy === Main article: Foreign policy of de Mobutu Sese Seko administration ==== Relations plus Belgium ==== De relationship wey dey between Zaire and Belgium under Mobutu time dey mix — sometimes dem be paddy, other times dem turn real enemies. Most of de time, Belgian leaders no really react strong even when Mobutu do tins wey no favour Belgium; dis be partly because de Belgian political side demself no dey united. From early Mobutu rule, yawa start between dem because of plenty Belgian businesses wey dey Congo. But things cool small after. For 1968, Mobutu and ein family go Belgium as special guest of de Belgian king, and dat same year dem sign one science plus technical agreement. For 1970, King Baudouin visit Kinshasa and everybody hail am; dem even sign treaty of friendship and cooperation. But Mobutu tear dis same treaty insyd 1974 because Belgium no gree ban one anti-Mobutu book wey Jules Chomé, one left-wing lawyer, write. Mobutu e "Zairianisation" policy, wey be say he seize foreign businesses and give dem to Zairians, make matters worse. Even though yawa dey, Mobutu still get personal friendship with some top Belgians. He admire Edmond Leburton, wey be Belgian prime minister (1973–1974), and he be paddy to Alfred Cahen, one diplomat wey Mobutu meet from his Brussels university days. Mobutu and King Baudouin too dey cool until Mobutu leak one handwritten letter from de king — after dat, palace shut door gidi-gidi. Because of dis, Mobutu no get invitation go de king ein funeral; only Saddam Hussein from Iraq join am for dat black list. Apart from Belgians wey dey Belgium, Mobutu keep Belgian advisors close — like Hugues Leclercq and Colonel Willy Mallants, wey even show for Thierry Michel ein documentary ''Mobutu, King of Zaire''. 9rxcr5sqvomzzd5brrnyv9flf4j9i0e 69089 69088 2025-07-05T21:05:52Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69089 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu wa za Banga''' ; born '''Joseph-Désiré Mobutu'''; 14 October 1930 – 7 September 1997), people dey call am Mobutu Sese Seko or Mobutu and sana known by ein initials MSS, e be Congolese politician plus military officer wey be de first and only president of Zaire from 1971 to 1997. Before dat, Mobutu serve as de second president of de Democratic Republic of de Congo, from 1965 to 1971. E sana serve as de fifth chairperson of de Organisation of African Unity from 1967 to 1968. During de Congo Crisis insyd 1960, Mobutu, wey den be Chief of Staff insyd de Congolese Army, commot de nation ein democratically elected govment of Patrice Lumumba plus support from de U.S. and Belgium. Mobutu put govment insyd wey arrange make dem execute Lumumba for 1961, and e continue dey lead de country ein armed forces till e take power direct insyd another coup for 1965. To make sure say power no escape am, he create de Popular Movement of de Revolution as de only correct political party for 1967, change Congo ein name go Zaire for 1971, plus e own name turn Mobutu Sese Seko for 1972. Mobutu protect ein rule under hard autocratic regime and end up dey rule during time wey human rights violations spread everywhere. E try purge de country from all colonial culture tins through ein "national authenticity" program. Mobutu turn de main person wey everybody dey hype like say na cult of personality he dey carry. Mobutu talk say ein political ideology no be "left", no be "right", and no be "centre" too, but people mostly know am say e dey against communism for de Françafrique zone. Because of dat, United States, France, plus Belgium support am well-well—dem dash am military, diplomatic, and economic backing. E still build tight link plus apartheid South Africa, Israel, plus de Greek junta dem. Mobutu get strong name for corruption plus nepotism: dem talk say ein personal wealth fit reach from $50 million go $5 billion, all na from economic exploitation plus corruption as president. Some people call ein govment kleptocracy, ’cos e dey pile ein own money while Zaire ein economy suffer—plenty inflation, big debt, and serious currency wahala. E too known for ein flashy lifestyle, like how e dey fly go Paris on top de fast-fast Concorde jet just to do shopping. By 1990, as de economy start dey spoil plus tension dey rise, dem force Mobutu Sese Seko make e enter coalition plus political opponents and agree make dem do multiparty system. Even though e use ein soldiers try block de change, de movement no gree stop. By May 1997, rebel dem wey Laurent-Désiré Kabila lead take over de country and push Mobutu go exile. E already dey battle prostate cancer wey hard, so three months later, e die for Morocco. == Biography == === Early years den education === Mobutu, wey come from de Ngbandi ethnic group, dem born am for 1930 insyd Lisala, Belgian Congo. Mobutu ein mommie, Marie Madeleine Yemo, be hotel maid wey run go Lisala make she escape one local village chief ein harem. Na there she jam Albéric Gbemani, cook wey dey work for one Belgian judge, den she marry am. Not long after, she born Mobutu. Na one uncle pick de name “Mobutu” give am. Gbemani die when Mobutu be just eight years. After dat, one uncle plus ein grandfather raise am. De Belgian judge ein wife take fine eye see Mobutu, so she teach am how to speak, read plus write French well-well, wey be de official language of de colony. Ein mommie Yemo wey be widow, lean on family help to take care of her four pikin dem, and dem dey move from place to place often. Mobutu ein first schooling happen for capital town Léopoldville (wey now dem dey call Kinshasa). Later, ein mommie send am go ein uncle for Coquilhatville (now Mbandaka), where e attend Christian Brothers School, one Catholic-mission boarding school. Mobutu shine for books top and even run de class newspaper. People still know am for ein stubborn pranks and sharp small-boy sense of humor. One classmate remember say anytime de Belgian priests—wey ein main language be Dutch—make mistake for French, Mobutu go jump from ein seat for class top and point out de error sharp. For 1949, Mobutu sneak enter one boat wey dey go downriver to Léopoldville, where e jam one girl. Some weeks later, de priests find am. As school year end, instead of dem send am go prison, dem order make e serve seven years insyd de colonial army, Force Publique (FP). Dat kind punishment na normal tin for students wey dey act stubborn. === Army service === Mobutu find discipline for army life top, and e see father figure insyd Sergeant Louis Bobozo. Mobutu no stop ein studies—e dey borrow European newspapers from de Belgian officers plus pick books from anywhere e fit find, then e go read dem during sentry duty or any small chance e get. De ones wey e like pass be de writings of French president Charles de Gaulle, British prime minister Winston Churchill, plus de Italian Renaissance philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli. After e pass one course for accounting, Mobutu start small-small dey do journalism work proper. Still vexed about how e and de school priests jam wahala, e no marry for church. De only thing e fit bring for de wedding enjoyment be one crate of beer—na all ein army salary fit buy. === Early political involvement === As soldier, Mobutu dey write politics matter under fake name for Actualités Africaines (African News), one magazine wey one Belgian colonial set up. For 1956, e comot from army and turn full-time journalist, dey write for Léopoldville daily L'Avenir. Two years later, e go Belgium to report de 1958 World Exposition, then e stay back make e learn journalism better. By dis time, Mobutu don meet plenty young Congolese intellectuals wey dey challenge colonial rule. E come build friendship plus Patrice Lumumba and join Lumumba ein party—Congolese National Movement (MNC). Mobutu later become Lumumba ein personal aide. Some people wey know de matter talk say Belgian intelligence fit don recruit Mobutu as informant give de government. During de 1960 talks wey happen for Brussels about Congolese independence, de US embassy organize one reception give de Congolese delegation. Each embassy staff get list of delegates wey dem suppose meet, and later dem come talk about de people dem meet. De ambassador talk say, “One name just dey pop up steady. But nobody get am for ein list 'cos e no be official delegation member—e be Lumumba ein secretary. But everybody agree say dis guy get strong brain, e be young, maybe small immature, but e get big future ahead.” After de general election, dem assign Lumumba make e form govment. E give Mobutu de position of Secretary of State to de Presidency. Mobutu carry plenty weight for deciding de rest of de govment people. But after independence land, e no fit see Lumumba one-on-one again like before, 'cos de new prime minister start dey busy plus plenty aides and colleagues surround am. From there, both of dem slowly start drift apart. === Congo Crisis === Main article: Congo Crisis On 5 July 1960, soldiers of de Force Publique wey dey Camp Léopold II for Léopoldville vex over dem all-white leaders and bad working conditions, so dem rise mutiny. Di revolt spread go other places sharp-sharp. Mobutu join other officials talk to de mutineers so dem fit free de officers plus dem families. Then on 8 July, de full Council of Ministers gather for one special meeting under President Joseph Kasa-Vubu ein chairmanship for Camp Léopold II to face de matter of Africanising de garrison. De ministers start dey argue who go fit take de top job as army chief of staff. Two people wey stand out be Minister of Youth and Sports Maurice Mpolo, plus Mobutu. Mpolo don already show say e get some control over de soldiers wey dey mutiny, but Kasa-Vubu plus de Bakongo ministers fear say if dem give am power, e fit run coup. Mobutu on de other hand, people see am as cool-head wey dey think before e act. Lumumba respect Mpolo for ein boldness, but e prefer Mobutu ein cautious style. As de argument go on, de cabinet start split based on who dem support to be chief of staff. Lumumba no wan lose any of de two camps, so e try keep both men for ein team. In de end, dem give Mobutu de position and promote am to colonel. Next day, govment teams comot from de capital to supervise how dem go Africanise de army; Mobutu own assignment na for Équateur. While Mobutu dey there, Mpolo begin act as ANC Chief of Staff. Mobutu no happy at all with dat move, so when e return to de capital, e face Lumumba inside cabinet meeting and tell am plain: “Either I no deserve am and you gots sack me, or I do de mission well and I go keep my rank plus position.” De British diplomat Brian Urquhart, wey dey work plus de United Nations, yarn say: “When I first meet Mobutu for July 1960, e be Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba ein chief military assistant and e just promote himself from sergeant go lieutenant-colonel. Compared to ein boss, Mobutu be like pillar of common sense and sharp reasoning. Na to am we go when Lumumba ein hashish-high guards arrest our people. Na Mobutu too dey casually bring up Lumumba ein wild requests—like say make UN pay salary give Congolese army wey fit mutiny. For dem early days, Mobutu look like reasonable young man, wey maybe, just maybe, dey reason good for ein new independent country.” Backed by Belgian govment wey wan still hold tight to de rich Congolese mines, secessionist violence burst out for south. As UN soldiers wey dem send come restore order no dey help crush de secession, Lumumba go turn to Soviet Union for help. Inside six weeks, e receive serious military aid plus about thousand Soviet technical advisers. Since na Cold War time, US govment fear say dis Soviet move be trick to spread communist power for Central Africa. US and Belgium come ginger Kasa-Vubu make e sack Lumumba, and on 5 September, e do am. Lumumba vex rough and say Kasa-Vubu no be president again. Parliament no gree sack any of dem, instead dem beg for reconciliation, but no headway. Lumumba plus Kasa-Vubu each tell Mobutu make e arrest de other one. As Army Chief of Staff, Mobutu start face heavy pressure from all angle. Western countries' embassies—wey dey pay soldiers salary—plus Kasa-Vubu and Mobutu ein own men, all dem want make Soviet people pack. So on 14 September, Mobutu do coup wey no draw blood, announce say both Kasa-Vubu and Lumumba dey “neutralised” and form one new govment of university graduates—dem call am College of Commissioners-General. Lumumba no accept am but dem force am retire go ein house, where UN peacekeepers block Mobutu ein soldiers make dem no arrest am. Urquhart talk say on de coup day, Mobutu just waka enter UN headquarters for Léopoldville without invite and no gree comot till radio announce de coup; na dat time Mobutu begin repeat “C’est moi!”—“Na me!” Urquhart realise say Mobutu just land there in case de coup mess up, so e tell am to comot. As confidence drop say de international community go support am come back to power, Lumumba run commot for late November go meet ein supporters for Stanleyville to form new govment. Early December, Mobutu ein soldiers catch am, then keep am for ein base insyd Thysville. But Mobutu still see am as danger, so on 17 January 1961, e move Lumumba go de rebel State of Katanga. From dat point, nobody see Lumumba again. Later dem find out say same day wey dem move am, de secessionist forces under Moise Tshombe execute am, after Mobutu ein govment hand am over. On 23 January 1961, Kasa-Vubu promote Mobutu go major-general. One historian, De Witte, talk say na political move wey aim to make de army stronger, since na de president ein only support, and to boost Mobutu ein stand inside de army. For 1964, Pierre Mulele lead some fighters start another rebellion. Dem fast take over two-thirds of Congo. Mobutu lead de Congolese army respond, and by 1965, dem take back de whole land. === Second ''coup'' and consolidation of power === Sanso see: Second Mobutu coup d'état Prime Minister Moise Tshombe ein party, de Congolese National Convention, win big majority for March 1965 elections, but Kasa-Vubu appoint Évariste Kimba, one anti-Tshombe man, as prime minister-designate. Parliament no gree approve am two times. As de govment almost jam dead end, Mobutu take over power through coup wey no draw blood on 24 November—he just turn 35 one month before. Under one system wey dem call state of exception (regime d'exception), Mobutu grab full—almost absolute—power for five years. For ein first speech after e take power, Mobutu talk give big crowd for Léopoldville main stadium say, since na politicians spoil Congo within five years, e go need at least dat same time to fix am. So, for dat reason, no political party go do anything for five years. On 30 November 1965, Parliament pass law wey give Mobutu plus ein cabinet most of de legislative powers, but still hold small power to check ein decrees. By early March 1966, when Parliament start new session, Mobutu announce say he dey cancel dat review power, and two weeks after, ein govment shutdown Parliament for good and collect all de remaining authority. At de start, Mobutu ein govment come out like say e no dey into politics—or even dey against am. People begin see “politician” as bad word, wey mean person wey wicked or corrupt. For 1966, dem set up de Corps of Volunteers of de Republic, one strong frontline group wey aim to gather plenty public support behind Mobutu. Na same year dem hail am as de country ein “Second National Hero” after Lumumba. Even though Mobutu play role for how Lumumba commot power, e try package himself like person wey dey carry Lumumba ein legacy continue. One of de key things wey Mobutu dey preach for early part of ein rule be “authentic Congolese nationalism”. Na dat 1966 too e begin change city names wey get European roots to names wey sound more African—na so Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Stanleyville become Kisangani, and Élisabethville change to Lubumbashi. Then for 1967, Mobutu bring out de Popular Movement of de Revolution (MPR). From dat time go reach 1990, na only dat party dem dey allow for politics. Inside de MPR ein beliefs—wey dem write for Manifesto of N'Sele—dem push nationalism, revolution, plus “authenticity”. Dem describe revolution as “truly national and very practical,” wey reject both capitalism and communism. One popular slogan from de MPR be “Neither left nor right,” and later dem add “nor even center” join. That same year, all de trade unions dem join body into one single union—National Union of Zairian Workers—and de govment take full control over am. Mobutu plan say de union no go operate on ein own, but rather support govment policy like tool. From dat time till 1991, any independent trade union be illegal. As e face plenty wahala for de beginning of ein rule, Mobutu use favour-sharing (patronage) win over most of ein opposition; de ones wey no gree, e handle dem rough. For 1966, four cabinet members chop arrest because dem say dem join plan coup. Military court try dem case, then dem do public execution wey over 50,000 people watch live for open ground. Former Katangan gendarmeries wey rise also face Mobutu ein force and dem smash dem down—same as de Stanleyville mutinies of 1967 wey white mercenaries lead. By 1970, almost all de people wey fit challenge Mobutu power don fall, and for most parts of de country, law plus order start dey show face. That 1970 be de peak time of Mobutu ein power and respect. For 1970, King Baudouin of Belgium come Kinshasa do big state visit wey go well. Dat same year, dem hold presidential plus legislative elections. Even though de constitution say two parties fit dey, na only MPR dem allow nominate candidates. For de presidential election, Mobutu be de only person wey run. Voting no dey private; if you support Mobutu, you go drop green paper, but if you no dey support am, na red paper you go use. Green vote mean say you dey vote for hope, while red vote mean chaos. Under dat kind condition, de result no be surprise—official result talk say Mobutu win with almost everybody behind am, collect 10,131,669 votes, and only 157 people say “no”. Later dem come find out say over 30,500 more votes appear pass de number of voters wey register. Dem run de legislative elections same style. People get just one list from MPR; official result talk say unbelievable 98.33% people vote for de MPR list. As Mobutu dey cement ein power, e build different military groups wey na only to protect am dem dey. These groups include de Special Presidential Division, Civil Guard plus Service for Action, and Military Intelligence (SNIP). === Authenticity campaign === Main article: Authenticité (Zaire) Mobutu start big campaign wey promote African culture wey dem call ''authenticité''. As part of am, on 1 June 1966, e begin change city names wey show colonial past—Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Elisabethville change to Lubumbashi, and Stanleyville become Kisangani. For October 1971, e change de country ein name to Republic of Zaire. E order people make dem drop dem European names for African ones, and warn priests say if dem baptize Zairian pikin plus European name, dem go chop five years for prison. Western dressing and neck tie come dey banned, and men must wear one Mao-style tunic dem dey call ''abacost'' (short for ''à bas le costume'' wey mean “down with de suit”). Even Christmas move from December go June because Mobutu say dat one be more “authentic” date. Then for 1972, Mobutu follow ein own rule from previous year and change ein name to Mobutu Sese Seko Nkuku Ngbendu Wa Za Banga (wey mean “De all-powerful warrior wey, because of ein endurance and strong will to win, dey move from victory to victory, and leave fire behind”). Around dat time, e drop de army uniform and start wear ein signature look—tall and commanding, plus walking stick, abacost, thick glasses, and leopard-skin cap wey dem sew for Paris. For 1974, new constitution land wey tighten Mobutu ein hold on de country. Dis constitution talk say MPR be de “single institution” for de nation. Dem even define am as “de nation politically organized”—which mean say de state just be machine wey dey push party agenda. Every citizen automatically turn MPR member from de moment dem born. De constitution explain say de MPR dey inside de body of de party ein president, wey dem dey elect every seven years during national convention. But at de same time, dat same president automatically turn de only person wey go run for president of de country. Den dem go use referendum confirm am. De document come turn Mobutu ein emergency powers wey e dey use since 1965 into legal backing; e give am full authority—wey dem write as “plenitude of power exercise”—so all power now dey Mobutu ein hand. Mobutu win election three times under dis system, and each time, dem talk say e win with over 98 percent of de votes. For de legislative side, dem dey bring one single MPR list every five years, and de results dey show crazy numbers—either everybody vote for dem, or almost everybody. One of dem elections for 1975, dem no even vote at all—dem just show candidates around public places make people clap give dem. Dat one na how voting be. == One-man rule == Mobutu start use public executions early insyd ein rule to stamp ein power well-well. Any political rival, secessionist, coup planner, or anybody wey e see as threat, e go deal with dem hard. Many of dem people chop hanging for front big crowd. One serious example be former Prime Minister Évariste Kimba. Mobutu govment carry Kimba plus three of ein cabinet members—Jérôme Anany (Defense Minister), Emmanuel Bamba (Finance Minister), and Alexandre Mahamba (Minister of Mines and Energy)—put for trial May 1966. By 30 May, dem hang all four men in front of over 50,000 people. Dem say dem dey link up plus Colonel Alphonse Bangala and Major Pierre Efomi to run coup. Mobutu come talk say, “One had to strike through a spectacular example, and create the conditions of regime discipline. When a chief takes a decision, he decides – period.” Then for 1968, Pierre Mulele—Lumumba ein Education Minister and big rebel during de 1964 Simba uprising—Mobutu people trick am come out from exile for Brazzaville by telling am say amnesty go dey. But instead of peace, dem torture and kill am bad. Before Mulele die, dem gouge ein eyes, tear off ein genitals, and cut off ein limbs one by one. Mobutu later change ein strategy—e start dey buy political opponents instead of always use force. E like repeat one slogan: “Keep your friends close, but your enemies closer still,” to show how e dey use bribe pull rivals to ein side. One trick wey Mobutu really enjoy be “musical chairs”—e dey rotate ministers like game, change cabinet list anyhow, so nobody go build power wey fit threaten am. From November 1965 to April 1997, Mobutu reshuffle cabinet 60 times. Dis constant shuffle put fear inside ministers, because everybody know say Mobutu go change people anyhow, no matter whether you dey work well or not. Because ministers no sabi how long dem go last for position, e lead to serious stealing—everybody dey rush grab wetin dem fit while dem still dey office. Mobutu still dey arrest, even torture, some dissident govment members—then later forgive dem and even give dem bigger posts. E be like e just use power play confuse everybody. Congolese historian Emizet F. Kisangani talk say plenty public officials believe say no matter how corrupt or useless dem be, dem fit come back to govment position. To hold post no require management skill or clean conscience. In fact, if you too correct or too honest, dem see you as obstacle. Wetin Mobutu want be total loyalty in exchange for chance to chop money. By 1970, reports talk say Mobutu don carry 60% of de national budget enter ein pocket—people begin see am as one of de most corrupt leaders for Africa and de whole world. Kisangani add say Mobutu build full system of corruption wey spoil public values and reward greed and selfishness. Mobutu no slow down with de self-promotion moves—man try for 1972 make dem crown am president for life, but that one no land well. Then for June 1983, e raise himself go military top-top level as Marshal. Na General Likulia Bolongo sign dat order. Shortly after, Victor Nendaka Bika—de number two man for country as Vice-President of de Bureau of de Central Committee—drop one big speech full of praise give Mobutu. To chop revenue from Congo ein natural resources, Mobutu first chase out European investors and nationalize plenty foreign companies. But instead of letting dem run proper, e dash control of these firms give ein relatives and close padi dem—wey quickly use am do corruption and chop company assets clean. For 1973–1974, Mobutu start one big “Zairianization” program, take over more foreign businesses and hand dem to Zairians. But e no end there. By October 1973, de Arab oil shock come crash global economy—the same one wey don dey grow steady since 1945. One serious side effect be say copper price fall by 50% in 1974, and since copper na Zaire ein number one export, e hit dem hard. As American historian Thomas Odom talk, Zaire shift from “prosperity to bankruptcy almost overnight.” Because de economy break down, Zaire run go International Monetary Fund (IMF) for help to manage dem debt, but when IMF dig into dem books, dem discover heavy corruption. Mobutu come waka go China for 1974, take inspiration from Cultural Revolution. E come back wearing Mao jacket and call himself “Citoyen Mobutu” or “Citizen Mobutu.” E say he go “radicalize de Zairian revolution.” Di same businesses wey e first give to Zairians, Mobutu come collect dem back, nationalize everything under full state control. As if dat no do, e cut government workers ein salaries by 50%, wey provoke one failed coup attempt against am for June 1975. By 1977, Mobutu ein earlier move to nationalize foreign businesses don backfire hard—e economy don fall serious, and e no get choice but to beg foreign investors come back. But before e fit recover, Katangan rebels wey base for Angola storm Zaire dat same year, as payback for Mobutu ein support to anti-MPLA fighters. France respond quick—dem airlift 1,500 Moroccan paratroopers into Zaire, push de rebels back, and end di crisis wey dem call ''Shaba I''. But no long after, for 1978, de rebels regroup with even more numbers and invade again—this time na ''Shaba II''. Belgium and France come deploy troops again, backed by US logistics, and dem manage stop de attack once more. Mobutu get big embarrassment from how badly de Zairian Army perform for both invasions—e need foreign help to fight small rebel forces. Yet, instead of reforming de army, e just reduce am from 51,000 troops in 1978 to 23,000 by 1980. By dat time, about 90% of de army be Ngbandi—Mobutu ein own ethnic group—’cos e no trust other ethnic groups with weapons. De most loyal and strongest force Mobutu get be ein bodyguards—the ''Special Presidential Division''—trained by Israel, made up only of Ngbandi, and always led by Mobutu ein relative. Mobutu win election again for 1977 and 1984, but nobody dey run against am. E use most of ein time dey build ein own fortune, and by 1988, dem estimate say ein money reach no less than $50 million. Most of de money e hide am abroad, especially for Swiss banks—but when dem remove am later, dem only find small $3.4 million there. Funny enough, ein fortune nearly match de whole country ein foreign debt dat time. One time for 20 May 1976, Mobutu talk for stadium wey hold like 70,000 people for Kinshasa. E talk say, “If you wan thief, thief small and style am nice. But if you thief too much to turn rich fast-fast, dem go catch you.” By 1989, Zaire govment no fit pay dem loans again from Belgium. Mobutu dey ride in fleet of Mercedes-Benz from one palace to another, while roads dey spoil and people dey hungry. Workers no dey get pay for months, ’cos de national money dey disappear go Mobutu, ein family, and top political plus army people. Na only Special Presidential Division wey dey protect Mobutu wey dem dey pay correct and on time. Dem even get saying wey go like dis: “De civil servants dey pretend say dem dey work, while de state dey pretend say e dey pay dem.” De national army—Forces Armées Zaïroises (FAZ)—no get morale at all. Salaries no dey come, living conditions bad, supplies no dey, and officers dey chop people. De army soldiers just turn like armed thieves—dey rob civilians anyhow. Roadblocks full everywhere, and dem dey extort money from anybody wey dey pass with car or truck. Mobutu ein poor handling of de economy cause serious inflation wey mess up de value of people dem salaries. As money value dey drop fast, plenty public servants start dey do their own way—corruption plus dishonesty turn daily survival style for workers all across de system. Mobutu himself live large. E cruise for de Congo River inside ein yacht, Kamanyola. For Gbadolite, e build one huge mansion wey people dey call “Versailles of de jungle.” Anytime e wan go shopping for Paris, e go charter Air France ein Concorde jet. E even build Gbadolite Airport with long runway make Concorde fit land and take off there. For 1989 alone, e use dat jet fly go give speech for United Nations in New York, attend de French bicentennial party as President François Mitterrand ein guest, and carry Zaire youth choir from Paris to Gbadolite, then fly go Marseille—all with Concorde. Mobutu also get villa for French Riviera wey dem call ''Villa del Mere''. Ein whole leadership style come be example of real kleptocracy and nepotism. Mobutu dey put ein Ngbandi tribe people plus close relatives for top positions inside de military and govment. E dey groom ein first-born son, Nyiwa, to take over presidency from am, but Nyiwa die from AIDS for 1994. Mobutu rule be one of de longest autocracies for Africa. E stash over $50 million from Congo ein natural resources, while ordinary people dey suffer. E form one totalitarian system wey break plenty human rights, try wipe out Belgian influence from de country, and still hold strong anti-communist position to gain favor from international powers. Mobutu ein personality cult reach levels wey few leaders for history fit match. De evening news go start with video wey show am dey descend from cloud top like some god figure. Ein face full public places everywhere—portrait hang for walls, and govment workers dey wear lapel pins wey carry ein photo. Dem give am plenty grand titles: “Father of de Nation,” “Messiah,” “Guide of de Revolution,” “Helmsman,” “Founder,” “Savior of de People,” and “Supreme Combatant.” For de 1996 documentary about de legendary 1974 Foreman–Ali boxing match wey happen for Zaire, you go hear dancers chant “Sese Seko, Sese Seko!” as dem welcome de fighters—na clear sign of how deep e presence dey everywhere, even inside pop culture moments. For early 1975, e reach point wey Mobutu no gree make media call anybody ein name—only Mobutu fit be called by name, everybody else dem just refer to dem position. E really build one kind system wey make am look like dem no fit mention Congo without mention am. Mobutu take advantage proper of de Cold War tension wey dey between de European countries plus de United States. He win strong support from de West plus dem international organizations like de International Monetary Fund (IMF). === Space program === For late 1970s, one West Germany company called OTRAG dey work on satellite launch wey dem talk say be peaceful mission to reduce cost. But because of one 1954 amendment to de Treaty of Brussels, dem no fit build or launch missile insyd Germany. So dem pay Mobutu $130 million make dem run de program for Zaire. For one 1978 agreement, Mobutu dash OTRAG 25 years lease for land insyd Zaire. De first rocket, OTRAG-1, launch on 18 May 1977 wey Mobutu dey watch from far. E take off well but e crash back down shortly after. By 6 June 1978, dem launch two more rockets but dem crash again for Zaire. Still, Mobutu push de program say over 200 Zairians dey work for there and say Zaire go benefit from royalties when dem begin sell rocket. But two years later, Soviet Union accuse de program say former Nazi scientists dey involved plus say dem dey use am spy for military reason. Mobutu gree to Soviet pressure, end de project, plus cut ties with OTRAG. === Foreign policy === Main article: Foreign policy of de Mobutu Sese Seko administration ==== Relations plus Belgium ==== De relationship wey dey between Zaire and Belgium under Mobutu time dey mix — sometimes dem be paddy, other times dem turn real enemies. Most of de time, Belgian leaders no really react strong even when Mobutu do tins wey no favour Belgium; dis be partly because de Belgian political side demself no dey united. From early Mobutu rule, yawa start between dem because of plenty Belgian businesses wey dey Congo. But things cool small after. For 1968, Mobutu and ein family go Belgium as special guest of de Belgian king, and dat same year dem sign one science plus technical agreement. For 1970, King Baudouin visit Kinshasa and everybody hail am; dem even sign treaty of friendship and cooperation. But Mobutu tear dis same treaty insyd 1974 because Belgium no gree ban one anti-Mobutu book wey Jules Chomé, one left-wing lawyer, write. Mobutu e "Zairianisation" policy, wey be say he seize foreign businesses and give dem to Zairians, make matters worse. Even though yawa dey, Mobutu still get personal friendship with some top Belgians. He admire Edmond Leburton, wey be Belgian prime minister (1973–1974), and he be paddy to Alfred Cahen, one diplomat wey Mobutu meet from his Brussels university days. Mobutu and King Baudouin too dey cool until Mobutu leak one handwritten letter from de king — after dat, palace shut door gidi-gidi. Because of dis, Mobutu no get invitation go de king ein funeral; only Saddam Hussein from Iraq join am for dat black list. Apart from Belgians wey dey Belgium, Mobutu keep Belgian advisors close — like Hugues Leclercq and Colonel Willy Mallants, wey even show for Thierry Michel ein documentary ''Mobutu, King of Zaire''. ==== Relations plus France ==== As Zaire be de second most populous French-speaking country for de world by den (plus now e even pass France sef) and de biggest one for sub-Saharan Africa, France see am as one big strategic paddy. During de First Republic time, France mostly support conservative and federalist people, no be de unitarist dem like Lumumba. Right after dem crush de Katangan secession, Zaire (wey dem dey call Republic of de Congo by den) sign technical plus cultural cooperation treaty plus France. Under Charles de Gaulle ein presidency, di two countries start bond tight because dem share plenty geopolitical interests. For 1971, France ein Finance Minister, Valéry Giscard d’Estaing, visit Zaire. Later when he turn France ein president, he and Mobutu become close pals, and France turn Mobutu ein strong foreign ally. During de Shaba invasions, France no dull — dem stand full support for Mobutu. For de first Shaba wahala, France carry 1,500 Moroccan troops come Zaire by airlift; dem help drive de rebels. One year later, as de second Shaba invasion land, France and Belgium both send French Foreign Legion paratroopers (2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment) come help Mobutu fight dem off. ==== Relations plus de People ein Republic of China ==== At de beginning, Zaire ein relationship plus de People's Republic of China no better pass how e dey with Soviet Union. Mobutu still dey remember how China help Mulele plus some Maoist rebels wey fight for Kwilu province during de Simba Rebellion wahala. E no dey like make China get seat for United Nations too. But by 1972, Mobutu start dey see China inna new way — like one balance wey go fit check Soviet Union power and even balance ein own close relationship plus United States, Israel, and South Africa. So for November 1972, Mobutu gree recognize China as one country diplomatically (plus East Germany and North Korea join body). Di next year, Mobutu fly go Beijing, meet chairman Mao Zedong, and dem promise am $100 million technical aid. For 1983, when Chinese Prime Minister Zhao Ziyang come visit Zaire, he talk say make Mobutu no worry repay de $100 million — e be gift. For 1974, Mobutu surprise everybody as e travel go China plus North Korea, even though originally dem plan say e go visit Soviet Union. As e return come Zaire, ein politics and de way e dey talk turn more radical. Na dis time Mobutu start bash Belgium plus United States — e vex say America no dey do enough to fight white minority rule for South Africa and Rhodesia. E introduce one new civic duty program wey dem call ''salongo'' — everybody must do compulsory national work. E also bring "radicalization" wey be extension of de 1973 ''Zairianization'' policy, wey take foreign-owned things give to locals. Mobutu even borrow title from Mao — "de Helmsman". Around dis same time, from late 1974 to early 1975, ein personality cult reach peak — everywhere na Mobutu name, face, and slogan. 6xilugwohe1kefm81hgto6sqf2xmdod 69090 69089 2025-07-05T21:06:35Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69090 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu wa za Banga''' ; born '''Joseph-Désiré Mobutu'''; 14 October 1930 – 7 September 1997), people dey call am Mobutu Sese Seko or Mobutu and sana known by ein initials MSS, e be Congolese politician plus military officer wey be de first and only president of Zaire from 1971 to 1997. Before dat, Mobutu serve as de second president of de Democratic Republic of de Congo, from 1965 to 1971. E sana serve as de fifth chairperson of de Organisation of African Unity from 1967 to 1968. During de Congo Crisis insyd 1960, Mobutu, wey den be Chief of Staff insyd de Congolese Army, commot de nation ein democratically elected govment of Patrice Lumumba plus support from de U.S. and Belgium. Mobutu put govment insyd wey arrange make dem execute Lumumba for 1961, and e continue dey lead de country ein armed forces till e take power direct insyd another coup for 1965. To make sure say power no escape am, he create de Popular Movement of de Revolution as de only correct political party for 1967, change Congo ein name go Zaire for 1971, plus e own name turn Mobutu Sese Seko for 1972. Mobutu protect ein rule under hard autocratic regime and end up dey rule during time wey human rights violations spread everywhere. E try purge de country from all colonial culture tins through ein "national authenticity" program. Mobutu turn de main person wey everybody dey hype like say na cult of personality he dey carry. Mobutu talk say ein political ideology no be "left", no be "right", and no be "centre" too, but people mostly know am say e dey against communism for de Françafrique zone. Because of dat, United States, France, plus Belgium support am well-well—dem dash am military, diplomatic, and economic backing. E still build tight link plus apartheid South Africa, Israel, plus de Greek junta dem. Mobutu get strong name for corruption plus nepotism: dem talk say ein personal wealth fit reach from $50 million go $5 billion, all na from economic exploitation plus corruption as president. Some people call ein govment kleptocracy, ’cos e dey pile ein own money while Zaire ein economy suffer—plenty inflation, big debt, and serious currency wahala. E too known for ein flashy lifestyle, like how e dey fly go Paris on top de fast-fast Concorde jet just to do shopping. By 1990, as de economy start dey spoil plus tension dey rise, dem force Mobutu Sese Seko make e enter coalition plus political opponents and agree make dem do multiparty system. Even though e use ein soldiers try block de change, de movement no gree stop. By May 1997, rebel dem wey Laurent-Désiré Kabila lead take over de country and push Mobutu go exile. E already dey battle prostate cancer wey hard, so three months later, e die for Morocco. == Biography == === Early years den education === Mobutu, wey come from de Ngbandi ethnic group, dem born am for 1930 insyd Lisala, Belgian Congo. Mobutu ein mommie, Marie Madeleine Yemo, be hotel maid wey run go Lisala make she escape one local village chief ein harem. Na there she jam Albéric Gbemani, cook wey dey work for one Belgian judge, den she marry am. Not long after, she born Mobutu. Na one uncle pick de name “Mobutu” give am. Gbemani die when Mobutu be just eight years. After dat, one uncle plus ein grandfather raise am. De Belgian judge ein wife take fine eye see Mobutu, so she teach am how to speak, read plus write French well-well, wey be de official language of de colony. Ein mommie Yemo wey be widow, lean on family help to take care of her four pikin dem, and dem dey move from place to place often. Mobutu ein first schooling happen for capital town Léopoldville (wey now dem dey call Kinshasa). Later, ein mommie send am go ein uncle for Coquilhatville (now Mbandaka), where e attend Christian Brothers School, one Catholic-mission boarding school. Mobutu shine for books top and even run de class newspaper. People still know am for ein stubborn pranks and sharp small-boy sense of humor. One classmate remember say anytime de Belgian priests—wey ein main language be Dutch—make mistake for French, Mobutu go jump from ein seat for class top and point out de error sharp. For 1949, Mobutu sneak enter one boat wey dey go downriver to Léopoldville, where e jam one girl. Some weeks later, de priests find am. As school year end, instead of dem send am go prison, dem order make e serve seven years insyd de colonial army, Force Publique (FP). Dat kind punishment na normal tin for students wey dey act stubborn. === Army service === Mobutu find discipline for army life top, and e see father figure insyd Sergeant Louis Bobozo. Mobutu no stop ein studies—e dey borrow European newspapers from de Belgian officers plus pick books from anywhere e fit find, then e go read dem during sentry duty or any small chance e get. De ones wey e like pass be de writings of French president Charles de Gaulle, British prime minister Winston Churchill, plus de Italian Renaissance philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli. After e pass one course for accounting, Mobutu start small-small dey do journalism work proper. Still vexed about how e and de school priests jam wahala, e no marry for church. De only thing e fit bring for de wedding enjoyment be one crate of beer—na all ein army salary fit buy. === Early political involvement === As soldier, Mobutu dey write politics matter under fake name for Actualités Africaines (African News), one magazine wey one Belgian colonial set up. For 1956, e comot from army and turn full-time journalist, dey write for Léopoldville daily L'Avenir. Two years later, e go Belgium to report de 1958 World Exposition, then e stay back make e learn journalism better. By dis time, Mobutu don meet plenty young Congolese intellectuals wey dey challenge colonial rule. E come build friendship plus Patrice Lumumba and join Lumumba ein party—Congolese National Movement (MNC). Mobutu later become Lumumba ein personal aide. Some people wey know de matter talk say Belgian intelligence fit don recruit Mobutu as informant give de government. During de 1960 talks wey happen for Brussels about Congolese independence, de US embassy organize one reception give de Congolese delegation. Each embassy staff get list of delegates wey dem suppose meet, and later dem come talk about de people dem meet. De ambassador talk say, “One name just dey pop up steady. But nobody get am for ein list 'cos e no be official delegation member—e be Lumumba ein secretary. But everybody agree say dis guy get strong brain, e be young, maybe small immature, but e get big future ahead.” After de general election, dem assign Lumumba make e form govment. E give Mobutu de position of Secretary of State to de Presidency. Mobutu carry plenty weight for deciding de rest of de govment people. But after independence land, e no fit see Lumumba one-on-one again like before, 'cos de new prime minister start dey busy plus plenty aides and colleagues surround am. From there, both of dem slowly start drift apart. === Congo Crisis === Main article: Congo Crisis On 5 July 1960, soldiers of de Force Publique wey dey Camp Léopold II for Léopoldville vex over dem all-white leaders and bad working conditions, so dem rise mutiny. Di revolt spread go other places sharp-sharp. Mobutu join other officials talk to de mutineers so dem fit free de officers plus dem families. Then on 8 July, de full Council of Ministers gather for one special meeting under President Joseph Kasa-Vubu ein chairmanship for Camp Léopold II to face de matter of Africanising de garrison. De ministers start dey argue who go fit take de top job as army chief of staff. Two people wey stand out be Minister of Youth and Sports Maurice Mpolo, plus Mobutu. Mpolo don already show say e get some control over de soldiers wey dey mutiny, but Kasa-Vubu plus de Bakongo ministers fear say if dem give am power, e fit run coup. Mobutu on de other hand, people see am as cool-head wey dey think before e act. Lumumba respect Mpolo for ein boldness, but e prefer Mobutu ein cautious style. As de argument go on, de cabinet start split based on who dem support to be chief of staff. Lumumba no wan lose any of de two camps, so e try keep both men for ein team. In de end, dem give Mobutu de position and promote am to colonel. Next day, govment teams comot from de capital to supervise how dem go Africanise de army; Mobutu own assignment na for Équateur. While Mobutu dey there, Mpolo begin act as ANC Chief of Staff. Mobutu no happy at all with dat move, so when e return to de capital, e face Lumumba inside cabinet meeting and tell am plain: “Either I no deserve am and you gots sack me, or I do de mission well and I go keep my rank plus position.” De British diplomat Brian Urquhart, wey dey work plus de United Nations, yarn say: “When I first meet Mobutu for July 1960, e be Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba ein chief military assistant and e just promote himself from sergeant go lieutenant-colonel. Compared to ein boss, Mobutu be like pillar of common sense and sharp reasoning. Na to am we go when Lumumba ein hashish-high guards arrest our people. Na Mobutu too dey casually bring up Lumumba ein wild requests—like say make UN pay salary give Congolese army wey fit mutiny. For dem early days, Mobutu look like reasonable young man, wey maybe, just maybe, dey reason good for ein new independent country.” Backed by Belgian govment wey wan still hold tight to de rich Congolese mines, secessionist violence burst out for south. As UN soldiers wey dem send come restore order no dey help crush de secession, Lumumba go turn to Soviet Union for help. Inside six weeks, e receive serious military aid plus about thousand Soviet technical advisers. Since na Cold War time, US govment fear say dis Soviet move be trick to spread communist power for Central Africa. US and Belgium come ginger Kasa-Vubu make e sack Lumumba, and on 5 September, e do am. Lumumba vex rough and say Kasa-Vubu no be president again. Parliament no gree sack any of dem, instead dem beg for reconciliation, but no headway. Lumumba plus Kasa-Vubu each tell Mobutu make e arrest de other one. As Army Chief of Staff, Mobutu start face heavy pressure from all angle. Western countries' embassies—wey dey pay soldiers salary—plus Kasa-Vubu and Mobutu ein own men, all dem want make Soviet people pack. So on 14 September, Mobutu do coup wey no draw blood, announce say both Kasa-Vubu and Lumumba dey “neutralised” and form one new govment of university graduates—dem call am College of Commissioners-General. Lumumba no accept am but dem force am retire go ein house, where UN peacekeepers block Mobutu ein soldiers make dem no arrest am. Urquhart talk say on de coup day, Mobutu just waka enter UN headquarters for Léopoldville without invite and no gree comot till radio announce de coup; na dat time Mobutu begin repeat “C’est moi!”—“Na me!” Urquhart realise say Mobutu just land there in case de coup mess up, so e tell am to comot. As confidence drop say de international community go support am come back to power, Lumumba run commot for late November go meet ein supporters for Stanleyville to form new govment. Early December, Mobutu ein soldiers catch am, then keep am for ein base insyd Thysville. But Mobutu still see am as danger, so on 17 January 1961, e move Lumumba go de rebel State of Katanga. From dat point, nobody see Lumumba again. Later dem find out say same day wey dem move am, de secessionist forces under Moise Tshombe execute am, after Mobutu ein govment hand am over. On 23 January 1961, Kasa-Vubu promote Mobutu go major-general. One historian, De Witte, talk say na political move wey aim to make de army stronger, since na de president ein only support, and to boost Mobutu ein stand inside de army. For 1964, Pierre Mulele lead some fighters start another rebellion. Dem fast take over two-thirds of Congo. Mobutu lead de Congolese army respond, and by 1965, dem take back de whole land. === Second ''coup'' and consolidation of power === Sanso see: Second Mobutu coup d'état Prime Minister Moise Tshombe ein party, de Congolese National Convention, win big majority for March 1965 elections, but Kasa-Vubu appoint Évariste Kimba, one anti-Tshombe man, as prime minister-designate. Parliament no gree approve am two times. As de govment almost jam dead end, Mobutu take over power through coup wey no draw blood on 24 November—he just turn 35 one month before. Under one system wey dem call state of exception (regime d'exception), Mobutu grab full—almost absolute—power for five years. For ein first speech after e take power, Mobutu talk give big crowd for Léopoldville main stadium say, since na politicians spoil Congo within five years, e go need at least dat same time to fix am. So, for dat reason, no political party go do anything for five years. On 30 November 1965, Parliament pass law wey give Mobutu plus ein cabinet most of de legislative powers, but still hold small power to check ein decrees. By early March 1966, when Parliament start new session, Mobutu announce say he dey cancel dat review power, and two weeks after, ein govment shutdown Parliament for good and collect all de remaining authority. At de start, Mobutu ein govment come out like say e no dey into politics—or even dey against am. People begin see “politician” as bad word, wey mean person wey wicked or corrupt. For 1966, dem set up de Corps of Volunteers of de Republic, one strong frontline group wey aim to gather plenty public support behind Mobutu. Na same year dem hail am as de country ein “Second National Hero” after Lumumba. Even though Mobutu play role for how Lumumba commot power, e try package himself like person wey dey carry Lumumba ein legacy continue. One of de key things wey Mobutu dey preach for early part of ein rule be “authentic Congolese nationalism”. Na dat 1966 too e begin change city names wey get European roots to names wey sound more African—na so Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Stanleyville become Kisangani, and Élisabethville change to Lubumbashi. Then for 1967, Mobutu bring out de Popular Movement of de Revolution (MPR). From dat time go reach 1990, na only dat party dem dey allow for politics. Inside de MPR ein beliefs—wey dem write for Manifesto of N'Sele—dem push nationalism, revolution, plus “authenticity”. Dem describe revolution as “truly national and very practical,” wey reject both capitalism and communism. One popular slogan from de MPR be “Neither left nor right,” and later dem add “nor even center” join. That same year, all de trade unions dem join body into one single union—National Union of Zairian Workers—and de govment take full control over am. Mobutu plan say de union no go operate on ein own, but rather support govment policy like tool. From dat time till 1991, any independent trade union be illegal. As e face plenty wahala for de beginning of ein rule, Mobutu use favour-sharing (patronage) win over most of ein opposition; de ones wey no gree, e handle dem rough. For 1966, four cabinet members chop arrest because dem say dem join plan coup. Military court try dem case, then dem do public execution wey over 50,000 people watch live for open ground. Former Katangan gendarmeries wey rise also face Mobutu ein force and dem smash dem down—same as de Stanleyville mutinies of 1967 wey white mercenaries lead. By 1970, almost all de people wey fit challenge Mobutu power don fall, and for most parts of de country, law plus order start dey show face. That 1970 be de peak time of Mobutu ein power and respect. For 1970, King Baudouin of Belgium come Kinshasa do big state visit wey go well. Dat same year, dem hold presidential plus legislative elections. Even though de constitution say two parties fit dey, na only MPR dem allow nominate candidates. For de presidential election, Mobutu be de only person wey run. Voting no dey private; if you support Mobutu, you go drop green paper, but if you no dey support am, na red paper you go use. Green vote mean say you dey vote for hope, while red vote mean chaos. Under dat kind condition, de result no be surprise—official result talk say Mobutu win with almost everybody behind am, collect 10,131,669 votes, and only 157 people say “no”. Later dem come find out say over 30,500 more votes appear pass de number of voters wey register. Dem run de legislative elections same style. People get just one list from MPR; official result talk say unbelievable 98.33% people vote for de MPR list. As Mobutu dey cement ein power, e build different military groups wey na only to protect am dem dey. These groups include de Special Presidential Division, Civil Guard plus Service for Action, and Military Intelligence (SNIP). === Authenticity campaign === Main article: Authenticité (Zaire) Mobutu start big campaign wey promote African culture wey dem call ''authenticité''. As part of am, on 1 June 1966, e begin change city names wey show colonial past—Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Elisabethville change to Lubumbashi, and Stanleyville become Kisangani. For October 1971, e change de country ein name to Republic of Zaire. E order people make dem drop dem European names for African ones, and warn priests say if dem baptize Zairian pikin plus European name, dem go chop five years for prison. Western dressing and neck tie come dey banned, and men must wear one Mao-style tunic dem dey call ''abacost'' (short for ''à bas le costume'' wey mean “down with de suit”). Even Christmas move from December go June because Mobutu say dat one be more “authentic” date. Then for 1972, Mobutu follow ein own rule from previous year and change ein name to Mobutu Sese Seko Nkuku Ngbendu Wa Za Banga (wey mean “De all-powerful warrior wey, because of ein endurance and strong will to win, dey move from victory to victory, and leave fire behind”). Around dat time, e drop de army uniform and start wear ein signature look—tall and commanding, plus walking stick, abacost, thick glasses, and leopard-skin cap wey dem sew for Paris. For 1974, new constitution land wey tighten Mobutu ein hold on de country. Dis constitution talk say MPR be de “single institution” for de nation. Dem even define am as “de nation politically organized”—which mean say de state just be machine wey dey push party agenda. Every citizen automatically turn MPR member from de moment dem born. De constitution explain say de MPR dey inside de body of de party ein president, wey dem dey elect every seven years during national convention. But at de same time, dat same president automatically turn de only person wey go run for president of de country. Den dem go use referendum confirm am. De document come turn Mobutu ein emergency powers wey e dey use since 1965 into legal backing; e give am full authority—wey dem write as “plenitude of power exercise”—so all power now dey Mobutu ein hand. Mobutu win election three times under dis system, and each time, dem talk say e win with over 98 percent of de votes. For de legislative side, dem dey bring one single MPR list every five years, and de results dey show crazy numbers—either everybody vote for dem, or almost everybody. One of dem elections for 1975, dem no even vote at all—dem just show candidates around public places make people clap give dem. Dat one na how voting be. == One-man rule == Mobutu start use public executions early insyd ein rule to stamp ein power well-well. Any political rival, secessionist, coup planner, or anybody wey e see as threat, e go deal with dem hard. Many of dem people chop hanging for front big crowd. One serious example be former Prime Minister Évariste Kimba. Mobutu govment carry Kimba plus three of ein cabinet members—Jérôme Anany (Defense Minister), Emmanuel Bamba (Finance Minister), and Alexandre Mahamba (Minister of Mines and Energy)—put for trial May 1966. By 30 May, dem hang all four men in front of over 50,000 people. Dem say dem dey link up plus Colonel Alphonse Bangala and Major Pierre Efomi to run coup. Mobutu come talk say, “One had to strike through a spectacular example, and create the conditions of regime discipline. When a chief takes a decision, he decides – period.” Then for 1968, Pierre Mulele—Lumumba ein Education Minister and big rebel during de 1964 Simba uprising—Mobutu people trick am come out from exile for Brazzaville by telling am say amnesty go dey. But instead of peace, dem torture and kill am bad. Before Mulele die, dem gouge ein eyes, tear off ein genitals, and cut off ein limbs one by one. Mobutu later change ein strategy—e start dey buy political opponents instead of always use force. E like repeat one slogan: “Keep your friends close, but your enemies closer still,” to show how e dey use bribe pull rivals to ein side. One trick wey Mobutu really enjoy be “musical chairs”—e dey rotate ministers like game, change cabinet list anyhow, so nobody go build power wey fit threaten am. From November 1965 to April 1997, Mobutu reshuffle cabinet 60 times. Dis constant shuffle put fear inside ministers, because everybody know say Mobutu go change people anyhow, no matter whether you dey work well or not. Because ministers no sabi how long dem go last for position, e lead to serious stealing—everybody dey rush grab wetin dem fit while dem still dey office. Mobutu still dey arrest, even torture, some dissident govment members—then later forgive dem and even give dem bigger posts. E be like e just use power play confuse everybody. Congolese historian Emizet F. Kisangani talk say plenty public officials believe say no matter how corrupt or useless dem be, dem fit come back to govment position. To hold post no require management skill or clean conscience. In fact, if you too correct or too honest, dem see you as obstacle. Wetin Mobutu want be total loyalty in exchange for chance to chop money. By 1970, reports talk say Mobutu don carry 60% of de national budget enter ein pocket—people begin see am as one of de most corrupt leaders for Africa and de whole world. Kisangani add say Mobutu build full system of corruption wey spoil public values and reward greed and selfishness. Mobutu no slow down with de self-promotion moves—man try for 1972 make dem crown am president for life, but that one no land well. Then for June 1983, e raise himself go military top-top level as Marshal. Na General Likulia Bolongo sign dat order. Shortly after, Victor Nendaka Bika—de number two man for country as Vice-President of de Bureau of de Central Committee—drop one big speech full of praise give Mobutu. To chop revenue from Congo ein natural resources, Mobutu first chase out European investors and nationalize plenty foreign companies. But instead of letting dem run proper, e dash control of these firms give ein relatives and close padi dem—wey quickly use am do corruption and chop company assets clean. For 1973–1974, Mobutu start one big “Zairianization” program, take over more foreign businesses and hand dem to Zairians. But e no end there. By October 1973, de Arab oil shock come crash global economy—the same one wey don dey grow steady since 1945. One serious side effect be say copper price fall by 50% in 1974, and since copper na Zaire ein number one export, e hit dem hard. As American historian Thomas Odom talk, Zaire shift from “prosperity to bankruptcy almost overnight.” Because de economy break down, Zaire run go International Monetary Fund (IMF) for help to manage dem debt, but when IMF dig into dem books, dem discover heavy corruption. Mobutu come waka go China for 1974, take inspiration from Cultural Revolution. E come back wearing Mao jacket and call himself “Citoyen Mobutu” or “Citizen Mobutu.” E say he go “radicalize de Zairian revolution.” Di same businesses wey e first give to Zairians, Mobutu come collect dem back, nationalize everything under full state control. As if dat no do, e cut government workers ein salaries by 50%, wey provoke one failed coup attempt against am for June 1975. By 1977, Mobutu ein earlier move to nationalize foreign businesses don backfire hard—e economy don fall serious, and e no get choice but to beg foreign investors come back. But before e fit recover, Katangan rebels wey base for Angola storm Zaire dat same year, as payback for Mobutu ein support to anti-MPLA fighters. France respond quick—dem airlift 1,500 Moroccan paratroopers into Zaire, push de rebels back, and end di crisis wey dem call ''Shaba I''. But no long after, for 1978, de rebels regroup with even more numbers and invade again—this time na ''Shaba II''. Belgium and France come deploy troops again, backed by US logistics, and dem manage stop de attack once more. Mobutu get big embarrassment from how badly de Zairian Army perform for both invasions—e need foreign help to fight small rebel forces. Yet, instead of reforming de army, e just reduce am from 51,000 troops in 1978 to 23,000 by 1980. By dat time, about 90% of de army be Ngbandi—Mobutu ein own ethnic group—’cos e no trust other ethnic groups with weapons. De most loyal and strongest force Mobutu get be ein bodyguards—the ''Special Presidential Division''—trained by Israel, made up only of Ngbandi, and always led by Mobutu ein relative. Mobutu win election again for 1977 and 1984, but nobody dey run against am. E use most of ein time dey build ein own fortune, and by 1988, dem estimate say ein money reach no less than $50 million. Most of de money e hide am abroad, especially for Swiss banks—but when dem remove am later, dem only find small $3.4 million there. Funny enough, ein fortune nearly match de whole country ein foreign debt dat time. One time for 20 May 1976, Mobutu talk for stadium wey hold like 70,000 people for Kinshasa. E talk say, “If you wan thief, thief small and style am nice. But if you thief too much to turn rich fast-fast, dem go catch you.” By 1989, Zaire govment no fit pay dem loans again from Belgium. Mobutu dey ride in fleet of Mercedes-Benz from one palace to another, while roads dey spoil and people dey hungry. Workers no dey get pay for months, ’cos de national money dey disappear go Mobutu, ein family, and top political plus army people. Na only Special Presidential Division wey dey protect Mobutu wey dem dey pay correct and on time. Dem even get saying wey go like dis: “De civil servants dey pretend say dem dey work, while de state dey pretend say e dey pay dem.” De national army—Forces Armées Zaïroises (FAZ)—no get morale at all. Salaries no dey come, living conditions bad, supplies no dey, and officers dey chop people. De army soldiers just turn like armed thieves—dey rob civilians anyhow. Roadblocks full everywhere, and dem dey extort money from anybody wey dey pass with car or truck. Mobutu ein poor handling of de economy cause serious inflation wey mess up de value of people dem salaries. As money value dey drop fast, plenty public servants start dey do their own way—corruption plus dishonesty turn daily survival style for workers all across de system. Mobutu himself live large. E cruise for de Congo River inside ein yacht, Kamanyola. For Gbadolite, e build one huge mansion wey people dey call “Versailles of de jungle.” Anytime e wan go shopping for Paris, e go charter Air France ein Concorde jet. E even build Gbadolite Airport with long runway make Concorde fit land and take off there. For 1989 alone, e use dat jet fly go give speech for United Nations in New York, attend de French bicentennial party as President François Mitterrand ein guest, and carry Zaire youth choir from Paris to Gbadolite, then fly go Marseille—all with Concorde. Mobutu also get villa for French Riviera wey dem call ''Villa del Mere''. Ein whole leadership style come be example of real kleptocracy and nepotism. Mobutu dey put ein Ngbandi tribe people plus close relatives for top positions inside de military and govment. E dey groom ein first-born son, Nyiwa, to take over presidency from am, but Nyiwa die from AIDS for 1994. Mobutu rule be one of de longest autocracies for Africa. E stash over $50 million from Congo ein natural resources, while ordinary people dey suffer. E form one totalitarian system wey break plenty human rights, try wipe out Belgian influence from de country, and still hold strong anti-communist position to gain favor from international powers. Mobutu ein personality cult reach levels wey few leaders for history fit match. De evening news go start with video wey show am dey descend from cloud top like some god figure. Ein face full public places everywhere—portrait hang for walls, and govment workers dey wear lapel pins wey carry ein photo. Dem give am plenty grand titles: “Father of de Nation,” “Messiah,” “Guide of de Revolution,” “Helmsman,” “Founder,” “Savior of de People,” and “Supreme Combatant.” For de 1996 documentary about de legendary 1974 Foreman–Ali boxing match wey happen for Zaire, you go hear dancers chant “Sese Seko, Sese Seko!” as dem welcome de fighters—na clear sign of how deep e presence dey everywhere, even inside pop culture moments. For early 1975, e reach point wey Mobutu no gree make media call anybody ein name—only Mobutu fit be called by name, everybody else dem just refer to dem position. E really build one kind system wey make am look like dem no fit mention Congo without mention am. Mobutu take advantage proper of de Cold War tension wey dey between de European countries plus de United States. He win strong support from de West plus dem international organizations like de International Monetary Fund (IMF). === Space program === For late 1970s, one West Germany company called OTRAG dey work on satellite launch wey dem talk say be peaceful mission to reduce cost. But because of one 1954 amendment to de Treaty of Brussels, dem no fit build or launch missile insyd Germany. So dem pay Mobutu $130 million make dem run de program for Zaire. For one 1978 agreement, Mobutu dash OTRAG 25 years lease for land insyd Zaire. De first rocket, OTRAG-1, launch on 18 May 1977 wey Mobutu dey watch from far. E take off well but e crash back down shortly after. By 6 June 1978, dem launch two more rockets but dem crash again for Zaire. Still, Mobutu push de program say over 200 Zairians dey work for there and say Zaire go benefit from royalties when dem begin sell rocket. But two years later, Soviet Union accuse de program say former Nazi scientists dey involved plus say dem dey use am spy for military reason. Mobutu gree to Soviet pressure, end de project, plus cut ties with OTRAG. === Foreign policy === Main article: Foreign policy of de Mobutu Sese Seko administration ==== Relations plus Belgium ==== De relationship wey dey between Zaire and Belgium under Mobutu time dey mix — sometimes dem be paddy, other times dem turn real enemies. Most of de time, Belgian leaders no really react strong even when Mobutu do tins wey no favour Belgium; dis be partly because de Belgian political side demself no dey united. From early Mobutu rule, yawa start between dem because of plenty Belgian businesses wey dey Congo. But things cool small after. For 1968, Mobutu and ein family go Belgium as special guest of de Belgian king, and dat same year dem sign one science plus technical agreement. For 1970, King Baudouin visit Kinshasa and everybody hail am; dem even sign treaty of friendship and cooperation. But Mobutu tear dis same treaty insyd 1974 because Belgium no gree ban one anti-Mobutu book wey Jules Chomé, one left-wing lawyer, write. Mobutu e "Zairianisation" policy, wey be say he seize foreign businesses and give dem to Zairians, make matters worse. Even though yawa dey, Mobutu still get personal friendship with some top Belgians. He admire Edmond Leburton, wey be Belgian prime minister (1973–1974), and he be paddy to Alfred Cahen, one diplomat wey Mobutu meet from his Brussels university days. Mobutu and King Baudouin too dey cool until Mobutu leak one handwritten letter from de king — after dat, palace shut door gidi-gidi. Because of dis, Mobutu no get invitation go de king ein funeral; only Saddam Hussein from Iraq join am for dat black list. Apart from Belgians wey dey Belgium, Mobutu keep Belgian advisors close — like Hugues Leclercq and Colonel Willy Mallants, wey even show for Thierry Michel ein documentary ''Mobutu, King of Zaire''. ==== Relations plus France ==== As Zaire be de second most populous French-speaking country for de world by den (plus now e even pass France sef) and de biggest one for sub-Saharan Africa, France see am as one big strategic paddy. During de First Republic time, France mostly support conservative and federalist people, no be de unitarist dem like Lumumba. Right after dem crush de Katangan secession, Zaire (wey dem dey call Republic of de Congo by den) sign technical plus cultural cooperation treaty plus France. Under Charles de Gaulle ein presidency, di two countries start bond tight because dem share plenty geopolitical interests. For 1971, France ein Finance Minister, Valéry Giscard d’Estaing, visit Zaire. Later when he turn France ein president, he and Mobutu become close pals, and France turn Mobutu ein strong foreign ally. During de Shaba invasions, France no dull — dem stand full support for Mobutu. For de first Shaba wahala, France carry 1,500 Moroccan troops come Zaire by airlift; dem help drive de rebels. One year later, as de second Shaba invasion land, France and Belgium both send French Foreign Legion paratroopers (2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment) come help Mobutu fight dem off. ==== Relations plus de People ein Republic of China ==== At de beginning, Zaire ein relationship plus de People's Republic of China no better pass how e dey with Soviet Union. Mobutu still dey remember how China help Mulele plus some Maoist rebels wey fight for Kwilu province during de Simba Rebellion wahala. E no dey like make China get seat for United Nations too. But by 1972, Mobutu start dey see China inna new way — like one balance wey go fit check Soviet Union power and even balance ein own close relationship plus United States, Israel, and South Africa. So for November 1972, Mobutu gree recognize China as one country diplomatically (plus East Germany and North Korea join body). Di next year, Mobutu fly go Beijing, meet chairman Mao Zedong, and dem promise am $100 million technical aid. For 1983, when Chinese Prime Minister Zhao Ziyang come visit Zaire, he talk say make Mobutu no worry repay de $100 million — e be gift. For 1974, Mobutu surprise everybody as e travel go China plus North Korea, even though originally dem plan say e go visit Soviet Union. As e return come Zaire, ein politics den de way e dey talk turn more radical. Na dis time Mobutu start bash Belgium plus United States — e vex say America no dey do enough to fight white minority rule for South Africa and Rhodesia. E introduce one new civic duty program wey dem call ''salongo'' — everybody must do compulsory national work. E sana bring "radicalization" wey be extension of de 1973 ''Zairianization'' policy, wey take foreign-owned things give to locals. Mobutu even borrow title from Mao — "de Helmsman". Around dis same time, from late 1974 to early 1975, ein personality cult reach peak — everywhere na Mobutu name, face, den slogan. 6ppvnobxmyaawhb4zrz9biz4fcqv1x7 69091 69090 2025-07-05T21:09:30Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69091 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu wa za Banga''' ; born '''Joseph-Désiré Mobutu'''; 14 October 1930 – 7 September 1997), people dey call am Mobutu Sese Seko or Mobutu and sana known by ein initials MSS, e be Congolese politician plus military officer wey be de first and only president of Zaire from 1971 to 1997. Before dat, Mobutu serve as de second president of de Democratic Republic of de Congo, from 1965 to 1971. E sana serve as de fifth chairperson of de Organisation of African Unity from 1967 to 1968. During de Congo Crisis insyd 1960, Mobutu, wey den be Chief of Staff insyd de Congolese Army, commot de nation ein democratically elected govment of Patrice Lumumba plus support from de U.S. and Belgium. Mobutu put govment insyd wey arrange make dem execute Lumumba for 1961, and e continue dey lead de country ein armed forces till e take power direct insyd another coup for 1965. To make sure say power no escape am, he create de Popular Movement of de Revolution as de only correct political party for 1967, change Congo ein name go Zaire for 1971, plus e own name turn Mobutu Sese Seko for 1972. Mobutu protect ein rule under hard autocratic regime and end up dey rule during time wey human rights violations spread everywhere. E try purge de country from all colonial culture tins through ein "national authenticity" program. Mobutu turn de main person wey everybody dey hype like say na cult of personality he dey carry. Mobutu talk say ein political ideology no be "left", no be "right", and no be "centre" too, but people mostly know am say e dey against communism for de Françafrique zone. Because of dat, United States, France, plus Belgium support am well-well—dem dash am military, diplomatic, and economic backing. E still build tight link plus apartheid South Africa, Israel, plus de Greek junta dem. Mobutu get strong name for corruption plus nepotism: dem talk say ein personal wealth fit reach from $50 million go $5 billion, all na from economic exploitation plus corruption as president. Some people call ein govment kleptocracy, ’cos e dey pile ein own money while Zaire ein economy suffer—plenty inflation, big debt, and serious currency wahala. E too known for ein flashy lifestyle, like how e dey fly go Paris on top de fast-fast Concorde jet just to do shopping. By 1990, as de economy start dey spoil plus tension dey rise, dem force Mobutu Sese Seko make e enter coalition plus political opponents and agree make dem do multiparty system. Even though e use ein soldiers try block de change, de movement no gree stop. By May 1997, rebel dem wey Laurent-Désiré Kabila lead take over de country and push Mobutu go exile. E already dey battle prostate cancer wey hard, so three months later, e die for Morocco. == Biography == === Early years den education === Mobutu, wey come from de Ngbandi ethnic group, dem born am for 1930 insyd Lisala, Belgian Congo. Mobutu ein mommie, Marie Madeleine Yemo, be hotel maid wey run go Lisala make she escape one local village chief ein harem. Na there she jam Albéric Gbemani, cook wey dey work for one Belgian judge, den she marry am. Not long after, she born Mobutu. Na one uncle pick de name “Mobutu” give am. Gbemani die when Mobutu be just eight years. After dat, one uncle plus ein grandfather raise am. De Belgian judge ein wife take fine eye see Mobutu, so she teach am how to speak, read plus write French well-well, wey be de official language of de colony. Ein mommie Yemo wey be widow, lean on family help to take care of her four pikin dem, and dem dey move from place to place often. Mobutu ein first schooling happen for capital town Léopoldville (wey now dem dey call Kinshasa). Later, ein mommie send am go ein uncle for Coquilhatville (now Mbandaka), where e attend Christian Brothers School, one Catholic-mission boarding school. Mobutu shine for books top and even run de class newspaper. People still know am for ein stubborn pranks and sharp small-boy sense of humor. One classmate remember say anytime de Belgian priests—wey ein main language be Dutch—make mistake for French, Mobutu go jump from ein seat for class top and point out de error sharp. For 1949, Mobutu sneak enter one boat wey dey go downriver to Léopoldville, where e jam one girl. Some weeks later, de priests find am. As school year end, instead of dem send am go prison, dem order make e serve seven years insyd de colonial army, Force Publique (FP). Dat kind punishment na normal tin for students wey dey act stubborn. === Army service === Mobutu find discipline for army life top, and e see father figure insyd Sergeant Louis Bobozo. Mobutu no stop ein studies—e dey borrow European newspapers from de Belgian officers plus pick books from anywhere e fit find, then e go read dem during sentry duty or any small chance e get. De ones wey e like pass be de writings of French president Charles de Gaulle, British prime minister Winston Churchill, plus de Italian Renaissance philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli. After e pass one course for accounting, Mobutu start small-small dey do journalism work proper. Still vexed about how e and de school priests jam wahala, e no marry for church. De only thing e fit bring for de wedding enjoyment be one crate of beer—na all ein army salary fit buy. === Early political involvement === As soldier, Mobutu dey write politics matter under fake name for Actualités Africaines (African News), one magazine wey one Belgian colonial set up. For 1956, e comot from army and turn full-time journalist, dey write for Léopoldville daily L'Avenir. Two years later, e go Belgium to report de 1958 World Exposition, then e stay back make e learn journalism better. By dis time, Mobutu don meet plenty young Congolese intellectuals wey dey challenge colonial rule. E come build friendship plus Patrice Lumumba and join Lumumba ein party—Congolese National Movement (MNC). Mobutu later become Lumumba ein personal aide. Some people wey know de matter talk say Belgian intelligence fit don recruit Mobutu as informant give de government. During de 1960 talks wey happen for Brussels about Congolese independence, de US embassy organize one reception give de Congolese delegation. Each embassy staff get list of delegates wey dem suppose meet, and later dem come talk about de people dem meet. De ambassador talk say, “One name just dey pop up steady. But nobody get am for ein list 'cos e no be official delegation member—e be Lumumba ein secretary. But everybody agree say dis guy get strong brain, e be young, maybe small immature, but e get big future ahead.” After de general election, dem assign Lumumba make e form govment. E give Mobutu de position of Secretary of State to de Presidency. Mobutu carry plenty weight for deciding de rest of de govment people. But after independence land, e no fit see Lumumba one-on-one again like before, 'cos de new prime minister start dey busy plus plenty aides and colleagues surround am. From there, both of dem slowly start drift apart. === Congo Crisis === Main article: Congo Crisis On 5 July 1960, soldiers of de Force Publique wey dey Camp Léopold II for Léopoldville vex over dem all-white leaders and bad working conditions, so dem rise mutiny. Di revolt spread go other places sharp-sharp. Mobutu join other officials talk to de mutineers so dem fit free de officers plus dem families. Then on 8 July, de full Council of Ministers gather for one special meeting under President Joseph Kasa-Vubu ein chairmanship for Camp Léopold II to face de matter of Africanising de garrison. De ministers start dey argue who go fit take de top job as army chief of staff. Two people wey stand out be Minister of Youth and Sports Maurice Mpolo, plus Mobutu. Mpolo don already show say e get some control over de soldiers wey dey mutiny, but Kasa-Vubu plus de Bakongo ministers fear say if dem give am power, e fit run coup. Mobutu on de other hand, people see am as cool-head wey dey think before e act. Lumumba respect Mpolo for ein boldness, but e prefer Mobutu ein cautious style. As de argument go on, de cabinet start split based on who dem support to be chief of staff. Lumumba no wan lose any of de two camps, so e try keep both men for ein team. In de end, dem give Mobutu de position and promote am to colonel. Next day, govment teams comot from de capital to supervise how dem go Africanise de army; Mobutu own assignment na for Équateur. While Mobutu dey there, Mpolo begin act as ANC Chief of Staff. Mobutu no happy at all with dat move, so when e return to de capital, e face Lumumba inside cabinet meeting and tell am plain: “Either I no deserve am and you gots sack me, or I do de mission well and I go keep my rank plus position.” De British diplomat Brian Urquhart, wey dey work plus de United Nations, yarn say: “When I first meet Mobutu for July 1960, e be Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba ein chief military assistant and e just promote himself from sergeant go lieutenant-colonel. Compared to ein boss, Mobutu be like pillar of common sense and sharp reasoning. Na to am we go when Lumumba ein hashish-high guards arrest our people. Na Mobutu too dey casually bring up Lumumba ein wild requests—like say make UN pay salary give Congolese army wey fit mutiny. For dem early days, Mobutu look like reasonable young man, wey maybe, just maybe, dey reason good for ein new independent country.” Backed by Belgian govment wey wan still hold tight to de rich Congolese mines, secessionist violence burst out for south. As UN soldiers wey dem send come restore order no dey help crush de secession, Lumumba go turn to Soviet Union for help. Inside six weeks, e receive serious military aid plus about thousand Soviet technical advisers. Since na Cold War time, US govment fear say dis Soviet move be trick to spread communist power for Central Africa. US and Belgium come ginger Kasa-Vubu make e sack Lumumba, and on 5 September, e do am. Lumumba vex rough and say Kasa-Vubu no be president again. Parliament no gree sack any of dem, instead dem beg for reconciliation, but no headway. Lumumba plus Kasa-Vubu each tell Mobutu make e arrest de other one. As Army Chief of Staff, Mobutu start face heavy pressure from all angle. Western countries' embassies—wey dey pay soldiers salary—plus Kasa-Vubu and Mobutu ein own men, all dem want make Soviet people pack. So on 14 September, Mobutu do coup wey no draw blood, announce say both Kasa-Vubu and Lumumba dey “neutralised” and form one new govment of university graduates—dem call am College of Commissioners-General. Lumumba no accept am but dem force am retire go ein house, where UN peacekeepers block Mobutu ein soldiers make dem no arrest am. Urquhart talk say on de coup day, Mobutu just waka enter UN headquarters for Léopoldville without invite and no gree comot till radio announce de coup; na dat time Mobutu begin repeat “C’est moi!”—“Na me!” Urquhart realise say Mobutu just land there in case de coup mess up, so e tell am to comot. As confidence drop say de international community go support am come back to power, Lumumba run commot for late November go meet ein supporters for Stanleyville to form new govment. Early December, Mobutu ein soldiers catch am, then keep am for ein base insyd Thysville. But Mobutu still see am as danger, so on 17 January 1961, e move Lumumba go de rebel State of Katanga. From dat point, nobody see Lumumba again. Later dem find out say same day wey dem move am, de secessionist forces under Moise Tshombe execute am, after Mobutu ein govment hand am over. On 23 January 1961, Kasa-Vubu promote Mobutu go major-general. One historian, De Witte, talk say na political move wey aim to make de army stronger, since na de president ein only support, and to boost Mobutu ein stand inside de army. For 1964, Pierre Mulele lead some fighters start another rebellion. Dem fast take over two-thirds of Congo. Mobutu lead de Congolese army respond, and by 1965, dem take back de whole land. === Second ''coup'' and consolidation of power === Sanso see: Second Mobutu coup d'état Prime Minister Moise Tshombe ein party, de Congolese National Convention, win big majority for March 1965 elections, but Kasa-Vubu appoint Évariste Kimba, one anti-Tshombe man, as prime minister-designate. Parliament no gree approve am two times. As de govment almost jam dead end, Mobutu take over power through coup wey no draw blood on 24 November—he just turn 35 one month before. Under one system wey dem call state of exception (regime d'exception), Mobutu grab full—almost absolute—power for five years. For ein first speech after e take power, Mobutu talk give big crowd for Léopoldville main stadium say, since na politicians spoil Congo within five years, e go need at least dat same time to fix am. So, for dat reason, no political party go do anything for five years. On 30 November 1965, Parliament pass law wey give Mobutu plus ein cabinet most of de legislative powers, but still hold small power to check ein decrees. By early March 1966, when Parliament start new session, Mobutu announce say he dey cancel dat review power, and two weeks after, ein govment shutdown Parliament for good and collect all de remaining authority. At de start, Mobutu ein govment come out like say e no dey into politics—or even dey against am. People begin see “politician” as bad word, wey mean person wey wicked or corrupt. For 1966, dem set up de Corps of Volunteers of de Republic, one strong frontline group wey aim to gather plenty public support behind Mobutu. Na same year dem hail am as de country ein “Second National Hero” after Lumumba. Even though Mobutu play role for how Lumumba commot power, e try package himself like person wey dey carry Lumumba ein legacy continue. One of de key things wey Mobutu dey preach for early part of ein rule be “authentic Congolese nationalism”. Na dat 1966 too e begin change city names wey get European roots to names wey sound more African—na so Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Stanleyville become Kisangani, and Élisabethville change to Lubumbashi. Then for 1967, Mobutu bring out de Popular Movement of de Revolution (MPR). From dat time go reach 1990, na only dat party dem dey allow for politics. Inside de MPR ein beliefs—wey dem write for Manifesto of N'Sele—dem push nationalism, revolution, plus “authenticity”. Dem describe revolution as “truly national and very practical,” wey reject both capitalism and communism. One popular slogan from de MPR be “Neither left nor right,” and later dem add “nor even center” join. That same year, all de trade unions dem join body into one single union—National Union of Zairian Workers—and de govment take full control over am. Mobutu plan say de union no go operate on ein own, but rather support govment policy like tool. From dat time till 1991, any independent trade union be illegal. As e face plenty wahala for de beginning of ein rule, Mobutu use favour-sharing (patronage) win over most of ein opposition; de ones wey no gree, e handle dem rough. For 1966, four cabinet members chop arrest because dem say dem join plan coup. Military court try dem case, then dem do public execution wey over 50,000 people watch live for open ground. Former Katangan gendarmeries wey rise also face Mobutu ein force and dem smash dem down—same as de Stanleyville mutinies of 1967 wey white mercenaries lead. By 1970, almost all de people wey fit challenge Mobutu power don fall, and for most parts of de country, law plus order start dey show face. That 1970 be de peak time of Mobutu ein power and respect. For 1970, King Baudouin of Belgium come Kinshasa do big state visit wey go well. Dat same year, dem hold presidential plus legislative elections. Even though de constitution say two parties fit dey, na only MPR dem allow nominate candidates. For de presidential election, Mobutu be de only person wey run. Voting no dey private; if you support Mobutu, you go drop green paper, but if you no dey support am, na red paper you go use. Green vote mean say you dey vote for hope, while red vote mean chaos. Under dat kind condition, de result no be surprise—official result talk say Mobutu win with almost everybody behind am, collect 10,131,669 votes, and only 157 people say “no”. Later dem come find out say over 30,500 more votes appear pass de number of voters wey register. Dem run de legislative elections same style. People get just one list from MPR; official result talk say unbelievable 98.33% people vote for de MPR list. As Mobutu dey cement ein power, e build different military groups wey na only to protect am dem dey. These groups include de Special Presidential Division, Civil Guard plus Service for Action, and Military Intelligence (SNIP). === Authenticity campaign === Main article: Authenticité (Zaire) Mobutu start big campaign wey promote African culture wey dem call ''authenticité''. As part of am, on 1 June 1966, e begin change city names wey show colonial past—Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Elisabethville change to Lubumbashi, and Stanleyville become Kisangani. For October 1971, e change de country ein name to Republic of Zaire. E order people make dem drop dem European names for African ones, and warn priests say if dem baptize Zairian pikin plus European name, dem go chop five years for prison. Western dressing and neck tie come dey banned, and men must wear one Mao-style tunic dem dey call ''abacost'' (short for ''à bas le costume'' wey mean “down with de suit”). Even Christmas move from December go June because Mobutu say dat one be more “authentic” date. Then for 1972, Mobutu follow ein own rule from previous year and change ein name to Mobutu Sese Seko Nkuku Ngbendu Wa Za Banga (wey mean “De all-powerful warrior wey, because of ein endurance and strong will to win, dey move from victory to victory, and leave fire behind”). Around dat time, e drop de army uniform and start wear ein signature look—tall and commanding, plus walking stick, abacost, thick glasses, and leopard-skin cap wey dem sew for Paris. For 1974, new constitution land wey tighten Mobutu ein hold on de country. Dis constitution talk say MPR be de “single institution” for de nation. Dem even define am as “de nation politically organized”—which mean say de state just be machine wey dey push party agenda. Every citizen automatically turn MPR member from de moment dem born. De constitution explain say de MPR dey inside de body of de party ein president, wey dem dey elect every seven years during national convention. But at de same time, dat same president automatically turn de only person wey go run for president of de country. Den dem go use referendum confirm am. De document come turn Mobutu ein emergency powers wey e dey use since 1965 into legal backing; e give am full authority—wey dem write as “plenitude of power exercise”—so all power now dey Mobutu ein hand. Mobutu win election three times under dis system, and each time, dem talk say e win with over 98 percent of de votes. For de legislative side, dem dey bring one single MPR list every five years, and de results dey show crazy numbers—either everybody vote for dem, or almost everybody. One of dem elections for 1975, dem no even vote at all—dem just show candidates around public places make people clap give dem. Dat one na how voting be. == One-man rule == Mobutu start use public executions early insyd ein rule to stamp ein power well-well. Any political rival, secessionist, coup planner, or anybody wey e see as threat, e go deal with dem hard. Many of dem people chop hanging for front big crowd. One serious example be former Prime Minister Évariste Kimba. Mobutu govment carry Kimba plus three of ein cabinet members—Jérôme Anany (Defense Minister), Emmanuel Bamba (Finance Minister), and Alexandre Mahamba (Minister of Mines and Energy)—put for trial May 1966. By 30 May, dem hang all four men in front of over 50,000 people. Dem say dem dey link up plus Colonel Alphonse Bangala and Major Pierre Efomi to run coup. Mobutu come talk say, “One had to strike through a spectacular example, and create the conditions of regime discipline. When a chief takes a decision, he decides – period.” Then for 1968, Pierre Mulele—Lumumba ein Education Minister and big rebel during de 1964 Simba uprising—Mobutu people trick am come out from exile for Brazzaville by telling am say amnesty go dey. But instead of peace, dem torture and kill am bad. Before Mulele die, dem gouge ein eyes, tear off ein genitals, and cut off ein limbs one by one. Mobutu later change ein strategy—e start dey buy political opponents instead of always use force. E like repeat one slogan: “Keep your friends close, but your enemies closer still,” to show how e dey use bribe pull rivals to ein side. One trick wey Mobutu really enjoy be “musical chairs”—e dey rotate ministers like game, change cabinet list anyhow, so nobody go build power wey fit threaten am. From November 1965 to April 1997, Mobutu reshuffle cabinet 60 times. Dis constant shuffle put fear inside ministers, because everybody know say Mobutu go change people anyhow, no matter whether you dey work well or not. Because ministers no sabi how long dem go last for position, e lead to serious stealing—everybody dey rush grab wetin dem fit while dem still dey office. Mobutu still dey arrest, even torture, some dissident govment members—then later forgive dem and even give dem bigger posts. E be like e just use power play confuse everybody. Congolese historian Emizet F. Kisangani talk say plenty public officials believe say no matter how corrupt or useless dem be, dem fit come back to govment position. To hold post no require management skill or clean conscience. In fact, if you too correct or too honest, dem see you as obstacle. Wetin Mobutu want be total loyalty in exchange for chance to chop money. By 1970, reports talk say Mobutu don carry 60% of de national budget enter ein pocket—people begin see am as one of de most corrupt leaders for Africa and de whole world. Kisangani add say Mobutu build full system of corruption wey spoil public values and reward greed and selfishness. Mobutu no slow down with de self-promotion moves—man try for 1972 make dem crown am president for life, but that one no land well. Then for June 1983, e raise himself go military top-top level as Marshal. Na General Likulia Bolongo sign dat order. Shortly after, Victor Nendaka Bika—de number two man for country as Vice-President of de Bureau of de Central Committee—drop one big speech full of praise give Mobutu. To chop revenue from Congo ein natural resources, Mobutu first chase out European investors and nationalize plenty foreign companies. But instead of letting dem run proper, e dash control of these firms give ein relatives and close padi dem—wey quickly use am do corruption and chop company assets clean. For 1973–1974, Mobutu start one big “Zairianization” program, take over more foreign businesses and hand dem to Zairians. But e no end there. By October 1973, de Arab oil shock come crash global economy—the same one wey don dey grow steady since 1945. One serious side effect be say copper price fall by 50% in 1974, and since copper na Zaire ein number one export, e hit dem hard. As American historian Thomas Odom talk, Zaire shift from “prosperity to bankruptcy almost overnight.” Because de economy break down, Zaire run go International Monetary Fund (IMF) for help to manage dem debt, but when IMF dig into dem books, dem discover heavy corruption. Mobutu come waka go China for 1974, take inspiration from Cultural Revolution. E come back wearing Mao jacket and call himself “Citoyen Mobutu” or “Citizen Mobutu.” E say he go “radicalize de Zairian revolution.” Di same businesses wey e first give to Zairians, Mobutu come collect dem back, nationalize everything under full state control. As if dat no do, e cut government workers ein salaries by 50%, wey provoke one failed coup attempt against am for June 1975. By 1977, Mobutu ein earlier move to nationalize foreign businesses don backfire hard—e economy don fall serious, and e no get choice but to beg foreign investors come back. But before e fit recover, Katangan rebels wey base for Angola storm Zaire dat same year, as payback for Mobutu ein support to anti-MPLA fighters. France respond quick—dem airlift 1,500 Moroccan paratroopers into Zaire, push de rebels back, and end di crisis wey dem call ''Shaba I''. But no long after, for 1978, de rebels regroup with even more numbers and invade again—this time na ''Shaba II''. Belgium and France come deploy troops again, backed by US logistics, and dem manage stop de attack once more. Mobutu get big embarrassment from how badly de Zairian Army perform for both invasions—e need foreign help to fight small rebel forces. Yet, instead of reforming de army, e just reduce am from 51,000 troops in 1978 to 23,000 by 1980. By dat time, about 90% of de army be Ngbandi—Mobutu ein own ethnic group—’cos e no trust other ethnic groups with weapons. De most loyal and strongest force Mobutu get be ein bodyguards—the ''Special Presidential Division''—trained by Israel, made up only of Ngbandi, and always led by Mobutu ein relative. Mobutu win election again for 1977 and 1984, but nobody dey run against am. E use most of ein time dey build ein own fortune, and by 1988, dem estimate say ein money reach no less than $50 million. Most of de money e hide am abroad, especially for Swiss banks—but when dem remove am later, dem only find small $3.4 million there. Funny enough, ein fortune nearly match de whole country ein foreign debt dat time. One time for 20 May 1976, Mobutu talk for stadium wey hold like 70,000 people for Kinshasa. E talk say, “If you wan thief, thief small and style am nice. But if you thief too much to turn rich fast-fast, dem go catch you.” By 1989, Zaire govment no fit pay dem loans again from Belgium. Mobutu dey ride in fleet of Mercedes-Benz from one palace to another, while roads dey spoil and people dey hungry. Workers no dey get pay for months, ’cos de national money dey disappear go Mobutu, ein family, and top political plus army people. Na only Special Presidential Division wey dey protect Mobutu wey dem dey pay correct and on time. Dem even get saying wey go like dis: “De civil servants dey pretend say dem dey work, while de state dey pretend say e dey pay dem.” De national army—Forces Armées Zaïroises (FAZ)—no get morale at all. Salaries no dey come, living conditions bad, supplies no dey, and officers dey chop people. De army soldiers just turn like armed thieves—dey rob civilians anyhow. Roadblocks full everywhere, and dem dey extort money from anybody wey dey pass with car or truck. Mobutu ein poor handling of de economy cause serious inflation wey mess up de value of people dem salaries. As money value dey drop fast, plenty public servants start dey do their own way—corruption plus dishonesty turn daily survival style for workers all across de system. Mobutu himself live large. E cruise for de Congo River inside ein yacht, Kamanyola. For Gbadolite, e build one huge mansion wey people dey call “Versailles of de jungle.” Anytime e wan go shopping for Paris, e go charter Air France ein Concorde jet. E even build Gbadolite Airport with long runway make Concorde fit land and take off there. For 1989 alone, e use dat jet fly go give speech for United Nations in New York, attend de French bicentennial party as President François Mitterrand ein guest, and carry Zaire youth choir from Paris to Gbadolite, then fly go Marseille—all with Concorde. Mobutu also get villa for French Riviera wey dem call ''Villa del Mere''. Ein whole leadership style come be example of real kleptocracy and nepotism. Mobutu dey put ein Ngbandi tribe people plus close relatives for top positions inside de military and govment. E dey groom ein first-born son, Nyiwa, to take over presidency from am, but Nyiwa die from AIDS for 1994. Mobutu rule be one of de longest autocracies for Africa. E stash over $50 million from Congo ein natural resources, while ordinary people dey suffer. E form one totalitarian system wey break plenty human rights, try wipe out Belgian influence from de country, and still hold strong anti-communist position to gain favor from international powers. Mobutu ein personality cult reach levels wey few leaders for history fit match. De evening news go start with video wey show am dey descend from cloud top like some god figure. Ein face full public places everywhere—portrait hang for walls, and govment workers dey wear lapel pins wey carry ein photo. Dem give am plenty grand titles: “Father of de Nation,” “Messiah,” “Guide of de Revolution,” “Helmsman,” “Founder,” “Savior of de People,” and “Supreme Combatant.” For de 1996 documentary about de legendary 1974 Foreman–Ali boxing match wey happen for Zaire, you go hear dancers chant “Sese Seko, Sese Seko!” as dem welcome de fighters—na clear sign of how deep e presence dey everywhere, even inside pop culture moments. For early 1975, e reach point wey Mobutu no gree make media call anybody ein name—only Mobutu fit be called by name, everybody else dem just refer to dem position. E really build one kind system wey make am look like dem no fit mention Congo without mention am. Mobutu take advantage proper of de Cold War tension wey dey between de European countries plus de United States. He win strong support from de West plus dem international organizations like de International Monetary Fund (IMF). === Space program === For late 1970s, one West Germany company called OTRAG dey work on satellite launch wey dem talk say be peaceful mission to reduce cost. But because of one 1954 amendment to de Treaty of Brussels, dem no fit build or launch missile insyd Germany. So dem pay Mobutu $130 million make dem run de program for Zaire. For one 1978 agreement, Mobutu dash OTRAG 25 years lease for land insyd Zaire. De first rocket, OTRAG-1, launch on 18 May 1977 wey Mobutu dey watch from far. E take off well but e crash back down shortly after. By 6 June 1978, dem launch two more rockets but dem crash again for Zaire. Still, Mobutu push de program say over 200 Zairians dey work for there and say Zaire go benefit from royalties when dem begin sell rocket. But two years later, Soviet Union accuse de program say former Nazi scientists dey involved plus say dem dey use am spy for military reason. Mobutu gree to Soviet pressure, end de project, plus cut ties with OTRAG. === Foreign policy === Main article: Foreign policy of de Mobutu Sese Seko administration ==== Relations plus Belgium ==== De relationship wey dey between Zaire and Belgium under Mobutu time dey mix — sometimes dem be paddy, other times dem turn real enemies. Most of de time, Belgian leaders no really react strong even when Mobutu do tins wey no favour Belgium; dis be partly because de Belgian political side demself no dey united. From early Mobutu rule, yawa start between dem because of plenty Belgian businesses wey dey Congo. But things cool small after. For 1968, Mobutu and ein family go Belgium as special guest of de Belgian king, and dat same year dem sign one science plus technical agreement. For 1970, King Baudouin visit Kinshasa and everybody hail am; dem even sign treaty of friendship and cooperation. But Mobutu tear dis same treaty insyd 1974 because Belgium no gree ban one anti-Mobutu book wey Jules Chomé, one left-wing lawyer, write. Mobutu e "Zairianisation" policy, wey be say he seize foreign businesses and give dem to Zairians, make matters worse. Even though yawa dey, Mobutu still get personal friendship with some top Belgians. He admire Edmond Leburton, wey be Belgian prime minister (1973–1974), and he be paddy to Alfred Cahen, one diplomat wey Mobutu meet from his Brussels university days. Mobutu and King Baudouin too dey cool until Mobutu leak one handwritten letter from de king — after dat, palace shut door gidi-gidi. Because of dis, Mobutu no get invitation go de king ein funeral; only Saddam Hussein from Iraq join am for dat black list. Apart from Belgians wey dey Belgium, Mobutu keep Belgian advisors close — like Hugues Leclercq and Colonel Willy Mallants, wey even show for Thierry Michel ein documentary ''Mobutu, King of Zaire''. ==== Relations plus France ==== As Zaire be de second most populous French-speaking country for de world by den (plus now e even pass France sef) and de biggest one for sub-Saharan Africa, France see am as one big strategic paddy. During de First Republic time, France mostly support conservative and federalist people, no be de unitarist dem like Lumumba. Right after dem crush de Katangan secession, Zaire (wey dem dey call Republic of de Congo by den) sign technical plus cultural cooperation treaty plus France. Under Charles de Gaulle ein presidency, di two countries start bond tight because dem share plenty geopolitical interests. For 1971, France ein Finance Minister, Valéry Giscard d’Estaing, visit Zaire. Later when he turn France ein president, he and Mobutu become close pals, and France turn Mobutu ein strong foreign ally. During de Shaba invasions, France no dull — dem stand full support for Mobutu. For de first Shaba wahala, France carry 1,500 Moroccan troops come Zaire by airlift; dem help drive de rebels. One year later, as de second Shaba invasion land, France and Belgium both send French Foreign Legion paratroopers (2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment) come help Mobutu fight dem off. ==== Relations plus de People ein Republic of China ==== At de beginning, Zaire ein relationship plus de People's Republic of China no better pass how e dey with Soviet Union. Mobutu still dey remember how China help Mulele plus some Maoist rebels wey fight for Kwilu province during de Simba Rebellion wahala. E no dey like make China get seat for United Nations too. But by 1972, Mobutu start dey see China inna new way — like one balance wey go fit check Soviet Union power and even balance ein own close relationship plus United States, Israel, and South Africa. So for November 1972, Mobutu gree recognize China as one country diplomatically (plus East Germany and North Korea join body). Di next year, Mobutu fly go Beijing, meet chairman Mao Zedong, and dem promise am $100 million technical aid. For 1983, when Chinese Prime Minister Zhao Ziyang come visit Zaire, he talk say make Mobutu no worry repay de $100 million — e be gift. For 1974, Mobutu surprise everybody as e travel go China plus North Korea, even though originally dem plan say e go visit Soviet Union. As e return come Zaire, ein politics den de way e dey talk turn more radical. Na dis time Mobutu start bash Belgium plus United States — e vex say America no dey do enough to fight white minority rule for South Africa and Rhodesia. E introduce one new civic duty program wey dem call ''salongo'' — everybody must do compulsory national work. E sana bring "radicalization" wey be extension of de 1973 ''Zairianization'' policy, wey take foreign-owned things give to locals. Mobutu even borrow title from Mao — "de Helmsman". Around dis same time, from late 1974 to early 1975, ein personality cult reach peak — everywhere na Mobutu name, face, den slogan. China plus Zaire get one common target for Central Africa: make dem stop Soviet Union from gain any stronghold for dat side. So dem join hand undercover take support National Liberation Front of Angola (later dem support UNITA too) make dem block MPLA — de People's Movement for de Liberation of Angola — wey Soviet Union plus Cuba dey back. Cuba get big power for Africa dat time, as dem dey help all left-wing, anti-imperialist groups, and Soviet dey sponsor dem heavy. China invite Holden Roberto, wey be de leader of de National Liberation Front of Angola, plus ein guerilla fighters go Beijing make dem train. Dem also give dem weapons plus money. Zaire sef try enter Angola first, try put their own friendly government for power, but Cuban soldiers push dem back. De invasion no work — e be big wahala wey lead to Shaba I and Shaba II invasions later. China no support dis rebels at all; dem even send weapons go support Zaire during both invasions. China come accuse Soviet Union plus Cuba say dem dey behind de Shaba rebel trouble, say dem dey try scatter peace for Central Africa — even though nobody sure whether Soviet plus Cuba really dey involved or no. ikflgy6iwqoxajgx93r9f7pnqbptnzl 69092 69091 2025-07-05T21:14:34Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69092 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu wa za Banga''' ; born '''Joseph-Désiré Mobutu'''; 14 October 1930 – 7 September 1997), people dey call am Mobutu Sese Seko or Mobutu and sana known by ein initials MSS, e be Congolese politician plus military officer wey be de first and only president of Zaire from 1971 to 1997. Before dat, Mobutu serve as de second president of de Democratic Republic of de Congo, from 1965 to 1971. E sana serve as de fifth chairperson of de Organisation of African Unity from 1967 to 1968. During de Congo Crisis insyd 1960, Mobutu, wey den be Chief of Staff insyd de Congolese Army, commot de nation ein democratically elected govment of Patrice Lumumba plus support from de U.S. and Belgium. Mobutu put govment insyd wey arrange make dem execute Lumumba for 1961, and e continue dey lead de country ein armed forces till e take power direct insyd another coup for 1965. To make sure say power no escape am, he create de Popular Movement of de Revolution as de only correct political party for 1967, change Congo ein name go Zaire for 1971, plus e own name turn Mobutu Sese Seko for 1972. Mobutu protect ein rule under hard autocratic regime and end up dey rule during time wey human rights violations spread everywhere. E try purge de country from all colonial culture tins through ein "national authenticity" program. Mobutu turn de main person wey everybody dey hype like say na cult of personality he dey carry. Mobutu talk say ein political ideology no be "left", no be "right", and no be "centre" too, but people mostly know am say e dey against communism for de Françafrique zone. Because of dat, United States, France, plus Belgium support am well-well—dem dash am military, diplomatic, and economic backing. E still build tight link plus apartheid South Africa, Israel, plus de Greek junta dem. Mobutu get strong name for corruption plus nepotism: dem talk say ein personal wealth fit reach from $50 million go $5 billion, all na from economic exploitation plus corruption as president. Some people call ein govment kleptocracy, ’cos e dey pile ein own money while Zaire ein economy suffer—plenty inflation, big debt, and serious currency wahala. E too known for ein flashy lifestyle, like how e dey fly go Paris on top de fast-fast Concorde jet just to do shopping. By 1990, as de economy start dey spoil plus tension dey rise, dem force Mobutu Sese Seko make e enter coalition plus political opponents and agree make dem do multiparty system. Even though e use ein soldiers try block de change, de movement no gree stop. By May 1997, rebel dem wey Laurent-Désiré Kabila lead take over de country and push Mobutu go exile. E already dey battle prostate cancer wey hard, so three months later, e die for Morocco. == Biography == === Early years den education === Mobutu, wey come from de Ngbandi ethnic group, dem born am for 1930 insyd Lisala, Belgian Congo. Mobutu ein mommie, Marie Madeleine Yemo, be hotel maid wey run go Lisala make she escape one local village chief ein harem. Na there she jam Albéric Gbemani, cook wey dey work for one Belgian judge, den she marry am. Not long after, she born Mobutu. Na one uncle pick de name “Mobutu” give am. Gbemani die when Mobutu be just eight years. After dat, one uncle plus ein grandfather raise am. De Belgian judge ein wife take fine eye see Mobutu, so she teach am how to speak, read plus write French well-well, wey be de official language of de colony. Ein mommie Yemo wey be widow, lean on family help to take care of her four pikin dem, and dem dey move from place to place often. Mobutu ein first schooling happen for capital town Léopoldville (wey now dem dey call Kinshasa). Later, ein mommie send am go ein uncle for Coquilhatville (now Mbandaka), where e attend Christian Brothers School, one Catholic-mission boarding school. Mobutu shine for books top and even run de class newspaper. People still know am for ein stubborn pranks and sharp small-boy sense of humor. One classmate remember say anytime de Belgian priests—wey ein main language be Dutch—make mistake for French, Mobutu go jump from ein seat for class top and point out de error sharp. For 1949, Mobutu sneak enter one boat wey dey go downriver to Léopoldville, where e jam one girl. Some weeks later, de priests find am. As school year end, instead of dem send am go prison, dem order make e serve seven years insyd de colonial army, Force Publique (FP). Dat kind punishment na normal tin for students wey dey act stubborn. === Army service === Mobutu find discipline for army life top, and e see father figure insyd Sergeant Louis Bobozo. Mobutu no stop ein studies—e dey borrow European newspapers from de Belgian officers plus pick books from anywhere e fit find, then e go read dem during sentry duty or any small chance e get. De ones wey e like pass be de writings of French president Charles de Gaulle, British prime minister Winston Churchill, plus de Italian Renaissance philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli. After e pass one course for accounting, Mobutu start small-small dey do journalism work proper. Still vexed about how e and de school priests jam wahala, e no marry for church. De only thing e fit bring for de wedding enjoyment be one crate of beer—na all ein army salary fit buy. === Early political involvement === As soldier, Mobutu dey write politics matter under fake name for Actualités Africaines (African News), one magazine wey one Belgian colonial set up. For 1956, e comot from army and turn full-time journalist, dey write for Léopoldville daily L'Avenir. Two years later, e go Belgium to report de 1958 World Exposition, then e stay back make e learn journalism better. By dis time, Mobutu don meet plenty young Congolese intellectuals wey dey challenge colonial rule. E come build friendship plus Patrice Lumumba and join Lumumba ein party—Congolese National Movement (MNC). Mobutu later become Lumumba ein personal aide. Some people wey know de matter talk say Belgian intelligence fit don recruit Mobutu as informant give de government. During de 1960 talks wey happen for Brussels about Congolese independence, de US embassy organize one reception give de Congolese delegation. Each embassy staff get list of delegates wey dem suppose meet, and later dem come talk about de people dem meet. De ambassador talk say, “One name just dey pop up steady. But nobody get am for ein list 'cos e no be official delegation member—e be Lumumba ein secretary. But everybody agree say dis guy get strong brain, e be young, maybe small immature, but e get big future ahead.” After de general election, dem assign Lumumba make e form govment. E give Mobutu de position of Secretary of State to de Presidency. Mobutu carry plenty weight for deciding de rest of de govment people. But after independence land, e no fit see Lumumba one-on-one again like before, 'cos de new prime minister start dey busy plus plenty aides and colleagues surround am. From there, both of dem slowly start drift apart. === Congo Crisis === Main article: Congo Crisis On 5 July 1960, soldiers of de Force Publique wey dey Camp Léopold II for Léopoldville vex over dem all-white leaders and bad working conditions, so dem rise mutiny. Di revolt spread go other places sharp-sharp. Mobutu join other officials talk to de mutineers so dem fit free de officers plus dem families. Then on 8 July, de full Council of Ministers gather for one special meeting under President Joseph Kasa-Vubu ein chairmanship for Camp Léopold II to face de matter of Africanising de garrison. De ministers start dey argue who go fit take de top job as army chief of staff. Two people wey stand out be Minister of Youth and Sports Maurice Mpolo, plus Mobutu. Mpolo don already show say e get some control over de soldiers wey dey mutiny, but Kasa-Vubu plus de Bakongo ministers fear say if dem give am power, e fit run coup. Mobutu on de other hand, people see am as cool-head wey dey think before e act. Lumumba respect Mpolo for ein boldness, but e prefer Mobutu ein cautious style. As de argument go on, de cabinet start split based on who dem support to be chief of staff. Lumumba no wan lose any of de two camps, so e try keep both men for ein team. In de end, dem give Mobutu de position and promote am to colonel. Next day, govment teams comot from de capital to supervise how dem go Africanise de army; Mobutu own assignment na for Équateur. While Mobutu dey there, Mpolo begin act as ANC Chief of Staff. Mobutu no happy at all with dat move, so when e return to de capital, e face Lumumba inside cabinet meeting and tell am plain: “Either I no deserve am and you gots sack me, or I do de mission well and I go keep my rank plus position.” De British diplomat Brian Urquhart, wey dey work plus de United Nations, yarn say: “When I first meet Mobutu for July 1960, e be Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba ein chief military assistant and e just promote himself from sergeant go lieutenant-colonel. Compared to ein boss, Mobutu be like pillar of common sense and sharp reasoning. Na to am we go when Lumumba ein hashish-high guards arrest our people. Na Mobutu too dey casually bring up Lumumba ein wild requests—like say make UN pay salary give Congolese army wey fit mutiny. For dem early days, Mobutu look like reasonable young man, wey maybe, just maybe, dey reason good for ein new independent country.” Backed by Belgian govment wey wan still hold tight to de rich Congolese mines, secessionist violence burst out for south. As UN soldiers wey dem send come restore order no dey help crush de secession, Lumumba go turn to Soviet Union for help. Inside six weeks, e receive serious military aid plus about thousand Soviet technical advisers. Since na Cold War time, US govment fear say dis Soviet move be trick to spread communist power for Central Africa. US and Belgium come ginger Kasa-Vubu make e sack Lumumba, and on 5 September, e do am. Lumumba vex rough and say Kasa-Vubu no be president again. Parliament no gree sack any of dem, instead dem beg for reconciliation, but no headway. Lumumba plus Kasa-Vubu each tell Mobutu make e arrest de other one. As Army Chief of Staff, Mobutu start face heavy pressure from all angle. Western countries' embassies—wey dey pay soldiers salary—plus Kasa-Vubu and Mobutu ein own men, all dem want make Soviet people pack. So on 14 September, Mobutu do coup wey no draw blood, announce say both Kasa-Vubu and Lumumba dey “neutralised” and form one new govment of university graduates—dem call am College of Commissioners-General. Lumumba no accept am but dem force am retire go ein house, where UN peacekeepers block Mobutu ein soldiers make dem no arrest am. Urquhart talk say on de coup day, Mobutu just waka enter UN headquarters for Léopoldville without invite and no gree comot till radio announce de coup; na dat time Mobutu begin repeat “C’est moi!”—“Na me!” Urquhart realise say Mobutu just land there in case de coup mess up, so e tell am to comot. As confidence drop say de international community go support am come back to power, Lumumba run commot for late November go meet ein supporters for Stanleyville to form new govment. Early December, Mobutu ein soldiers catch am, then keep am for ein base insyd Thysville. But Mobutu still see am as danger, so on 17 January 1961, e move Lumumba go de rebel State of Katanga. From dat point, nobody see Lumumba again. Later dem find out say same day wey dem move am, de secessionist forces under Moise Tshombe execute am, after Mobutu ein govment hand am over. On 23 January 1961, Kasa-Vubu promote Mobutu go major-general. One historian, De Witte, talk say na political move wey aim to make de army stronger, since na de president ein only support, and to boost Mobutu ein stand inside de army. For 1964, Pierre Mulele lead some fighters start another rebellion. Dem fast take over two-thirds of Congo. Mobutu lead de Congolese army respond, and by 1965, dem take back de whole land. === Second ''coup'' and consolidation of power === Sanso see: Second Mobutu coup d'état Prime Minister Moise Tshombe ein party, de Congolese National Convention, win big majority for March 1965 elections, but Kasa-Vubu appoint Évariste Kimba, one anti-Tshombe man, as prime minister-designate. Parliament no gree approve am two times. As de govment almost jam dead end, Mobutu take over power through coup wey no draw blood on 24 November—he just turn 35 one month before. Under one system wey dem call state of exception (regime d'exception), Mobutu grab full—almost absolute—power for five years. For ein first speech after e take power, Mobutu talk give big crowd for Léopoldville main stadium say, since na politicians spoil Congo within five years, e go need at least dat same time to fix am. So, for dat reason, no political party go do anything for five years. On 30 November 1965, Parliament pass law wey give Mobutu plus ein cabinet most of de legislative powers, but still hold small power to check ein decrees. By early March 1966, when Parliament start new session, Mobutu announce say he dey cancel dat review power, and two weeks after, ein govment shutdown Parliament for good and collect all de remaining authority. At de start, Mobutu ein govment come out like say e no dey into politics—or even dey against am. People begin see “politician” as bad word, wey mean person wey wicked or corrupt. For 1966, dem set up de Corps of Volunteers of de Republic, one strong frontline group wey aim to gather plenty public support behind Mobutu. Na same year dem hail am as de country ein “Second National Hero” after Lumumba. Even though Mobutu play role for how Lumumba commot power, e try package himself like person wey dey carry Lumumba ein legacy continue. One of de key things wey Mobutu dey preach for early part of ein rule be “authentic Congolese nationalism”. Na dat 1966 too e begin change city names wey get European roots to names wey sound more African—na so Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Stanleyville become Kisangani, and Élisabethville change to Lubumbashi. Then for 1967, Mobutu bring out de Popular Movement of de Revolution (MPR). From dat time go reach 1990, na only dat party dem dey allow for politics. Inside de MPR ein beliefs—wey dem write for Manifesto of N'Sele—dem push nationalism, revolution, plus “authenticity”. Dem describe revolution as “truly national and very practical,” wey reject both capitalism and communism. One popular slogan from de MPR be “Neither left nor right,” and later dem add “nor even center” join. That same year, all de trade unions dem join body into one single union—National Union of Zairian Workers—and de govment take full control over am. Mobutu plan say de union no go operate on ein own, but rather support govment policy like tool. From dat time till 1991, any independent trade union be illegal. As e face plenty wahala for de beginning of ein rule, Mobutu use favour-sharing (patronage) win over most of ein opposition; de ones wey no gree, e handle dem rough. For 1966, four cabinet members chop arrest because dem say dem join plan coup. Military court try dem case, then dem do public execution wey over 50,000 people watch live for open ground. Former Katangan gendarmeries wey rise also face Mobutu ein force and dem smash dem down—same as de Stanleyville mutinies of 1967 wey white mercenaries lead. By 1970, almost all de people wey fit challenge Mobutu power don fall, and for most parts of de country, law plus order start dey show face. That 1970 be de peak time of Mobutu ein power and respect. For 1970, King Baudouin of Belgium come Kinshasa do big state visit wey go well. Dat same year, dem hold presidential plus legislative elections. Even though de constitution say two parties fit dey, na only MPR dem allow nominate candidates. For de presidential election, Mobutu be de only person wey run. Voting no dey private; if you support Mobutu, you go drop green paper, but if you no dey support am, na red paper you go use. Green vote mean say you dey vote for hope, while red vote mean chaos. Under dat kind condition, de result no be surprise—official result talk say Mobutu win with almost everybody behind am, collect 10,131,669 votes, and only 157 people say “no”. Later dem come find out say over 30,500 more votes appear pass de number of voters wey register. Dem run de legislative elections same style. People get just one list from MPR; official result talk say unbelievable 98.33% people vote for de MPR list. As Mobutu dey cement ein power, e build different military groups wey na only to protect am dem dey. These groups include de Special Presidential Division, Civil Guard plus Service for Action, and Military Intelligence (SNIP). === Authenticity campaign === Main article: Authenticité (Zaire) Mobutu start big campaign wey promote African culture wey dem call ''authenticité''. As part of am, on 1 June 1966, e begin change city names wey show colonial past—Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Elisabethville change to Lubumbashi, and Stanleyville become Kisangani. For October 1971, e change de country ein name to Republic of Zaire. E order people make dem drop dem European names for African ones, and warn priests say if dem baptize Zairian pikin plus European name, dem go chop five years for prison. Western dressing and neck tie come dey banned, and men must wear one Mao-style tunic dem dey call ''abacost'' (short for ''à bas le costume'' wey mean “down with de suit”). Even Christmas move from December go June because Mobutu say dat one be more “authentic” date. Then for 1972, Mobutu follow ein own rule from previous year and change ein name to Mobutu Sese Seko Nkuku Ngbendu Wa Za Banga (wey mean “De all-powerful warrior wey, because of ein endurance and strong will to win, dey move from victory to victory, and leave fire behind”). Around dat time, e drop de army uniform and start wear ein signature look—tall and commanding, plus walking stick, abacost, thick glasses, and leopard-skin cap wey dem sew for Paris. For 1974, new constitution land wey tighten Mobutu ein hold on de country. Dis constitution talk say MPR be de “single institution” for de nation. Dem even define am as “de nation politically organized”—which mean say de state just be machine wey dey push party agenda. Every citizen automatically turn MPR member from de moment dem born. De constitution explain say de MPR dey inside de body of de party ein president, wey dem dey elect every seven years during national convention. But at de same time, dat same president automatically turn de only person wey go run for president of de country. Den dem go use referendum confirm am. De document come turn Mobutu ein emergency powers wey e dey use since 1965 into legal backing; e give am full authority—wey dem write as “plenitude of power exercise”—so all power now dey Mobutu ein hand. Mobutu win election three times under dis system, and each time, dem talk say e win with over 98 percent of de votes. For de legislative side, dem dey bring one single MPR list every five years, and de results dey show crazy numbers—either everybody vote for dem, or almost everybody. One of dem elections for 1975, dem no even vote at all—dem just show candidates around public places make people clap give dem. Dat one na how voting be. == One-man rule == Mobutu start use public executions early insyd ein rule to stamp ein power well-well. Any political rival, secessionist, coup planner, or anybody wey e see as threat, e go deal with dem hard. Many of dem people chop hanging for front big crowd. One serious example be former Prime Minister Évariste Kimba. Mobutu govment carry Kimba plus three of ein cabinet members—Jérôme Anany (Defense Minister), Emmanuel Bamba (Finance Minister), and Alexandre Mahamba (Minister of Mines and Energy)—put for trial May 1966. By 30 May, dem hang all four men in front of over 50,000 people. Dem say dem dey link up plus Colonel Alphonse Bangala and Major Pierre Efomi to run coup. Mobutu come talk say, “One had to strike through a spectacular example, and create the conditions of regime discipline. When a chief takes a decision, he decides – period.” Then for 1968, Pierre Mulele—Lumumba ein Education Minister and big rebel during de 1964 Simba uprising—Mobutu people trick am come out from exile for Brazzaville by telling am say amnesty go dey. But instead of peace, dem torture and kill am bad. Before Mulele die, dem gouge ein eyes, tear off ein genitals, and cut off ein limbs one by one. Mobutu later change ein strategy—e start dey buy political opponents instead of always use force. E like repeat one slogan: “Keep your friends close, but your enemies closer still,” to show how e dey use bribe pull rivals to ein side. One trick wey Mobutu really enjoy be “musical chairs”—e dey rotate ministers like game, change cabinet list anyhow, so nobody go build power wey fit threaten am. From November 1965 to April 1997, Mobutu reshuffle cabinet 60 times. Dis constant shuffle put fear inside ministers, because everybody know say Mobutu go change people anyhow, no matter whether you dey work well or not. Because ministers no sabi how long dem go last for position, e lead to serious stealing—everybody dey rush grab wetin dem fit while dem still dey office. Mobutu still dey arrest, even torture, some dissident govment members—then later forgive dem and even give dem bigger posts. E be like e just use power play confuse everybody. Congolese historian Emizet F. Kisangani talk say plenty public officials believe say no matter how corrupt or useless dem be, dem fit come back to govment position. To hold post no require management skill or clean conscience. In fact, if you too correct or too honest, dem see you as obstacle. Wetin Mobutu want be total loyalty in exchange for chance to chop money. By 1970, reports talk say Mobutu don carry 60% of de national budget enter ein pocket—people begin see am as one of de most corrupt leaders for Africa and de whole world. Kisangani add say Mobutu build full system of corruption wey spoil public values and reward greed and selfishness. Mobutu no slow down with de self-promotion moves—man try for 1972 make dem crown am president for life, but that one no land well. Then for June 1983, e raise himself go military top-top level as Marshal. Na General Likulia Bolongo sign dat order. Shortly after, Victor Nendaka Bika—de number two man for country as Vice-President of de Bureau of de Central Committee—drop one big speech full of praise give Mobutu. To chop revenue from Congo ein natural resources, Mobutu first chase out European investors and nationalize plenty foreign companies. But instead of letting dem run proper, e dash control of these firms give ein relatives and close padi dem—wey quickly use am do corruption and chop company assets clean. For 1973–1974, Mobutu start one big “Zairianization” program, take over more foreign businesses and hand dem to Zairians. But e no end there. By October 1973, de Arab oil shock come crash global economy—the same one wey don dey grow steady since 1945. One serious side effect be say copper price fall by 50% in 1974, and since copper na Zaire ein number one export, e hit dem hard. As American historian Thomas Odom talk, Zaire shift from “prosperity to bankruptcy almost overnight.” Because de economy break down, Zaire run go International Monetary Fund (IMF) for help to manage dem debt, but when IMF dig into dem books, dem discover heavy corruption. Mobutu come waka go China for 1974, take inspiration from Cultural Revolution. E come back wearing Mao jacket and call himself “Citoyen Mobutu” or “Citizen Mobutu.” E say he go “radicalize de Zairian revolution.” Di same businesses wey e first give to Zairians, Mobutu come collect dem back, nationalize everything under full state control. As if dat no do, e cut government workers ein salaries by 50%, wey provoke one failed coup attempt against am for June 1975. By 1977, Mobutu ein earlier move to nationalize foreign businesses don backfire hard—e economy don fall serious, and e no get choice but to beg foreign investors come back. But before e fit recover, Katangan rebels wey base for Angola storm Zaire dat same year, as payback for Mobutu ein support to anti-MPLA fighters. France respond quick—dem airlift 1,500 Moroccan paratroopers into Zaire, push de rebels back, and end di crisis wey dem call ''Shaba I''. But no long after, for 1978, de rebels regroup with even more numbers and invade again—this time na ''Shaba II''. Belgium and France come deploy troops again, backed by US logistics, and dem manage stop de attack once more. Mobutu get big embarrassment from how badly de Zairian Army perform for both invasions—e need foreign help to fight small rebel forces. Yet, instead of reforming de army, e just reduce am from 51,000 troops in 1978 to 23,000 by 1980. By dat time, about 90% of de army be Ngbandi—Mobutu ein own ethnic group—’cos e no trust other ethnic groups with weapons. De most loyal and strongest force Mobutu get be ein bodyguards—the ''Special Presidential Division''—trained by Israel, made up only of Ngbandi, and always led by Mobutu ein relative. Mobutu win election again for 1977 and 1984, but nobody dey run against am. E use most of ein time dey build ein own fortune, and by 1988, dem estimate say ein money reach no less than $50 million. Most of de money e hide am abroad, especially for Swiss banks—but when dem remove am later, dem only find small $3.4 million there. Funny enough, ein fortune nearly match de whole country ein foreign debt dat time. One time for 20 May 1976, Mobutu talk for stadium wey hold like 70,000 people for Kinshasa. E talk say, “If you wan thief, thief small and style am nice. But if you thief too much to turn rich fast-fast, dem go catch you.” By 1989, Zaire govment no fit pay dem loans again from Belgium. Mobutu dey ride in fleet of Mercedes-Benz from one palace to another, while roads dey spoil and people dey hungry. Workers no dey get pay for months, ’cos de national money dey disappear go Mobutu, ein family, and top political plus army people. Na only Special Presidential Division wey dey protect Mobutu wey dem dey pay correct and on time. Dem even get saying wey go like dis: “De civil servants dey pretend say dem dey work, while de state dey pretend say e dey pay dem.” De national army—Forces Armées Zaïroises (FAZ)—no get morale at all. Salaries no dey come, living conditions bad, supplies no dey, and officers dey chop people. De army soldiers just turn like armed thieves—dey rob civilians anyhow. Roadblocks full everywhere, and dem dey extort money from anybody wey dey pass with car or truck. Mobutu ein poor handling of de economy cause serious inflation wey mess up de value of people dem salaries. As money value dey drop fast, plenty public servants start dey do their own way—corruption plus dishonesty turn daily survival style for workers all across de system. Mobutu himself live large. E cruise for de Congo River inside ein yacht, Kamanyola. For Gbadolite, e build one huge mansion wey people dey call “Versailles of de jungle.” Anytime e wan go shopping for Paris, e go charter Air France ein Concorde jet. E even build Gbadolite Airport with long runway make Concorde fit land and take off there. For 1989 alone, e use dat jet fly go give speech for United Nations in New York, attend de French bicentennial party as President François Mitterrand ein guest, and carry Zaire youth choir from Paris to Gbadolite, then fly go Marseille—all with Concorde. Mobutu also get villa for French Riviera wey dem call ''Villa del Mere''. Ein whole leadership style come be example of real kleptocracy and nepotism. Mobutu dey put ein Ngbandi tribe people plus close relatives for top positions inside de military and govment. E dey groom ein first-born son, Nyiwa, to take over presidency from am, but Nyiwa die from AIDS for 1994. Mobutu rule be one of de longest autocracies for Africa. E stash over $50 million from Congo ein natural resources, while ordinary people dey suffer. E form one totalitarian system wey break plenty human rights, try wipe out Belgian influence from de country, and still hold strong anti-communist position to gain favor from international powers. Mobutu ein personality cult reach levels wey few leaders for history fit match. De evening news go start with video wey show am dey descend from cloud top like some god figure. Ein face full public places everywhere—portrait hang for walls, and govment workers dey wear lapel pins wey carry ein photo. Dem give am plenty grand titles: “Father of de Nation,” “Messiah,” “Guide of de Revolution,” “Helmsman,” “Founder,” “Savior of de People,” and “Supreme Combatant.” For de 1996 documentary about de legendary 1974 Foreman–Ali boxing match wey happen for Zaire, you go hear dancers chant “Sese Seko, Sese Seko!” as dem welcome de fighters—na clear sign of how deep e presence dey everywhere, even inside pop culture moments. For early 1975, e reach point wey Mobutu no gree make media call anybody ein name—only Mobutu fit be called by name, everybody else dem just refer to dem position. E really build one kind system wey make am look like dem no fit mention Congo without mention am. Mobutu take advantage proper of de Cold War tension wey dey between de European countries plus de United States. He win strong support from de West plus dem international organizations like de International Monetary Fund (IMF). === Space program === For late 1970s, one West Germany company called OTRAG dey work on satellite launch wey dem talk say be peaceful mission to reduce cost. But because of one 1954 amendment to de Treaty of Brussels, dem no fit build or launch missile insyd Germany. So dem pay Mobutu $130 million make dem run de program for Zaire. For one 1978 agreement, Mobutu dash OTRAG 25 years lease for land insyd Zaire. De first rocket, OTRAG-1, launch on 18 May 1977 wey Mobutu dey watch from far. E take off well but e crash back down shortly after. By 6 June 1978, dem launch two more rockets but dem crash again for Zaire. Still, Mobutu push de program say over 200 Zairians dey work for there and say Zaire go benefit from royalties when dem begin sell rocket. But two years later, Soviet Union accuse de program say former Nazi scientists dey involved plus say dem dey use am spy for military reason. Mobutu gree to Soviet pressure, end de project, plus cut ties with OTRAG. === Foreign policy === Main article: Foreign policy of de Mobutu Sese Seko administration ==== Relations plus Belgium ==== De relationship wey dey between Zaire and Belgium under Mobutu time dey mix — sometimes dem be paddy, other times dem turn real enemies. Most of de time, Belgian leaders no really react strong even when Mobutu do tins wey no favour Belgium; dis be partly because de Belgian political side demself no dey united. From early Mobutu rule, yawa start between dem because of plenty Belgian businesses wey dey Congo. But things cool small after. For 1968, Mobutu and ein family go Belgium as special guest of de Belgian king, and dat same year dem sign one science plus technical agreement. For 1970, King Baudouin visit Kinshasa and everybody hail am; dem even sign treaty of friendship and cooperation. But Mobutu tear dis same treaty insyd 1974 because Belgium no gree ban one anti-Mobutu book wey Jules Chomé, one left-wing lawyer, write. Mobutu e "Zairianisation" policy, wey be say he seize foreign businesses and give dem to Zairians, make matters worse. Even though yawa dey, Mobutu still get personal friendship with some top Belgians. He admire Edmond Leburton, wey be Belgian prime minister (1973–1974), and he be paddy to Alfred Cahen, one diplomat wey Mobutu meet from his Brussels university days. Mobutu and King Baudouin too dey cool until Mobutu leak one handwritten letter from de king — after dat, palace shut door gidi-gidi. Because of dis, Mobutu no get invitation go de king ein funeral; only Saddam Hussein from Iraq join am for dat black list. Apart from Belgians wey dey Belgium, Mobutu keep Belgian advisors close — like Hugues Leclercq and Colonel Willy Mallants, wey even show for Thierry Michel ein documentary ''Mobutu, King of Zaire''. ==== Relations plus France ==== As Zaire be de second most populous French-speaking country for de world by den (plus now e even pass France sef) and de biggest one for sub-Saharan Africa, France see am as one big strategic paddy. During de First Republic time, France mostly support conservative and federalist people, no be de unitarist dem like Lumumba. Right after dem crush de Katangan secession, Zaire (wey dem dey call Republic of de Congo by den) sign technical plus cultural cooperation treaty plus France. Under Charles de Gaulle ein presidency, di two countries start bond tight because dem share plenty geopolitical interests. For 1971, France ein Finance Minister, Valéry Giscard d’Estaing, visit Zaire. Later when he turn France ein president, he and Mobutu become close pals, and France turn Mobutu ein strong foreign ally. During de Shaba invasions, France no dull — dem stand full support for Mobutu. For de first Shaba wahala, France carry 1,500 Moroccan troops come Zaire by airlift; dem help drive de rebels. One year later, as de second Shaba invasion land, France and Belgium both send French Foreign Legion paratroopers (2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment) come help Mobutu fight dem off. ==== Relations plus de People ein Republic of China ==== At de beginning, Zaire ein relationship plus de People's Republic of China no better pass how e dey with Soviet Union. Mobutu still dey remember how China help Mulele plus some Maoist rebels wey fight for Kwilu province during de Simba Rebellion wahala. E no dey like make China get seat for United Nations too. But by 1972, Mobutu start dey see China inna new way — like one balance wey go fit check Soviet Union power and even balance ein own close relationship plus United States, Israel, and South Africa. So for November 1972, Mobutu gree recognize China as one country diplomatically (plus East Germany and North Korea join body). Di next year, Mobutu fly go Beijing, meet chairman Mao Zedong, and dem promise am $100 million technical aid. For 1983, when Chinese Prime Minister Zhao Ziyang come visit Zaire, he talk say make Mobutu no worry repay de $100 million — e be gift. For 1974, Mobutu surprise everybody as e travel go China plus North Korea, even though originally dem plan say e go visit Soviet Union. As e return come Zaire, ein politics den de way e dey talk turn more radical. Na dis time Mobutu start bash Belgium plus United States — e vex say America no dey do enough to fight white minority rule for South Africa and Rhodesia. E introduce one new civic duty program wey dem call ''salongo'' — everybody must do compulsory national work. E sana bring "radicalization" wey be extension of de 1973 ''Zairianization'' policy, wey take foreign-owned things give to locals. Mobutu even borrow title from Mao — "de Helmsman". Around dis same time, from late 1974 to early 1975, ein personality cult reach peak — everywhere na Mobutu name, face, den slogan. China plus Zaire get one common target for Central Africa: make dem stop Soviet Union from gain any stronghold for dat side. So dem join hand undercover take support National Liberation Front of Angola (later dem support UNITA too) make dem block MPLA — de People's Movement for de Liberation of Angola — wey Soviet Union plus Cuba dey back. Cuba get big power for Africa dat time, as dem dey help all left-wing, anti-imperialist groups, and Soviet dey sponsor dem heavy. China invite Holden Roberto, wey be de leader of de National Liberation Front of Angola, plus ein guerilla fighters go Beijing make dem train. Dem also give dem weapons plus money. Zaire sef try enter Angola first, try put their own friendly government for power, but Cuban soldiers push dem back. De invasion no work — e be big wahala wey lead to Shaba I and Shaba II invasions later. China no support dis rebels at all; dem even send weapons go support Zaire during both invasions. China come accuse Soviet Union plus Cuba say dem dey behind de Shaba rebel trouble, say dem dey try scatter peace for Central Africa — even though nobody sure whether Soviet plus Cuba really dey involved or no. '''Relations''' '''plus de Soviet Union''' Mobutu ein relationship plus Soviet Union no be cool koraa. He be hard-core anti-communist, so he no dey rush go recognize de Soviets. USSR bin support—tho e be mostly in words—both Patrice Lumumba, Mobutu ein democratically elected predecessor, plus de Simba rebellion. However, to make e look like say he no dey side any bloc, he renew ties for 1967; de first Soviet ambassador come land and present ein credentials for 1968. Mobutu still join United States condemn de Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia dat year. Mobutu take de Soviet presence as advantage for two reasons: e help am keep de image say he be non-aligned leader, plus e give am better excuse to blame things wey dey go wrong for house. Like for 1970, he expel four Soviet diplomats say dem dey do “subversive activities,” and for 1971, he declare twenty Soviet officials as persona non grata say dem dey spark student demonstrations for Lovanium University. l78j5qczefxuatjbwnw2mcjy87p0ksh 69093 69092 2025-07-05T21:24:28Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69093 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu wa za Banga''' ; born '''Joseph-Désiré Mobutu'''; 14 October 1930 – 7 September 1997), people dey call am Mobutu Sese Seko or Mobutu and sana known by ein initials MSS, e be Congolese politician plus military officer wey be de first and only president of Zaire from 1971 to 1997. Before dat, Mobutu serve as de second president of de Democratic Republic of de Congo, from 1965 to 1971. E sana serve as de fifth chairperson of de Organisation of African Unity from 1967 to 1968. During de Congo Crisis insyd 1960, Mobutu, wey den be Chief of Staff insyd de Congolese Army, commot de nation ein democratically elected govment of Patrice Lumumba plus support from de U.S. and Belgium. Mobutu put govment insyd wey arrange make dem execute Lumumba for 1961, and e continue dey lead de country ein armed forces till e take power direct insyd another coup for 1965. To make sure say power no escape am, he create de Popular Movement of de Revolution as de only correct political party for 1967, change Congo ein name go Zaire for 1971, plus e own name turn Mobutu Sese Seko for 1972. Mobutu protect ein rule under hard autocratic regime and end up dey rule during time wey human rights violations spread everywhere. E try purge de country from all colonial culture tins through ein "national authenticity" program. Mobutu turn de main person wey everybody dey hype like say na cult of personality he dey carry. Mobutu talk say ein political ideology no be "left", no be "right", and no be "centre" too, but people mostly know am say e dey against communism for de Françafrique zone. Because of dat, United States, France, plus Belgium support am well-well—dem dash am military, diplomatic, and economic backing. E still build tight link plus apartheid South Africa, Israel, plus de Greek junta dem. Mobutu get strong name for corruption plus nepotism: dem talk say ein personal wealth fit reach from $50 million go $5 billion, all na from economic exploitation plus corruption as president. Some people call ein govment kleptocracy, ’cos e dey pile ein own money while Zaire ein economy suffer—plenty inflation, big debt, and serious currency wahala. E too known for ein flashy lifestyle, like how e dey fly go Paris on top de fast-fast Concorde jet just to do shopping. By 1990, as de economy start dey spoil plus tension dey rise, dem force Mobutu Sese Seko make e enter coalition plus political opponents and agree make dem do multiparty system. Even though e use ein soldiers try block de change, de movement no gree stop. By May 1997, rebel dem wey Laurent-Désiré Kabila lead take over de country and push Mobutu go exile. E already dey battle prostate cancer wey hard, so three months later, e die for Morocco. == Biography == === Early years den education === Mobutu, wey come from de Ngbandi ethnic group, dem born am for 1930 insyd Lisala, Belgian Congo. Mobutu ein mommie, Marie Madeleine Yemo, be hotel maid wey run go Lisala make she escape one local village chief ein harem. Na there she jam Albéric Gbemani, cook wey dey work for one Belgian judge, den she marry am. Not long after, she born Mobutu. Na one uncle pick de name “Mobutu” give am. Gbemani die when Mobutu be just eight years. After dat, one uncle plus ein grandfather raise am. De Belgian judge ein wife take fine eye see Mobutu, so she teach am how to speak, read plus write French well-well, wey be de official language of de colony. Ein mommie Yemo wey be widow, lean on family help to take care of her four pikin dem, and dem dey move from place to place often. Mobutu ein first schooling happen for capital town Léopoldville (wey now dem dey call Kinshasa). Later, ein mommie send am go ein uncle for Coquilhatville (now Mbandaka), where e attend Christian Brothers School, one Catholic-mission boarding school. Mobutu shine for books top and even run de class newspaper. People still know am for ein stubborn pranks and sharp small-boy sense of humor. One classmate remember say anytime de Belgian priests—wey ein main language be Dutch—make mistake for French, Mobutu go jump from ein seat for class top and point out de error sharp. For 1949, Mobutu sneak enter one boat wey dey go downriver to Léopoldville, where e jam one girl. Some weeks later, de priests find am. As school year end, instead of dem send am go prison, dem order make e serve seven years insyd de colonial army, Force Publique (FP). Dat kind punishment na normal tin for students wey dey act stubborn. === Army service === Mobutu find discipline for army life top, and e see father figure insyd Sergeant Louis Bobozo. Mobutu no stop ein studies—e dey borrow European newspapers from de Belgian officers plus pick books from anywhere e fit find, then e go read dem during sentry duty or any small chance e get. De ones wey e like pass be de writings of French president Charles de Gaulle, British prime minister Winston Churchill, plus de Italian Renaissance philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli. After e pass one course for accounting, Mobutu start small-small dey do journalism work proper. Still vexed about how e and de school priests jam wahala, e no marry for church. De only thing e fit bring for de wedding enjoyment be one crate of beer—na all ein army salary fit buy. === Early political involvement === As soldier, Mobutu dey write politics matter under fake name for Actualités Africaines (African News), one magazine wey one Belgian colonial set up. For 1956, e comot from army and turn full-time journalist, dey write for Léopoldville daily L'Avenir. Two years later, e go Belgium to report de 1958 World Exposition, then e stay back make e learn journalism better. By dis time, Mobutu don meet plenty young Congolese intellectuals wey dey challenge colonial rule. E come build friendship plus Patrice Lumumba and join Lumumba ein party—Congolese National Movement (MNC). Mobutu later become Lumumba ein personal aide. Some people wey know de matter talk say Belgian intelligence fit don recruit Mobutu as informant give de government. During de 1960 talks wey happen for Brussels about Congolese independence, de US embassy organize one reception give de Congolese delegation. Each embassy staff get list of delegates wey dem suppose meet, and later dem come talk about de people dem meet. De ambassador talk say, “One name just dey pop up steady. But nobody get am for ein list 'cos e no be official delegation member—e be Lumumba ein secretary. But everybody agree say dis guy get strong brain, e be young, maybe small immature, but e get big future ahead.” After de general election, dem assign Lumumba make e form govment. E give Mobutu de position of Secretary of State to de Presidency. Mobutu carry plenty weight for deciding de rest of de govment people. But after independence land, e no fit see Lumumba one-on-one again like before, 'cos de new prime minister start dey busy plus plenty aides and colleagues surround am. From there, both of dem slowly start drift apart. === Congo Crisis === Main article: Congo Crisis On 5 July 1960, soldiers of de Force Publique wey dey Camp Léopold II for Léopoldville vex over dem all-white leaders and bad working conditions, so dem rise mutiny. Di revolt spread go other places sharp-sharp. Mobutu join other officials talk to de mutineers so dem fit free de officers plus dem families. Then on 8 July, de full Council of Ministers gather for one special meeting under President Joseph Kasa-Vubu ein chairmanship for Camp Léopold II to face de matter of Africanising de garrison. De ministers start dey argue who go fit take de top job as army chief of staff. Two people wey stand out be Minister of Youth and Sports Maurice Mpolo, plus Mobutu. Mpolo don already show say e get some control over de soldiers wey dey mutiny, but Kasa-Vubu plus de Bakongo ministers fear say if dem give am power, e fit run coup. Mobutu on de other hand, people see am as cool-head wey dey think before e act. Lumumba respect Mpolo for ein boldness, but e prefer Mobutu ein cautious style. As de argument go on, de cabinet start split based on who dem support to be chief of staff. Lumumba no wan lose any of de two camps, so e try keep both men for ein team. In de end, dem give Mobutu de position and promote am to colonel. Next day, govment teams comot from de capital to supervise how dem go Africanise de army; Mobutu own assignment na for Équateur. While Mobutu dey there, Mpolo begin act as ANC Chief of Staff. Mobutu no happy at all with dat move, so when e return to de capital, e face Lumumba inside cabinet meeting and tell am plain: “Either I no deserve am and you gots sack me, or I do de mission well and I go keep my rank plus position.” De British diplomat Brian Urquhart, wey dey work plus de United Nations, yarn say: “When I first meet Mobutu for July 1960, e be Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba ein chief military assistant and e just promote himself from sergeant go lieutenant-colonel. Compared to ein boss, Mobutu be like pillar of common sense and sharp reasoning. Na to am we go when Lumumba ein hashish-high guards arrest our people. Na Mobutu too dey casually bring up Lumumba ein wild requests—like say make UN pay salary give Congolese army wey fit mutiny. For dem early days, Mobutu look like reasonable young man, wey maybe, just maybe, dey reason good for ein new independent country.” Backed by Belgian govment wey wan still hold tight to de rich Congolese mines, secessionist violence burst out for south. As UN soldiers wey dem send come restore order no dey help crush de secession, Lumumba go turn to Soviet Union for help. Inside six weeks, e receive serious military aid plus about thousand Soviet technical advisers. Since na Cold War time, US govment fear say dis Soviet move be trick to spread communist power for Central Africa. US and Belgium come ginger Kasa-Vubu make e sack Lumumba, and on 5 September, e do am. Lumumba vex rough and say Kasa-Vubu no be president again. Parliament no gree sack any of dem, instead dem beg for reconciliation, but no headway. Lumumba plus Kasa-Vubu each tell Mobutu make e arrest de other one. As Army Chief of Staff, Mobutu start face heavy pressure from all angle. Western countries' embassies—wey dey pay soldiers salary—plus Kasa-Vubu and Mobutu ein own men, all dem want make Soviet people pack. So on 14 September, Mobutu do coup wey no draw blood, announce say both Kasa-Vubu and Lumumba dey “neutralised” and form one new govment of university graduates—dem call am College of Commissioners-General. Lumumba no accept am but dem force am retire go ein house, where UN peacekeepers block Mobutu ein soldiers make dem no arrest am. Urquhart talk say on de coup day, Mobutu just waka enter UN headquarters for Léopoldville without invite and no gree comot till radio announce de coup; na dat time Mobutu begin repeat “C’est moi!”—“Na me!” Urquhart realise say Mobutu just land there in case de coup mess up, so e tell am to comot. As confidence drop say de international community go support am come back to power, Lumumba run commot for late November go meet ein supporters for Stanleyville to form new govment. Early December, Mobutu ein soldiers catch am, then keep am for ein base insyd Thysville. But Mobutu still see am as danger, so on 17 January 1961, e move Lumumba go de rebel State of Katanga. From dat point, nobody see Lumumba again. Later dem find out say same day wey dem move am, de secessionist forces under Moise Tshombe execute am, after Mobutu ein govment hand am over. On 23 January 1961, Kasa-Vubu promote Mobutu go major-general. One historian, De Witte, talk say na political move wey aim to make de army stronger, since na de president ein only support, and to boost Mobutu ein stand inside de army. For 1964, Pierre Mulele lead some fighters start another rebellion. Dem fast take over two-thirds of Congo. Mobutu lead de Congolese army respond, and by 1965, dem take back de whole land. === Second ''coup'' and consolidation of power === Sanso see: Second Mobutu coup d'état Prime Minister Moise Tshombe ein party, de Congolese National Convention, win big majority for March 1965 elections, but Kasa-Vubu appoint Évariste Kimba, one anti-Tshombe man, as prime minister-designate. Parliament no gree approve am two times. As de govment almost jam dead end, Mobutu take over power through coup wey no draw blood on 24 November—he just turn 35 one month before. Under one system wey dem call state of exception (regime d'exception), Mobutu grab full—almost absolute—power for five years. For ein first speech after e take power, Mobutu talk give big crowd for Léopoldville main stadium say, since na politicians spoil Congo within five years, e go need at least dat same time to fix am. So, for dat reason, no political party go do anything for five years. On 30 November 1965, Parliament pass law wey give Mobutu plus ein cabinet most of de legislative powers, but still hold small power to check ein decrees. By early March 1966, when Parliament start new session, Mobutu announce say he dey cancel dat review power, and two weeks after, ein govment shutdown Parliament for good and collect all de remaining authority. At de start, Mobutu ein govment come out like say e no dey into politics—or even dey against am. People begin see “politician” as bad word, wey mean person wey wicked or corrupt. For 1966, dem set up de Corps of Volunteers of de Republic, one strong frontline group wey aim to gather plenty public support behind Mobutu. Na same year dem hail am as de country ein “Second National Hero” after Lumumba. Even though Mobutu play role for how Lumumba commot power, e try package himself like person wey dey carry Lumumba ein legacy continue. One of de key things wey Mobutu dey preach for early part of ein rule be “authentic Congolese nationalism”. Na dat 1966 too e begin change city names wey get European roots to names wey sound more African—na so Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Stanleyville become Kisangani, and Élisabethville change to Lubumbashi. Then for 1967, Mobutu bring out de Popular Movement of de Revolution (MPR). From dat time go reach 1990, na only dat party dem dey allow for politics. Inside de MPR ein beliefs—wey dem write for Manifesto of N'Sele—dem push nationalism, revolution, plus “authenticity”. Dem describe revolution as “truly national and very practical,” wey reject both capitalism and communism. One popular slogan from de MPR be “Neither left nor right,” and later dem add “nor even center” join. That same year, all de trade unions dem join body into one single union—National Union of Zairian Workers—and de govment take full control over am. Mobutu plan say de union no go operate on ein own, but rather support govment policy like tool. From dat time till 1991, any independent trade union be illegal. As e face plenty wahala for de beginning of ein rule, Mobutu use favour-sharing (patronage) win over most of ein opposition; de ones wey no gree, e handle dem rough. For 1966, four cabinet members chop arrest because dem say dem join plan coup. Military court try dem case, then dem do public execution wey over 50,000 people watch live for open ground. Former Katangan gendarmeries wey rise also face Mobutu ein force and dem smash dem down—same as de Stanleyville mutinies of 1967 wey white mercenaries lead. By 1970, almost all de people wey fit challenge Mobutu power don fall, and for most parts of de country, law plus order start dey show face. That 1970 be de peak time of Mobutu ein power and respect. For 1970, King Baudouin of Belgium come Kinshasa do big state visit wey go well. Dat same year, dem hold presidential plus legislative elections. Even though de constitution say two parties fit dey, na only MPR dem allow nominate candidates. For de presidential election, Mobutu be de only person wey run. Voting no dey private; if you support Mobutu, you go drop green paper, but if you no dey support am, na red paper you go use. Green vote mean say you dey vote for hope, while red vote mean chaos. Under dat kind condition, de result no be surprise—official result talk say Mobutu win with almost everybody behind am, collect 10,131,669 votes, and only 157 people say “no”. Later dem come find out say over 30,500 more votes appear pass de number of voters wey register. Dem run de legislative elections same style. People get just one list from MPR; official result talk say unbelievable 98.33% people vote for de MPR list. As Mobutu dey cement ein power, e build different military groups wey na only to protect am dem dey. These groups include de Special Presidential Division, Civil Guard plus Service for Action, and Military Intelligence (SNIP). === Authenticity campaign === Main article: Authenticité (Zaire) Mobutu start big campaign wey promote African culture wey dem call ''authenticité''. As part of am, on 1 June 1966, e begin change city names wey show colonial past—Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Elisabethville change to Lubumbashi, and Stanleyville become Kisangani. For October 1971, e change de country ein name to Republic of Zaire. E order people make dem drop dem European names for African ones, and warn priests say if dem baptize Zairian pikin plus European name, dem go chop five years for prison. Western dressing and neck tie come dey banned, and men must wear one Mao-style tunic dem dey call ''abacost'' (short for ''à bas le costume'' wey mean “down with de suit”). Even Christmas move from December go June because Mobutu say dat one be more “authentic” date. Then for 1972, Mobutu follow ein own rule from previous year and change ein name to Mobutu Sese Seko Nkuku Ngbendu Wa Za Banga (wey mean “De all-powerful warrior wey, because of ein endurance and strong will to win, dey move from victory to victory, and leave fire behind”). Around dat time, e drop de army uniform and start wear ein signature look—tall and commanding, plus walking stick, abacost, thick glasses, and leopard-skin cap wey dem sew for Paris. For 1974, new constitution land wey tighten Mobutu ein hold on de country. Dis constitution talk say MPR be de “single institution” for de nation. Dem even define am as “de nation politically organized”—which mean say de state just be machine wey dey push party agenda. Every citizen automatically turn MPR member from de moment dem born. De constitution explain say de MPR dey inside de body of de party ein president, wey dem dey elect every seven years during national convention. But at de same time, dat same president automatically turn de only person wey go run for president of de country. Den dem go use referendum confirm am. De document come turn Mobutu ein emergency powers wey e dey use since 1965 into legal backing; e give am full authority—wey dem write as “plenitude of power exercise”—so all power now dey Mobutu ein hand. Mobutu win election three times under dis system, and each time, dem talk say e win with over 98 percent of de votes. For de legislative side, dem dey bring one single MPR list every five years, and de results dey show crazy numbers—either everybody vote for dem, or almost everybody. One of dem elections for 1975, dem no even vote at all—dem just show candidates around public places make people clap give dem. Dat one na how voting be. == One-man rule == Mobutu start use public executions early insyd ein rule to stamp ein power well-well. Any political rival, secessionist, coup planner, or anybody wey e see as threat, e go deal with dem hard. Many of dem people chop hanging for front big crowd. One serious example be former Prime Minister Évariste Kimba. Mobutu govment carry Kimba plus three of ein cabinet members—Jérôme Anany (Defense Minister), Emmanuel Bamba (Finance Minister), and Alexandre Mahamba (Minister of Mines and Energy)—put for trial May 1966. By 30 May, dem hang all four men in front of over 50,000 people. Dem say dem dey link up plus Colonel Alphonse Bangala and Major Pierre Efomi to run coup. Mobutu come talk say, “One had to strike through a spectacular example, and create the conditions of regime discipline. When a chief takes a decision, he decides – period.” Then for 1968, Pierre Mulele—Lumumba ein Education Minister and big rebel during de 1964 Simba uprising—Mobutu people trick am come out from exile for Brazzaville by telling am say amnesty go dey. But instead of peace, dem torture and kill am bad. Before Mulele die, dem gouge ein eyes, tear off ein genitals, and cut off ein limbs one by one. Mobutu later change ein strategy—e start dey buy political opponents instead of always use force. E like repeat one slogan: “Keep your friends close, but your enemies closer still,” to show how e dey use bribe pull rivals to ein side. One trick wey Mobutu really enjoy be “musical chairs”—e dey rotate ministers like game, change cabinet list anyhow, so nobody go build power wey fit threaten am. From November 1965 to April 1997, Mobutu reshuffle cabinet 60 times. Dis constant shuffle put fear inside ministers, because everybody know say Mobutu go change people anyhow, no matter whether you dey work well or not. Because ministers no sabi how long dem go last for position, e lead to serious stealing—everybody dey rush grab wetin dem fit while dem still dey office. Mobutu still dey arrest, even torture, some dissident govment members—then later forgive dem and even give dem bigger posts. E be like e just use power play confuse everybody. Congolese historian Emizet F. Kisangani talk say plenty public officials believe say no matter how corrupt or useless dem be, dem fit come back to govment position. To hold post no require management skill or clean conscience. In fact, if you too correct or too honest, dem see you as obstacle. Wetin Mobutu want be total loyalty in exchange for chance to chop money. By 1970, reports talk say Mobutu don carry 60% of de national budget enter ein pocket—people begin see am as one of de most corrupt leaders for Africa and de whole world. Kisangani add say Mobutu build full system of corruption wey spoil public values and reward greed and selfishness. Mobutu no slow down with de self-promotion moves—man try for 1972 make dem crown am president for life, but that one no land well. Then for June 1983, e raise himself go military top-top level as Marshal. Na General Likulia Bolongo sign dat order. Shortly after, Victor Nendaka Bika—de number two man for country as Vice-President of de Bureau of de Central Committee—drop one big speech full of praise give Mobutu. To chop revenue from Congo ein natural resources, Mobutu first chase out European investors and nationalize plenty foreign companies. But instead of letting dem run proper, e dash control of these firms give ein relatives and close padi dem—wey quickly use am do corruption and chop company assets clean. For 1973–1974, Mobutu start one big “Zairianization” program, take over more foreign businesses and hand dem to Zairians. But e no end there. By October 1973, de Arab oil shock come crash global economy—the same one wey don dey grow steady since 1945. One serious side effect be say copper price fall by 50% in 1974, and since copper na Zaire ein number one export, e hit dem hard. As American historian Thomas Odom talk, Zaire shift from “prosperity to bankruptcy almost overnight.” Because de economy break down, Zaire run go International Monetary Fund (IMF) for help to manage dem debt, but when IMF dig into dem books, dem discover heavy corruption. Mobutu come waka go China for 1974, take inspiration from Cultural Revolution. E come back wearing Mao jacket and call himself “Citoyen Mobutu” or “Citizen Mobutu.” E say he go “radicalize de Zairian revolution.” Di same businesses wey e first give to Zairians, Mobutu come collect dem back, nationalize everything under full state control. As if dat no do, e cut government workers ein salaries by 50%, wey provoke one failed coup attempt against am for June 1975. By 1977, Mobutu ein earlier move to nationalize foreign businesses don backfire hard—e economy don fall serious, and e no get choice but to beg foreign investors come back. But before e fit recover, Katangan rebels wey base for Angola storm Zaire dat same year, as payback for Mobutu ein support to anti-MPLA fighters. France respond quick—dem airlift 1,500 Moroccan paratroopers into Zaire, push de rebels back, and end di crisis wey dem call ''Shaba I''. But no long after, for 1978, de rebels regroup with even more numbers and invade again—this time na ''Shaba II''. Belgium and France come deploy troops again, backed by US logistics, and dem manage stop de attack once more. Mobutu get big embarrassment from how badly de Zairian Army perform for both invasions—e need foreign help to fight small rebel forces. Yet, instead of reforming de army, e just reduce am from 51,000 troops in 1978 to 23,000 by 1980. By dat time, about 90% of de army be Ngbandi—Mobutu ein own ethnic group—’cos e no trust other ethnic groups with weapons. De most loyal and strongest force Mobutu get be ein bodyguards—the ''Special Presidential Division''—trained by Israel, made up only of Ngbandi, and always led by Mobutu ein relative. Mobutu win election again for 1977 and 1984, but nobody dey run against am. E use most of ein time dey build ein own fortune, and by 1988, dem estimate say ein money reach no less than $50 million. Most of de money e hide am abroad, especially for Swiss banks—but when dem remove am later, dem only find small $3.4 million there. Funny enough, ein fortune nearly match de whole country ein foreign debt dat time. One time for 20 May 1976, Mobutu talk for stadium wey hold like 70,000 people for Kinshasa. E talk say, “If you wan thief, thief small and style am nice. But if you thief too much to turn rich fast-fast, dem go catch you.” By 1989, Zaire govment no fit pay dem loans again from Belgium. Mobutu dey ride in fleet of Mercedes-Benz from one palace to another, while roads dey spoil and people dey hungry. Workers no dey get pay for months, ’cos de national money dey disappear go Mobutu, ein family, and top political plus army people. Na only Special Presidential Division wey dey protect Mobutu wey dem dey pay correct and on time. Dem even get saying wey go like dis: “De civil servants dey pretend say dem dey work, while de state dey pretend say e dey pay dem.” De national army—Forces Armées Zaïroises (FAZ)—no get morale at all. Salaries no dey come, living conditions bad, supplies no dey, and officers dey chop people. De army soldiers just turn like armed thieves—dey rob civilians anyhow. Roadblocks full everywhere, and dem dey extort money from anybody wey dey pass with car or truck. Mobutu ein poor handling of de economy cause serious inflation wey mess up de value of people dem salaries. As money value dey drop fast, plenty public servants start dey do their own way—corruption plus dishonesty turn daily survival style for workers all across de system. Mobutu himself live large. E cruise for de Congo River inside ein yacht, Kamanyola. For Gbadolite, e build one huge mansion wey people dey call “Versailles of de jungle.” Anytime e wan go shopping for Paris, e go charter Air France ein Concorde jet. E even build Gbadolite Airport with long runway make Concorde fit land and take off there. For 1989 alone, e use dat jet fly go give speech for United Nations in New York, attend de French bicentennial party as President François Mitterrand ein guest, and carry Zaire youth choir from Paris to Gbadolite, then fly go Marseille—all with Concorde. Mobutu also get villa for French Riviera wey dem call ''Villa del Mere''. Ein whole leadership style come be example of real kleptocracy and nepotism. Mobutu dey put ein Ngbandi tribe people plus close relatives for top positions inside de military and govment. E dey groom ein first-born son, Nyiwa, to take over presidency from am, but Nyiwa die from AIDS for 1994. Mobutu rule be one of de longest autocracies for Africa. E stash over $50 million from Congo ein natural resources, while ordinary people dey suffer. E form one totalitarian system wey break plenty human rights, try wipe out Belgian influence from de country, and still hold strong anti-communist position to gain favor from international powers. Mobutu ein personality cult reach levels wey few leaders for history fit match. De evening news go start with video wey show am dey descend from cloud top like some god figure. Ein face full public places everywhere—portrait hang for walls, and govment workers dey wear lapel pins wey carry ein photo. Dem give am plenty grand titles: “Father of de Nation,” “Messiah,” “Guide of de Revolution,” “Helmsman,” “Founder,” “Savior of de People,” and “Supreme Combatant.” For de 1996 documentary about de legendary 1974 Foreman–Ali boxing match wey happen for Zaire, you go hear dancers chant “Sese Seko, Sese Seko!” as dem welcome de fighters—na clear sign of how deep e presence dey everywhere, even inside pop culture moments. For early 1975, e reach point wey Mobutu no gree make media call anybody ein name—only Mobutu fit be called by name, everybody else dem just refer to dem position. E really build one kind system wey make am look like dem no fit mention Congo without mention am. Mobutu take advantage proper of de Cold War tension wey dey between de European countries plus de United States. He win strong support from de West plus dem international organizations like de International Monetary Fund (IMF). === Space program === For late 1970s, one West Germany company called OTRAG dey work on satellite launch wey dem talk say be peaceful mission to reduce cost. But because of one 1954 amendment to de Treaty of Brussels, dem no fit build or launch missile insyd Germany. So dem pay Mobutu $130 million make dem run de program for Zaire. For one 1978 agreement, Mobutu dash OTRAG 25 years lease for land insyd Zaire. De first rocket, OTRAG-1, launch on 18 May 1977 wey Mobutu dey watch from far. E take off well but e crash back down shortly after. By 6 June 1978, dem launch two more rockets but dem crash again for Zaire. Still, Mobutu push de program say over 200 Zairians dey work for there and say Zaire go benefit from royalties when dem begin sell rocket. But two years later, Soviet Union accuse de program say former Nazi scientists dey involved plus say dem dey use am spy for military reason. Mobutu gree to Soviet pressure, end de project, plus cut ties with OTRAG. === Foreign policy === Main article: Foreign policy of de Mobutu Sese Seko administration ==== Relations plus Belgium ==== De relationship wey dey between Zaire and Belgium under Mobutu time dey mix — sometimes dem be paddy, other times dem turn real enemies. Most of de time, Belgian leaders no really react strong even when Mobutu do tins wey no favour Belgium; dis be partly because de Belgian political side demself no dey united. From early Mobutu rule, yawa start between dem because of plenty Belgian businesses wey dey Congo. But things cool small after. For 1968, Mobutu and ein family go Belgium as special guest of de Belgian king, and dat same year dem sign one science plus technical agreement. For 1970, King Baudouin visit Kinshasa and everybody hail am; dem even sign treaty of friendship and cooperation. But Mobutu tear dis same treaty insyd 1974 because Belgium no gree ban one anti-Mobutu book wey Jules Chomé, one left-wing lawyer, write. Mobutu e "Zairianisation" policy, wey be say he seize foreign businesses and give dem to Zairians, make matters worse. Even though yawa dey, Mobutu still get personal friendship with some top Belgians. He admire Edmond Leburton, wey be Belgian prime minister (1973–1974), and he be paddy to Alfred Cahen, one diplomat wey Mobutu meet from his Brussels university days. Mobutu and King Baudouin too dey cool until Mobutu leak one handwritten letter from de king — after dat, palace shut door gidi-gidi. Because of dis, Mobutu no get invitation go de king ein funeral; only Saddam Hussein from Iraq join am for dat black list. Apart from Belgians wey dey Belgium, Mobutu keep Belgian advisors close — like Hugues Leclercq and Colonel Willy Mallants, wey even show for Thierry Michel ein documentary ''Mobutu, King of Zaire''. ==== Relations plus France ==== As Zaire be de second most populous French-speaking country for de world by den (plus now e even pass France sef) and de biggest one for sub-Saharan Africa, France see am as one big strategic paddy. During de First Republic time, France mostly support conservative and federalist people, no be de unitarist dem like Lumumba. Right after dem crush de Katangan secession, Zaire (wey dem dey call Republic of de Congo by den) sign technical plus cultural cooperation treaty plus France. Under Charles de Gaulle ein presidency, di two countries start bond tight because dem share plenty geopolitical interests. For 1971, France ein Finance Minister, Valéry Giscard d’Estaing, visit Zaire. Later when he turn France ein president, he and Mobutu become close pals, and France turn Mobutu ein strong foreign ally. During de Shaba invasions, France no dull — dem stand full support for Mobutu. For de first Shaba wahala, France carry 1,500 Moroccan troops come Zaire by airlift; dem help drive de rebels. One year later, as de second Shaba invasion land, France and Belgium both send French Foreign Legion paratroopers (2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment) come help Mobutu fight dem off. ==== Relations plus de People ein Republic of China ==== At de beginning, Zaire ein relationship plus de People's Republic of China no better pass how e dey with Soviet Union. Mobutu still dey remember how China help Mulele plus some Maoist rebels wey fight for Kwilu province during de Simba Rebellion wahala. E no dey like make China get seat for United Nations too. But by 1972, Mobutu start dey see China inna new way — like one balance wey go fit check Soviet Union power and even balance ein own close relationship plus United States, Israel, and South Africa. So for November 1972, Mobutu gree recognize China as one country diplomatically (plus East Germany and North Korea join body). Di next year, Mobutu fly go Beijing, meet chairman Mao Zedong, and dem promise am $100 million technical aid. For 1983, when Chinese Prime Minister Zhao Ziyang come visit Zaire, he talk say make Mobutu no worry repay de $100 million — e be gift. For 1974, Mobutu surprise everybody as e travel go China plus North Korea, even though originally dem plan say e go visit Soviet Union. As e return come Zaire, ein politics den de way e dey talk turn more radical. Na dis time Mobutu start bash Belgium plus United States — e vex say America no dey do enough to fight white minority rule for South Africa and Rhodesia. E introduce one new civic duty program wey dem call ''salongo'' — everybody must do compulsory national work. E sana bring "radicalization" wey be extension of de 1973 ''Zairianization'' policy, wey take foreign-owned things give to locals. Mobutu even borrow title from Mao — "de Helmsman". Around dis same time, from late 1974 to early 1975, ein personality cult reach peak — everywhere na Mobutu name, face, den slogan. China plus Zaire get one common target for Central Africa: make dem stop Soviet Union from gain any stronghold for dat side. So dem join hand undercover take support National Liberation Front of Angola (later dem support UNITA too) make dem block MPLA — de People's Movement for de Liberation of Angola — wey Soviet Union plus Cuba dey back. Cuba get big power for Africa dat time, as dem dey help all left-wing, anti-imperialist groups, and Soviet dey sponsor dem heavy. China invite Holden Roberto, wey be de leader of de National Liberation Front of Angola, plus ein guerilla fighters go Beijing make dem train. Dem also give dem weapons plus money. Zaire sef try enter Angola first, try put their own friendly government for power, but Cuban soldiers push dem back. De invasion no work — e be big wahala wey lead to Shaba I and Shaba II invasions later. China no support dis rebels at all; dem even send weapons go support Zaire during both invasions. China come accuse Soviet Union plus Cuba say dem dey behind de Shaba rebel trouble, say dem dey try scatter peace for Central Africa — even though nobody sure whether Soviet plus Cuba really dey involved or no. '''Relations''' '''plus de Soviet Union''' Mobutu ein relationship plus Soviet Union no be cool koraa. He be hard-core anti-communist, so he no dey rush go recognize de Soviets. USSR bin support—tho e be mostly in words—both Patrice Lumumba, Mobutu ein democratically elected predecessor, plus de Simba rebellion. However, to make e look like say he no dey side any bloc, he renew ties for 1967; de first Soviet ambassador come land and present ein credentials for 1968. Mobutu still join United States condemn de Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia dat year. Mobutu take de Soviet presence as advantage for two reasons: e help am keep de image say he be non-aligned leader, plus e give am better excuse to blame things wey dey go wrong for house. Like for 1970, he expel four Soviet diplomats say dem dey do “subversive activities,” and for 1971, he declare twenty Soviet officials as persona non grata say dem dey spark student demonstrations for Lovanium University. Moscow be de only big world capital wey Mobutu never go before, even tho he accept invitation go dey for 1974. But for reasons wey nobody know, he cancel de visit last minute, then go tour de People's Republic of China plus North Korea instead. Relations cool more for 1975, as de two countries come dey opposite sides for de Angolan Civil War. Dis one take strong toll on Zaire ein foreign policy for de next ten years; since Mobutu no fit claim say he be African leader again (he be one of de few leaders wey no gree recognize de Marxist govment of Angola), Mobutu come turn more toward US plus dem allies. He start dey support America dem stand for things like de Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, plus Israel ein position for international organizations. '''Relations''' '''plus de United States''' Most times, Zaire enjoy warm relationship plus United States. US be de third biggest country wey dey give aid to Zaire (after Belgium and France), and Mobutu be paddy man to plenty US presidents like Richard Nixon, Ronald Reagan, plus George H. W. Bush. But around 1974–1975, de relationship cool small as Mobutu start talk radical things (he bash US foreign policy hard). For 1975 summer, e even reach de worst point as Mobutu accuse CIA say dem dey plan overthrown am, come arrest eleven big Zairian generals plus some civilians, den sentence one former Central Bank boss (Albert Ndele) for absentia. But plenty people no believe say de plot be real; some like Mobutu ein strong critic Nzongola-Ntalaja talk say Mobutu just create de story to take chance sack any military man wey fit challenge am later. Still, even with all dis wahala, de cold vibe no last long—de two countries come unite again as dem dey support de same side for de Angolan Civil War. Sake of say Mobutu no dey respect human rights, de Carter government try keep small distance from de Kinshasa government. But still, Zaire chop nearly half of all de foreign aid wey Carter give to sub-Saharan Africa. During de first Shaba invasion, US no really do plenty; dem just deliver some supplies wey no be weapon. But for de second Shaba invasion, US come show stronger support—dem help transport plus organize logistics for de French and Belgian paratroopers wey come help Mobutu fight de rebels. Carter even support Mobutu ein talk say Soviet Union plus Cuba dey back de rebels, even though no evidence come prove am. For 1980, US House of Representatives vote make dem stop military aid to Zaire, but US Senate come bring am back after Carter plus US business people wey get interest for Zaire pressure dem. bx5clx82dnbizcftxjlsty4fy9hkj8q 69094 69093 2025-07-05T21:28:24Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69094 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu wa za Banga''' ; born '''Joseph-Désiré Mobutu'''; 14 October 1930 – 7 September 1997), people dey call am Mobutu Sese Seko or Mobutu and sana known by ein initials MSS, e be Congolese politician plus military officer wey be de first and only president of Zaire from 1971 to 1997. Before dat, Mobutu serve as de second president of de Democratic Republic of de Congo, from 1965 to 1971. E sana serve as de fifth chairperson of de Organisation of African Unity from 1967 to 1968. During de Congo Crisis insyd 1960, Mobutu, wey den be Chief of Staff insyd de Congolese Army, commot de nation ein democratically elected govment of Patrice Lumumba plus support from de U.S. and Belgium. Mobutu put govment insyd wey arrange make dem execute Lumumba for 1961, and e continue dey lead de country ein armed forces till e take power direct insyd another coup for 1965. To make sure say power no escape am, he create de Popular Movement of de Revolution as de only correct political party for 1967, change Congo ein name go Zaire for 1971, plus e own name turn Mobutu Sese Seko for 1972. Mobutu protect ein rule under hard autocratic regime and end up dey rule during time wey human rights violations spread everywhere. E try purge de country from all colonial culture tins through ein "national authenticity" program. Mobutu turn de main person wey everybody dey hype like say na cult of personality he dey carry. Mobutu talk say ein political ideology no be "left", no be "right", and no be "centre" too, but people mostly know am say e dey against communism for de Françafrique zone. Because of dat, United States, France, plus Belgium support am well-well—dem dash am military, diplomatic, and economic backing. E still build tight link plus apartheid South Africa, Israel, plus de Greek junta dem. Mobutu get strong name for corruption plus nepotism: dem talk say ein personal wealth fit reach from $50 million go $5 billion, all na from economic exploitation plus corruption as president. Some people call ein govment kleptocracy, ’cos e dey pile ein own money while Zaire ein economy suffer—plenty inflation, big debt, and serious currency wahala. E too known for ein flashy lifestyle, like how e dey fly go Paris on top de fast-fast Concorde jet just to do shopping. By 1990, as de economy start dey spoil plus tension dey rise, dem force Mobutu Sese Seko make e enter coalition plus political opponents and agree make dem do multiparty system. Even though e use ein soldiers try block de change, de movement no gree stop. By May 1997, rebel dem wey Laurent-Désiré Kabila lead take over de country and push Mobutu go exile. E already dey battle prostate cancer wey hard, so three months later, e die for Morocco. == Biography == === Early years den education === Mobutu, wey come from de Ngbandi ethnic group, dem born am for 1930 insyd Lisala, Belgian Congo. Mobutu ein mommie, Marie Madeleine Yemo, be hotel maid wey run go Lisala make she escape one local village chief ein harem. Na there she jam Albéric Gbemani, cook wey dey work for one Belgian judge, den she marry am. Not long after, she born Mobutu. Na one uncle pick de name “Mobutu” give am. Gbemani die when Mobutu be just eight years. After dat, one uncle plus ein grandfather raise am. De Belgian judge ein wife take fine eye see Mobutu, so she teach am how to speak, read plus write French well-well, wey be de official language of de colony. Ein mommie Yemo wey be widow, lean on family help to take care of her four pikin dem, and dem dey move from place to place often. Mobutu ein first schooling happen for capital town Léopoldville (wey now dem dey call Kinshasa). Later, ein mommie send am go ein uncle for Coquilhatville (now Mbandaka), where e attend Christian Brothers School, one Catholic-mission boarding school. Mobutu shine for books top and even run de class newspaper. People still know am for ein stubborn pranks and sharp small-boy sense of humor. One classmate remember say anytime de Belgian priests—wey ein main language be Dutch—make mistake for French, Mobutu go jump from ein seat for class top and point out de error sharp. For 1949, Mobutu sneak enter one boat wey dey go downriver to Léopoldville, where e jam one girl. Some weeks later, de priests find am. As school year end, instead of dem send am go prison, dem order make e serve seven years insyd de colonial army, Force Publique (FP). Dat kind punishment na normal tin for students wey dey act stubborn. === Army service === Mobutu find discipline for army life top, and e see father figure insyd Sergeant Louis Bobozo. Mobutu no stop ein studies—e dey borrow European newspapers from de Belgian officers plus pick books from anywhere e fit find, then e go read dem during sentry duty or any small chance e get. De ones wey e like pass be de writings of French president Charles de Gaulle, British prime minister Winston Churchill, plus de Italian Renaissance philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli. After e pass one course for accounting, Mobutu start small-small dey do journalism work proper. Still vexed about how e and de school priests jam wahala, e no marry for church. De only thing e fit bring for de wedding enjoyment be one crate of beer—na all ein army salary fit buy. === Early political involvement === As soldier, Mobutu dey write politics matter under fake name for Actualités Africaines (African News), one magazine wey one Belgian colonial set up. For 1956, e comot from army and turn full-time journalist, dey write for Léopoldville daily L'Avenir. Two years later, e go Belgium to report de 1958 World Exposition, then e stay back make e learn journalism better. By dis time, Mobutu don meet plenty young Congolese intellectuals wey dey challenge colonial rule. E come build friendship plus Patrice Lumumba and join Lumumba ein party—Congolese National Movement (MNC). Mobutu later become Lumumba ein personal aide. Some people wey know de matter talk say Belgian intelligence fit don recruit Mobutu as informant give de government. During de 1960 talks wey happen for Brussels about Congolese independence, de US embassy organize one reception give de Congolese delegation. Each embassy staff get list of delegates wey dem suppose meet, and later dem come talk about de people dem meet. De ambassador talk say, “One name just dey pop up steady. But nobody get am for ein list 'cos e no be official delegation member—e be Lumumba ein secretary. But everybody agree say dis guy get strong brain, e be young, maybe small immature, but e get big future ahead.” After de general election, dem assign Lumumba make e form govment. E give Mobutu de position of Secretary of State to de Presidency. Mobutu carry plenty weight for deciding de rest of de govment people. But after independence land, e no fit see Lumumba one-on-one again like before, 'cos de new prime minister start dey busy plus plenty aides and colleagues surround am. From there, both of dem slowly start drift apart. === Congo Crisis === Main article: Congo Crisis On 5 July 1960, soldiers of de Force Publique wey dey Camp Léopold II for Léopoldville vex over dem all-white leaders and bad working conditions, so dem rise mutiny. Di revolt spread go other places sharp-sharp. Mobutu join other officials talk to de mutineers so dem fit free de officers plus dem families. Then on 8 July, de full Council of Ministers gather for one special meeting under President Joseph Kasa-Vubu ein chairmanship for Camp Léopold II to face de matter of Africanising de garrison. De ministers start dey argue who go fit take de top job as army chief of staff. Two people wey stand out be Minister of Youth and Sports Maurice Mpolo, plus Mobutu. Mpolo don already show say e get some control over de soldiers wey dey mutiny, but Kasa-Vubu plus de Bakongo ministers fear say if dem give am power, e fit run coup. Mobutu on de other hand, people see am as cool-head wey dey think before e act. Lumumba respect Mpolo for ein boldness, but e prefer Mobutu ein cautious style. As de argument go on, de cabinet start split based on who dem support to be chief of staff. Lumumba no wan lose any of de two camps, so e try keep both men for ein team. In de end, dem give Mobutu de position and promote am to colonel. Next day, govment teams comot from de capital to supervise how dem go Africanise de army; Mobutu own assignment na for Équateur. While Mobutu dey there, Mpolo begin act as ANC Chief of Staff. Mobutu no happy at all with dat move, so when e return to de capital, e face Lumumba inside cabinet meeting and tell am plain: “Either I no deserve am and you gots sack me, or I do de mission well and I go keep my rank plus position.” De British diplomat Brian Urquhart, wey dey work plus de United Nations, yarn say: “When I first meet Mobutu for July 1960, e be Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba ein chief military assistant and e just promote himself from sergeant go lieutenant-colonel. Compared to ein boss, Mobutu be like pillar of common sense and sharp reasoning. Na to am we go when Lumumba ein hashish-high guards arrest our people. Na Mobutu too dey casually bring up Lumumba ein wild requests—like say make UN pay salary give Congolese army wey fit mutiny. For dem early days, Mobutu look like reasonable young man, wey maybe, just maybe, dey reason good for ein new independent country.” Backed by Belgian govment wey wan still hold tight to de rich Congolese mines, secessionist violence burst out for south. As UN soldiers wey dem send come restore order no dey help crush de secession, Lumumba go turn to Soviet Union for help. Inside six weeks, e receive serious military aid plus about thousand Soviet technical advisers. Since na Cold War time, US govment fear say dis Soviet move be trick to spread communist power for Central Africa. US and Belgium come ginger Kasa-Vubu make e sack Lumumba, and on 5 September, e do am. Lumumba vex rough and say Kasa-Vubu no be president again. Parliament no gree sack any of dem, instead dem beg for reconciliation, but no headway. Lumumba plus Kasa-Vubu each tell Mobutu make e arrest de other one. As Army Chief of Staff, Mobutu start face heavy pressure from all angle. Western countries' embassies—wey dey pay soldiers salary—plus Kasa-Vubu and Mobutu ein own men, all dem want make Soviet people pack. So on 14 September, Mobutu do coup wey no draw blood, announce say both Kasa-Vubu and Lumumba dey “neutralised” and form one new govment of university graduates—dem call am College of Commissioners-General. Lumumba no accept am but dem force am retire go ein house, where UN peacekeepers block Mobutu ein soldiers make dem no arrest am. Urquhart talk say on de coup day, Mobutu just waka enter UN headquarters for Léopoldville without invite and no gree comot till radio announce de coup; na dat time Mobutu begin repeat “C’est moi!”—“Na me!” Urquhart realise say Mobutu just land there in case de coup mess up, so e tell am to comot. As confidence drop say de international community go support am come back to power, Lumumba run commot for late November go meet ein supporters for Stanleyville to form new govment. Early December, Mobutu ein soldiers catch am, then keep am for ein base insyd Thysville. But Mobutu still see am as danger, so on 17 January 1961, e move Lumumba go de rebel State of Katanga. From dat point, nobody see Lumumba again. Later dem find out say same day wey dem move am, de secessionist forces under Moise Tshombe execute am, after Mobutu ein govment hand am over. On 23 January 1961, Kasa-Vubu promote Mobutu go major-general. One historian, De Witte, talk say na political move wey aim to make de army stronger, since na de president ein only support, and to boost Mobutu ein stand inside de army. For 1964, Pierre Mulele lead some fighters start another rebellion. Dem fast take over two-thirds of Congo. Mobutu lead de Congolese army respond, and by 1965, dem take back de whole land. === Second ''coup'' and consolidation of power === Sanso see: Second Mobutu coup d'état Prime Minister Moise Tshombe ein party, de Congolese National Convention, win big majority for March 1965 elections, but Kasa-Vubu appoint Évariste Kimba, one anti-Tshombe man, as prime minister-designate. Parliament no gree approve am two times. As de govment almost jam dead end, Mobutu take over power through coup wey no draw blood on 24 November—he just turn 35 one month before. Under one system wey dem call state of exception (regime d'exception), Mobutu grab full—almost absolute—power for five years. For ein first speech after e take power, Mobutu talk give big crowd for Léopoldville main stadium say, since na politicians spoil Congo within five years, e go need at least dat same time to fix am. So, for dat reason, no political party go do anything for five years. On 30 November 1965, Parliament pass law wey give Mobutu plus ein cabinet most of de legislative powers, but still hold small power to check ein decrees. By early March 1966, when Parliament start new session, Mobutu announce say he dey cancel dat review power, and two weeks after, ein govment shutdown Parliament for good and collect all de remaining authority. At de start, Mobutu ein govment come out like say e no dey into politics—or even dey against am. People begin see “politician” as bad word, wey mean person wey wicked or corrupt. For 1966, dem set up de Corps of Volunteers of de Republic, one strong frontline group wey aim to gather plenty public support behind Mobutu. Na same year dem hail am as de country ein “Second National Hero” after Lumumba. Even though Mobutu play role for how Lumumba commot power, e try package himself like person wey dey carry Lumumba ein legacy continue. One of de key things wey Mobutu dey preach for early part of ein rule be “authentic Congolese nationalism”. Na dat 1966 too e begin change city names wey get European roots to names wey sound more African—na so Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Stanleyville become Kisangani, and Élisabethville change to Lubumbashi. Then for 1967, Mobutu bring out de Popular Movement of de Revolution (MPR). From dat time go reach 1990, na only dat party dem dey allow for politics. Inside de MPR ein beliefs—wey dem write for Manifesto of N'Sele—dem push nationalism, revolution, plus “authenticity”. Dem describe revolution as “truly national and very practical,” wey reject both capitalism and communism. One popular slogan from de MPR be “Neither left nor right,” and later dem add “nor even center” join. That same year, all de trade unions dem join body into one single union—National Union of Zairian Workers—and de govment take full control over am. Mobutu plan say de union no go operate on ein own, but rather support govment policy like tool. From dat time till 1991, any independent trade union be illegal. As e face plenty wahala for de beginning of ein rule, Mobutu use favour-sharing (patronage) win over most of ein opposition; de ones wey no gree, e handle dem rough. For 1966, four cabinet members chop arrest because dem say dem join plan coup. Military court try dem case, then dem do public execution wey over 50,000 people watch live for open ground. Former Katangan gendarmeries wey rise also face Mobutu ein force and dem smash dem down—same as de Stanleyville mutinies of 1967 wey white mercenaries lead. By 1970, almost all de people wey fit challenge Mobutu power don fall, and for most parts of de country, law plus order start dey show face. That 1970 be de peak time of Mobutu ein power and respect. For 1970, King Baudouin of Belgium come Kinshasa do big state visit wey go well. Dat same year, dem hold presidential plus legislative elections. Even though de constitution say two parties fit dey, na only MPR dem allow nominate candidates. For de presidential election, Mobutu be de only person wey run. Voting no dey private; if you support Mobutu, you go drop green paper, but if you no dey support am, na red paper you go use. Green vote mean say you dey vote for hope, while red vote mean chaos. Under dat kind condition, de result no be surprise—official result talk say Mobutu win with almost everybody behind am, collect 10,131,669 votes, and only 157 people say “no”. Later dem come find out say over 30,500 more votes appear pass de number of voters wey register. Dem run de legislative elections same style. People get just one list from MPR; official result talk say unbelievable 98.33% people vote for de MPR list. As Mobutu dey cement ein power, e build different military groups wey na only to protect am dem dey. These groups include de Special Presidential Division, Civil Guard plus Service for Action, and Military Intelligence (SNIP). === Authenticity campaign === Main article: Authenticité (Zaire) Mobutu start big campaign wey promote African culture wey dem call ''authenticité''. As part of am, on 1 June 1966, e begin change city names wey show colonial past—Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Elisabethville change to Lubumbashi, and Stanleyville become Kisangani. For October 1971, e change de country ein name to Republic of Zaire. E order people make dem drop dem European names for African ones, and warn priests say if dem baptize Zairian pikin plus European name, dem go chop five years for prison. Western dressing and neck tie come dey banned, and men must wear one Mao-style tunic dem dey call ''abacost'' (short for ''à bas le costume'' wey mean “down with de suit”). Even Christmas move from December go June because Mobutu say dat one be more “authentic” date. Then for 1972, Mobutu follow ein own rule from previous year and change ein name to Mobutu Sese Seko Nkuku Ngbendu Wa Za Banga (wey mean “De all-powerful warrior wey, because of ein endurance and strong will to win, dey move from victory to victory, and leave fire behind”). Around dat time, e drop de army uniform and start wear ein signature look—tall and commanding, plus walking stick, abacost, thick glasses, and leopard-skin cap wey dem sew for Paris. For 1974, new constitution land wey tighten Mobutu ein hold on de country. Dis constitution talk say MPR be de “single institution” for de nation. Dem even define am as “de nation politically organized”—which mean say de state just be machine wey dey push party agenda. Every citizen automatically turn MPR member from de moment dem born. De constitution explain say de MPR dey inside de body of de party ein president, wey dem dey elect every seven years during national convention. But at de same time, dat same president automatically turn de only person wey go run for president of de country. Den dem go use referendum confirm am. De document come turn Mobutu ein emergency powers wey e dey use since 1965 into legal backing; e give am full authority—wey dem write as “plenitude of power exercise”—so all power now dey Mobutu ein hand. Mobutu win election three times under dis system, and each time, dem talk say e win with over 98 percent of de votes. For de legislative side, dem dey bring one single MPR list every five years, and de results dey show crazy numbers—either everybody vote for dem, or almost everybody. One of dem elections for 1975, dem no even vote at all—dem just show candidates around public places make people clap give dem. Dat one na how voting be. == One-man rule == Mobutu start use public executions early insyd ein rule to stamp ein power well-well. Any political rival, secessionist, coup planner, or anybody wey e see as threat, e go deal with dem hard. Many of dem people chop hanging for front big crowd. One serious example be former Prime Minister Évariste Kimba. Mobutu govment carry Kimba plus three of ein cabinet members—Jérôme Anany (Defense Minister), Emmanuel Bamba (Finance Minister), and Alexandre Mahamba (Minister of Mines and Energy)—put for trial May 1966. By 30 May, dem hang all four men in front of over 50,000 people. Dem say dem dey link up plus Colonel Alphonse Bangala and Major Pierre Efomi to run coup. Mobutu come talk say, “One had to strike through a spectacular example, and create the conditions of regime discipline. When a chief takes a decision, he decides – period.” Then for 1968, Pierre Mulele—Lumumba ein Education Minister and big rebel during de 1964 Simba uprising—Mobutu people trick am come out from exile for Brazzaville by telling am say amnesty go dey. But instead of peace, dem torture and kill am bad. Before Mulele die, dem gouge ein eyes, tear off ein genitals, and cut off ein limbs one by one. Mobutu later change ein strategy—e start dey buy political opponents instead of always use force. E like repeat one slogan: “Keep your friends close, but your enemies closer still,” to show how e dey use bribe pull rivals to ein side. One trick wey Mobutu really enjoy be “musical chairs”—e dey rotate ministers like game, change cabinet list anyhow, so nobody go build power wey fit threaten am. From November 1965 to April 1997, Mobutu reshuffle cabinet 60 times. Dis constant shuffle put fear inside ministers, because everybody know say Mobutu go change people anyhow, no matter whether you dey work well or not. Because ministers no sabi how long dem go last for position, e lead to serious stealing—everybody dey rush grab wetin dem fit while dem still dey office. Mobutu still dey arrest, even torture, some dissident govment members—then later forgive dem and even give dem bigger posts. E be like e just use power play confuse everybody. Congolese historian Emizet F. Kisangani talk say plenty public officials believe say no matter how corrupt or useless dem be, dem fit come back to govment position. To hold post no require management skill or clean conscience. In fact, if you too correct or too honest, dem see you as obstacle. Wetin Mobutu want be total loyalty in exchange for chance to chop money. By 1970, reports talk say Mobutu don carry 60% of de national budget enter ein pocket—people begin see am as one of de most corrupt leaders for Africa and de whole world. Kisangani add say Mobutu build full system of corruption wey spoil public values and reward greed and selfishness. Mobutu no slow down with de self-promotion moves—man try for 1972 make dem crown am president for life, but that one no land well. Then for June 1983, e raise himself go military top-top level as Marshal. Na General Likulia Bolongo sign dat order. Shortly after, Victor Nendaka Bika—de number two man for country as Vice-President of de Bureau of de Central Committee—drop one big speech full of praise give Mobutu. To chop revenue from Congo ein natural resources, Mobutu first chase out European investors and nationalize plenty foreign companies. But instead of letting dem run proper, e dash control of these firms give ein relatives and close padi dem—wey quickly use am do corruption and chop company assets clean. For 1973–1974, Mobutu start one big “Zairianization” program, take over more foreign businesses and hand dem to Zairians. But e no end there. By October 1973, de Arab oil shock come crash global economy—the same one wey don dey grow steady since 1945. One serious side effect be say copper price fall by 50% in 1974, and since copper na Zaire ein number one export, e hit dem hard. As American historian Thomas Odom talk, Zaire shift from “prosperity to bankruptcy almost overnight.” Because de economy break down, Zaire run go International Monetary Fund (IMF) for help to manage dem debt, but when IMF dig into dem books, dem discover heavy corruption. Mobutu come waka go China for 1974, take inspiration from Cultural Revolution. E come back wearing Mao jacket and call himself “Citoyen Mobutu” or “Citizen Mobutu.” E say he go “radicalize de Zairian revolution.” Di same businesses wey e first give to Zairians, Mobutu come collect dem back, nationalize everything under full state control. As if dat no do, e cut government workers ein salaries by 50%, wey provoke one failed coup attempt against am for June 1975. By 1977, Mobutu ein earlier move to nationalize foreign businesses don backfire hard—e economy don fall serious, and e no get choice but to beg foreign investors come back. But before e fit recover, Katangan rebels wey base for Angola storm Zaire dat same year, as payback for Mobutu ein support to anti-MPLA fighters. France respond quick—dem airlift 1,500 Moroccan paratroopers into Zaire, push de rebels back, and end di crisis wey dem call ''Shaba I''. But no long after, for 1978, de rebels regroup with even more numbers and invade again—this time na ''Shaba II''. Belgium and France come deploy troops again, backed by US logistics, and dem manage stop de attack once more. Mobutu get big embarrassment from how badly de Zairian Army perform for both invasions—e need foreign help to fight small rebel forces. Yet, instead of reforming de army, e just reduce am from 51,000 troops in 1978 to 23,000 by 1980. By dat time, about 90% of de army be Ngbandi—Mobutu ein own ethnic group—’cos e no trust other ethnic groups with weapons. De most loyal and strongest force Mobutu get be ein bodyguards—the ''Special Presidential Division''—trained by Israel, made up only of Ngbandi, and always led by Mobutu ein relative. Mobutu win election again for 1977 and 1984, but nobody dey run against am. E use most of ein time dey build ein own fortune, and by 1988, dem estimate say ein money reach no less than $50 million. Most of de money e hide am abroad, especially for Swiss banks—but when dem remove am later, dem only find small $3.4 million there. Funny enough, ein fortune nearly match de whole country ein foreign debt dat time. One time for 20 May 1976, Mobutu talk for stadium wey hold like 70,000 people for Kinshasa. E talk say, “If you wan thief, thief small and style am nice. But if you thief too much to turn rich fast-fast, dem go catch you.” By 1989, Zaire govment no fit pay dem loans again from Belgium. Mobutu dey ride in fleet of Mercedes-Benz from one palace to another, while roads dey spoil and people dey hungry. Workers no dey get pay for months, ’cos de national money dey disappear go Mobutu, ein family, and top political plus army people. Na only Special Presidential Division wey dey protect Mobutu wey dem dey pay correct and on time. Dem even get saying wey go like dis: “De civil servants dey pretend say dem dey work, while de state dey pretend say e dey pay dem.” De national army—Forces Armées Zaïroises (FAZ)—no get morale at all. Salaries no dey come, living conditions bad, supplies no dey, and officers dey chop people. De army soldiers just turn like armed thieves—dey rob civilians anyhow. Roadblocks full everywhere, and dem dey extort money from anybody wey dey pass with car or truck. Mobutu ein poor handling of de economy cause serious inflation wey mess up de value of people dem salaries. As money value dey drop fast, plenty public servants start dey do their own way—corruption plus dishonesty turn daily survival style for workers all across de system. Mobutu himself live large. E cruise for de Congo River inside ein yacht, Kamanyola. For Gbadolite, e build one huge mansion wey people dey call “Versailles of de jungle.” Anytime e wan go shopping for Paris, e go charter Air France ein Concorde jet. E even build Gbadolite Airport with long runway make Concorde fit land and take off there. For 1989 alone, e use dat jet fly go give speech for United Nations in New York, attend de French bicentennial party as President François Mitterrand ein guest, and carry Zaire youth choir from Paris to Gbadolite, then fly go Marseille—all with Concorde. Mobutu also get villa for French Riviera wey dem call ''Villa del Mere''. Ein whole leadership style come be example of real kleptocracy and nepotism. Mobutu dey put ein Ngbandi tribe people plus close relatives for top positions inside de military and govment. E dey groom ein first-born son, Nyiwa, to take over presidency from am, but Nyiwa die from AIDS for 1994. Mobutu rule be one of de longest autocracies for Africa. E stash over $50 million from Congo ein natural resources, while ordinary people dey suffer. E form one totalitarian system wey break plenty human rights, try wipe out Belgian influence from de country, and still hold strong anti-communist position to gain favor from international powers. Mobutu ein personality cult reach levels wey few leaders for history fit match. De evening news go start with video wey show am dey descend from cloud top like some god figure. Ein face full public places everywhere—portrait hang for walls, and govment workers dey wear lapel pins wey carry ein photo. Dem give am plenty grand titles: “Father of de Nation,” “Messiah,” “Guide of de Revolution,” “Helmsman,” “Founder,” “Savior of de People,” and “Supreme Combatant.” For de 1996 documentary about de legendary 1974 Foreman–Ali boxing match wey happen for Zaire, you go hear dancers chant “Sese Seko, Sese Seko!” as dem welcome de fighters—na clear sign of how deep e presence dey everywhere, even inside pop culture moments. For early 1975, e reach point wey Mobutu no gree make media call anybody ein name—only Mobutu fit be called by name, everybody else dem just refer to dem position. E really build one kind system wey make am look like dem no fit mention Congo without mention am. Mobutu take advantage proper of de Cold War tension wey dey between de European countries plus de United States. He win strong support from de West plus dem international organizations like de International Monetary Fund (IMF). === Space program === For late 1970s, one West Germany company called OTRAG dey work on satellite launch wey dem talk say be peaceful mission to reduce cost. But because of one 1954 amendment to de Treaty of Brussels, dem no fit build or launch missile insyd Germany. So dem pay Mobutu $130 million make dem run de program for Zaire. For one 1978 agreement, Mobutu dash OTRAG 25 years lease for land insyd Zaire. De first rocket, OTRAG-1, launch on 18 May 1977 wey Mobutu dey watch from far. E take off well but e crash back down shortly after. By 6 June 1978, dem launch two more rockets but dem crash again for Zaire. Still, Mobutu push de program say over 200 Zairians dey work for there and say Zaire go benefit from royalties when dem begin sell rocket. But two years later, Soviet Union accuse de program say former Nazi scientists dey involved plus say dem dey use am spy for military reason. Mobutu gree to Soviet pressure, end de project, plus cut ties with OTRAG. === Foreign policy === Main article: Foreign policy of de Mobutu Sese Seko administration ==== Relations plus Belgium ==== De relationship wey dey between Zaire and Belgium under Mobutu time dey mix — sometimes dem be paddy, other times dem turn real enemies. Most of de time, Belgian leaders no really react strong even when Mobutu do tins wey no favour Belgium; dis be partly because de Belgian political side demself no dey united. From early Mobutu rule, yawa start between dem because of plenty Belgian businesses wey dey Congo. But things cool small after. For 1968, Mobutu and ein family go Belgium as special guest of de Belgian king, and dat same year dem sign one science plus technical agreement. For 1970, King Baudouin visit Kinshasa and everybody hail am; dem even sign treaty of friendship and cooperation. But Mobutu tear dis same treaty insyd 1974 because Belgium no gree ban one anti-Mobutu book wey Jules Chomé, one left-wing lawyer, write. Mobutu e "Zairianisation" policy, wey be say he seize foreign businesses and give dem to Zairians, make matters worse. Even though yawa dey, Mobutu still get personal friendship with some top Belgians. He admire Edmond Leburton, wey be Belgian prime minister (1973–1974), and he be paddy to Alfred Cahen, one diplomat wey Mobutu meet from his Brussels university days. Mobutu and King Baudouin too dey cool until Mobutu leak one handwritten letter from de king — after dat, palace shut door gidi-gidi. Because of dis, Mobutu no get invitation go de king ein funeral; only Saddam Hussein from Iraq join am for dat black list. Apart from Belgians wey dey Belgium, Mobutu keep Belgian advisors close — like Hugues Leclercq and Colonel Willy Mallants, wey even show for Thierry Michel ein documentary ''Mobutu, King of Zaire''. ==== Relations plus France ==== As Zaire be de second most populous French-speaking country for de world by den (plus now e even pass France sef) and de biggest one for sub-Saharan Africa, France see am as one big strategic paddy. During de First Republic time, France mostly support conservative and federalist people, no be de unitarist dem like Lumumba. Right after dem crush de Katangan secession, Zaire (wey dem dey call Republic of de Congo by den) sign technical plus cultural cooperation treaty plus France. Under Charles de Gaulle ein presidency, di two countries start bond tight because dem share plenty geopolitical interests. For 1971, France ein Finance Minister, Valéry Giscard d’Estaing, visit Zaire. Later when he turn France ein president, he and Mobutu become close pals, and France turn Mobutu ein strong foreign ally. During de Shaba invasions, France no dull — dem stand full support for Mobutu. For de first Shaba wahala, France carry 1,500 Moroccan troops come Zaire by airlift; dem help drive de rebels. One year later, as de second Shaba invasion land, France and Belgium both send French Foreign Legion paratroopers (2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment) come help Mobutu fight dem off. ==== Relations plus de People ein Republic of China ==== At de beginning, Zaire ein relationship plus de People's Republic of China no better pass how e dey with Soviet Union. Mobutu still dey remember how China help Mulele plus some Maoist rebels wey fight for Kwilu province during de Simba Rebellion wahala. E no dey like make China get seat for United Nations too. But by 1972, Mobutu start dey see China inna new way — like one balance wey go fit check Soviet Union power and even balance ein own close relationship plus United States, Israel, and South Africa. So for November 1972, Mobutu gree recognize China as one country diplomatically (plus East Germany and North Korea join body). Di next year, Mobutu fly go Beijing, meet chairman Mao Zedong, and dem promise am $100 million technical aid. For 1983, when Chinese Prime Minister Zhao Ziyang come visit Zaire, he talk say make Mobutu no worry repay de $100 million — e be gift. For 1974, Mobutu surprise everybody as e travel go China plus North Korea, even though originally dem plan say e go visit Soviet Union. As e return come Zaire, ein politics den de way e dey talk turn more radical. Na dis time Mobutu start bash Belgium plus United States — e vex say America no dey do enough to fight white minority rule for South Africa and Rhodesia. E introduce one new civic duty program wey dem call ''salongo'' — everybody must do compulsory national work. E sana bring "radicalization" wey be extension of de 1973 ''Zairianization'' policy, wey take foreign-owned things give to locals. Mobutu even borrow title from Mao — "de Helmsman". Around dis same time, from late 1974 to early 1975, ein personality cult reach peak — everywhere na Mobutu name, face, den slogan. China plus Zaire get one common target for Central Africa: make dem stop Soviet Union from gain any stronghold for dat side. So dem join hand undercover take support National Liberation Front of Angola (later dem support UNITA too) make dem block MPLA — de People's Movement for de Liberation of Angola — wey Soviet Union plus Cuba dey back. Cuba get big power for Africa dat time, as dem dey help all left-wing, anti-imperialist groups, and Soviet dey sponsor dem heavy. China invite Holden Roberto, wey be de leader of de National Liberation Front of Angola, plus ein guerilla fighters go Beijing make dem train. Dem also give dem weapons plus money. Zaire sef try enter Angola first, try put their own friendly government for power, but Cuban soldiers push dem back. De invasion no work — e be big wahala wey lead to Shaba I and Shaba II invasions later. China no support dis rebels at all; dem even send weapons go support Zaire during both invasions. China come accuse Soviet Union plus Cuba say dem dey behind de Shaba rebel trouble, say dem dey try scatter peace for Central Africa — even though nobody sure whether Soviet plus Cuba really dey involved or no. '''Relations''' '''plus de Soviet Union''' Mobutu ein relationship plus Soviet Union no be cool koraa. He be hard-core anti-communist, so he no dey rush go recognize de Soviets. USSR bin support—tho e be mostly in words—both Patrice Lumumba, Mobutu ein democratically elected predecessor, plus de Simba rebellion. However, to make e look like say he no dey side any bloc, he renew ties for 1967; de first Soviet ambassador come land and present ein credentials for 1968. Mobutu still join United States condemn de Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia dat year. Mobutu take de Soviet presence as advantage for two reasons: e help am keep de image say he be non-aligned leader, plus e give am better excuse to blame things wey dey go wrong for house. Like for 1970, he expel four Soviet diplomats say dem dey do “subversive activities,” and for 1971, he declare twenty Soviet officials as persona non grata say dem dey spark student demonstrations for Lovanium University. Moscow be de only big world capital wey Mobutu never go before, even tho he accept invitation go dey for 1974. But for reasons wey nobody know, he cancel de visit last minute, then go tour de People's Republic of China plus North Korea instead. Relations cool more for 1975, as de two countries come dey opposite sides for de Angolan Civil War. Dis one take strong toll on Zaire ein foreign policy for de next ten years; since Mobutu no fit claim say he be African leader again (he be one of de few leaders wey no gree recognize de Marxist govment of Angola), Mobutu come turn more toward US plus dem allies. He start dey support America dem stand for things like de Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, plus Israel ein position for international organizations. '''Relations''' '''plus de United States''' Most times, Zaire enjoy warm relationship plus United States. US be de third biggest country wey dey give aid to Zaire (after Belgium and France), and Mobutu be paddy man to plenty US presidents like Richard Nixon, Ronald Reagan, plus George H. W. Bush. But around 1974–1975, de relationship cool small as Mobutu start talk radical things (he bash US foreign policy hard). For 1975 summer, e even reach de worst point as Mobutu accuse CIA say dem dey plan overthrown am, come arrest eleven big Zairian generals plus some civilians, den sentence one former Central Bank boss (Albert Ndele) for absentia. But plenty people no believe say de plot be real; some like Mobutu ein strong critic Nzongola-Ntalaja talk say Mobutu just create de story to take chance sack any military man wey fit challenge am later. Still, even with all dis wahala, de cold vibe no last long—de two countries come unite again as dem dey support de same side for de Angolan Civil War. Sake of say Mobutu no dey respect human rights, de Carter government try keep small distance from de Kinshasa government. But still, Zaire chop nearly half of all de foreign aid wey Carter give to sub-Saharan Africa. During de first Shaba invasion, US no really do plenty; dem just deliver some supplies wey no be weapon. But for de second Shaba invasion, US come show stronger support—dem help transport plus organize logistics for de French and Belgian paratroopers wey come help Mobutu fight de rebels. Carter even support Mobutu ein talk say Soviet Union plus Cuba dey back de rebels, even though no evidence come prove am. For 1980, US House of Representatives vote make dem stop military aid to Zaire, but US Senate come bring am back after Carter plus US business people wey get interest for Zaire pressure dem. Mobutu get very warm relationship plus Reagan ein government, especially through money dem dey give am. During Reagan ein time, Mobutu go White House three times, and US no really bash am about de way he dey treat human rights for ein country. When Mobutu visit America for 1983, Reagan talk say Mobutu be “voice of good sense and goodwill.” Mobutu still get friendly relationship plus Reagan ein replacement, George H. W. Bush. Mobutu even be de first African president wey go visit Bush for White House. But things change sharp sharp after Cold War end. Since Soviet Union no dey again, US and Western countries no see reason again to support Mobutu sake of communism fight. Dem start dey pressure am make he open up de country to democracy. Mobutu vex say US change attitude towards am. He talk say: “I be de latest victim of de cold war, US no need me again. De lesson be say all my support for US policy no mean anything.” For 1993, when Mobutu try come Washington, US State Department bounce am, dem no give am visa. Mobutu still get some American friends wey no dey government side. One be televangelist Pat Robertson, wey promise say he go try beg US government make dem lift de ban on Mobutu. q0m208u0fd52psr3k3vdull6q7120zu 69095 69094 2025-07-05T21:28:55Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69095 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu wa za Banga''' ; born '''Joseph-Désiré Mobutu'''; 14 October 1930 – 7 September 1997), people dey call am Mobutu Sese Seko or Mobutu and sana known by ein initials MSS, e be Congolese politician plus military officer wey be de first and only president of Zaire from 1971 to 1997. Before dat, Mobutu serve as de second president of de Democratic Republic of de Congo, from 1965 to 1971. E sana serve as de fifth chairperson of de Organisation of African Unity from 1967 to 1968. During de Congo Crisis insyd 1960, Mobutu, wey den be Chief of Staff insyd de Congolese Army, commot de nation ein democratically elected govment of Patrice Lumumba plus support from de U.S. and Belgium. Mobutu put govment insyd wey arrange make dem execute Lumumba for 1961, and e continue dey lead de country ein armed forces till e take power direct insyd another coup for 1965. To make sure say power no escape am, he create de Popular Movement of de Revolution as de only correct political party for 1967, change Congo ein name go Zaire for 1971, plus e own name turn Mobutu Sese Seko for 1972. Mobutu protect ein rule under hard autocratic regime and end up dey rule during time wey human rights violations spread everywhere. E try purge de country from all colonial culture tins through ein "national authenticity" program. Mobutu turn de main person wey everybody dey hype like say na cult of personality he dey carry. Mobutu talk say ein political ideology no be "left", no be "right", and no be "centre" too, but people mostly know am say e dey against communism for de Françafrique zone. Because of dat, United States, France, plus Belgium support am well-well—dem dash am military, diplomatic, and economic backing. E still build tight link plus apartheid South Africa, Israel, plus de Greek junta dem. Mobutu get strong name for corruption plus nepotism: dem talk say ein personal wealth fit reach from $50 million go $5 billion, all na from economic exploitation plus corruption as president. Some people call ein govment kleptocracy, ’cos e dey pile ein own money while Zaire ein economy suffer—plenty inflation, big debt, and serious currency wahala. E too known for ein flashy lifestyle, like how e dey fly go Paris on top de fast-fast Concorde jet just to do shopping. By 1990, as de economy start dey spoil plus tension dey rise, dem force Mobutu Sese Seko make e enter coalition plus political opponents and agree make dem do multiparty system. Even though e use ein soldiers try block de change, de movement no gree stop. By May 1997, rebel dem wey Laurent-Désiré Kabila lead take over de country and push Mobutu go exile. E already dey battle prostate cancer wey hard, so three months later, e die for Morocco. == Biography == === Early years den education === Mobutu, wey come from de Ngbandi ethnic group, dem born am for 1930 insyd Lisala, Belgian Congo. Mobutu ein mommie, Marie Madeleine Yemo, be hotel maid wey run go Lisala make she escape one local village chief ein harem. Na there she jam Albéric Gbemani, cook wey dey work for one Belgian judge, den she marry am. Not long after, she born Mobutu. Na one uncle pick de name “Mobutu” give am. Gbemani die when Mobutu be just eight years. After dat, one uncle plus ein grandfather raise am. De Belgian judge ein wife take fine eye see Mobutu, so she teach am how to speak, read plus write French well-well, wey be de official language of de colony. Ein mommie Yemo wey be widow, lean on family help to take care of her four pikin dem, and dem dey move from place to place often. Mobutu ein first schooling happen for capital town Léopoldville (wey now dem dey call Kinshasa). Later, ein mommie send am go ein uncle for Coquilhatville (now Mbandaka), where e attend Christian Brothers School, one Catholic-mission boarding school. Mobutu shine for books top and even run de class newspaper. People still know am for ein stubborn pranks and sharp small-boy sense of humor. One classmate remember say anytime de Belgian priests—wey ein main language be Dutch—make mistake for French, Mobutu go jump from ein seat for class top and point out de error sharp. For 1949, Mobutu sneak enter one boat wey dey go downriver to Léopoldville, where e jam one girl. Some weeks later, de priests find am. As school year end, instead of dem send am go prison, dem order make e serve seven years insyd de colonial army, Force Publique (FP). Dat kind punishment na normal tin for students wey dey act stubborn. === Army service === Mobutu find discipline for army life top, and e see father figure insyd Sergeant Louis Bobozo. Mobutu no stop ein studies—e dey borrow European newspapers from de Belgian officers plus pick books from anywhere e fit find, then e go read dem during sentry duty or any small chance e get. De ones wey e like pass be de writings of French president Charles de Gaulle, British prime minister Winston Churchill, plus de Italian Renaissance philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli. After e pass one course for accounting, Mobutu start small-small dey do journalism work proper. Still vexed about how e and de school priests jam wahala, e no marry for church. De only thing e fit bring for de wedding enjoyment be one crate of beer—na all ein army salary fit buy. === Early political involvement === As soldier, Mobutu dey write politics matter under fake name for Actualités Africaines (African News), one magazine wey one Belgian colonial set up. For 1956, e comot from army and turn full-time journalist, dey write for Léopoldville daily L'Avenir. Two years later, e go Belgium to report de 1958 World Exposition, then e stay back make e learn journalism better. By dis time, Mobutu don meet plenty young Congolese intellectuals wey dey challenge colonial rule. E come build friendship plus Patrice Lumumba and join Lumumba ein party—Congolese National Movement (MNC). Mobutu later become Lumumba ein personal aide. Some people wey know de matter talk say Belgian intelligence fit don recruit Mobutu as informant give de government. During de 1960 talks wey happen for Brussels about Congolese independence, de US embassy organize one reception give de Congolese delegation. Each embassy staff get list of delegates wey dem suppose meet, and later dem come talk about de people dem meet. De ambassador talk say, “One name just dey pop up steady. But nobody get am for ein list 'cos e no be official delegation member—e be Lumumba ein secretary. But everybody agree say dis guy get strong brain, e be young, maybe small immature, but e get big future ahead.” After de general election, dem assign Lumumba make e form govment. E give Mobutu de position of Secretary of State to de Presidency. Mobutu carry plenty weight for deciding de rest of de govment people. But after independence land, e no fit see Lumumba one-on-one again like before, 'cos de new prime minister start dey busy plus plenty aides and colleagues surround am. From there, both of dem slowly start drift apart. === Congo Crisis === Main article: Congo Crisis On 5 July 1960, soldiers of de Force Publique wey dey Camp Léopold II for Léopoldville vex over dem all-white leaders and bad working conditions, so dem rise mutiny. Di revolt spread go other places sharp-sharp. Mobutu join other officials talk to de mutineers so dem fit free de officers plus dem families. Then on 8 July, de full Council of Ministers gather for one special meeting under President Joseph Kasa-Vubu ein chairmanship for Camp Léopold II to face de matter of Africanising de garrison. De ministers start dey argue who go fit take de top job as army chief of staff. Two people wey stand out be Minister of Youth and Sports Maurice Mpolo, plus Mobutu. Mpolo don already show say e get some control over de soldiers wey dey mutiny, but Kasa-Vubu plus de Bakongo ministers fear say if dem give am power, e fit run coup. Mobutu on de other hand, people see am as cool-head wey dey think before e act. Lumumba respect Mpolo for ein boldness, but e prefer Mobutu ein cautious style. As de argument go on, de cabinet start split based on who dem support to be chief of staff. Lumumba no wan lose any of de two camps, so e try keep both men for ein team. In de end, dem give Mobutu de position and promote am to colonel. Next day, govment teams comot from de capital to supervise how dem go Africanise de army; Mobutu own assignment na for Équateur. While Mobutu dey there, Mpolo begin act as ANC Chief of Staff. Mobutu no happy at all with dat move, so when e return to de capital, e face Lumumba inside cabinet meeting and tell am plain: “Either I no deserve am and you gots sack me, or I do de mission well and I go keep my rank plus position.” De British diplomat Brian Urquhart, wey dey work plus de United Nations, yarn say: “When I first meet Mobutu for July 1960, e be Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba ein chief military assistant and e just promote himself from sergeant go lieutenant-colonel. Compared to ein boss, Mobutu be like pillar of common sense and sharp reasoning. Na to am we go when Lumumba ein hashish-high guards arrest our people. Na Mobutu too dey casually bring up Lumumba ein wild requests—like say make UN pay salary give Congolese army wey fit mutiny. For dem early days, Mobutu look like reasonable young man, wey maybe, just maybe, dey reason good for ein new independent country.” Backed by Belgian govment wey wan still hold tight to de rich Congolese mines, secessionist violence burst out for south. As UN soldiers wey dem send come restore order no dey help crush de secession, Lumumba go turn to Soviet Union for help. Inside six weeks, e receive serious military aid plus about thousand Soviet technical advisers. Since na Cold War time, US govment fear say dis Soviet move be trick to spread communist power for Central Africa. US and Belgium come ginger Kasa-Vubu make e sack Lumumba, and on 5 September, e do am. Lumumba vex rough and say Kasa-Vubu no be president again. Parliament no gree sack any of dem, instead dem beg for reconciliation, but no headway. Lumumba plus Kasa-Vubu each tell Mobutu make e arrest de other one. As Army Chief of Staff, Mobutu start face heavy pressure from all angle. Western countries' embassies—wey dey pay soldiers salary—plus Kasa-Vubu and Mobutu ein own men, all dem want make Soviet people pack. So on 14 September, Mobutu do coup wey no draw blood, announce say both Kasa-Vubu and Lumumba dey “neutralised” and form one new govment of university graduates—dem call am College of Commissioners-General. Lumumba no accept am but dem force am retire go ein house, where UN peacekeepers block Mobutu ein soldiers make dem no arrest am. Urquhart talk say on de coup day, Mobutu just waka enter UN headquarters for Léopoldville without invite and no gree comot till radio announce de coup; na dat time Mobutu begin repeat “C’est moi!”—“Na me!” Urquhart realise say Mobutu just land there in case de coup mess up, so e tell am to comot. As confidence drop say de international community go support am come back to power, Lumumba run commot for late November go meet ein supporters for Stanleyville to form new govment. Early December, Mobutu ein soldiers catch am, then keep am for ein base insyd Thysville. But Mobutu still see am as danger, so on 17 January 1961, e move Lumumba go de rebel State of Katanga. From dat point, nobody see Lumumba again. Later dem find out say same day wey dem move am, de secessionist forces under Moise Tshombe execute am, after Mobutu ein govment hand am over. On 23 January 1961, Kasa-Vubu promote Mobutu go major-general. One historian, De Witte, talk say na political move wey aim to make de army stronger, since na de president ein only support, and to boost Mobutu ein stand inside de army. For 1964, Pierre Mulele lead some fighters start another rebellion. Dem fast take over two-thirds of Congo. Mobutu lead de Congolese army respond, and by 1965, dem take back de whole land. === Second ''coup'' and consolidation of power === Sanso see: Second Mobutu coup d'état Prime Minister Moise Tshombe ein party, de Congolese National Convention, win big majority for March 1965 elections, but Kasa-Vubu appoint Évariste Kimba, one anti-Tshombe man, as prime minister-designate. Parliament no gree approve am two times. As de govment almost jam dead end, Mobutu take over power through coup wey no draw blood on 24 November—he just turn 35 one month before. Under one system wey dem call state of exception (regime d'exception), Mobutu grab full—almost absolute—power for five years. For ein first speech after e take power, Mobutu talk give big crowd for Léopoldville main stadium say, since na politicians spoil Congo within five years, e go need at least dat same time to fix am. So, for dat reason, no political party go do anything for five years. On 30 November 1965, Parliament pass law wey give Mobutu plus ein cabinet most of de legislative powers, but still hold small power to check ein decrees. By early March 1966, when Parliament start new session, Mobutu announce say he dey cancel dat review power, and two weeks after, ein govment shutdown Parliament for good and collect all de remaining authority. At de start, Mobutu ein govment come out like say e no dey into politics—or even dey against am. People begin see “politician” as bad word, wey mean person wey wicked or corrupt. For 1966, dem set up de Corps of Volunteers of de Republic, one strong frontline group wey aim to gather plenty public support behind Mobutu. Na same year dem hail am as de country ein “Second National Hero” after Lumumba. Even though Mobutu play role for how Lumumba commot power, e try package himself like person wey dey carry Lumumba ein legacy continue. One of de key things wey Mobutu dey preach for early part of ein rule be “authentic Congolese nationalism”. Na dat 1966 too e begin change city names wey get European roots to names wey sound more African—na so Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Stanleyville become Kisangani, and Élisabethville change to Lubumbashi. Then for 1967, Mobutu bring out de Popular Movement of de Revolution (MPR). From dat time go reach 1990, na only dat party dem dey allow for politics. Inside de MPR ein beliefs—wey dem write for Manifesto of N'Sele—dem push nationalism, revolution, plus “authenticity”. Dem describe revolution as “truly national and very practical,” wey reject both capitalism and communism. One popular slogan from de MPR be “Neither left nor right,” and later dem add “nor even center” join. That same year, all de trade unions dem join body into one single union—National Union of Zairian Workers—and de govment take full control over am. Mobutu plan say de union no go operate on ein own, but rather support govment policy like tool. From dat time till 1991, any independent trade union be illegal. As e face plenty wahala for de beginning of ein rule, Mobutu use favour-sharing (patronage) win over most of ein opposition; de ones wey no gree, e handle dem rough. For 1966, four cabinet members chop arrest because dem say dem join plan coup. Military court try dem case, then dem do public execution wey over 50,000 people watch live for open ground. Former Katangan gendarmeries wey rise also face Mobutu ein force and dem smash dem down—same as de Stanleyville mutinies of 1967 wey white mercenaries lead. By 1970, almost all de people wey fit challenge Mobutu power don fall, and for most parts of de country, law plus order start dey show face. That 1970 be de peak time of Mobutu ein power and respect. For 1970, King Baudouin of Belgium come Kinshasa do big state visit wey go well. Dat same year, dem hold presidential plus legislative elections. Even though de constitution say two parties fit dey, na only MPR dem allow nominate candidates. For de presidential election, Mobutu be de only person wey run. Voting no dey private; if you support Mobutu, you go drop green paper, but if you no dey support am, na red paper you go use. Green vote mean say you dey vote for hope, while red vote mean chaos. Under dat kind condition, de result no be surprise—official result talk say Mobutu win with almost everybody behind am, collect 10,131,669 votes, and only 157 people say “no”. Later dem come find out say over 30,500 more votes appear pass de number of voters wey register. Dem run de legislative elections same style. People get just one list from MPR; official result talk say unbelievable 98.33% people vote for de MPR list. As Mobutu dey cement ein power, e build different military groups wey na only to protect am dem dey. These groups include de Special Presidential Division, Civil Guard plus Service for Action, and Military Intelligence (SNIP). === Authenticity campaign === Main article: Authenticité (Zaire) Mobutu start big campaign wey promote African culture wey dem call ''authenticité''. As part of am, on 1 June 1966, e begin change city names wey show colonial past—Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Elisabethville change to Lubumbashi, and Stanleyville become Kisangani. For October 1971, e change de country ein name to Republic of Zaire. E order people make dem drop dem European names for African ones, and warn priests say if dem baptize Zairian pikin plus European name, dem go chop five years for prison. Western dressing and neck tie come dey banned, and men must wear one Mao-style tunic dem dey call ''abacost'' (short for ''à bas le costume'' wey mean “down with de suit”). Even Christmas move from December go June because Mobutu say dat one be more “authentic” date. Then for 1972, Mobutu follow ein own rule from previous year and change ein name to Mobutu Sese Seko Nkuku Ngbendu Wa Za Banga (wey mean “De all-powerful warrior wey, because of ein endurance and strong will to win, dey move from victory to victory, and leave fire behind”). Around dat time, e drop de army uniform and start wear ein signature look—tall and commanding, plus walking stick, abacost, thick glasses, and leopard-skin cap wey dem sew for Paris. For 1974, new constitution land wey tighten Mobutu ein hold on de country. Dis constitution talk say MPR be de “single institution” for de nation. Dem even define am as “de nation politically organized”—which mean say de state just be machine wey dey push party agenda. Every citizen automatically turn MPR member from de moment dem born. De constitution explain say de MPR dey inside de body of de party ein president, wey dem dey elect every seven years during national convention. But at de same time, dat same president automatically turn de only person wey go run for president of de country. Den dem go use referendum confirm am. De document come turn Mobutu ein emergency powers wey e dey use since 1965 into legal backing; e give am full authority—wey dem write as “plenitude of power exercise”—so all power now dey Mobutu ein hand. Mobutu win election three times under dis system, and each time, dem talk say e win with over 98 percent of de votes. For de legislative side, dem dey bring one single MPR list every five years, and de results dey show crazy numbers—either everybody vote for dem, or almost everybody. One of dem elections for 1975, dem no even vote at all—dem just show candidates around public places make people clap give dem. Dat one na how voting be. == One-man rule == Mobutu start use public executions early insyd ein rule to stamp ein power well-well. Any political rival, secessionist, coup planner, or anybody wey e see as threat, e go deal with dem hard. Many of dem people chop hanging for front big crowd. One serious example be former Prime Minister Évariste Kimba. Mobutu govment carry Kimba plus three of ein cabinet members—Jérôme Anany (Defense Minister), Emmanuel Bamba (Finance Minister), and Alexandre Mahamba (Minister of Mines and Energy)—put for trial May 1966. By 30 May, dem hang all four men in front of over 50,000 people. Dem say dem dey link up plus Colonel Alphonse Bangala and Major Pierre Efomi to run coup. Mobutu come talk say, “One had to strike through a spectacular example, and create the conditions of regime discipline. When a chief takes a decision, he decides – period.” Then for 1968, Pierre Mulele—Lumumba ein Education Minister and big rebel during de 1964 Simba uprising—Mobutu people trick am come out from exile for Brazzaville by telling am say amnesty go dey. But instead of peace, dem torture and kill am bad. Before Mulele die, dem gouge ein eyes, tear off ein genitals, and cut off ein limbs one by one. Mobutu later change ein strategy—e start dey buy political opponents instead of always use force. E like repeat one slogan: “Keep your friends close, but your enemies closer still,” to show how e dey use bribe pull rivals to ein side. One trick wey Mobutu really enjoy be “musical chairs”—e dey rotate ministers like game, change cabinet list anyhow, so nobody go build power wey fit threaten am. From November 1965 to April 1997, Mobutu reshuffle cabinet 60 times. Dis constant shuffle put fear inside ministers, because everybody know say Mobutu go change people anyhow, no matter whether you dey work well or not. Because ministers no sabi how long dem go last for position, e lead to serious stealing—everybody dey rush grab wetin dem fit while dem still dey office. Mobutu still dey arrest, even torture, some dissident govment members—then later forgive dem and even give dem bigger posts. E be like e just use power play confuse everybody. Congolese historian Emizet F. Kisangani talk say plenty public officials believe say no matter how corrupt or useless dem be, dem fit come back to govment position. To hold post no require management skill or clean conscience. In fact, if you too correct or too honest, dem see you as obstacle. Wetin Mobutu want be total loyalty in exchange for chance to chop money. By 1970, reports talk say Mobutu don carry 60% of de national budget enter ein pocket—people begin see am as one of de most corrupt leaders for Africa and de whole world. Kisangani add say Mobutu build full system of corruption wey spoil public values and reward greed and selfishness. Mobutu no slow down with de self-promotion moves—man try for 1972 make dem crown am president for life, but that one no land well. Then for June 1983, e raise himself go military top-top level as Marshal. Na General Likulia Bolongo sign dat order. Shortly after, Victor Nendaka Bika—de number two man for country as Vice-President of de Bureau of de Central Committee—drop one big speech full of praise give Mobutu. To chop revenue from Congo ein natural resources, Mobutu first chase out European investors and nationalize plenty foreign companies. But instead of letting dem run proper, e dash control of these firms give ein relatives and close padi dem—wey quickly use am do corruption and chop company assets clean. For 1973–1974, Mobutu start one big “Zairianization” program, take over more foreign businesses and hand dem to Zairians. But e no end there. By October 1973, de Arab oil shock come crash global economy—the same one wey don dey grow steady since 1945. One serious side effect be say copper price fall by 50% in 1974, and since copper na Zaire ein number one export, e hit dem hard. As American historian Thomas Odom talk, Zaire shift from “prosperity to bankruptcy almost overnight.” Because de economy break down, Zaire run go International Monetary Fund (IMF) for help to manage dem debt, but when IMF dig into dem books, dem discover heavy corruption. Mobutu come waka go China for 1974, take inspiration from Cultural Revolution. E come back wearing Mao jacket and call himself “Citoyen Mobutu” or “Citizen Mobutu.” E say he go “radicalize de Zairian revolution.” Di same businesses wey e first give to Zairians, Mobutu come collect dem back, nationalize everything under full state control. As if dat no do, e cut government workers ein salaries by 50%, wey provoke one failed coup attempt against am for June 1975. By 1977, Mobutu ein earlier move to nationalize foreign businesses don backfire hard—e economy don fall serious, and e no get choice but to beg foreign investors come back. But before e fit recover, Katangan rebels wey base for Angola storm Zaire dat same year, as payback for Mobutu ein support to anti-MPLA fighters. France respond quick—dem airlift 1,500 Moroccan paratroopers into Zaire, push de rebels back, and end di crisis wey dem call ''Shaba I''. But no long after, for 1978, de rebels regroup with even more numbers and invade again—this time na ''Shaba II''. Belgium and France come deploy troops again, backed by US logistics, and dem manage stop de attack once more. Mobutu get big embarrassment from how badly de Zairian Army perform for both invasions—e need foreign help to fight small rebel forces. Yet, instead of reforming de army, e just reduce am from 51,000 troops in 1978 to 23,000 by 1980. By dat time, about 90% of de army be Ngbandi—Mobutu ein own ethnic group—’cos e no trust other ethnic groups with weapons. De most loyal and strongest force Mobutu get be ein bodyguards—the ''Special Presidential Division''—trained by Israel, made up only of Ngbandi, and always led by Mobutu ein relative. Mobutu win election again for 1977 and 1984, but nobody dey run against am. E use most of ein time dey build ein own fortune, and by 1988, dem estimate say ein money reach no less than $50 million. Most of de money e hide am abroad, especially for Swiss banks—but when dem remove am later, dem only find small $3.4 million there. Funny enough, ein fortune nearly match de whole country ein foreign debt dat time. One time for 20 May 1976, Mobutu talk for stadium wey hold like 70,000 people for Kinshasa. E talk say, “If you wan thief, thief small and style am nice. But if you thief too much to turn rich fast-fast, dem go catch you.” By 1989, Zaire govment no fit pay dem loans again from Belgium. Mobutu dey ride in fleet of Mercedes-Benz from one palace to another, while roads dey spoil and people dey hungry. Workers no dey get pay for months, ’cos de national money dey disappear go Mobutu, ein family, and top political plus army people. Na only Special Presidential Division wey dey protect Mobutu wey dem dey pay correct and on time. Dem even get saying wey go like dis: “De civil servants dey pretend say dem dey work, while de state dey pretend say e dey pay dem.” De national army—Forces Armées Zaïroises (FAZ)—no get morale at all. Salaries no dey come, living conditions bad, supplies no dey, and officers dey chop people. De army soldiers just turn like armed thieves—dey rob civilians anyhow. Roadblocks full everywhere, and dem dey extort money from anybody wey dey pass with car or truck. Mobutu ein poor handling of de economy cause serious inflation wey mess up de value of people dem salaries. As money value dey drop fast, plenty public servants start dey do their own way—corruption plus dishonesty turn daily survival style for workers all across de system. Mobutu himself live large. E cruise for de Congo River inside ein yacht, Kamanyola. For Gbadolite, e build one huge mansion wey people dey call “Versailles of de jungle.” Anytime e wan go shopping for Paris, e go charter Air France ein Concorde jet. E even build Gbadolite Airport with long runway make Concorde fit land and take off there. For 1989 alone, e use dat jet fly go give speech for United Nations in New York, attend de French bicentennial party as President François Mitterrand ein guest, and carry Zaire youth choir from Paris to Gbadolite, then fly go Marseille—all with Concorde. Mobutu also get villa for French Riviera wey dem call ''Villa del Mere''. Ein whole leadership style come be example of real kleptocracy and nepotism. Mobutu dey put ein Ngbandi tribe people plus close relatives for top positions inside de military and govment. E dey groom ein first-born son, Nyiwa, to take over presidency from am, but Nyiwa die from AIDS for 1994. Mobutu rule be one of de longest autocracies for Africa. E stash over $50 million from Congo ein natural resources, while ordinary people dey suffer. E form one totalitarian system wey break plenty human rights, try wipe out Belgian influence from de country, and still hold strong anti-communist position to gain favor from international powers. Mobutu ein personality cult reach levels wey few leaders for history fit match. De evening news go start with video wey show am dey descend from cloud top like some god figure. Ein face full public places everywhere—portrait hang for walls, and govment workers dey wear lapel pins wey carry ein photo. Dem give am plenty grand titles: “Father of de Nation,” “Messiah,” “Guide of de Revolution,” “Helmsman,” “Founder,” “Savior of de People,” and “Supreme Combatant.” For de 1996 documentary about de legendary 1974 Foreman–Ali boxing match wey happen for Zaire, you go hear dancers chant “Sese Seko, Sese Seko!” as dem welcome de fighters—na clear sign of how deep e presence dey everywhere, even inside pop culture moments. For early 1975, e reach point wey Mobutu no gree make media call anybody ein name—only Mobutu fit be called by name, everybody else dem just refer to dem position. E really build one kind system wey make am look like dem no fit mention Congo without mention am. Mobutu take advantage proper of de Cold War tension wey dey between de European countries plus de United States. He win strong support from de West plus dem international organizations like de International Monetary Fund (IMF). === Space program === For late 1970s, one West Germany company called OTRAG dey work on satellite launch wey dem talk say be peaceful mission to reduce cost. But because of one 1954 amendment to de Treaty of Brussels, dem no fit build or launch missile insyd Germany. So dem pay Mobutu $130 million make dem run de program for Zaire. For one 1978 agreement, Mobutu dash OTRAG 25 years lease for land insyd Zaire. De first rocket, OTRAG-1, launch on 18 May 1977 wey Mobutu dey watch from far. E take off well but e crash back down shortly after. By 6 June 1978, dem launch two more rockets but dem crash again for Zaire. Still, Mobutu push de program say over 200 Zairians dey work for there and say Zaire go benefit from royalties when dem begin sell rocket. But two years later, Soviet Union accuse de program say former Nazi scientists dey involved plus say dem dey use am spy for military reason. Mobutu gree to Soviet pressure, end de project, plus cut ties with OTRAG. === Foreign policy === Main article: Foreign policy of de Mobutu Sese Seko administration ==== Relations plus Belgium ==== De relationship wey dey between Zaire and Belgium under Mobutu time dey mix — sometimes dem be paddy, other times dem turn real enemies. Most of de time, Belgian leaders no really react strong even when Mobutu do tins wey no favour Belgium; dis be partly because de Belgian political side demself no dey united. From early Mobutu rule, yawa start between dem because of plenty Belgian businesses wey dey Congo. But things cool small after. For 1968, Mobutu and ein family go Belgium as special guest of de Belgian king, and dat same year dem sign one science plus technical agreement. For 1970, King Baudouin visit Kinshasa and everybody hail am; dem even sign treaty of friendship and cooperation. But Mobutu tear dis same treaty insyd 1974 because Belgium no gree ban one anti-Mobutu book wey Jules Chomé, one left-wing lawyer, write. Mobutu e "Zairianisation" policy, wey be say he seize foreign businesses and give dem to Zairians, make matters worse. Even though yawa dey, Mobutu still get personal friendship with some top Belgians. He admire Edmond Leburton, wey be Belgian prime minister (1973–1974), and he be paddy to Alfred Cahen, one diplomat wey Mobutu meet from his Brussels university days. Mobutu and King Baudouin too dey cool until Mobutu leak one handwritten letter from de king — after dat, palace shut door gidi-gidi. Because of dis, Mobutu no get invitation go de king ein funeral; only Saddam Hussein from Iraq join am for dat black list. Apart from Belgians wey dey Belgium, Mobutu keep Belgian advisors close — like Hugues Leclercq and Colonel Willy Mallants, wey even show for Thierry Michel ein documentary ''Mobutu, King of Zaire''. ==== Relations plus France ==== As Zaire be de second most populous French-speaking country for de world by den (plus now e even pass France sef) and de biggest one for sub-Saharan Africa, France see am as one big strategic paddy. During de First Republic time, France mostly support conservative and federalist people, no be de unitarist dem like Lumumba. Right after dem crush de Katangan secession, Zaire (wey dem dey call Republic of de Congo by den) sign technical plus cultural cooperation treaty plus France. Under Charles de Gaulle ein presidency, di two countries start bond tight because dem share plenty geopolitical interests. For 1971, France ein Finance Minister, Valéry Giscard d’Estaing, visit Zaire. Later when he turn France ein president, he and Mobutu become close pals, and France turn Mobutu ein strong foreign ally. During de Shaba invasions, France no dull — dem stand full support for Mobutu. For de first Shaba wahala, France carry 1,500 Moroccan troops come Zaire by airlift; dem help drive de rebels. One year later, as de second Shaba invasion land, France and Belgium both send French Foreign Legion paratroopers (2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment) come help Mobutu fight dem off. ==== Relations plus de People ein Republic of China ==== At de beginning, Zaire ein relationship plus de People's Republic of China no better pass how e dey with Soviet Union. Mobutu still dey remember how China help Mulele plus some Maoist rebels wey fight for Kwilu province during de Simba Rebellion wahala. E no dey like make China get seat for United Nations too. But by 1972, Mobutu start dey see China inna new way — like one balance wey go fit check Soviet Union power and even balance ein own close relationship plus United States, Israel, and South Africa. So for November 1972, Mobutu gree recognize China as one country diplomatically (plus East Germany and North Korea join body). Di next year, Mobutu fly go Beijing, meet chairman Mao Zedong, and dem promise am $100 million technical aid. For 1983, when Chinese Prime Minister Zhao Ziyang come visit Zaire, he talk say make Mobutu no worry repay de $100 million — e be gift. For 1974, Mobutu surprise everybody as e travel go China plus North Korea, even though originally dem plan say e go visit Soviet Union. As e return come Zaire, ein politics den de way e dey talk turn more radical. Na dis time Mobutu start bash Belgium plus United States — e vex say America no dey do enough to fight white minority rule for South Africa and Rhodesia. E introduce one new civic duty program wey dem call ''salongo'' — everybody must do compulsory national work. E sana bring "radicalization" wey be extension of de 1973 ''Zairianization'' policy, wey take foreign-owned things give to locals. Mobutu even borrow title from Mao — "de Helmsman". Around dis same time, from late 1974 to early 1975, ein personality cult reach peak — everywhere na Mobutu name, face, den slogan. China plus Zaire get one common target for Central Africa: make dem stop Soviet Union from gain any stronghold for dat side. So dem join hand undercover take support National Liberation Front of Angola (later dem support UNITA too) make dem block MPLA — de People's Movement for de Liberation of Angola — wey Soviet Union plus Cuba dey back. Cuba get big power for Africa dat time, as dem dey help all left-wing, anti-imperialist groups, and Soviet dey sponsor dem heavy. China invite Holden Roberto, wey be de leader of de National Liberation Front of Angola, plus ein guerilla fighters go Beijing make dem train. Dem also give dem weapons plus money. Zaire sef try enter Angola first, try put their own friendly government for power, but Cuban soldiers push dem back. De invasion no work — e be big wahala wey lead to Shaba I and Shaba II invasions later. China no support dis rebels at all; dem even send weapons go support Zaire during both invasions. China come accuse Soviet Union plus Cuba say dem dey behind de Shaba rebel trouble, say dem dey try scatter peace for Central Africa — even though nobody sure whether Soviet plus Cuba really dey involved or no. '''Relations''' '''plus de Soviet Union''' Mobutu ein relationship plus Soviet Union no be cool koraa. He be hard-core anti-communist, so he no dey rush go recognize de Soviets. USSR bin support—tho e be mostly in words—both Patrice Lumumba, Mobutu ein democratically elected predecessor, plus de Simba rebellion. However, to make e look like say he no dey side any bloc, he renew ties for 1967; de first Soviet ambassador come land and present ein credentials for 1968. Mobutu still join United States condemn de Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia dat year. Mobutu take de Soviet presence as advantage for two reasons: e help am keep de image say he be non-aligned leader, plus e give am better excuse to blame things wey dey go wrong for house. Like for 1970, he expel four Soviet diplomats say dem dey do “subversive activities,” and for 1971, he declare twenty Soviet officials as persona non grata say dem dey spark student demonstrations for Lovanium University. Moscow be de only big world capital wey Mobutu never go before, even tho he accept invitation go dey for 1974. But for reasons wey nobody know, he cancel de visit last minute, then go tour de People's Republic of China plus North Korea instead. Relations cool more for 1975, as de two countries come dey opposite sides for de Angolan Civil War. Dis one take strong toll on Zaire ein foreign policy for de next ten years; since Mobutu no fit claim say he be African leader again (he be one of de few leaders wey no gree recognize de Marxist govment of Angola), Mobutu come turn more toward US plus dem allies. He start dey support America dem stand for things like de Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, plus Israel ein position for international organizations. '''Relations''' '''plus de United States''' Most times, Zaire enjoy warm relationship plus United States. US be de third biggest country wey dey give aid to Zaire (after Belgium and France), and Mobutu be paddy man to plenty US presidents like Richard Nixon, Ronald Reagan, plus George H. W. Bush. But around 1974–1975, de relationship cool small as Mobutu start talk radical things (he bash US foreign policy hard). For 1975 summer, e even reach de worst point as Mobutu accuse CIA say dem dey plan overthrown am, come arrest eleven big Zairian generals plus some civilians, den sentence one former Central Bank boss (Albert Ndele) for absentia. But plenty people no believe say de plot be real; some like Mobutu ein strong critic Nzongola-Ntalaja talk say Mobutu just create de story to take chance sack any military man wey fit challenge am later. Still, even with all dis wahala, de cold vibe no last long—de two countries come unite again as dem dey support de same side for de Angolan Civil War. Sake of say Mobutu no dey respect human rights, de Carter government try keep small distance from de Kinshasa government. But still, Zaire chop nearly half of all de foreign aid wey Carter give to sub-Saharan Africa. During de first Shaba invasion, US no really do plenty; dem just deliver some supplies wey no be weapon. But for de second Shaba invasion, US come show stronger support—dem help transport plus organize logistics for de French and Belgian paratroopers wey come help Mobutu fight de rebels. Carter even support Mobutu ein talk say Soviet Union plus Cuba dey back de rebels, even though no evidence come prove am. For 1980, US House of Representatives vote make dem stop military aid to Zaire, but US Senate come bring am back after Carter plus US business people wey get interest for Zaire pressure dem. Mobutu get very warm relationship plus Reagan ein government, especially through money dem dey give am. During Reagan ein time, Mobutu go White House three times, and US no really bash am about de way he dey treat human rights for ein country. When Mobutu visit America for 1983, Reagan talk say Mobutu be “voice of good sense and goodwill.” Mobutu still get friendly relationship plus Reagan ein replacement, George H. W. Bush. Mobutu even be de first African president wey go visit Bush for White House. But things change sharp sharp after Cold War end. Since Soviet Union no dey again, US and Western countries no see reason again to support Mobutu sake of communism fight. Dem start dey pressure am make he open up de country to democracy. Mobutu vex say US change attitude towards am. He talk say: “I be de latest victim of de cold war, US no need me again. De lesson be say all my support for US policy no mean anything.” For 1993, when Mobutu try come Washington, US State Department bounce am, dem no give am visa. Mobutu still get some American friends wey no dey government side. One be televangelist Pat Robertson, wey promise say he go try beg US government make dem lift de ban on Mobutu. == Coalition government == 75at3190qhqw6aupsi6wicppyajxel4 69096 69095 2025-07-05T21:35:09Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69096 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu wa za Banga''' ; born '''Joseph-Désiré Mobutu'''; 14 October 1930 – 7 September 1997), people dey call am Mobutu Sese Seko or Mobutu and sana known by ein initials MSS, e be Congolese politician plus military officer wey be de first and only president of Zaire from 1971 to 1997. Before dat, Mobutu serve as de second president of de Democratic Republic of de Congo, from 1965 to 1971. E sana serve as de fifth chairperson of de Organisation of African Unity from 1967 to 1968. During de Congo Crisis insyd 1960, Mobutu, wey den be Chief of Staff insyd de Congolese Army, commot de nation ein democratically elected govment of Patrice Lumumba plus support from de U.S. and Belgium. Mobutu put govment insyd wey arrange make dem execute Lumumba for 1961, and e continue dey lead de country ein armed forces till e take power direct insyd another coup for 1965. To make sure say power no escape am, he create de Popular Movement of de Revolution as de only correct political party for 1967, change Congo ein name go Zaire for 1971, plus e own name turn Mobutu Sese Seko for 1972. Mobutu protect ein rule under hard autocratic regime and end up dey rule during time wey human rights violations spread everywhere. E try purge de country from all colonial culture tins through ein "national authenticity" program. Mobutu turn de main person wey everybody dey hype like say na cult of personality he dey carry. Mobutu talk say ein political ideology no be "left", no be "right", and no be "centre" too, but people mostly know am say e dey against communism for de Françafrique zone. Because of dat, United States, France, plus Belgium support am well-well—dem dash am military, diplomatic, and economic backing. E still build tight link plus apartheid South Africa, Israel, plus de Greek junta dem. Mobutu get strong name for corruption plus nepotism: dem talk say ein personal wealth fit reach from $50 million go $5 billion, all na from economic exploitation plus corruption as president. Some people call ein govment kleptocracy, ’cos e dey pile ein own money while Zaire ein economy suffer—plenty inflation, big debt, and serious currency wahala. E too known for ein flashy lifestyle, like how e dey fly go Paris on top de fast-fast Concorde jet just to do shopping. By 1990, as de economy start dey spoil plus tension dey rise, dem force Mobutu Sese Seko make e enter coalition plus political opponents and agree make dem do multiparty system. Even though e use ein soldiers try block de change, de movement no gree stop. By May 1997, rebel dem wey Laurent-Désiré Kabila lead take over de country and push Mobutu go exile. E already dey battle prostate cancer wey hard, so three months later, e die for Morocco. == Biography == === Early years den education === Mobutu, wey come from de Ngbandi ethnic group, dem born am for 1930 insyd Lisala, Belgian Congo. Mobutu ein mommie, Marie Madeleine Yemo, be hotel maid wey run go Lisala make she escape one local village chief ein harem. Na there she jam Albéric Gbemani, cook wey dey work for one Belgian judge, den she marry am. Not long after, she born Mobutu. Na one uncle pick de name “Mobutu” give am. Gbemani die when Mobutu be just eight years. After dat, one uncle plus ein grandfather raise am. De Belgian judge ein wife take fine eye see Mobutu, so she teach am how to speak, read plus write French well-well, wey be de official language of de colony. Ein mommie Yemo wey be widow, lean on family help to take care of her four pikin dem, and dem dey move from place to place often. Mobutu ein first schooling happen for capital town Léopoldville (wey now dem dey call Kinshasa). Later, ein mommie send am go ein uncle for Coquilhatville (now Mbandaka), where e attend Christian Brothers School, one Catholic-mission boarding school. Mobutu shine for books top and even run de class newspaper. People still know am for ein stubborn pranks and sharp small-boy sense of humor. One classmate remember say anytime de Belgian priests—wey ein main language be Dutch—make mistake for French, Mobutu go jump from ein seat for class top and point out de error sharp. For 1949, Mobutu sneak enter one boat wey dey go downriver to Léopoldville, where e jam one girl. Some weeks later, de priests find am. As school year end, instead of dem send am go prison, dem order make e serve seven years insyd de colonial army, Force Publique (FP). Dat kind punishment na normal tin for students wey dey act stubborn. === Army service === Mobutu find discipline for army life top, and e see father figure insyd Sergeant Louis Bobozo. Mobutu no stop ein studies—e dey borrow European newspapers from de Belgian officers plus pick books from anywhere e fit find, then e go read dem during sentry duty or any small chance e get. De ones wey e like pass be de writings of French president Charles de Gaulle, British prime minister Winston Churchill, plus de Italian Renaissance philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli. After e pass one course for accounting, Mobutu start small-small dey do journalism work proper. Still vexed about how e and de school priests jam wahala, e no marry for church. De only thing e fit bring for de wedding enjoyment be one crate of beer—na all ein army salary fit buy. === Early political involvement === As soldier, Mobutu dey write politics matter under fake name for Actualités Africaines (African News), one magazine wey one Belgian colonial set up. For 1956, e comot from army and turn full-time journalist, dey write for Léopoldville daily L'Avenir. Two years later, e go Belgium to report de 1958 World Exposition, then e stay back make e learn journalism better. By dis time, Mobutu don meet plenty young Congolese intellectuals wey dey challenge colonial rule. E come build friendship plus Patrice Lumumba and join Lumumba ein party—Congolese National Movement (MNC). Mobutu later become Lumumba ein personal aide. Some people wey know de matter talk say Belgian intelligence fit don recruit Mobutu as informant give de government. During de 1960 talks wey happen for Brussels about Congolese independence, de US embassy organize one reception give de Congolese delegation. Each embassy staff get list of delegates wey dem suppose meet, and later dem come talk about de people dem meet. De ambassador talk say, “One name just dey pop up steady. But nobody get am for ein list 'cos e no be official delegation member—e be Lumumba ein secretary. But everybody agree say dis guy get strong brain, e be young, maybe small immature, but e get big future ahead.” After de general election, dem assign Lumumba make e form govment. E give Mobutu de position of Secretary of State to de Presidency. Mobutu carry plenty weight for deciding de rest of de govment people. But after independence land, e no fit see Lumumba one-on-one again like before, 'cos de new prime minister start dey busy plus plenty aides and colleagues surround am. From there, both of dem slowly start drift apart. === Congo Crisis === Main article: Congo Crisis On 5 July 1960, soldiers of de Force Publique wey dey Camp Léopold II for Léopoldville vex over dem all-white leaders and bad working conditions, so dem rise mutiny. Di revolt spread go other places sharp-sharp. Mobutu join other officials talk to de mutineers so dem fit free de officers plus dem families. Then on 8 July, de full Council of Ministers gather for one special meeting under President Joseph Kasa-Vubu ein chairmanship for Camp Léopold II to face de matter of Africanising de garrison. De ministers start dey argue who go fit take de top job as army chief of staff. Two people wey stand out be Minister of Youth and Sports Maurice Mpolo, plus Mobutu. Mpolo don already show say e get some control over de soldiers wey dey mutiny, but Kasa-Vubu plus de Bakongo ministers fear say if dem give am power, e fit run coup. Mobutu on de other hand, people see am as cool-head wey dey think before e act. Lumumba respect Mpolo for ein boldness, but e prefer Mobutu ein cautious style. As de argument go on, de cabinet start split based on who dem support to be chief of staff. Lumumba no wan lose any of de two camps, so e try keep both men for ein team. In de end, dem give Mobutu de position and promote am to colonel. Next day, govment teams comot from de capital to supervise how dem go Africanise de army; Mobutu own assignment na for Équateur. While Mobutu dey there, Mpolo begin act as ANC Chief of Staff. Mobutu no happy at all with dat move, so when e return to de capital, e face Lumumba inside cabinet meeting and tell am plain: “Either I no deserve am and you gots sack me, or I do de mission well and I go keep my rank plus position.” De British diplomat Brian Urquhart, wey dey work plus de United Nations, yarn say: “When I first meet Mobutu for July 1960, e be Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba ein chief military assistant and e just promote himself from sergeant go lieutenant-colonel. Compared to ein boss, Mobutu be like pillar of common sense and sharp reasoning. Na to am we go when Lumumba ein hashish-high guards arrest our people. Na Mobutu too dey casually bring up Lumumba ein wild requests—like say make UN pay salary give Congolese army wey fit mutiny. For dem early days, Mobutu look like reasonable young man, wey maybe, just maybe, dey reason good for ein new independent country.” Backed by Belgian govment wey wan still hold tight to de rich Congolese mines, secessionist violence burst out for south. As UN soldiers wey dem send come restore order no dey help crush de secession, Lumumba go turn to Soviet Union for help. Inside six weeks, e receive serious military aid plus about thousand Soviet technical advisers. Since na Cold War time, US govment fear say dis Soviet move be trick to spread communist power for Central Africa. US and Belgium come ginger Kasa-Vubu make e sack Lumumba, and on 5 September, e do am. Lumumba vex rough and say Kasa-Vubu no be president again. Parliament no gree sack any of dem, instead dem beg for reconciliation, but no headway. Lumumba plus Kasa-Vubu each tell Mobutu make e arrest de other one. As Army Chief of Staff, Mobutu start face heavy pressure from all angle. Western countries' embassies—wey dey pay soldiers salary—plus Kasa-Vubu and Mobutu ein own men, all dem want make Soviet people pack. So on 14 September, Mobutu do coup wey no draw blood, announce say both Kasa-Vubu and Lumumba dey “neutralised” and form one new govment of university graduates—dem call am College of Commissioners-General. Lumumba no accept am but dem force am retire go ein house, where UN peacekeepers block Mobutu ein soldiers make dem no arrest am. Urquhart talk say on de coup day, Mobutu just waka enter UN headquarters for Léopoldville without invite and no gree comot till radio announce de coup; na dat time Mobutu begin repeat “C’est moi!”—“Na me!” Urquhart realise say Mobutu just land there in case de coup mess up, so e tell am to comot. As confidence drop say de international community go support am come back to power, Lumumba run commot for late November go meet ein supporters for Stanleyville to form new govment. Early December, Mobutu ein soldiers catch am, then keep am for ein base insyd Thysville. But Mobutu still see am as danger, so on 17 January 1961, e move Lumumba go de rebel State of Katanga. From dat point, nobody see Lumumba again. Later dem find out say same day wey dem move am, de secessionist forces under Moise Tshombe execute am, after Mobutu ein govment hand am over. On 23 January 1961, Kasa-Vubu promote Mobutu go major-general. One historian, De Witte, talk say na political move wey aim to make de army stronger, since na de president ein only support, and to boost Mobutu ein stand inside de army. For 1964, Pierre Mulele lead some fighters start another rebellion. Dem fast take over two-thirds of Congo. Mobutu lead de Congolese army respond, and by 1965, dem take back de whole land. === Second ''coup'' and consolidation of power === Sanso see: Second Mobutu coup d'état Prime Minister Moise Tshombe ein party, de Congolese National Convention, win big majority for March 1965 elections, but Kasa-Vubu appoint Évariste Kimba, one anti-Tshombe man, as prime minister-designate. Parliament no gree approve am two times. As de govment almost jam dead end, Mobutu take over power through coup wey no draw blood on 24 November—he just turn 35 one month before. Under one system wey dem call state of exception (regime d'exception), Mobutu grab full—almost absolute—power for five years. For ein first speech after e take power, Mobutu talk give big crowd for Léopoldville main stadium say, since na politicians spoil Congo within five years, e go need at least dat same time to fix am. So, for dat reason, no political party go do anything for five years. On 30 November 1965, Parliament pass law wey give Mobutu plus ein cabinet most of de legislative powers, but still hold small power to check ein decrees. By early March 1966, when Parliament start new session, Mobutu announce say he dey cancel dat review power, and two weeks after, ein govment shutdown Parliament for good and collect all de remaining authority. At de start, Mobutu ein govment come out like say e no dey into politics—or even dey against am. People begin see “politician” as bad word, wey mean person wey wicked or corrupt. For 1966, dem set up de Corps of Volunteers of de Republic, one strong frontline group wey aim to gather plenty public support behind Mobutu. Na same year dem hail am as de country ein “Second National Hero” after Lumumba. Even though Mobutu play role for how Lumumba commot power, e try package himself like person wey dey carry Lumumba ein legacy continue. One of de key things wey Mobutu dey preach for early part of ein rule be “authentic Congolese nationalism”. Na dat 1966 too e begin change city names wey get European roots to names wey sound more African—na so Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Stanleyville become Kisangani, and Élisabethville change to Lubumbashi. Then for 1967, Mobutu bring out de Popular Movement of de Revolution (MPR). From dat time go reach 1990, na only dat party dem dey allow for politics. Inside de MPR ein beliefs—wey dem write for Manifesto of N'Sele—dem push nationalism, revolution, plus “authenticity”. Dem describe revolution as “truly national and very practical,” wey reject both capitalism and communism. One popular slogan from de MPR be “Neither left nor right,” and later dem add “nor even center” join. That same year, all de trade unions dem join body into one single union—National Union of Zairian Workers—and de govment take full control over am. Mobutu plan say de union no go operate on ein own, but rather support govment policy like tool. From dat time till 1991, any independent trade union be illegal. As e face plenty wahala for de beginning of ein rule, Mobutu use favour-sharing (patronage) win over most of ein opposition; de ones wey no gree, e handle dem rough. For 1966, four cabinet members chop arrest because dem say dem join plan coup. Military court try dem case, then dem do public execution wey over 50,000 people watch live for open ground. Former Katangan gendarmeries wey rise also face Mobutu ein force and dem smash dem down—same as de Stanleyville mutinies of 1967 wey white mercenaries lead. By 1970, almost all de people wey fit challenge Mobutu power don fall, and for most parts of de country, law plus order start dey show face. That 1970 be de peak time of Mobutu ein power and respect. For 1970, King Baudouin of Belgium come Kinshasa do big state visit wey go well. Dat same year, dem hold presidential plus legislative elections. Even though de constitution say two parties fit dey, na only MPR dem allow nominate candidates. For de presidential election, Mobutu be de only person wey run. Voting no dey private; if you support Mobutu, you go drop green paper, but if you no dey support am, na red paper you go use. Green vote mean say you dey vote for hope, while red vote mean chaos. Under dat kind condition, de result no be surprise—official result talk say Mobutu win with almost everybody behind am, collect 10,131,669 votes, and only 157 people say “no”. Later dem come find out say over 30,500 more votes appear pass de number of voters wey register. Dem run de legislative elections same style. People get just one list from MPR; official result talk say unbelievable 98.33% people vote for de MPR list. As Mobutu dey cement ein power, e build different military groups wey na only to protect am dem dey. These groups include de Special Presidential Division, Civil Guard plus Service for Action, and Military Intelligence (SNIP). === Authenticity campaign === Main article: Authenticité (Zaire) Mobutu start big campaign wey promote African culture wey dem call ''authenticité''. As part of am, on 1 June 1966, e begin change city names wey show colonial past—Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Elisabethville change to Lubumbashi, and Stanleyville become Kisangani. For October 1971, e change de country ein name to Republic of Zaire. E order people make dem drop dem European names for African ones, and warn priests say if dem baptize Zairian pikin plus European name, dem go chop five years for prison. Western dressing and neck tie come dey banned, and men must wear one Mao-style tunic dem dey call ''abacost'' (short for ''à bas le costume'' wey mean “down with de suit”). Even Christmas move from December go June because Mobutu say dat one be more “authentic” date. Then for 1972, Mobutu follow ein own rule from previous year and change ein name to Mobutu Sese Seko Nkuku Ngbendu Wa Za Banga (wey mean “De all-powerful warrior wey, because of ein endurance and strong will to win, dey move from victory to victory, and leave fire behind”). Around dat time, e drop de army uniform and start wear ein signature look—tall and commanding, plus walking stick, abacost, thick glasses, and leopard-skin cap wey dem sew for Paris. For 1974, new constitution land wey tighten Mobutu ein hold on de country. Dis constitution talk say MPR be de “single institution” for de nation. Dem even define am as “de nation politically organized”—which mean say de state just be machine wey dey push party agenda. Every citizen automatically turn MPR member from de moment dem born. De constitution explain say de MPR dey inside de body of de party ein president, wey dem dey elect every seven years during national convention. But at de same time, dat same president automatically turn de only person wey go run for president of de country. Den dem go use referendum confirm am. De document come turn Mobutu ein emergency powers wey e dey use since 1965 into legal backing; e give am full authority—wey dem write as “plenitude of power exercise”—so all power now dey Mobutu ein hand. Mobutu win election three times under dis system, and each time, dem talk say e win with over 98 percent of de votes. For de legislative side, dem dey bring one single MPR list every five years, and de results dey show crazy numbers—either everybody vote for dem, or almost everybody. One of dem elections for 1975, dem no even vote at all—dem just show candidates around public places make people clap give dem. Dat one na how voting be. == One-man rule == Mobutu start use public executions early insyd ein rule to stamp ein power well-well. Any political rival, secessionist, coup planner, or anybody wey e see as threat, e go deal with dem hard. Many of dem people chop hanging for front big crowd. One serious example be former Prime Minister Évariste Kimba. Mobutu govment carry Kimba plus three of ein cabinet members—Jérôme Anany (Defense Minister), Emmanuel Bamba (Finance Minister), and Alexandre Mahamba (Minister of Mines and Energy)—put for trial May 1966. By 30 May, dem hang all four men in front of over 50,000 people. Dem say dem dey link up plus Colonel Alphonse Bangala and Major Pierre Efomi to run coup. Mobutu come talk say, “One had to strike through a spectacular example, and create the conditions of regime discipline. When a chief takes a decision, he decides – period.” Then for 1968, Pierre Mulele—Lumumba ein Education Minister and big rebel during de 1964 Simba uprising—Mobutu people trick am come out from exile for Brazzaville by telling am say amnesty go dey. But instead of peace, dem torture and kill am bad. Before Mulele die, dem gouge ein eyes, tear off ein genitals, and cut off ein limbs one by one. Mobutu later change ein strategy—e start dey buy political opponents instead of always use force. E like repeat one slogan: “Keep your friends close, but your enemies closer still,” to show how e dey use bribe pull rivals to ein side. One trick wey Mobutu really enjoy be “musical chairs”—e dey rotate ministers like game, change cabinet list anyhow, so nobody go build power wey fit threaten am. From November 1965 to April 1997, Mobutu reshuffle cabinet 60 times. Dis constant shuffle put fear inside ministers, because everybody know say Mobutu go change people anyhow, no matter whether you dey work well or not. Because ministers no sabi how long dem go last for position, e lead to serious stealing—everybody dey rush grab wetin dem fit while dem still dey office. Mobutu still dey arrest, even torture, some dissident govment members—then later forgive dem and even give dem bigger posts. E be like e just use power play confuse everybody. Congolese historian Emizet F. Kisangani talk say plenty public officials believe say no matter how corrupt or useless dem be, dem fit come back to govment position. To hold post no require management skill or clean conscience. In fact, if you too correct or too honest, dem see you as obstacle. Wetin Mobutu want be total loyalty in exchange for chance to chop money. By 1970, reports talk say Mobutu don carry 60% of de national budget enter ein pocket—people begin see am as one of de most corrupt leaders for Africa and de whole world. Kisangani add say Mobutu build full system of corruption wey spoil public values and reward greed and selfishness. Mobutu no slow down with de self-promotion moves—man try for 1972 make dem crown am president for life, but that one no land well. Then for June 1983, e raise himself go military top-top level as Marshal. Na General Likulia Bolongo sign dat order. Shortly after, Victor Nendaka Bika—de number two man for country as Vice-President of de Bureau of de Central Committee—drop one big speech full of praise give Mobutu. To chop revenue from Congo ein natural resources, Mobutu first chase out European investors and nationalize plenty foreign companies. But instead of letting dem run proper, e dash control of these firms give ein relatives and close padi dem—wey quickly use am do corruption and chop company assets clean. For 1973–1974, Mobutu start one big “Zairianization” program, take over more foreign businesses and hand dem to Zairians. But e no end there. By October 1973, de Arab oil shock come crash global economy—the same one wey don dey grow steady since 1945. One serious side effect be say copper price fall by 50% in 1974, and since copper na Zaire ein number one export, e hit dem hard. As American historian Thomas Odom talk, Zaire shift from “prosperity to bankruptcy almost overnight.” Because de economy break down, Zaire run go International Monetary Fund (IMF) for help to manage dem debt, but when IMF dig into dem books, dem discover heavy corruption. Mobutu come waka go China for 1974, take inspiration from Cultural Revolution. E come back wearing Mao jacket and call himself “Citoyen Mobutu” or “Citizen Mobutu.” E say he go “radicalize de Zairian revolution.” Di same businesses wey e first give to Zairians, Mobutu come collect dem back, nationalize everything under full state control. As if dat no do, e cut government workers ein salaries by 50%, wey provoke one failed coup attempt against am for June 1975. By 1977, Mobutu ein earlier move to nationalize foreign businesses don backfire hard—e economy don fall serious, and e no get choice but to beg foreign investors come back. But before e fit recover, Katangan rebels wey base for Angola storm Zaire dat same year, as payback for Mobutu ein support to anti-MPLA fighters. France respond quick—dem airlift 1,500 Moroccan paratroopers into Zaire, push de rebels back, and end di crisis wey dem call ''Shaba I''. But no long after, for 1978, de rebels regroup with even more numbers and invade again—this time na ''Shaba II''. Belgium and France come deploy troops again, backed by US logistics, and dem manage stop de attack once more. Mobutu get big embarrassment from how badly de Zairian Army perform for both invasions—e need foreign help to fight small rebel forces. Yet, instead of reforming de army, e just reduce am from 51,000 troops in 1978 to 23,000 by 1980. By dat time, about 90% of de army be Ngbandi—Mobutu ein own ethnic group—’cos e no trust other ethnic groups with weapons. De most loyal and strongest force Mobutu get be ein bodyguards—the ''Special Presidential Division''—trained by Israel, made up only of Ngbandi, and always led by Mobutu ein relative. Mobutu win election again for 1977 and 1984, but nobody dey run against am. E use most of ein time dey build ein own fortune, and by 1988, dem estimate say ein money reach no less than $50 million. Most of de money e hide am abroad, especially for Swiss banks—but when dem remove am later, dem only find small $3.4 million there. Funny enough, ein fortune nearly match de whole country ein foreign debt dat time. One time for 20 May 1976, Mobutu talk for stadium wey hold like 70,000 people for Kinshasa. E talk say, “If you wan thief, thief small and style am nice. But if you thief too much to turn rich fast-fast, dem go catch you.” By 1989, Zaire govment no fit pay dem loans again from Belgium. Mobutu dey ride in fleet of Mercedes-Benz from one palace to another, while roads dey spoil and people dey hungry. Workers no dey get pay for months, ’cos de national money dey disappear go Mobutu, ein family, and top political plus army people. Na only Special Presidential Division wey dey protect Mobutu wey dem dey pay correct and on time. Dem even get saying wey go like dis: “De civil servants dey pretend say dem dey work, while de state dey pretend say e dey pay dem.” De national army—Forces Armées Zaïroises (FAZ)—no get morale at all. Salaries no dey come, living conditions bad, supplies no dey, and officers dey chop people. De army soldiers just turn like armed thieves—dey rob civilians anyhow. Roadblocks full everywhere, and dem dey extort money from anybody wey dey pass with car or truck. Mobutu ein poor handling of de economy cause serious inflation wey mess up de value of people dem salaries. As money value dey drop fast, plenty public servants start dey do their own way—corruption plus dishonesty turn daily survival style for workers all across de system. Mobutu himself live large. E cruise for de Congo River inside ein yacht, Kamanyola. For Gbadolite, e build one huge mansion wey people dey call “Versailles of de jungle.” Anytime e wan go shopping for Paris, e go charter Air France ein Concorde jet. E even build Gbadolite Airport with long runway make Concorde fit land and take off there. For 1989 alone, e use dat jet fly go give speech for United Nations in New York, attend de French bicentennial party as President François Mitterrand ein guest, and carry Zaire youth choir from Paris to Gbadolite, then fly go Marseille—all with Concorde. Mobutu also get villa for French Riviera wey dem call ''Villa del Mere''. Ein whole leadership style come be example of real kleptocracy and nepotism. Mobutu dey put ein Ngbandi tribe people plus close relatives for top positions inside de military and govment. E dey groom ein first-born son, Nyiwa, to take over presidency from am, but Nyiwa die from AIDS for 1994. Mobutu rule be one of de longest autocracies for Africa. E stash over $50 million from Congo ein natural resources, while ordinary people dey suffer. E form one totalitarian system wey break plenty human rights, try wipe out Belgian influence from de country, and still hold strong anti-communist position to gain favor from international powers. Mobutu ein personality cult reach levels wey few leaders for history fit match. De evening news go start with video wey show am dey descend from cloud top like some god figure. Ein face full public places everywhere—portrait hang for walls, and govment workers dey wear lapel pins wey carry ein photo. Dem give am plenty grand titles: “Father of de Nation,” “Messiah,” “Guide of de Revolution,” “Helmsman,” “Founder,” “Savior of de People,” and “Supreme Combatant.” For de 1996 documentary about de legendary 1974 Foreman–Ali boxing match wey happen for Zaire, you go hear dancers chant “Sese Seko, Sese Seko!” as dem welcome de fighters—na clear sign of how deep e presence dey everywhere, even inside pop culture moments. For early 1975, e reach point wey Mobutu no gree make media call anybody ein name—only Mobutu fit be called by name, everybody else dem just refer to dem position. E really build one kind system wey make am look like dem no fit mention Congo without mention am. Mobutu take advantage proper of de Cold War tension wey dey between de European countries plus de United States. He win strong support from de West plus dem international organizations like de International Monetary Fund (IMF). === Space program === For late 1970s, one West Germany company called OTRAG dey work on satellite launch wey dem talk say be peaceful mission to reduce cost. But because of one 1954 amendment to de Treaty of Brussels, dem no fit build or launch missile insyd Germany. So dem pay Mobutu $130 million make dem run de program for Zaire. For one 1978 agreement, Mobutu dash OTRAG 25 years lease for land insyd Zaire. De first rocket, OTRAG-1, launch on 18 May 1977 wey Mobutu dey watch from far. E take off well but e crash back down shortly after. By 6 June 1978, dem launch two more rockets but dem crash again for Zaire. Still, Mobutu push de program say over 200 Zairians dey work for there and say Zaire go benefit from royalties when dem begin sell rocket. But two years later, Soviet Union accuse de program say former Nazi scientists dey involved plus say dem dey use am spy for military reason. Mobutu gree to Soviet pressure, end de project, plus cut ties with OTRAG. === Foreign policy === Main article: Foreign policy of de Mobutu Sese Seko administration ==== Relations plus Belgium ==== De relationship wey dey between Zaire and Belgium under Mobutu time dey mix — sometimes dem be paddy, other times dem turn real enemies. Most of de time, Belgian leaders no really react strong even when Mobutu do tins wey no favour Belgium; dis be partly because de Belgian political side demself no dey united. From early Mobutu rule, yawa start between dem because of plenty Belgian businesses wey dey Congo. But things cool small after. For 1968, Mobutu and ein family go Belgium as special guest of de Belgian king, and dat same year dem sign one science plus technical agreement. For 1970, King Baudouin visit Kinshasa and everybody hail am; dem even sign treaty of friendship and cooperation. But Mobutu tear dis same treaty insyd 1974 because Belgium no gree ban one anti-Mobutu book wey Jules Chomé, one left-wing lawyer, write. Mobutu e "Zairianisation" policy, wey be say he seize foreign businesses and give dem to Zairians, make matters worse. Even though yawa dey, Mobutu still get personal friendship with some top Belgians. He admire Edmond Leburton, wey be Belgian prime minister (1973–1974), and he be paddy to Alfred Cahen, one diplomat wey Mobutu meet from his Brussels university days. Mobutu and King Baudouin too dey cool until Mobutu leak one handwritten letter from de king — after dat, palace shut door gidi-gidi. Because of dis, Mobutu no get invitation go de king ein funeral; only Saddam Hussein from Iraq join am for dat black list. Apart from Belgians wey dey Belgium, Mobutu keep Belgian advisors close — like Hugues Leclercq and Colonel Willy Mallants, wey even show for Thierry Michel ein documentary ''Mobutu, King of Zaire''. ==== Relations plus France ==== As Zaire be de second most populous French-speaking country for de world by den (plus now e even pass France sef) and de biggest one for sub-Saharan Africa, France see am as one big strategic paddy. During de First Republic time, France mostly support conservative and federalist people, no be de unitarist dem like Lumumba. Right after dem crush de Katangan secession, Zaire (wey dem dey call Republic of de Congo by den) sign technical plus cultural cooperation treaty plus France. Under Charles de Gaulle ein presidency, di two countries start bond tight because dem share plenty geopolitical interests. For 1971, France ein Finance Minister, Valéry Giscard d’Estaing, visit Zaire. Later when he turn France ein president, he and Mobutu become close pals, and France turn Mobutu ein strong foreign ally. During de Shaba invasions, France no dull — dem stand full support for Mobutu. For de first Shaba wahala, France carry 1,500 Moroccan troops come Zaire by airlift; dem help drive de rebels. One year later, as de second Shaba invasion land, France and Belgium both send French Foreign Legion paratroopers (2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment) come help Mobutu fight dem off. ==== Relations plus de People ein Republic of China ==== At de beginning, Zaire ein relationship plus de People's Republic of China no better pass how e dey with Soviet Union. Mobutu still dey remember how China help Mulele plus some Maoist rebels wey fight for Kwilu province during de Simba Rebellion wahala. E no dey like make China get seat for United Nations too. But by 1972, Mobutu start dey see China inna new way — like one balance wey go fit check Soviet Union power and even balance ein own close relationship plus United States, Israel, and South Africa. So for November 1972, Mobutu gree recognize China as one country diplomatically (plus East Germany and North Korea join body). Di next year, Mobutu fly go Beijing, meet chairman Mao Zedong, and dem promise am $100 million technical aid. For 1983, when Chinese Prime Minister Zhao Ziyang come visit Zaire, he talk say make Mobutu no worry repay de $100 million — e be gift. For 1974, Mobutu surprise everybody as e travel go China plus North Korea, even though originally dem plan say e go visit Soviet Union. As e return come Zaire, ein politics den de way e dey talk turn more radical. Na dis time Mobutu start bash Belgium plus United States — e vex say America no dey do enough to fight white minority rule for South Africa and Rhodesia. E introduce one new civic duty program wey dem call ''salongo'' — everybody must do compulsory national work. E sana bring "radicalization" wey be extension of de 1973 ''Zairianization'' policy, wey take foreign-owned things give to locals. Mobutu even borrow title from Mao — "de Helmsman". Around dis same time, from late 1974 to early 1975, ein personality cult reach peak — everywhere na Mobutu name, face, den slogan. China plus Zaire get one common target for Central Africa: make dem stop Soviet Union from gain any stronghold for dat side. So dem join hand undercover take support National Liberation Front of Angola (later dem support UNITA too) make dem block MPLA — de People's Movement for de Liberation of Angola — wey Soviet Union plus Cuba dey back. Cuba get big power for Africa dat time, as dem dey help all left-wing, anti-imperialist groups, and Soviet dey sponsor dem heavy. China invite Holden Roberto, wey be de leader of de National Liberation Front of Angola, plus ein guerilla fighters go Beijing make dem train. Dem also give dem weapons plus money. Zaire sef try enter Angola first, try put their own friendly government for power, but Cuban soldiers push dem back. De invasion no work — e be big wahala wey lead to Shaba I and Shaba II invasions later. China no support dis rebels at all; dem even send weapons go support Zaire during both invasions. China come accuse Soviet Union plus Cuba say dem dey behind de Shaba rebel trouble, say dem dey try scatter peace for Central Africa — even though nobody sure whether Soviet plus Cuba really dey involved or no. '''Relations''' '''plus de Soviet Union''' Mobutu ein relationship plus Soviet Union no be cool koraa. He be hard-core anti-communist, so he no dey rush go recognize de Soviets. USSR bin support—tho e be mostly in words—both Patrice Lumumba, Mobutu ein democratically elected predecessor, plus de Simba rebellion. However, to make e look like say he no dey side any bloc, he renew ties for 1967; de first Soviet ambassador come land and present ein credentials for 1968. Mobutu still join United States condemn de Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia dat year. Mobutu take de Soviet presence as advantage for two reasons: e help am keep de image say he be non-aligned leader, plus e give am better excuse to blame things wey dey go wrong for house. Like for 1970, he expel four Soviet diplomats say dem dey do “subversive activities,” and for 1971, he declare twenty Soviet officials as persona non grata say dem dey spark student demonstrations for Lovanium University. Moscow be de only big world capital wey Mobutu never go before, even tho he accept invitation go dey for 1974. But for reasons wey nobody know, he cancel de visit last minute, then go tour de People's Republic of China plus North Korea instead. Relations cool more for 1975, as de two countries come dey opposite sides for de Angolan Civil War. Dis one take strong toll on Zaire ein foreign policy for de next ten years; since Mobutu no fit claim say he be African leader again (he be one of de few leaders wey no gree recognize de Marxist govment of Angola), Mobutu come turn more toward US plus dem allies. He start dey support America dem stand for things like de Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, plus Israel ein position for international organizations. '''Relations''' '''plus de United States''' Most times, Zaire enjoy warm relationship plus United States. US be de third biggest country wey dey give aid to Zaire (after Belgium and France), and Mobutu be paddy man to plenty US presidents like Richard Nixon, Ronald Reagan, plus George H. W. Bush. But around 1974–1975, de relationship cool small as Mobutu start talk radical things (he bash US foreign policy hard). For 1975 summer, e even reach de worst point as Mobutu accuse CIA say dem dey plan overthrown am, come arrest eleven big Zairian generals plus some civilians, den sentence one former Central Bank boss (Albert Ndele) for absentia. But plenty people no believe say de plot be real; some like Mobutu ein strong critic Nzongola-Ntalaja talk say Mobutu just create de story to take chance sack any military man wey fit challenge am later. Still, even with all dis wahala, de cold vibe no last long—de two countries come unite again as dem dey support de same side for de Angolan Civil War. Sake of say Mobutu no dey respect human rights, de Carter government try keep small distance from de Kinshasa government. But still, Zaire chop nearly half of all de foreign aid wey Carter give to sub-Saharan Africa. During de first Shaba invasion, US no really do plenty; dem just deliver some supplies wey no be weapon. But for de second Shaba invasion, US come show stronger support—dem help transport plus organize logistics for de French and Belgian paratroopers wey come help Mobutu fight de rebels. Carter even support Mobutu ein talk say Soviet Union plus Cuba dey back de rebels, even though no evidence come prove am. For 1980, US House of Representatives vote make dem stop military aid to Zaire, but US Senate come bring am back after Carter plus US business people wey get interest for Zaire pressure dem. Mobutu get very warm relationship plus Reagan ein government, especially through money dem dey give am. During Reagan ein time, Mobutu go White House three times, and US no really bash am about de way he dey treat human rights for ein country. When Mobutu visit America for 1983, Reagan talk say Mobutu be “voice of good sense and goodwill.” Mobutu still get friendly relationship plus Reagan ein replacement, George H. W. Bush. Mobutu even be de first African president wey go visit Bush for White House. But things change sharp sharp after Cold War end. Since Soviet Union no dey again, US and Western countries no see reason again to support Mobutu sake of communism fight. Dem start dey pressure am make he open up de country to democracy. Mobutu vex say US change attitude towards am. He talk say: “I be de latest victim of de cold war, US no need me again. De lesson be say all my support for US policy no mean anything.” For 1993, when Mobutu try come Washington, US State Department bounce am, dem no give am visa. Mobutu still get some American friends wey no dey government side. One be televangelist Pat Robertson, wey promise say he go try beg US government make dem lift de ban on Mobutu. == Coalition government == For May 1990, sake of di Cold War wey end, international politics change, economy issues plus gbelemgbelem for di country, Mobutu gree make e lef di MPR ein one-man chop power. For early May, students wey dey Lubumbashi campus for National University of Zaire vex plus Mobutu ein system, dem start protest dey shout say make e step down. On di night of 11 May 1990, dem off di light for campus, den send one special army group wey dem dey call ''Les Hiboux'' (wey mean “Owls”) come, all of dem carry cutlass plus bayonet. By di morning of 12 May, dem don kill like 290 students. Dis gbelem wey happen make countries like di European Economic Community (wey now be European Union), United States, plus Canada, cut all support wey no be humanitarian. Na dis move be di beginning of di end for Mobutu ein backing from Western countries. Mobutu put transitional government make dem lead go di elections wey e promise, but e still hold serious powers for hand. After some gbelem wey unpaid soldiers cause for Kinshasa for 1991, Mobutu carry some opposition people join coalition government, but e still use corner corner hold tight di security services plus key ministries. Wahala between di different camps make dem divide into two governments for 1993 — one wey dey Mobutu ein side and one wey dey against am. Di anti-Mobutu side dey under Laurent Monsengwo plus Étienne Tshisekedi from Union for Democracy and Social Progress (UDPS). Di economic condition still dey very bad, so for 1994 di two groups come join body form High Council of Republic – Parliament of Transition (HCR-PT). Mobutu come appoint Kengo Wa Dondo, wey believe in strict spending plus free-market reforms, as Prime Minister. As all dis dey happen, Mobutu ein body too dey weak well well, and for one of ein travels go Europe for medical care, some Tutsi people come take over plenty areas for eastern Zaire. qxy4ckxy737tu00awsb1xryzt1h4lvf 69101 69096 2025-07-05T21:42:27Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69101 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu wa za Banga''' ; born '''Joseph-Désiré Mobutu'''; 14 October 1930 – 7 September 1997), people dey call am Mobutu Sese Seko or Mobutu and sana known by ein initials MSS, e be Congolese politician plus military officer wey be de first and only president of Zaire from 1971 to 1997. Before dat, Mobutu serve as de second president of de Democratic Republic of de Congo, from 1965 to 1971. E sana serve as de fifth chairperson of de Organisation of African Unity from 1967 to 1968. During de Congo Crisis insyd 1960, Mobutu, wey den be Chief of Staff insyd de Congolese Army, commot de nation ein democratically elected govment of Patrice Lumumba plus support from de U.S. and Belgium. Mobutu put govment insyd wey arrange make dem execute Lumumba for 1961, and e continue dey lead de country ein armed forces till e take power direct insyd another coup for 1965. To make sure say power no escape am, he create de Popular Movement of de Revolution as de only correct political party for 1967, change Congo ein name go Zaire for 1971, plus e own name turn Mobutu Sese Seko for 1972. Mobutu protect ein rule under hard autocratic regime and end up dey rule during time wey human rights violations spread everywhere. E try purge de country from all colonial culture tins through ein "national authenticity" program. Mobutu turn de main person wey everybody dey hype like say na cult of personality he dey carry. Mobutu talk say ein political ideology no be "left", no be "right", and no be "centre" too, but people mostly know am say e dey against communism for de Françafrique zone. Because of dat, United States, France, plus Belgium support am well-well—dem dash am military, diplomatic, and economic backing. E still build tight link plus apartheid South Africa, Israel, plus de Greek junta dem. Mobutu get strong name for corruption plus nepotism: dem talk say ein personal wealth fit reach from $50 million go $5 billion, all na from economic exploitation plus corruption as president. Some people call ein govment kleptocracy, ’cos e dey pile ein own money while Zaire ein economy suffer—plenty inflation, big debt, and serious currency wahala. E too known for ein flashy lifestyle, like how e dey fly go Paris on top de fast-fast Concorde jet just to do shopping. By 1990, as de economy start dey spoil plus tension dey rise, dem force Mobutu Sese Seko make e enter coalition plus political opponents and agree make dem do multiparty system. Even though e use ein soldiers try block de change, de movement no gree stop. By May 1997, rebel dem wey Laurent-Désiré Kabila lead take over de country and push Mobutu go exile. E already dey battle prostate cancer wey hard, so three months later, e die for Morocco. == Biography == === Early years den education === Mobutu, wey come from de Ngbandi ethnic group, dem born am for 1930 insyd Lisala, Belgian Congo. Mobutu ein mommie, Marie Madeleine Yemo, be hotel maid wey run go Lisala make she escape one local village chief ein harem. Na there she jam Albéric Gbemani, cook wey dey work for one Belgian judge, den she marry am. Not long after, she born Mobutu. Na one uncle pick de name “Mobutu” give am. Gbemani die when Mobutu be just eight years. After dat, one uncle plus ein grandfather raise am. De Belgian judge ein wife take fine eye see Mobutu, so she teach am how to speak, read plus write French well-well, wey be de official language of de colony. Ein mommie Yemo wey be widow, lean on family help to take care of her four pikin dem, and dem dey move from place to place often. Mobutu ein first schooling happen for capital town Léopoldville (wey now dem dey call Kinshasa). Later, ein mommie send am go ein uncle for Coquilhatville (now Mbandaka), where e attend Christian Brothers School, one Catholic-mission boarding school. Mobutu shine for books top and even run de class newspaper. People still know am for ein stubborn pranks and sharp small-boy sense of humor. One classmate remember say anytime de Belgian priests—wey ein main language be Dutch—make mistake for French, Mobutu go jump from ein seat for class top and point out de error sharp. For 1949, Mobutu sneak enter one boat wey dey go downriver to Léopoldville, where e jam one girl. Some weeks later, de priests find am. As school year end, instead of dem send am go prison, dem order make e serve seven years insyd de colonial army, Force Publique (FP). Dat kind punishment na normal tin for students wey dey act stubborn. === Army service === Mobutu find discipline for army life top, and e see father figure insyd Sergeant Louis Bobozo. Mobutu no stop ein studies—e dey borrow European newspapers from de Belgian officers plus pick books from anywhere e fit find, then e go read dem during sentry duty or any small chance e get. De ones wey e like pass be de writings of French president Charles de Gaulle, British prime minister Winston Churchill, plus de Italian Renaissance philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli. After e pass one course for accounting, Mobutu start small-small dey do journalism work proper. Still vexed about how e and de school priests jam wahala, e no marry for church. De only thing e fit bring for de wedding enjoyment be one crate of beer—na all ein army salary fit buy. === Early political involvement === As soldier, Mobutu dey write politics matter under fake name for Actualités Africaines (African News), one magazine wey one Belgian colonial set up. For 1956, e comot from army and turn full-time journalist, dey write for Léopoldville daily L'Avenir. Two years later, e go Belgium to report de 1958 World Exposition, then e stay back make e learn journalism better. By dis time, Mobutu don meet plenty young Congolese intellectuals wey dey challenge colonial rule. E come build friendship plus Patrice Lumumba and join Lumumba ein party—Congolese National Movement (MNC). Mobutu later become Lumumba ein personal aide. Some people wey know de matter talk say Belgian intelligence fit don recruit Mobutu as informant give de government. During de 1960 talks wey happen for Brussels about Congolese independence, de US embassy organize one reception give de Congolese delegation. Each embassy staff get list of delegates wey dem suppose meet, and later dem come talk about de people dem meet. De ambassador talk say, “One name just dey pop up steady. But nobody get am for ein list 'cos e no be official delegation member—e be Lumumba ein secretary. But everybody agree say dis guy get strong brain, e be young, maybe small immature, but e get big future ahead.” After de general election, dem assign Lumumba make e form govment. E give Mobutu de position of Secretary of State to de Presidency. Mobutu carry plenty weight for deciding de rest of de govment people. But after independence land, e no fit see Lumumba one-on-one again like before, 'cos de new prime minister start dey busy plus plenty aides and colleagues surround am. From there, both of dem slowly start drift apart. === Congo Crisis === Main article: Congo Crisis On 5 July 1960, soldiers of de Force Publique wey dey Camp Léopold II for Léopoldville vex over dem all-white leaders and bad working conditions, so dem rise mutiny. Di revolt spread go other places sharp-sharp. Mobutu join other officials talk to de mutineers so dem fit free de officers plus dem families. Then on 8 July, de full Council of Ministers gather for one special meeting under President Joseph Kasa-Vubu ein chairmanship for Camp Léopold II to face de matter of Africanising de garrison. De ministers start dey argue who go fit take de top job as army chief of staff. Two people wey stand out be Minister of Youth and Sports Maurice Mpolo, plus Mobutu. Mpolo don already show say e get some control over de soldiers wey dey mutiny, but Kasa-Vubu plus de Bakongo ministers fear say if dem give am power, e fit run coup. Mobutu on de other hand, people see am as cool-head wey dey think before e act. Lumumba respect Mpolo for ein boldness, but e prefer Mobutu ein cautious style. As de argument go on, de cabinet start split based on who dem support to be chief of staff. Lumumba no wan lose any of de two camps, so e try keep both men for ein team. In de end, dem give Mobutu de position and promote am to colonel. Next day, govment teams comot from de capital to supervise how dem go Africanise de army; Mobutu own assignment na for Équateur. While Mobutu dey there, Mpolo begin act as ANC Chief of Staff. Mobutu no happy at all with dat move, so when e return to de capital, e face Lumumba inside cabinet meeting and tell am plain: “Either I no deserve am and you gots sack me, or I do de mission well and I go keep my rank plus position.” De British diplomat Brian Urquhart, wey dey work plus de United Nations, yarn say: “When I first meet Mobutu for July 1960, e be Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba ein chief military assistant and e just promote himself from sergeant go lieutenant-colonel. Compared to ein boss, Mobutu be like pillar of common sense and sharp reasoning. Na to am we go when Lumumba ein hashish-high guards arrest our people. Na Mobutu too dey casually bring up Lumumba ein wild requests—like say make UN pay salary give Congolese army wey fit mutiny. For dem early days, Mobutu look like reasonable young man, wey maybe, just maybe, dey reason good for ein new independent country.” Backed by Belgian govment wey wan still hold tight to de rich Congolese mines, secessionist violence burst out for south. As UN soldiers wey dem send come restore order no dey help crush de secession, Lumumba go turn to Soviet Union for help. Inside six weeks, e receive serious military aid plus about thousand Soviet technical advisers. Since na Cold War time, US govment fear say dis Soviet move be trick to spread communist power for Central Africa. US and Belgium come ginger Kasa-Vubu make e sack Lumumba, and on 5 September, e do am. Lumumba vex rough and say Kasa-Vubu no be president again. Parliament no gree sack any of dem, instead dem beg for reconciliation, but no headway. Lumumba plus Kasa-Vubu each tell Mobutu make e arrest de other one. As Army Chief of Staff, Mobutu start face heavy pressure from all angle. Western countries' embassies—wey dey pay soldiers salary—plus Kasa-Vubu and Mobutu ein own men, all dem want make Soviet people pack. So on 14 September, Mobutu do coup wey no draw blood, announce say both Kasa-Vubu and Lumumba dey “neutralised” and form one new govment of university graduates—dem call am College of Commissioners-General. Lumumba no accept am but dem force am retire go ein house, where UN peacekeepers block Mobutu ein soldiers make dem no arrest am. Urquhart talk say on de coup day, Mobutu just waka enter UN headquarters for Léopoldville without invite and no gree comot till radio announce de coup; na dat time Mobutu begin repeat “C’est moi!”—“Na me!” Urquhart realise say Mobutu just land there in case de coup mess up, so e tell am to comot. As confidence drop say de international community go support am come back to power, Lumumba run commot for late November go meet ein supporters for Stanleyville to form new govment. Early December, Mobutu ein soldiers catch am, then keep am for ein base insyd Thysville. But Mobutu still see am as danger, so on 17 January 1961, e move Lumumba go de rebel State of Katanga. From dat point, nobody see Lumumba again. Later dem find out say same day wey dem move am, de secessionist forces under Moise Tshombe execute am, after Mobutu ein govment hand am over. On 23 January 1961, Kasa-Vubu promote Mobutu go major-general. One historian, De Witte, talk say na political move wey aim to make de army stronger, since na de president ein only support, and to boost Mobutu ein stand inside de army. For 1964, Pierre Mulele lead some fighters start another rebellion. Dem fast take over two-thirds of Congo. Mobutu lead de Congolese army respond, and by 1965, dem take back de whole land. === Second ''coup'' and consolidation of power === Sanso see: Second Mobutu coup d'état Prime Minister Moise Tshombe ein party, de Congolese National Convention, win big majority for March 1965 elections, but Kasa-Vubu appoint Évariste Kimba, one anti-Tshombe man, as prime minister-designate. Parliament no gree approve am two times. As de govment almost jam dead end, Mobutu take over power through coup wey no draw blood on 24 November—he just turn 35 one month before. Under one system wey dem call state of exception (regime d'exception), Mobutu grab full—almost absolute—power for five years. For ein first speech after e take power, Mobutu talk give big crowd for Léopoldville main stadium say, since na politicians spoil Congo within five years, e go need at least dat same time to fix am. So, for dat reason, no political party go do anything for five years. On 30 November 1965, Parliament pass law wey give Mobutu plus ein cabinet most of de legislative powers, but still hold small power to check ein decrees. By early March 1966, when Parliament start new session, Mobutu announce say he dey cancel dat review power, and two weeks after, ein govment shutdown Parliament for good and collect all de remaining authority. At de start, Mobutu ein govment come out like say e no dey into politics—or even dey against am. People begin see “politician” as bad word, wey mean person wey wicked or corrupt. For 1966, dem set up de Corps of Volunteers of de Republic, one strong frontline group wey aim to gather plenty public support behind Mobutu. Na same year dem hail am as de country ein “Second National Hero” after Lumumba. Even though Mobutu play role for how Lumumba commot power, e try package himself like person wey dey carry Lumumba ein legacy continue. One of de key things wey Mobutu dey preach for early part of ein rule be “authentic Congolese nationalism”. Na dat 1966 too e begin change city names wey get European roots to names wey sound more African—na so Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Stanleyville become Kisangani, and Élisabethville change to Lubumbashi. Then for 1967, Mobutu bring out de Popular Movement of de Revolution (MPR). From dat time go reach 1990, na only dat party dem dey allow for politics. Inside de MPR ein beliefs—wey dem write for Manifesto of N'Sele—dem push nationalism, revolution, plus “authenticity”. Dem describe revolution as “truly national and very practical,” wey reject both capitalism and communism. One popular slogan from de MPR be “Neither left nor right,” and later dem add “nor even center” join. That same year, all de trade unions dem join body into one single union—National Union of Zairian Workers—and de govment take full control over am. Mobutu plan say de union no go operate on ein own, but rather support govment policy like tool. From dat time till 1991, any independent trade union be illegal. As e face plenty wahala for de beginning of ein rule, Mobutu use favour-sharing (patronage) win over most of ein opposition; de ones wey no gree, e handle dem rough. For 1966, four cabinet members chop arrest because dem say dem join plan coup. Military court try dem case, then dem do public execution wey over 50,000 people watch live for open ground. Former Katangan gendarmeries wey rise also face Mobutu ein force and dem smash dem down—same as de Stanleyville mutinies of 1967 wey white mercenaries lead. By 1970, almost all de people wey fit challenge Mobutu power don fall, and for most parts of de country, law plus order start dey show face. That 1970 be de peak time of Mobutu ein power and respect. For 1970, King Baudouin of Belgium come Kinshasa do big state visit wey go well. Dat same year, dem hold presidential plus legislative elections. Even though de constitution say two parties fit dey, na only MPR dem allow nominate candidates. For de presidential election, Mobutu be de only person wey run. Voting no dey private; if you support Mobutu, you go drop green paper, but if you no dey support am, na red paper you go use. Green vote mean say you dey vote for hope, while red vote mean chaos. Under dat kind condition, de result no be surprise—official result talk say Mobutu win with almost everybody behind am, collect 10,131,669 votes, and only 157 people say “no”. Later dem come find out say over 30,500 more votes appear pass de number of voters wey register. Dem run de legislative elections same style. People get just one list from MPR; official result talk say unbelievable 98.33% people vote for de MPR list. As Mobutu dey cement ein power, e build different military groups wey na only to protect am dem dey. These groups include de Special Presidential Division, Civil Guard plus Service for Action, and Military Intelligence (SNIP). === Authenticity campaign === Main article: Authenticité (Zaire) Mobutu start big campaign wey promote African culture wey dem call ''authenticité''. As part of am, on 1 June 1966, e begin change city names wey show colonial past—Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Elisabethville change to Lubumbashi, and Stanleyville become Kisangani. For October 1971, e change de country ein name to Republic of Zaire. E order people make dem drop dem European names for African ones, and warn priests say if dem baptize Zairian pikin plus European name, dem go chop five years for prison. Western dressing and neck tie come dey banned, and men must wear one Mao-style tunic dem dey call ''abacost'' (short for ''à bas le costume'' wey mean “down with de suit”). Even Christmas move from December go June because Mobutu say dat one be more “authentic” date. Then for 1972, Mobutu follow ein own rule from previous year and change ein name to Mobutu Sese Seko Nkuku Ngbendu Wa Za Banga (wey mean “De all-powerful warrior wey, because of ein endurance and strong will to win, dey move from victory to victory, and leave fire behind”). Around dat time, e drop de army uniform and start wear ein signature look—tall and commanding, plus walking stick, abacost, thick glasses, and leopard-skin cap wey dem sew for Paris. For 1974, new constitution land wey tighten Mobutu ein hold on de country. Dis constitution talk say MPR be de “single institution” for de nation. Dem even define am as “de nation politically organized”—which mean say de state just be machine wey dey push party agenda. Every citizen automatically turn MPR member from de moment dem born. De constitution explain say de MPR dey inside de body of de party ein president, wey dem dey elect every seven years during national convention. But at de same time, dat same president automatically turn de only person wey go run for president of de country. Den dem go use referendum confirm am. De document come turn Mobutu ein emergency powers wey e dey use since 1965 into legal backing; e give am full authority—wey dem write as “plenitude of power exercise”—so all power now dey Mobutu ein hand. Mobutu win election three times under dis system, and each time, dem talk say e win with over 98 percent of de votes. For de legislative side, dem dey bring one single MPR list every five years, and de results dey show crazy numbers—either everybody vote for dem, or almost everybody. One of dem elections for 1975, dem no even vote at all—dem just show candidates around public places make people clap give dem. Dat one na how voting be. == One-man rule == Mobutu start use public executions early insyd ein rule to stamp ein power well-well. Any political rival, secessionist, coup planner, or anybody wey e see as threat, e go deal with dem hard. Many of dem people chop hanging for front big crowd. One serious example be former Prime Minister Évariste Kimba. Mobutu govment carry Kimba plus three of ein cabinet members—Jérôme Anany (Defense Minister), Emmanuel Bamba (Finance Minister), and Alexandre Mahamba (Minister of Mines and Energy)—put for trial May 1966. By 30 May, dem hang all four men in front of over 50,000 people. Dem say dem dey link up plus Colonel Alphonse Bangala and Major Pierre Efomi to run coup. Mobutu come talk say, “One had to strike through a spectacular example, and create the conditions of regime discipline. When a chief takes a decision, he decides – period.” Then for 1968, Pierre Mulele—Lumumba ein Education Minister and big rebel during de 1964 Simba uprising—Mobutu people trick am come out from exile for Brazzaville by telling am say amnesty go dey. But instead of peace, dem torture and kill am bad. Before Mulele die, dem gouge ein eyes, tear off ein genitals, and cut off ein limbs one by one. Mobutu later change ein strategy—e start dey buy political opponents instead of always use force. E like repeat one slogan: “Keep your friends close, but your enemies closer still,” to show how e dey use bribe pull rivals to ein side. One trick wey Mobutu really enjoy be “musical chairs”—e dey rotate ministers like game, change cabinet list anyhow, so nobody go build power wey fit threaten am. From November 1965 to April 1997, Mobutu reshuffle cabinet 60 times. Dis constant shuffle put fear inside ministers, because everybody know say Mobutu go change people anyhow, no matter whether you dey work well or not. Because ministers no sabi how long dem go last for position, e lead to serious stealing—everybody dey rush grab wetin dem fit while dem still dey office. Mobutu still dey arrest, even torture, some dissident govment members—then later forgive dem and even give dem bigger posts. E be like e just use power play confuse everybody. Congolese historian Emizet F. Kisangani talk say plenty public officials believe say no matter how corrupt or useless dem be, dem fit come back to govment position. To hold post no require management skill or clean conscience. In fact, if you too correct or too honest, dem see you as obstacle. Wetin Mobutu want be total loyalty in exchange for chance to chop money. By 1970, reports talk say Mobutu don carry 60% of de national budget enter ein pocket—people begin see am as one of de most corrupt leaders for Africa and de whole world. Kisangani add say Mobutu build full system of corruption wey spoil public values and reward greed and selfishness. Mobutu no slow down with de self-promotion moves—man try for 1972 make dem crown am president for life, but that one no land well. Then for June 1983, e raise himself go military top-top level as Marshal. Na General Likulia Bolongo sign dat order. Shortly after, Victor Nendaka Bika—de number two man for country as Vice-President of de Bureau of de Central Committee—drop one big speech full of praise give Mobutu. To chop revenue from Congo ein natural resources, Mobutu first chase out European investors and nationalize plenty foreign companies. But instead of letting dem run proper, e dash control of these firms give ein relatives and close padi dem—wey quickly use am do corruption and chop company assets clean. For 1973–1974, Mobutu start one big “Zairianization” program, take over more foreign businesses and hand dem to Zairians. But e no end there. By October 1973, de Arab oil shock come crash global economy—the same one wey don dey grow steady since 1945. One serious side effect be say copper price fall by 50% in 1974, and since copper na Zaire ein number one export, e hit dem hard. As American historian Thomas Odom talk, Zaire shift from “prosperity to bankruptcy almost overnight.” Because de economy break down, Zaire run go International Monetary Fund (IMF) for help to manage dem debt, but when IMF dig into dem books, dem discover heavy corruption. Mobutu come waka go China for 1974, take inspiration from Cultural Revolution. E come back wearing Mao jacket and call himself “Citoyen Mobutu” or “Citizen Mobutu.” E say he go “radicalize de Zairian revolution.” Di same businesses wey e first give to Zairians, Mobutu come collect dem back, nationalize everything under full state control. As if dat no do, e cut government workers ein salaries by 50%, wey provoke one failed coup attempt against am for June 1975. By 1977, Mobutu ein earlier move to nationalize foreign businesses don backfire hard—e economy don fall serious, and e no get choice but to beg foreign investors come back. But before e fit recover, Katangan rebels wey base for Angola storm Zaire dat same year, as payback for Mobutu ein support to anti-MPLA fighters. France respond quick—dem airlift 1,500 Moroccan paratroopers into Zaire, push de rebels back, and end di crisis wey dem call ''Shaba I''. But no long after, for 1978, de rebels regroup with even more numbers and invade again—this time na ''Shaba II''. Belgium and France come deploy troops again, backed by US logistics, and dem manage stop de attack once more. Mobutu get big embarrassment from how badly de Zairian Army perform for both invasions—e need foreign help to fight small rebel forces. Yet, instead of reforming de army, e just reduce am from 51,000 troops in 1978 to 23,000 by 1980. By dat time, about 90% of de army be Ngbandi—Mobutu ein own ethnic group—’cos e no trust other ethnic groups with weapons. De most loyal and strongest force Mobutu get be ein bodyguards—the ''Special Presidential Division''—trained by Israel, made up only of Ngbandi, and always led by Mobutu ein relative. Mobutu win election again for 1977 and 1984, but nobody dey run against am. E use most of ein time dey build ein own fortune, and by 1988, dem estimate say ein money reach no less than $50 million. Most of de money e hide am abroad, especially for Swiss banks—but when dem remove am later, dem only find small $3.4 million there. Funny enough, ein fortune nearly match de whole country ein foreign debt dat time. One time for 20 May 1976, Mobutu talk for stadium wey hold like 70,000 people for Kinshasa. E talk say, “If you wan thief, thief small and style am nice. But if you thief too much to turn rich fast-fast, dem go catch you.” By 1989, Zaire govment no fit pay dem loans again from Belgium. Mobutu dey ride in fleet of Mercedes-Benz from one palace to another, while roads dey spoil and people dey hungry. Workers no dey get pay for months, ’cos de national money dey disappear go Mobutu, ein family, and top political plus army people. Na only Special Presidential Division wey dey protect Mobutu wey dem dey pay correct and on time. Dem even get saying wey go like dis: “De civil servants dey pretend say dem dey work, while de state dey pretend say e dey pay dem.” De national army—Forces Armées Zaïroises (FAZ)—no get morale at all. Salaries no dey come, living conditions bad, supplies no dey, and officers dey chop people. De army soldiers just turn like armed thieves—dey rob civilians anyhow. Roadblocks full everywhere, and dem dey extort money from anybody wey dey pass with car or truck. Mobutu ein poor handling of de economy cause serious inflation wey mess up de value of people dem salaries. As money value dey drop fast, plenty public servants start dey do their own way—corruption plus dishonesty turn daily survival style for workers all across de system. Mobutu himself live large. E cruise for de Congo River inside ein yacht, Kamanyola. For Gbadolite, e build one huge mansion wey people dey call “Versailles of de jungle.” Anytime e wan go shopping for Paris, e go charter Air France ein Concorde jet. E even build Gbadolite Airport with long runway make Concorde fit land and take off there. For 1989 alone, e use dat jet fly go give speech for United Nations in New York, attend de French bicentennial party as President François Mitterrand ein guest, and carry Zaire youth choir from Paris to Gbadolite, then fly go Marseille—all with Concorde. Mobutu also get villa for French Riviera wey dem call ''Villa del Mere''. Ein whole leadership style come be example of real kleptocracy and nepotism. Mobutu dey put ein Ngbandi tribe people plus close relatives for top positions inside de military and govment. E dey groom ein first-born son, Nyiwa, to take over presidency from am, but Nyiwa die from AIDS for 1994. Mobutu rule be one of de longest autocracies for Africa. E stash over $50 million from Congo ein natural resources, while ordinary people dey suffer. E form one totalitarian system wey break plenty human rights, try wipe out Belgian influence from de country, and still hold strong anti-communist position to gain favor from international powers. Mobutu ein personality cult reach levels wey few leaders for history fit match. De evening news go start with video wey show am dey descend from cloud top like some god figure. Ein face full public places everywhere—portrait hang for walls, and govment workers dey wear lapel pins wey carry ein photo. Dem give am plenty grand titles: “Father of de Nation,” “Messiah,” “Guide of de Revolution,” “Helmsman,” “Founder,” “Savior of de People,” and “Supreme Combatant.” For de 1996 documentary about de legendary 1974 Foreman–Ali boxing match wey happen for Zaire, you go hear dancers chant “Sese Seko, Sese Seko!” as dem welcome de fighters—na clear sign of how deep e presence dey everywhere, even inside pop culture moments. For early 1975, e reach point wey Mobutu no gree make media call anybody ein name—only Mobutu fit be called by name, everybody else dem just refer to dem position. E really build one kind system wey make am look like dem no fit mention Congo without mention am. Mobutu take advantage proper of de Cold War tension wey dey between de European countries plus de United States. He win strong support from de West plus dem international organizations like de International Monetary Fund (IMF). === Space program === For late 1970s, one West Germany company called OTRAG dey work on satellite launch wey dem talk say be peaceful mission to reduce cost. But because of one 1954 amendment to de Treaty of Brussels, dem no fit build or launch missile insyd Germany. So dem pay Mobutu $130 million make dem run de program for Zaire. For one 1978 agreement, Mobutu dash OTRAG 25 years lease for land insyd Zaire. De first rocket, OTRAG-1, launch on 18 May 1977 wey Mobutu dey watch from far. E take off well but e crash back down shortly after. By 6 June 1978, dem launch two more rockets but dem crash again for Zaire. Still, Mobutu push de program say over 200 Zairians dey work for there and say Zaire go benefit from royalties when dem begin sell rocket. But two years later, Soviet Union accuse de program say former Nazi scientists dey involved plus say dem dey use am spy for military reason. Mobutu gree to Soviet pressure, end de project, plus cut ties with OTRAG. === Foreign policy === Main article: Foreign policy of de Mobutu Sese Seko administration ==== Relations plus Belgium ==== De relationship wey dey between Zaire and Belgium under Mobutu time dey mix — sometimes dem be paddy, other times dem turn real enemies. Most of de time, Belgian leaders no really react strong even when Mobutu do tins wey no favour Belgium; dis be partly because de Belgian political side demself no dey united. From early Mobutu rule, yawa start between dem because of plenty Belgian businesses wey dey Congo. But things cool small after. For 1968, Mobutu and ein family go Belgium as special guest of de Belgian king, and dat same year dem sign one science plus technical agreement. For 1970, King Baudouin visit Kinshasa and everybody hail am; dem even sign treaty of friendship and cooperation. But Mobutu tear dis same treaty insyd 1974 because Belgium no gree ban one anti-Mobutu book wey Jules Chomé, one left-wing lawyer, write. Mobutu e "Zairianisation" policy, wey be say he seize foreign businesses and give dem to Zairians, make matters worse. Even though yawa dey, Mobutu still get personal friendship with some top Belgians. He admire Edmond Leburton, wey be Belgian prime minister (1973–1974), and he be paddy to Alfred Cahen, one diplomat wey Mobutu meet from his Brussels university days. Mobutu and King Baudouin too dey cool until Mobutu leak one handwritten letter from de king — after dat, palace shut door gidi-gidi. Because of dis, Mobutu no get invitation go de king ein funeral; only Saddam Hussein from Iraq join am for dat black list. Apart from Belgians wey dey Belgium, Mobutu keep Belgian advisors close — like Hugues Leclercq and Colonel Willy Mallants, wey even show for Thierry Michel ein documentary ''Mobutu, King of Zaire''. ==== Relations plus France ==== As Zaire be de second most populous French-speaking country for de world by den (plus now e even pass France sef) and de biggest one for sub-Saharan Africa, France see am as one big strategic paddy. During de First Republic time, France mostly support conservative and federalist people, no be de unitarist dem like Lumumba. Right after dem crush de Katangan secession, Zaire (wey dem dey call Republic of de Congo by den) sign technical plus cultural cooperation treaty plus France. Under Charles de Gaulle ein presidency, di two countries start bond tight because dem share plenty geopolitical interests. For 1971, France ein Finance Minister, Valéry Giscard d’Estaing, visit Zaire. Later when he turn France ein president, he and Mobutu become close pals, and France turn Mobutu ein strong foreign ally. During de Shaba invasions, France no dull — dem stand full support for Mobutu. For de first Shaba wahala, France carry 1,500 Moroccan troops come Zaire by airlift; dem help drive de rebels. One year later, as de second Shaba invasion land, France and Belgium both send French Foreign Legion paratroopers (2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment) come help Mobutu fight dem off. ==== Relations plus de People ein Republic of China ==== At de beginning, Zaire ein relationship plus de People's Republic of China no better pass how e dey with Soviet Union. Mobutu still dey remember how China help Mulele plus some Maoist rebels wey fight for Kwilu province during de Simba Rebellion wahala. E no dey like make China get seat for United Nations too. But by 1972, Mobutu start dey see China inna new way — like one balance wey go fit check Soviet Union power and even balance ein own close relationship plus United States, Israel, and South Africa. So for November 1972, Mobutu gree recognize China as one country diplomatically (plus East Germany and North Korea join body). Di next year, Mobutu fly go Beijing, meet chairman Mao Zedong, and dem promise am $100 million technical aid. For 1983, when Chinese Prime Minister Zhao Ziyang come visit Zaire, he talk say make Mobutu no worry repay de $100 million — e be gift. For 1974, Mobutu surprise everybody as e travel go China plus North Korea, even though originally dem plan say e go visit Soviet Union. As e return come Zaire, ein politics den de way e dey talk turn more radical. Na dis time Mobutu start bash Belgium plus United States — e vex say America no dey do enough to fight white minority rule for South Africa and Rhodesia. E introduce one new civic duty program wey dem call ''salongo'' — everybody must do compulsory national work. E sana bring "radicalization" wey be extension of de 1973 ''Zairianization'' policy, wey take foreign-owned things give to locals. Mobutu even borrow title from Mao — "de Helmsman". Around dis same time, from late 1974 to early 1975, ein personality cult reach peak — everywhere na Mobutu name, face, den slogan. China plus Zaire get one common target for Central Africa: make dem stop Soviet Union from gain any stronghold for dat side. So dem join hand undercover take support National Liberation Front of Angola (later dem support UNITA too) make dem block MPLA — de People's Movement for de Liberation of Angola — wey Soviet Union plus Cuba dey back. Cuba get big power for Africa dat time, as dem dey help all left-wing, anti-imperialist groups, and Soviet dey sponsor dem heavy. China invite Holden Roberto, wey be de leader of de National Liberation Front of Angola, plus ein guerilla fighters go Beijing make dem train. Dem also give dem weapons plus money. Zaire sef try enter Angola first, try put their own friendly government for power, but Cuban soldiers push dem back. De invasion no work — e be big wahala wey lead to Shaba I and Shaba II invasions later. China no support dis rebels at all; dem even send weapons go support Zaire during both invasions. China come accuse Soviet Union plus Cuba say dem dey behind de Shaba rebel trouble, say dem dey try scatter peace for Central Africa — even though nobody sure whether Soviet plus Cuba really dey involved or no. '''Relations''' '''plus de Soviet Union''' Mobutu ein relationship plus Soviet Union no be cool koraa. He be hard-core anti-communist, so he no dey rush go recognize de Soviets. USSR bin support—tho e be mostly in words—both Patrice Lumumba, Mobutu ein democratically elected predecessor, plus de Simba rebellion. However, to make e look like say he no dey side any bloc, he renew ties for 1967; de first Soviet ambassador come land and present ein credentials for 1968. Mobutu still join United States condemn de Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia dat year. Mobutu take de Soviet presence as advantage for two reasons: e help am keep de image say he be non-aligned leader, plus e give am better excuse to blame things wey dey go wrong for house. Like for 1970, he expel four Soviet diplomats say dem dey do “subversive activities,” and for 1971, he declare twenty Soviet officials as persona non grata say dem dey spark student demonstrations for Lovanium University. Moscow be de only big world capital wey Mobutu never go before, even tho he accept invitation go dey for 1974. But for reasons wey nobody know, he cancel de visit last minute, then go tour de People's Republic of China plus North Korea instead. Relations cool more for 1975, as de two countries come dey opposite sides for de Angolan Civil War. Dis one take strong toll on Zaire ein foreign policy for de next ten years; since Mobutu no fit claim say he be African leader again (he be one of de few leaders wey no gree recognize de Marxist govment of Angola), Mobutu come turn more toward US plus dem allies. He start dey support America dem stand for things like de Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, plus Israel ein position for international organizations. '''Relations''' '''plus de United States''' Most times, Zaire enjoy warm relationship plus United States. US be de third biggest country wey dey give aid to Zaire (after Belgium and France), and Mobutu be paddy man to plenty US presidents like Richard Nixon, Ronald Reagan, plus George H. W. Bush. But around 1974–1975, de relationship cool small as Mobutu start talk radical things (he bash US foreign policy hard). For 1975 summer, e even reach de worst point as Mobutu accuse CIA say dem dey plan overthrown am, come arrest eleven big Zairian generals plus some civilians, den sentence one former Central Bank boss (Albert Ndele) for absentia. But plenty people no believe say de plot be real; some like Mobutu ein strong critic Nzongola-Ntalaja talk say Mobutu just create de story to take chance sack any military man wey fit challenge am later. Still, even with all dis wahala, de cold vibe no last long—de two countries come unite again as dem dey support de same side for de Angolan Civil War. Sake of say Mobutu no dey respect human rights, de Carter government try keep small distance from de Kinshasa government. But still, Zaire chop nearly half of all de foreign aid wey Carter give to sub-Saharan Africa. During de first Shaba invasion, US no really do plenty; dem just deliver some supplies wey no be weapon. But for de second Shaba invasion, US come show stronger support—dem help transport plus organize logistics for de French and Belgian paratroopers wey come help Mobutu fight de rebels. Carter even support Mobutu ein talk say Soviet Union plus Cuba dey back de rebels, even though no evidence come prove am. For 1980, US House of Representatives vote make dem stop military aid to Zaire, but US Senate come bring am back after Carter plus US business people wey get interest for Zaire pressure dem. Mobutu get very warm relationship plus Reagan ein government, especially through money dem dey give am. During Reagan ein time, Mobutu go White House three times, and US no really bash am about de way he dey treat human rights for ein country. When Mobutu visit America for 1983, Reagan talk say Mobutu be “voice of good sense and goodwill.” Mobutu still get friendly relationship plus Reagan ein replacement, George H. W. Bush. Mobutu even be de first African president wey go visit Bush for White House. But things change sharp sharp after Cold War end. Since Soviet Union no dey again, US and Western countries no see reason again to support Mobutu sake of communism fight. Dem start dey pressure am make he open up de country to democracy. Mobutu vex say US change attitude towards am. He talk say: “I be de latest victim of de cold war, US no need me again. De lesson be say all my support for US policy no mean anything.” For 1993, when Mobutu try come Washington, US State Department bounce am, dem no give am visa. Mobutu still get some American friends wey no dey government side. One be televangelist Pat Robertson, wey promise say he go try beg US government make dem lift de ban on Mobutu. == Coalition government == For May 1990, sake of di Cold War wey end, international politics change, economy issues plus gbelemgbelem for di country, Mobutu gree make e lef di MPR ein one-man chop power. For early May, students wey dey Lubumbashi campus for National University of Zaire vex plus Mobutu ein system, dem start protest dey shout say make e step down. On di night of 11 May 1990, dem off di light for campus, den send one special army group wey dem dey call ''Les Hiboux'' (wey mean “Owls”) come, all of dem carry cutlass plus bayonet. By di morning of 12 May, dem don kill like 290 students. Dis gbelem wey happen make countries like di European Economic Community (wey now be European Union), United States, plus Canada, cut all support wey no be humanitarian. Na dis move be di beginning of di end for Mobutu ein backing from Western countries. Mobutu put transitional government make dem lead go di elections wey e promise, but e still hold serious powers for hand. After some gbelem wey unpaid soldiers cause for Kinshasa for 1991, Mobutu carry some opposition people join coalition government, but e still use corner corner hold tight di security services plus key ministries. Wahala between di different camps make dem divide into two governments for 1993 — one wey dey Mobutu ein side and one wey dey against am. Di anti-Mobutu side dey under Laurent Monsengwo plus Étienne Tshisekedi from Union for Democracy and Social Progress (UDPS). Di economic condition still dey very bad, so for 1994 di two groups come join body form High Council of Republic – Parliament of Transition (HCR-PT). Mobutu come appoint Kengo Wa Dondo, wey believe in strict spending plus free-market reforms, as Prime Minister. As all dis dey happen, Mobutu ein body too dey weak well well, and for one of ein travels go Europe for medical care, some Tutsi people come take over plenty areas for eastern Zaire. == Overthrow == Na di beginning of Mobutu e downfall start during di Rwandan genocide for 1994, wey about 800,000 Tutsis plus moderate Hutus dem kill am, mostly by about 200,000 Hutu extremists wey Rwandan government support. Di genocide end when Tutsi-controlled Rwandan Patriotic Front take over di whole country, wey make hundreds of thousands of Hutus — including many wey do di killings — run enter refugee camps for eastern Zaire. Mobutu welcome di Hutu extremists as him personal guests, allow dem build military plus political bases for eastern Zaire. From dia, dem begin attack plus kill ethnic Tutsis for Rwanda plus for Zaire itself, say dem dey prepare to go attack Rwanda again. Di new Rwandan government begin send military support give di Zairian Tutsis to protect dem. All dis kasala come make eastern Zaire start dey unstable. Mobutu wey cancer dey worry am, dey Switzerland dey take treatment, so e no fit arrange any proper resistance. Di resistance kon collapse as di rebels dey march forward. If no be say di country ein infrastructure spoil no be small, di rebels for don take over everywhere sharp. For most places, dem no get tarred road kraa; na only some rough bush roads wey people no dey use steady. Na dat one slow di rebel movement small. edlm2ge3p8fyp3272zbau2oeymbhzbk 69107 69101 2025-07-05T21:54:56Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69107 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu wa za Banga''' ; born '''Joseph-Désiré Mobutu'''; 14 October 1930 – 7 September 1997), people dey call am Mobutu Sese Seko or Mobutu and sana known by ein initials MSS, e be Congolese politician plus military officer wey be de first and only president of Zaire from 1971 to 1997. Before dat, Mobutu serve as de second president of de Democratic Republic of de Congo, from 1965 to 1971. E sana serve as de fifth chairperson of de Organisation of African Unity from 1967 to 1968. During de Congo Crisis insyd 1960, Mobutu, wey den be Chief of Staff insyd de Congolese Army, commot de nation ein democratically elected govment of Patrice Lumumba plus support from de U.S. and Belgium. Mobutu put govment insyd wey arrange make dem execute Lumumba for 1961, and e continue dey lead de country ein armed forces till e take power direct insyd another coup for 1965. To make sure say power no escape am, he create de Popular Movement of de Revolution as de only correct political party for 1967, change Congo ein name go Zaire for 1971, plus e own name turn Mobutu Sese Seko for 1972. Mobutu protect ein rule under hard autocratic regime and end up dey rule during time wey human rights violations spread everywhere. E try purge de country from all colonial culture tins through ein "national authenticity" program. Mobutu turn de main person wey everybody dey hype like say na cult of personality he dey carry. Mobutu talk say ein political ideology no be "left", no be "right", and no be "centre" too, but people mostly know am say e dey against communism for de Françafrique zone. Because of dat, United States, France, plus Belgium support am well-well—dem dash am military, diplomatic, and economic backing. E still build tight link plus apartheid South Africa, Israel, plus de Greek junta dem. Mobutu get strong name for corruption plus nepotism: dem talk say ein personal wealth fit reach from $50 million go $5 billion, all na from economic exploitation plus corruption as president. Some people call ein govment kleptocracy, ’cos e dey pile ein own money while Zaire ein economy suffer—plenty inflation, big debt, and serious currency wahala. E too known for ein flashy lifestyle, like how e dey fly go Paris on top de fast-fast Concorde jet just to do shopping. By 1990, as de economy start dey spoil plus tension dey rise, dem force Mobutu Sese Seko make e enter coalition plus political opponents and agree make dem do multiparty system. Even though e use ein soldiers try block de change, de movement no gree stop. By May 1997, rebel dem wey Laurent-Désiré Kabila lead take over de country and push Mobutu go exile. E already dey battle prostate cancer wey hard, so three months later, e die for Morocco. == Biography == === Early years den education === Mobutu, wey come from de Ngbandi ethnic group, dem born am for 1930 insyd Lisala, Belgian Congo. Mobutu ein mommie, Marie Madeleine Yemo, be hotel maid wey run go Lisala make she escape one local village chief ein harem. Na there she jam Albéric Gbemani, cook wey dey work for one Belgian judge, den she marry am. Not long after, she born Mobutu. Na one uncle pick de name “Mobutu” give am. Gbemani die when Mobutu be just eight years. After dat, one uncle plus ein grandfather raise am. De Belgian judge ein wife take fine eye see Mobutu, so she teach am how to speak, read plus write French well-well, wey be de official language of de colony. Ein mommie Yemo wey be widow, lean on family help to take care of her four pikin dem, and dem dey move from place to place often. Mobutu ein first schooling happen for capital town Léopoldville (wey now dem dey call Kinshasa). Later, ein mommie send am go ein uncle for Coquilhatville (now Mbandaka), where e attend Christian Brothers School, one Catholic-mission boarding school. Mobutu shine for books top and even run de class newspaper. People still know am for ein stubborn pranks and sharp small-boy sense of humor. One classmate remember say anytime de Belgian priests—wey ein main language be Dutch—make mistake for French, Mobutu go jump from ein seat for class top and point out de error sharp. For 1949, Mobutu sneak enter one boat wey dey go downriver to Léopoldville, where e jam one girl. Some weeks later, de priests find am. As school year end, instead of dem send am go prison, dem order make e serve seven years insyd de colonial army, Force Publique (FP). Dat kind punishment na normal tin for students wey dey act stubborn. === Army service === Mobutu find discipline for army life top, and e see father figure insyd Sergeant Louis Bobozo. Mobutu no stop ein studies—e dey borrow European newspapers from de Belgian officers plus pick books from anywhere e fit find, then e go read dem during sentry duty or any small chance e get. De ones wey e like pass be de writings of French president Charles de Gaulle, British prime minister Winston Churchill, plus de Italian Renaissance philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli. After e pass one course for accounting, Mobutu start small-small dey do journalism work proper. Still vexed about how e and de school priests jam wahala, e no marry for church. De only thing e fit bring for de wedding enjoyment be one crate of beer—na all ein army salary fit buy. === Early political involvement === As soldier, Mobutu dey write politics matter under fake name for Actualités Africaines (African News), one magazine wey one Belgian colonial set up. For 1956, e comot from army and turn full-time journalist, dey write for Léopoldville daily L'Avenir. Two years later, e go Belgium to report de 1958 World Exposition, then e stay back make e learn journalism better. By dis time, Mobutu don meet plenty young Congolese intellectuals wey dey challenge colonial rule. E come build friendship plus Patrice Lumumba and join Lumumba ein party—Congolese National Movement (MNC). Mobutu later become Lumumba ein personal aide. Some people wey know de matter talk say Belgian intelligence fit don recruit Mobutu as informant give de government. During de 1960 talks wey happen for Brussels about Congolese independence, de US embassy organize one reception give de Congolese delegation. Each embassy staff get list of delegates wey dem suppose meet, and later dem come talk about de people dem meet. De ambassador talk say, “One name just dey pop up steady. But nobody get am for ein list 'cos e no be official delegation member—e be Lumumba ein secretary. But everybody agree say dis guy get strong brain, e be young, maybe small immature, but e get big future ahead.” After de general election, dem assign Lumumba make e form govment. E give Mobutu de position of Secretary of State to de Presidency. Mobutu carry plenty weight for deciding de rest of de govment people. But after independence land, e no fit see Lumumba one-on-one again like before, 'cos de new prime minister start dey busy plus plenty aides and colleagues surround am. From there, both of dem slowly start drift apart. === Congo Crisis === Main article: Congo Crisis On 5 July 1960, soldiers of de Force Publique wey dey Camp Léopold II for Léopoldville vex over dem all-white leaders and bad working conditions, so dem rise mutiny. Di revolt spread go other places sharp-sharp. Mobutu join other officials talk to de mutineers so dem fit free de officers plus dem families. Then on 8 July, de full Council of Ministers gather for one special meeting under President Joseph Kasa-Vubu ein chairmanship for Camp Léopold II to face de matter of Africanising de garrison. De ministers start dey argue who go fit take de top job as army chief of staff. Two people wey stand out be Minister of Youth and Sports Maurice Mpolo, plus Mobutu. Mpolo don already show say e get some control over de soldiers wey dey mutiny, but Kasa-Vubu plus de Bakongo ministers fear say if dem give am power, e fit run coup. Mobutu on de other hand, people see am as cool-head wey dey think before e act. Lumumba respect Mpolo for ein boldness, but e prefer Mobutu ein cautious style. As de argument go on, de cabinet start split based on who dem support to be chief of staff. Lumumba no wan lose any of de two camps, so e try keep both men for ein team. In de end, dem give Mobutu de position and promote am to colonel. Next day, govment teams comot from de capital to supervise how dem go Africanise de army; Mobutu own assignment na for Équateur. While Mobutu dey there, Mpolo begin act as ANC Chief of Staff. Mobutu no happy at all with dat move, so when e return to de capital, e face Lumumba inside cabinet meeting and tell am plain: “Either I no deserve am and you gots sack me, or I do de mission well and I go keep my rank plus position.” De British diplomat Brian Urquhart, wey dey work plus de United Nations, yarn say: “When I first meet Mobutu for July 1960, e be Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba ein chief military assistant and e just promote himself from sergeant go lieutenant-colonel. Compared to ein boss, Mobutu be like pillar of common sense and sharp reasoning. Na to am we go when Lumumba ein hashish-high guards arrest our people. Na Mobutu too dey casually bring up Lumumba ein wild requests—like say make UN pay salary give Congolese army wey fit mutiny. For dem early days, Mobutu look like reasonable young man, wey maybe, just maybe, dey reason good for ein new independent country.” Backed by Belgian govment wey wan still hold tight to de rich Congolese mines, secessionist violence burst out for south. As UN soldiers wey dem send come restore order no dey help crush de secession, Lumumba go turn to Soviet Union for help. Inside six weeks, e receive serious military aid plus about thousand Soviet technical advisers. Since na Cold War time, US govment fear say dis Soviet move be trick to spread communist power for Central Africa. US and Belgium come ginger Kasa-Vubu make e sack Lumumba, and on 5 September, e do am. Lumumba vex rough and say Kasa-Vubu no be president again. Parliament no gree sack any of dem, instead dem beg for reconciliation, but no headway. Lumumba plus Kasa-Vubu each tell Mobutu make e arrest de other one. As Army Chief of Staff, Mobutu start face heavy pressure from all angle. Western countries' embassies—wey dey pay soldiers salary—plus Kasa-Vubu and Mobutu ein own men, all dem want make Soviet people pack. So on 14 September, Mobutu do coup wey no draw blood, announce say both Kasa-Vubu and Lumumba dey “neutralised” and form one new govment of university graduates—dem call am College of Commissioners-General. Lumumba no accept am but dem force am retire go ein house, where UN peacekeepers block Mobutu ein soldiers make dem no arrest am. Urquhart talk say on de coup day, Mobutu just waka enter UN headquarters for Léopoldville without invite and no gree comot till radio announce de coup; na dat time Mobutu begin repeat “C’est moi!”—“Na me!” Urquhart realise say Mobutu just land there in case de coup mess up, so e tell am to comot. As confidence drop say de international community go support am come back to power, Lumumba run commot for late November go meet ein supporters for Stanleyville to form new govment. Early December, Mobutu ein soldiers catch am, then keep am for ein base insyd Thysville. But Mobutu still see am as danger, so on 17 January 1961, e move Lumumba go de rebel State of Katanga. From dat point, nobody see Lumumba again. Later dem find out say same day wey dem move am, de secessionist forces under Moise Tshombe execute am, after Mobutu ein govment hand am over. On 23 January 1961, Kasa-Vubu promote Mobutu go major-general. One historian, De Witte, talk say na political move wey aim to make de army stronger, since na de president ein only support, and to boost Mobutu ein stand inside de army. For 1964, Pierre Mulele lead some fighters start another rebellion. Dem fast take over two-thirds of Congo. Mobutu lead de Congolese army respond, and by 1965, dem take back de whole land. === Second ''coup'' and consolidation of power === Sanso see: Second Mobutu coup d'état Prime Minister Moise Tshombe ein party, de Congolese National Convention, win big majority for March 1965 elections, but Kasa-Vubu appoint Évariste Kimba, one anti-Tshombe man, as prime minister-designate. Parliament no gree approve am two times. As de govment almost jam dead end, Mobutu take over power through coup wey no draw blood on 24 November—he just turn 35 one month before. Under one system wey dem call state of exception (regime d'exception), Mobutu grab full—almost absolute—power for five years. For ein first speech after e take power, Mobutu talk give big crowd for Léopoldville main stadium say, since na politicians spoil Congo within five years, e go need at least dat same time to fix am. So, for dat reason, no political party go do anything for five years. On 30 November 1965, Parliament pass law wey give Mobutu plus ein cabinet most of de legislative powers, but still hold small power to check ein decrees. By early March 1966, when Parliament start new session, Mobutu announce say he dey cancel dat review power, and two weeks after, ein govment shutdown Parliament for good and collect all de remaining authority. At de start, Mobutu ein govment come out like say e no dey into politics—or even dey against am. People begin see “politician” as bad word, wey mean person wey wicked or corrupt. For 1966, dem set up de Corps of Volunteers of de Republic, one strong frontline group wey aim to gather plenty public support behind Mobutu. Na same year dem hail am as de country ein “Second National Hero” after Lumumba. Even though Mobutu play role for how Lumumba commot power, e try package himself like person wey dey carry Lumumba ein legacy continue. One of de key things wey Mobutu dey preach for early part of ein rule be “authentic Congolese nationalism”. Na dat 1966 too e begin change city names wey get European roots to names wey sound more African—na so Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Stanleyville become Kisangani, and Élisabethville change to Lubumbashi. Then for 1967, Mobutu bring out de Popular Movement of de Revolution (MPR). From dat time go reach 1990, na only dat party dem dey allow for politics. Inside de MPR ein beliefs—wey dem write for Manifesto of N'Sele—dem push nationalism, revolution, plus “authenticity”. Dem describe revolution as “truly national and very practical,” wey reject both capitalism and communism. One popular slogan from de MPR be “Neither left nor right,” and later dem add “nor even center” join. That same year, all de trade unions dem join body into one single union—National Union of Zairian Workers—and de govment take full control over am. Mobutu plan say de union no go operate on ein own, but rather support govment policy like tool. From dat time till 1991, any independent trade union be illegal. As e face plenty wahala for de beginning of ein rule, Mobutu use favour-sharing (patronage) win over most of ein opposition; de ones wey no gree, e handle dem rough. For 1966, four cabinet members chop arrest because dem say dem join plan coup. Military court try dem case, then dem do public execution wey over 50,000 people watch live for open ground. Former Katangan gendarmeries wey rise also face Mobutu ein force and dem smash dem down—same as de Stanleyville mutinies of 1967 wey white mercenaries lead. By 1970, almost all de people wey fit challenge Mobutu power don fall, and for most parts of de country, law plus order start dey show face. That 1970 be de peak time of Mobutu ein power and respect. For 1970, King Baudouin of Belgium come Kinshasa do big state visit wey go well. Dat same year, dem hold presidential plus legislative elections. Even though de constitution say two parties fit dey, na only MPR dem allow nominate candidates. For de presidential election, Mobutu be de only person wey run. Voting no dey private; if you support Mobutu, you go drop green paper, but if you no dey support am, na red paper you go use. Green vote mean say you dey vote for hope, while red vote mean chaos. Under dat kind condition, de result no be surprise—official result talk say Mobutu win with almost everybody behind am, collect 10,131,669 votes, and only 157 people say “no”. Later dem come find out say over 30,500 more votes appear pass de number of voters wey register. Dem run de legislative elections same style. People get just one list from MPR; official result talk say unbelievable 98.33% people vote for de MPR list. As Mobutu dey cement ein power, e build different military groups wey na only to protect am dem dey. These groups include de Special Presidential Division, Civil Guard plus Service for Action, and Military Intelligence (SNIP). === Authenticity campaign === Main article: Authenticité (Zaire) Mobutu start big campaign wey promote African culture wey dem call ''authenticité''. As part of am, on 1 June 1966, e begin change city names wey show colonial past—Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Elisabethville change to Lubumbashi, and Stanleyville become Kisangani. For October 1971, e change de country ein name to Republic of Zaire. E order people make dem drop dem European names for African ones, and warn priests say if dem baptize Zairian pikin plus European name, dem go chop five years for prison. Western dressing and neck tie come dey banned, and men must wear one Mao-style tunic dem dey call ''abacost'' (short for ''à bas le costume'' wey mean “down with de suit”). Even Christmas move from December go June because Mobutu say dat one be more “authentic” date. Then for 1972, Mobutu follow ein own rule from previous year and change ein name to Mobutu Sese Seko Nkuku Ngbendu Wa Za Banga (wey mean “De all-powerful warrior wey, because of ein endurance and strong will to win, dey move from victory to victory, and leave fire behind”). Around dat time, e drop de army uniform and start wear ein signature look—tall and commanding, plus walking stick, abacost, thick glasses, and leopard-skin cap wey dem sew for Paris. For 1974, new constitution land wey tighten Mobutu ein hold on de country. Dis constitution talk say MPR be de “single institution” for de nation. Dem even define am as “de nation politically organized”—which mean say de state just be machine wey dey push party agenda. Every citizen automatically turn MPR member from de moment dem born. De constitution explain say de MPR dey inside de body of de party ein president, wey dem dey elect every seven years during national convention. But at de same time, dat same president automatically turn de only person wey go run for president of de country. Den dem go use referendum confirm am. De document come turn Mobutu ein emergency powers wey e dey use since 1965 into legal backing; e give am full authority—wey dem write as “plenitude of power exercise”—so all power now dey Mobutu ein hand. Mobutu win election three times under dis system, and each time, dem talk say e win with over 98 percent of de votes. For de legislative side, dem dey bring one single MPR list every five years, and de results dey show crazy numbers—either everybody vote for dem, or almost everybody. One of dem elections for 1975, dem no even vote at all—dem just show candidates around public places make people clap give dem. Dat one na how voting be. == One-man rule == Mobutu start use public executions early insyd ein rule to stamp ein power well-well. Any political rival, secessionist, coup planner, or anybody wey e see as threat, e go deal with dem hard. Many of dem people chop hanging for front big crowd. One serious example be former Prime Minister Évariste Kimba. Mobutu govment carry Kimba plus three of ein cabinet members—Jérôme Anany (Defense Minister), Emmanuel Bamba (Finance Minister), and Alexandre Mahamba (Minister of Mines and Energy)—put for trial May 1966. By 30 May, dem hang all four men in front of over 50,000 people. Dem say dem dey link up plus Colonel Alphonse Bangala and Major Pierre Efomi to run coup. Mobutu come talk say, “One had to strike through a spectacular example, and create the conditions of regime discipline. When a chief takes a decision, he decides – period.” Then for 1968, Pierre Mulele—Lumumba ein Education Minister and big rebel during de 1964 Simba uprising—Mobutu people trick am come out from exile for Brazzaville by telling am say amnesty go dey. But instead of peace, dem torture and kill am bad. Before Mulele die, dem gouge ein eyes, tear off ein genitals, and cut off ein limbs one by one. Mobutu later change ein strategy—e start dey buy political opponents instead of always use force. E like repeat one slogan: “Keep your friends close, but your enemies closer still,” to show how e dey use bribe pull rivals to ein side. One trick wey Mobutu really enjoy be “musical chairs”—e dey rotate ministers like game, change cabinet list anyhow, so nobody go build power wey fit threaten am. From November 1965 to April 1997, Mobutu reshuffle cabinet 60 times. Dis constant shuffle put fear inside ministers, because everybody know say Mobutu go change people anyhow, no matter whether you dey work well or not. Because ministers no sabi how long dem go last for position, e lead to serious stealing—everybody dey rush grab wetin dem fit while dem still dey office. Mobutu still dey arrest, even torture, some dissident govment members—then later forgive dem and even give dem bigger posts. E be like e just use power play confuse everybody. Congolese historian Emizet F. Kisangani talk say plenty public officials believe say no matter how corrupt or useless dem be, dem fit come back to govment position. To hold post no require management skill or clean conscience. In fact, if you too correct or too honest, dem see you as obstacle. Wetin Mobutu want be total loyalty in exchange for chance to chop money. By 1970, reports talk say Mobutu don carry 60% of de national budget enter ein pocket—people begin see am as one of de most corrupt leaders for Africa and de whole world. Kisangani add say Mobutu build full system of corruption wey spoil public values and reward greed and selfishness. Mobutu no slow down with de self-promotion moves—man try for 1972 make dem crown am president for life, but that one no land well. Then for June 1983, e raise himself go military top-top level as Marshal. Na General Likulia Bolongo sign dat order. Shortly after, Victor Nendaka Bika—de number two man for country as Vice-President of de Bureau of de Central Committee—drop one big speech full of praise give Mobutu. To chop revenue from Congo ein natural resources, Mobutu first chase out European investors and nationalize plenty foreign companies. But instead of letting dem run proper, e dash control of these firms give ein relatives and close padi dem—wey quickly use am do corruption and chop company assets clean. For 1973–1974, Mobutu start one big “Zairianization” program, take over more foreign businesses and hand dem to Zairians. But e no end there. By October 1973, de Arab oil shock come crash global economy—the same one wey don dey grow steady since 1945. One serious side effect be say copper price fall by 50% in 1974, and since copper na Zaire ein number one export, e hit dem hard. As American historian Thomas Odom talk, Zaire shift from “prosperity to bankruptcy almost overnight.” Because de economy break down, Zaire run go International Monetary Fund (IMF) for help to manage dem debt, but when IMF dig into dem books, dem discover heavy corruption. Mobutu come waka go China for 1974, take inspiration from Cultural Revolution. E come back wearing Mao jacket and call himself “Citoyen Mobutu” or “Citizen Mobutu.” E say he go “radicalize de Zairian revolution.” Di same businesses wey e first give to Zairians, Mobutu come collect dem back, nationalize everything under full state control. As if dat no do, e cut government workers ein salaries by 50%, wey provoke one failed coup attempt against am for June 1975. By 1977, Mobutu ein earlier move to nationalize foreign businesses don backfire hard—e economy don fall serious, and e no get choice but to beg foreign investors come back. But before e fit recover, Katangan rebels wey base for Angola storm Zaire dat same year, as payback for Mobutu ein support to anti-MPLA fighters. France respond quick—dem airlift 1,500 Moroccan paratroopers into Zaire, push de rebels back, and end di crisis wey dem call ''Shaba I''. But no long after, for 1978, de rebels regroup with even more numbers and invade again—this time na ''Shaba II''. Belgium and France come deploy troops again, backed by US logistics, and dem manage stop de attack once more. Mobutu get big embarrassment from how badly de Zairian Army perform for both invasions—e need foreign help to fight small rebel forces. Yet, instead of reforming de army, e just reduce am from 51,000 troops in 1978 to 23,000 by 1980. By dat time, about 90% of de army be Ngbandi—Mobutu ein own ethnic group—’cos e no trust other ethnic groups with weapons. De most loyal and strongest force Mobutu get be ein bodyguards—the ''Special Presidential Division''—trained by Israel, made up only of Ngbandi, and always led by Mobutu ein relative. Mobutu win election again for 1977 and 1984, but nobody dey run against am. E use most of ein time dey build ein own fortune, and by 1988, dem estimate say ein money reach no less than $50 million. Most of de money e hide am abroad, especially for Swiss banks—but when dem remove am later, dem only find small $3.4 million there. Funny enough, ein fortune nearly match de whole country ein foreign debt dat time. One time for 20 May 1976, Mobutu talk for stadium wey hold like 70,000 people for Kinshasa. E talk say, “If you wan thief, thief small and style am nice. But if you thief too much to turn rich fast-fast, dem go catch you.” By 1989, Zaire govment no fit pay dem loans again from Belgium. Mobutu dey ride in fleet of Mercedes-Benz from one palace to another, while roads dey spoil and people dey hungry. Workers no dey get pay for months, ’cos de national money dey disappear go Mobutu, ein family, and top political plus army people. Na only Special Presidential Division wey dey protect Mobutu wey dem dey pay correct and on time. Dem even get saying wey go like dis: “De civil servants dey pretend say dem dey work, while de state dey pretend say e dey pay dem.” De national army—Forces Armées Zaïroises (FAZ)—no get morale at all. Salaries no dey come, living conditions bad, supplies no dey, and officers dey chop people. De army soldiers just turn like armed thieves—dey rob civilians anyhow. Roadblocks full everywhere, and dem dey extort money from anybody wey dey pass with car or truck. Mobutu ein poor handling of de economy cause serious inflation wey mess up de value of people dem salaries. As money value dey drop fast, plenty public servants start dey do their own way—corruption plus dishonesty turn daily survival style for workers all across de system. Mobutu himself live large. E cruise for de Congo River inside ein yacht, Kamanyola. For Gbadolite, e build one huge mansion wey people dey call “Versailles of de jungle.” Anytime e wan go shopping for Paris, e go charter Air France ein Concorde jet. E even build Gbadolite Airport with long runway make Concorde fit land and take off there. For 1989 alone, e use dat jet fly go give speech for United Nations in New York, attend de French bicentennial party as President François Mitterrand ein guest, and carry Zaire youth choir from Paris to Gbadolite, then fly go Marseille—all with Concorde. Mobutu also get villa for French Riviera wey dem call ''Villa del Mere''. Ein whole leadership style come be example of real kleptocracy and nepotism. Mobutu dey put ein Ngbandi tribe people plus close relatives for top positions inside de military and govment. E dey groom ein first-born son, Nyiwa, to take over presidency from am, but Nyiwa die from AIDS for 1994. Mobutu rule be one of de longest autocracies for Africa. E stash over $50 million from Congo ein natural resources, while ordinary people dey suffer. E form one totalitarian system wey break plenty human rights, try wipe out Belgian influence from de country, and still hold strong anti-communist position to gain favor from international powers. Mobutu ein personality cult reach levels wey few leaders for history fit match. De evening news go start with video wey show am dey descend from cloud top like some god figure. Ein face full public places everywhere—portrait hang for walls, and govment workers dey wear lapel pins wey carry ein photo. Dem give am plenty grand titles: “Father of de Nation,” “Messiah,” “Guide of de Revolution,” “Helmsman,” “Founder,” “Savior of de People,” and “Supreme Combatant.” For de 1996 documentary about de legendary 1974 Foreman–Ali boxing match wey happen for Zaire, you go hear dancers chant “Sese Seko, Sese Seko!” as dem welcome de fighters—na clear sign of how deep e presence dey everywhere, even inside pop culture moments. For early 1975, e reach point wey Mobutu no gree make media call anybody ein name—only Mobutu fit be called by name, everybody else dem just refer to dem position. E really build one kind system wey make am look like dem no fit mention Congo without mention am. Mobutu take advantage proper of de Cold War tension wey dey between de European countries plus de United States. He win strong support from de West plus dem international organizations like de International Monetary Fund (IMF). === Space program === For late 1970s, one West Germany company called OTRAG dey work on satellite launch wey dem talk say be peaceful mission to reduce cost. But because of one 1954 amendment to de Treaty of Brussels, dem no fit build or launch missile insyd Germany. So dem pay Mobutu $130 million make dem run de program for Zaire. For one 1978 agreement, Mobutu dash OTRAG 25 years lease for land insyd Zaire. De first rocket, OTRAG-1, launch on 18 May 1977 wey Mobutu dey watch from far. E take off well but e crash back down shortly after. By 6 June 1978, dem launch two more rockets but dem crash again for Zaire. Still, Mobutu push de program say over 200 Zairians dey work for there and say Zaire go benefit from royalties when dem begin sell rocket. But two years later, Soviet Union accuse de program say former Nazi scientists dey involved plus say dem dey use am spy for military reason. Mobutu gree to Soviet pressure, end de project, plus cut ties with OTRAG. === Foreign policy === Main article: Foreign policy of de Mobutu Sese Seko administration ==== Relations plus Belgium ==== De relationship wey dey between Zaire and Belgium under Mobutu time dey mix — sometimes dem be paddy, other times dem turn real enemies. Most of de time, Belgian leaders no really react strong even when Mobutu do tins wey no favour Belgium; dis be partly because de Belgian political side demself no dey united. From early Mobutu rule, yawa start between dem because of plenty Belgian businesses wey dey Congo. But things cool small after. For 1968, Mobutu and ein family go Belgium as special guest of de Belgian king, and dat same year dem sign one science plus technical agreement. For 1970, King Baudouin visit Kinshasa and everybody hail am; dem even sign treaty of friendship and cooperation. But Mobutu tear dis same treaty insyd 1974 because Belgium no gree ban one anti-Mobutu book wey Jules Chomé, one left-wing lawyer, write. Mobutu e "Zairianisation" policy, wey be say he seize foreign businesses and give dem to Zairians, make matters worse. Even though yawa dey, Mobutu still get personal friendship with some top Belgians. He admire Edmond Leburton, wey be Belgian prime minister (1973–1974), and he be paddy to Alfred Cahen, one diplomat wey Mobutu meet from his Brussels university days. Mobutu and King Baudouin too dey cool until Mobutu leak one handwritten letter from de king — after dat, palace shut door gidi-gidi. Because of dis, Mobutu no get invitation go de king ein funeral; only Saddam Hussein from Iraq join am for dat black list. Apart from Belgians wey dey Belgium, Mobutu keep Belgian advisors close — like Hugues Leclercq and Colonel Willy Mallants, wey even show for Thierry Michel ein documentary ''Mobutu, King of Zaire''. ==== Relations plus France ==== As Zaire be de second most populous French-speaking country for de world by den (plus now e even pass France sef) and de biggest one for sub-Saharan Africa, France see am as one big strategic paddy. During de First Republic time, France mostly support conservative and federalist people, no be de unitarist dem like Lumumba. Right after dem crush de Katangan secession, Zaire (wey dem dey call Republic of de Congo by den) sign technical plus cultural cooperation treaty plus France. Under Charles de Gaulle ein presidency, di two countries start bond tight because dem share plenty geopolitical interests. For 1971, France ein Finance Minister, Valéry Giscard d’Estaing, visit Zaire. Later when he turn France ein president, he and Mobutu become close pals, and France turn Mobutu ein strong foreign ally. During de Shaba invasions, France no dull — dem stand full support for Mobutu. For de first Shaba wahala, France carry 1,500 Moroccan troops come Zaire by airlift; dem help drive de rebels. One year later, as de second Shaba invasion land, France and Belgium both send French Foreign Legion paratroopers (2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment) come help Mobutu fight dem off. ==== Relations plus de People ein Republic of China ==== At de beginning, Zaire ein relationship plus de People's Republic of China no better pass how e dey with Soviet Union. Mobutu still dey remember how China help Mulele plus some Maoist rebels wey fight for Kwilu province during de Simba Rebellion wahala. E no dey like make China get seat for United Nations too. But by 1972, Mobutu start dey see China inna new way — like one balance wey go fit check Soviet Union power and even balance ein own close relationship plus United States, Israel, and South Africa. So for November 1972, Mobutu gree recognize China as one country diplomatically (plus East Germany and North Korea join body). Di next year, Mobutu fly go Beijing, meet chairman Mao Zedong, and dem promise am $100 million technical aid. For 1983, when Chinese Prime Minister Zhao Ziyang come visit Zaire, he talk say make Mobutu no worry repay de $100 million — e be gift. For 1974, Mobutu surprise everybody as e travel go China plus North Korea, even though originally dem plan say e go visit Soviet Union. As e return come Zaire, ein politics den de way e dey talk turn more radical. Na dis time Mobutu start bash Belgium plus United States — e vex say America no dey do enough to fight white minority rule for South Africa and Rhodesia. E introduce one new civic duty program wey dem call ''salongo'' — everybody must do compulsory national work. E sana bring "radicalization" wey be extension of de 1973 ''Zairianization'' policy, wey take foreign-owned things give to locals. Mobutu even borrow title from Mao — "de Helmsman". Around dis same time, from late 1974 to early 1975, ein personality cult reach peak — everywhere na Mobutu name, face, den slogan. China plus Zaire get one common target for Central Africa: make dem stop Soviet Union from gain any stronghold for dat side. So dem join hand undercover take support National Liberation Front of Angola (later dem support UNITA too) make dem block MPLA — de People's Movement for de Liberation of Angola — wey Soviet Union plus Cuba dey back. Cuba get big power for Africa dat time, as dem dey help all left-wing, anti-imperialist groups, and Soviet dey sponsor dem heavy. China invite Holden Roberto, wey be de leader of de National Liberation Front of Angola, plus ein guerilla fighters go Beijing make dem train. Dem also give dem weapons plus money. Zaire sef try enter Angola first, try put their own friendly government for power, but Cuban soldiers push dem back. De invasion no work — e be big wahala wey lead to Shaba I and Shaba II invasions later. China no support dis rebels at all; dem even send weapons go support Zaire during both invasions. China come accuse Soviet Union plus Cuba say dem dey behind de Shaba rebel trouble, say dem dey try scatter peace for Central Africa — even though nobody sure whether Soviet plus Cuba really dey involved or no. '''Relations''' '''plus de Soviet Union''' Mobutu ein relationship plus Soviet Union no be cool koraa. He be hard-core anti-communist, so he no dey rush go recognize de Soviets. USSR bin support—tho e be mostly in words—both Patrice Lumumba, Mobutu ein democratically elected predecessor, plus de Simba rebellion. However, to make e look like say he no dey side any bloc, he renew ties for 1967; de first Soviet ambassador come land and present ein credentials for 1968. Mobutu still join United States condemn de Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia dat year. Mobutu take de Soviet presence as advantage for two reasons: e help am keep de image say he be non-aligned leader, plus e give am better excuse to blame things wey dey go wrong for house. Like for 1970, he expel four Soviet diplomats say dem dey do “subversive activities,” and for 1971, he declare twenty Soviet officials as persona non grata say dem dey spark student demonstrations for Lovanium University. Moscow be de only big world capital wey Mobutu never go before, even tho he accept invitation go dey for 1974. But for reasons wey nobody know, he cancel de visit last minute, then go tour de People's Republic of China plus North Korea instead. Relations cool more for 1975, as de two countries come dey opposite sides for de Angolan Civil War. Dis one take strong toll on Zaire ein foreign policy for de next ten years; since Mobutu no fit claim say he be African leader again (he be one of de few leaders wey no gree recognize de Marxist govment of Angola), Mobutu come turn more toward US plus dem allies. He start dey support America dem stand for things like de Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, plus Israel ein position for international organizations. '''Relations''' '''plus de United States''' Most times, Zaire enjoy warm relationship plus United States. US be de third biggest country wey dey give aid to Zaire (after Belgium and France), and Mobutu be paddy man to plenty US presidents like Richard Nixon, Ronald Reagan, plus George H. W. Bush. But around 1974–1975, de relationship cool small as Mobutu start talk radical things (he bash US foreign policy hard). For 1975 summer, e even reach de worst point as Mobutu accuse CIA say dem dey plan overthrown am, come arrest eleven big Zairian generals plus some civilians, den sentence one former Central Bank boss (Albert Ndele) for absentia. But plenty people no believe say de plot be real; some like Mobutu ein strong critic Nzongola-Ntalaja talk say Mobutu just create de story to take chance sack any military man wey fit challenge am later. Still, even with all dis wahala, de cold vibe no last long—de two countries come unite again as dem dey support de same side for de Angolan Civil War. Sake of say Mobutu no dey respect human rights, de Carter government try keep small distance from de Kinshasa government. But still, Zaire chop nearly half of all de foreign aid wey Carter give to sub-Saharan Africa. During de first Shaba invasion, US no really do plenty; dem just deliver some supplies wey no be weapon. But for de second Shaba invasion, US come show stronger support—dem help transport plus organize logistics for de French and Belgian paratroopers wey come help Mobutu fight de rebels. Carter even support Mobutu ein talk say Soviet Union plus Cuba dey back de rebels, even though no evidence come prove am. For 1980, US House of Representatives vote make dem stop military aid to Zaire, but US Senate come bring am back after Carter plus US business people wey get interest for Zaire pressure dem. Mobutu get very warm relationship plus Reagan ein government, especially through money dem dey give am. During Reagan ein time, Mobutu go White House three times, and US no really bash am about de way he dey treat human rights for ein country. When Mobutu visit America for 1983, Reagan talk say Mobutu be “voice of good sense and goodwill.” Mobutu still get friendly relationship plus Reagan ein replacement, George H. W. Bush. Mobutu even be de first African president wey go visit Bush for White House. But things change sharp sharp after Cold War end. Since Soviet Union no dey again, US and Western countries no see reason again to support Mobutu sake of communism fight. Dem start dey pressure am make he open up de country to democracy. Mobutu vex say US change attitude towards am. He talk say: “I be de latest victim of de cold war, US no need me again. De lesson be say all my support for US policy no mean anything.” For 1993, when Mobutu try come Washington, US State Department bounce am, dem no give am visa. Mobutu still get some American friends wey no dey government side. One be televangelist Pat Robertson, wey promise say he go try beg US government make dem lift de ban on Mobutu. == Coalition government == For May 1990, sake of di Cold War wey end, international politics change, economy issues plus gbelemgbelem for di country, Mobutu gree make e lef di MPR ein one-man chop power. For early May, students wey dey Lubumbashi campus for National University of Zaire vex plus Mobutu ein system, dem start protest dey shout say make e step down. On di night of 11 May 1990, dem off di light for campus, den send one special army group wey dem dey call ''Les Hiboux'' (wey mean “Owls”) come, all of dem carry cutlass plus bayonet. By di morning of 12 May, dem don kill like 290 students. Dis gbelem wey happen make countries like di European Economic Community (wey now be European Union), United States, plus Canada, cut all support wey no be humanitarian. Na dis move be di beginning of di end for Mobutu ein backing from Western countries. Mobutu put transitional government make dem lead go di elections wey e promise, but e still hold serious powers for hand. After some gbelem wey unpaid soldiers cause for Kinshasa for 1991, Mobutu carry some opposition people join coalition government, but e still use corner corner hold tight di security services plus key ministries. Wahala between di different camps make dem divide into two governments for 1993 — one wey dey Mobutu ein side and one wey dey against am. Di anti-Mobutu side dey under Laurent Monsengwo plus Étienne Tshisekedi from Union for Democracy and Social Progress (UDPS). Di economic condition still dey very bad, so for 1994 di two groups come join body form High Council of Republic – Parliament of Transition (HCR-PT). Mobutu come appoint Kengo Wa Dondo, wey believe in strict spending plus free-market reforms, as Prime Minister. As all dis dey happen, Mobutu ein body too dey weak well well, and for one of ein travels go Europe for medical care, some Tutsi people come take over plenty areas for eastern Zaire. == Overthrow == Na di beginning of Mobutu e downfall start during di Rwandan genocide for 1994, wey about 800,000 Tutsis plus moderate Hutus dem kill am, mostly by about 200,000 Hutu extremists wey Rwandan government support. Di genocide end when Tutsi-controlled Rwandan Patriotic Front take over di whole country, wey make hundreds of thousands of Hutus — including many wey do di killings — run enter refugee camps for eastern Zaire. Mobutu welcome di Hutu extremists as him personal guests, allow dem build military plus political bases for eastern Zaire. From dia, dem begin attack plus kill ethnic Tutsis for Rwanda plus for Zaire itself, say dem dey prepare to go attack Rwanda again. Di new Rwandan government begin send military support give di Zairian Tutsis to protect dem. All dis kasala come make eastern Zaire start dey unstable. Mobutu wey cancer dey worry am, dey Switzerland dey take treatment, so e no fit arrange any proper resistance. Di resistance kon collapse as di rebels dey march forward. If no be say di country ein infrastructure spoil no be small, di rebels for don take over everywhere sharp. For most places, dem no get tarred road kraa; na only some rough bush roads wey people no dey use steady. Na dat one slow di rebel movement small. By mid-1997, Kabila ein people start dey move again, and Mobutu ein remaining soldiers no really put up any fight. On 16 May 1997, dem try do peace talk for Pointe-Noire inside one South African Navy ship (SAS Outeniqua), wey President Nelson Mandela from South Africa chair. But di talk no go anywhere, sake of say Kabila no wan slow ein army down or give Mobutu chance take gather ein people again. Kabila too no dey want look Mobutu face during di meeting. According to one UN official, Timothy Montague Hamilton Douglas, e talk say, “All di years wey I deal plus Mobutu, dis be di first time I see person wey pass am for superstition... Kabila sit inside di same room wey Mobutu dey, but e no gree look am for face kraa — e just dey watch di ceiling.” After some talk plus their aides, Douglas realize say Kabila dey fear say di “Old Leopard” (Mobutu) still get juju wey fit curse am if e look am for eye, and dat go stop am from winning power wey e almost grab. Di atmosphere cold pass. Dem talk say na di only time di two enemies ever meet face to face. Kabila just tell Mobutu, “Step down, hand over power without condition.” Mobutu vex bad. E just waka comot from di ship, no gree make any agreement. Mandela, wey be 78 years den, even help support Mobutu make e fit waka go ein car. Dem suppose meet again on 15 May, Mobutu show up but Kabila no show face. Di next day, Kabila ein soldiers — Alliance of Democratic Forces for de Liberation of Congo-Zaire (AFDL) — declare say dem win di fight. On 23 May 1997, dem change Zaire ein name go Democratic Republic of de Congo. 2zw2lenm5h6icwnx9jgii3zt5xnsqkb 69108 69107 2025-07-05T21:55:38Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69108 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu wa za Banga''' ; born '''Joseph-Désiré Mobutu'''; 14 October 1930 – 7 September 1997), people dey call am Mobutu Sese Seko or Mobutu and sana known by ein initials MSS, e be Congolese politician plus military officer wey be de first and only president of Zaire from 1971 to 1997. Before dat, Mobutu serve as de second president of de Democratic Republic of de Congo, from 1965 to 1971. E sana serve as de fifth chairperson of de Organisation of African Unity from 1967 to 1968. During de Congo Crisis insyd 1960, Mobutu, wey den be Chief of Staff insyd de Congolese Army, commot de nation ein democratically elected govment of Patrice Lumumba plus support from de U.S. and Belgium. Mobutu put govment insyd wey arrange make dem execute Lumumba for 1961, and e continue dey lead de country ein armed forces till e take power direct insyd another coup for 1965. To make sure say power no escape am, he create de Popular Movement of de Revolution as de only correct political party for 1967, change Congo ein name go Zaire for 1971, plus e own name turn Mobutu Sese Seko for 1972. Mobutu protect ein rule under hard autocratic regime and end up dey rule during time wey human rights violations spread everywhere. E try purge de country from all colonial culture tins through ein "national authenticity" program. Mobutu turn de main person wey everybody dey hype like say na cult of personality he dey carry. Mobutu talk say ein political ideology no be "left", no be "right", and no be "centre" too, but people mostly know am say e dey against communism for de Françafrique zone. Because of dat, United States, France, plus Belgium support am well-well—dem dash am military, diplomatic, and economic backing. E still build tight link plus apartheid South Africa, Israel, plus de Greek junta dem. Mobutu get strong name for corruption plus nepotism: dem talk say ein personal wealth fit reach from $50 million go $5 billion, all na from economic exploitation plus corruption as president. Some people call ein govment kleptocracy, ’cos e dey pile ein own money while Zaire ein economy suffer—plenty inflation, big debt, and serious currency wahala. E too known for ein flashy lifestyle, like how e dey fly go Paris on top de fast-fast Concorde jet just to do shopping. By 1990, as de economy start dey spoil plus tension dey rise, dem force Mobutu Sese Seko make e enter coalition plus political opponents and agree make dem do multiparty system. Even though e use ein soldiers try block de change, de movement no gree stop. By May 1997, rebel dem wey Laurent-Désiré Kabila lead take over de country and push Mobutu go exile. E already dey battle prostate cancer wey hard, so three months later, e die for Morocco. == Biography == === Early years den education === Mobutu, wey come from de Ngbandi ethnic group, dem born am for 1930 insyd Lisala, Belgian Congo. Mobutu ein mommie, Marie Madeleine Yemo, be hotel maid wey run go Lisala make she escape one local village chief ein harem. Na there she jam Albéric Gbemani, cook wey dey work for one Belgian judge, den she marry am. Not long after, she born Mobutu. Na one uncle pick de name “Mobutu” give am. Gbemani die when Mobutu be just eight years. After dat, one uncle plus ein grandfather raise am. De Belgian judge ein wife take fine eye see Mobutu, so she teach am how to speak, read plus write French well-well, wey be de official language of de colony. Ein mommie Yemo wey be widow, lean on family help to take care of her four pikin dem, and dem dey move from place to place often. Mobutu ein first schooling happen for capital town Léopoldville (wey now dem dey call Kinshasa). Later, ein mommie send am go ein uncle for Coquilhatville (now Mbandaka), where e attend Christian Brothers School, one Catholic-mission boarding school. Mobutu shine for books top and even run de class newspaper. People still know am for ein stubborn pranks and sharp small-boy sense of humor. One classmate remember say anytime de Belgian priests—wey ein main language be Dutch—make mistake for French, Mobutu go jump from ein seat for class top and point out de error sharp. For 1949, Mobutu sneak enter one boat wey dey go downriver to Léopoldville, where e jam one girl. Some weeks later, de priests find am. As school year end, instead of dem send am go prison, dem order make e serve seven years insyd de colonial army, Force Publique (FP). Dat kind punishment na normal tin for students wey dey act stubborn. === Army service === Mobutu find discipline for army life top, and e see father figure insyd Sergeant Louis Bobozo. Mobutu no stop ein studies—e dey borrow European newspapers from de Belgian officers plus pick books from anywhere e fit find, then e go read dem during sentry duty or any small chance e get. De ones wey e like pass be de writings of French president Charles de Gaulle, British prime minister Winston Churchill, plus de Italian Renaissance philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli. After e pass one course for accounting, Mobutu start small-small dey do journalism work proper. Still vexed about how e and de school priests jam wahala, e no marry for church. De only thing e fit bring for de wedding enjoyment be one crate of beer—na all ein army salary fit buy. === Early political involvement === As soldier, Mobutu dey write politics matter under fake name for Actualités Africaines (African News), one magazine wey one Belgian colonial set up. For 1956, e comot from army and turn full-time journalist, dey write for Léopoldville daily L'Avenir. Two years later, e go Belgium to report de 1958 World Exposition, then e stay back make e learn journalism better. By dis time, Mobutu don meet plenty young Congolese intellectuals wey dey challenge colonial rule. E come build friendship plus Patrice Lumumba and join Lumumba ein party—Congolese National Movement (MNC). Mobutu later become Lumumba ein personal aide. Some people wey know de matter talk say Belgian intelligence fit don recruit Mobutu as informant give de government. During de 1960 talks wey happen for Brussels about Congolese independence, de US embassy organize one reception give de Congolese delegation. Each embassy staff get list of delegates wey dem suppose meet, and later dem come talk about de people dem meet. De ambassador talk say, “One name just dey pop up steady. But nobody get am for ein list 'cos e no be official delegation member—e be Lumumba ein secretary. But everybody agree say dis guy get strong brain, e be young, maybe small immature, but e get big future ahead.” After de general election, dem assign Lumumba make e form govment. E give Mobutu de position of Secretary of State to de Presidency. Mobutu carry plenty weight for deciding de rest of de govment people. But after independence land, e no fit see Lumumba one-on-one again like before, 'cos de new prime minister start dey busy plus plenty aides and colleagues surround am. From there, both of dem slowly start drift apart. === Congo Crisis === Main article: Congo Crisis On 5 July 1960, soldiers of de Force Publique wey dey Camp Léopold II for Léopoldville vex over dem all-white leaders and bad working conditions, so dem rise mutiny. Di revolt spread go other places sharp-sharp. Mobutu join other officials talk to de mutineers so dem fit free de officers plus dem families. Then on 8 July, de full Council of Ministers gather for one special meeting under President Joseph Kasa-Vubu ein chairmanship for Camp Léopold II to face de matter of Africanising de garrison. De ministers start dey argue who go fit take de top job as army chief of staff. Two people wey stand out be Minister of Youth and Sports Maurice Mpolo, plus Mobutu. Mpolo don already show say e get some control over de soldiers wey dey mutiny, but Kasa-Vubu plus de Bakongo ministers fear say if dem give am power, e fit run coup. Mobutu on de other hand, people see am as cool-head wey dey think before e act. Lumumba respect Mpolo for ein boldness, but e prefer Mobutu ein cautious style. As de argument go on, de cabinet start split based on who dem support to be chief of staff. Lumumba no wan lose any of de two camps, so e try keep both men for ein team. In de end, dem give Mobutu de position and promote am to colonel. Next day, govment teams comot from de capital to supervise how dem go Africanise de army; Mobutu own assignment na for Équateur. While Mobutu dey there, Mpolo begin act as ANC Chief of Staff. Mobutu no happy at all with dat move, so when e return to de capital, e face Lumumba inside cabinet meeting and tell am plain: “Either I no deserve am and you gots sack me, or I do de mission well and I go keep my rank plus position.” De British diplomat Brian Urquhart, wey dey work plus de United Nations, yarn say: “When I first meet Mobutu for July 1960, e be Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba ein chief military assistant and e just promote himself from sergeant go lieutenant-colonel. Compared to ein boss, Mobutu be like pillar of common sense and sharp reasoning. Na to am we go when Lumumba ein hashish-high guards arrest our people. Na Mobutu too dey casually bring up Lumumba ein wild requests—like say make UN pay salary give Congolese army wey fit mutiny. For dem early days, Mobutu look like reasonable young man, wey maybe, just maybe, dey reason good for ein new independent country.” Backed by Belgian govment wey wan still hold tight to de rich Congolese mines, secessionist violence burst out for south. As UN soldiers wey dem send come restore order no dey help crush de secession, Lumumba go turn to Soviet Union for help. Inside six weeks, e receive serious military aid plus about thousand Soviet technical advisers. Since na Cold War time, US govment fear say dis Soviet move be trick to spread communist power for Central Africa. US and Belgium come ginger Kasa-Vubu make e sack Lumumba, and on 5 September, e do am. Lumumba vex rough and say Kasa-Vubu no be president again. Parliament no gree sack any of dem, instead dem beg for reconciliation, but no headway. Lumumba plus Kasa-Vubu each tell Mobutu make e arrest de other one. As Army Chief of Staff, Mobutu start face heavy pressure from all angle. Western countries' embassies—wey dey pay soldiers salary—plus Kasa-Vubu and Mobutu ein own men, all dem want make Soviet people pack. So on 14 September, Mobutu do coup wey no draw blood, announce say both Kasa-Vubu and Lumumba dey “neutralised” and form one new govment of university graduates—dem call am College of Commissioners-General. Lumumba no accept am but dem force am retire go ein house, where UN peacekeepers block Mobutu ein soldiers make dem no arrest am. Urquhart talk say on de coup day, Mobutu just waka enter UN headquarters for Léopoldville without invite and no gree comot till radio announce de coup; na dat time Mobutu begin repeat “C’est moi!”—“Na me!” Urquhart realise say Mobutu just land there in case de coup mess up, so e tell am to comot. As confidence drop say de international community go support am come back to power, Lumumba run commot for late November go meet ein supporters for Stanleyville to form new govment. Early December, Mobutu ein soldiers catch am, then keep am for ein base insyd Thysville. But Mobutu still see am as danger, so on 17 January 1961, e move Lumumba go de rebel State of Katanga. From dat point, nobody see Lumumba again. Later dem find out say same day wey dem move am, de secessionist forces under Moise Tshombe execute am, after Mobutu ein govment hand am over. On 23 January 1961, Kasa-Vubu promote Mobutu go major-general. One historian, De Witte, talk say na political move wey aim to make de army stronger, since na de president ein only support, and to boost Mobutu ein stand inside de army. For 1964, Pierre Mulele lead some fighters start another rebellion. Dem fast take over two-thirds of Congo. Mobutu lead de Congolese army respond, and by 1965, dem take back de whole land. === Second ''coup'' and consolidation of power === Sanso see: Second Mobutu coup d'état Prime Minister Moise Tshombe ein party, de Congolese National Convention, win big majority for March 1965 elections, but Kasa-Vubu appoint Évariste Kimba, one anti-Tshombe man, as prime minister-designate. Parliament no gree approve am two times. As de govment almost jam dead end, Mobutu take over power through coup wey no draw blood on 24 November—he just turn 35 one month before. Under one system wey dem call state of exception (regime d'exception), Mobutu grab full—almost absolute—power for five years. For ein first speech after e take power, Mobutu talk give big crowd for Léopoldville main stadium say, since na politicians spoil Congo within five years, e go need at least dat same time to fix am. So, for dat reason, no political party go do anything for five years. On 30 November 1965, Parliament pass law wey give Mobutu plus ein cabinet most of de legislative powers, but still hold small power to check ein decrees. By early March 1966, when Parliament start new session, Mobutu announce say he dey cancel dat review power, and two weeks after, ein govment shutdown Parliament for good and collect all de remaining authority. At de start, Mobutu ein govment come out like say e no dey into politics—or even dey against am. People begin see “politician” as bad word, wey mean person wey wicked or corrupt. For 1966, dem set up de Corps of Volunteers of de Republic, one strong frontline group wey aim to gather plenty public support behind Mobutu. Na same year dem hail am as de country ein “Second National Hero” after Lumumba. Even though Mobutu play role for how Lumumba commot power, e try package himself like person wey dey carry Lumumba ein legacy continue. One of de key things wey Mobutu dey preach for early part of ein rule be “authentic Congolese nationalism”. Na dat 1966 too e begin change city names wey get European roots to names wey sound more African—na so Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Stanleyville become Kisangani, and Élisabethville change to Lubumbashi. Then for 1967, Mobutu bring out de Popular Movement of de Revolution (MPR). From dat time go reach 1990, na only dat party dem dey allow for politics. Inside de MPR ein beliefs—wey dem write for Manifesto of N'Sele—dem push nationalism, revolution, plus “authenticity”. Dem describe revolution as “truly national and very practical,” wey reject both capitalism and communism. One popular slogan from de MPR be “Neither left nor right,” and later dem add “nor even center” join. That same year, all de trade unions dem join body into one single union—National Union of Zairian Workers—and de govment take full control over am. Mobutu plan say de union no go operate on ein own, but rather support govment policy like tool. From dat time till 1991, any independent trade union be illegal. As e face plenty wahala for de beginning of ein rule, Mobutu use favour-sharing (patronage) win over most of ein opposition; de ones wey no gree, e handle dem rough. For 1966, four cabinet members chop arrest because dem say dem join plan coup. Military court try dem case, then dem do public execution wey over 50,000 people watch live for open ground. Former Katangan gendarmeries wey rise also face Mobutu ein force and dem smash dem down—same as de Stanleyville mutinies of 1967 wey white mercenaries lead. By 1970, almost all de people wey fit challenge Mobutu power don fall, and for most parts of de country, law plus order start dey show face. That 1970 be de peak time of Mobutu ein power and respect. For 1970, King Baudouin of Belgium come Kinshasa do big state visit wey go well. Dat same year, dem hold presidential plus legislative elections. Even though de constitution say two parties fit dey, na only MPR dem allow nominate candidates. For de presidential election, Mobutu be de only person wey run. Voting no dey private; if you support Mobutu, you go drop green paper, but if you no dey support am, na red paper you go use. Green vote mean say you dey vote for hope, while red vote mean chaos. Under dat kind condition, de result no be surprise—official result talk say Mobutu win with almost everybody behind am, collect 10,131,669 votes, and only 157 people say “no”. Later dem come find out say over 30,500 more votes appear pass de number of voters wey register. Dem run de legislative elections same style. People get just one list from MPR; official result talk say unbelievable 98.33% people vote for de MPR list. As Mobutu dey cement ein power, e build different military groups wey na only to protect am dem dey. These groups include de Special Presidential Division, Civil Guard plus Service for Action, and Military Intelligence (SNIP). === Authenticity campaign === Main article: Authenticité (Zaire) Mobutu start big campaign wey promote African culture wey dem call ''authenticité''. As part of am, on 1 June 1966, e begin change city names wey show colonial past—Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Elisabethville change to Lubumbashi, and Stanleyville become Kisangani. For October 1971, e change de country ein name to Republic of Zaire. E order people make dem drop dem European names for African ones, and warn priests say if dem baptize Zairian pikin plus European name, dem go chop five years for prison. Western dressing and neck tie come dey banned, and men must wear one Mao-style tunic dem dey call ''abacost'' (short for ''à bas le costume'' wey mean “down with de suit”). Even Christmas move from December go June because Mobutu say dat one be more “authentic” date. Then for 1972, Mobutu follow ein own rule from previous year and change ein name to Mobutu Sese Seko Nkuku Ngbendu Wa Za Banga (wey mean “De all-powerful warrior wey, because of ein endurance and strong will to win, dey move from victory to victory, and leave fire behind”). Around dat time, e drop de army uniform and start wear ein signature look—tall and commanding, plus walking stick, abacost, thick glasses, and leopard-skin cap wey dem sew for Paris. For 1974, new constitution land wey tighten Mobutu ein hold on de country. Dis constitution talk say MPR be de “single institution” for de nation. Dem even define am as “de nation politically organized”—which mean say de state just be machine wey dey push party agenda. Every citizen automatically turn MPR member from de moment dem born. De constitution explain say de MPR dey inside de body of de party ein president, wey dem dey elect every seven years during national convention. But at de same time, dat same president automatically turn de only person wey go run for president of de country. Den dem go use referendum confirm am. De document come turn Mobutu ein emergency powers wey e dey use since 1965 into legal backing; e give am full authority—wey dem write as “plenitude of power exercise”—so all power now dey Mobutu ein hand. Mobutu win election three times under dis system, and each time, dem talk say e win with over 98 percent of de votes. For de legislative side, dem dey bring one single MPR list every five years, and de results dey show crazy numbers—either everybody vote for dem, or almost everybody. One of dem elections for 1975, dem no even vote at all—dem just show candidates around public places make people clap give dem. Dat one na how voting be. == One-man rule == Mobutu start use public executions early insyd ein rule to stamp ein power well-well. Any political rival, secessionist, coup planner, or anybody wey e see as threat, e go deal with dem hard. Many of dem people chop hanging for front big crowd. One serious example be former Prime Minister Évariste Kimba. Mobutu govment carry Kimba plus three of ein cabinet members—Jérôme Anany (Defense Minister), Emmanuel Bamba (Finance Minister), and Alexandre Mahamba (Minister of Mines and Energy)—put for trial May 1966. By 30 May, dem hang all four men in front of over 50,000 people. Dem say dem dey link up plus Colonel Alphonse Bangala and Major Pierre Efomi to run coup. Mobutu come talk say, “One had to strike through a spectacular example, and create the conditions of regime discipline. When a chief takes a decision, he decides – period.” Then for 1968, Pierre Mulele—Lumumba ein Education Minister and big rebel during de 1964 Simba uprising—Mobutu people trick am come out from exile for Brazzaville by telling am say amnesty go dey. But instead of peace, dem torture and kill am bad. Before Mulele die, dem gouge ein eyes, tear off ein genitals, and cut off ein limbs one by one. Mobutu later change ein strategy—e start dey buy political opponents instead of always use force. E like repeat one slogan: “Keep your friends close, but your enemies closer still,” to show how e dey use bribe pull rivals to ein side. One trick wey Mobutu really enjoy be “musical chairs”—e dey rotate ministers like game, change cabinet list anyhow, so nobody go build power wey fit threaten am. From November 1965 to April 1997, Mobutu reshuffle cabinet 60 times. Dis constant shuffle put fear inside ministers, because everybody know say Mobutu go change people anyhow, no matter whether you dey work well or not. Because ministers no sabi how long dem go last for position, e lead to serious stealing—everybody dey rush grab wetin dem fit while dem still dey office. Mobutu still dey arrest, even torture, some dissident govment members—then later forgive dem and even give dem bigger posts. E be like e just use power play confuse everybody. Congolese historian Emizet F. Kisangani talk say plenty public officials believe say no matter how corrupt or useless dem be, dem fit come back to govment position. To hold post no require management skill or clean conscience. In fact, if you too correct or too honest, dem see you as obstacle. Wetin Mobutu want be total loyalty in exchange for chance to chop money. By 1970, reports talk say Mobutu don carry 60% of de national budget enter ein pocket—people begin see am as one of de most corrupt leaders for Africa and de whole world. Kisangani add say Mobutu build full system of corruption wey spoil public values and reward greed and selfishness. Mobutu no slow down with de self-promotion moves—man try for 1972 make dem crown am president for life, but that one no land well. Then for June 1983, e raise himself go military top-top level as Marshal. Na General Likulia Bolongo sign dat order. Shortly after, Victor Nendaka Bika—de number two man for country as Vice-President of de Bureau of de Central Committee—drop one big speech full of praise give Mobutu. To chop revenue from Congo ein natural resources, Mobutu first chase out European investors and nationalize plenty foreign companies. But instead of letting dem run proper, e dash control of these firms give ein relatives and close padi dem—wey quickly use am do corruption and chop company assets clean. For 1973–1974, Mobutu start one big “Zairianization” program, take over more foreign businesses and hand dem to Zairians. But e no end there. By October 1973, de Arab oil shock come crash global economy—the same one wey don dey grow steady since 1945. One serious side effect be say copper price fall by 50% in 1974, and since copper na Zaire ein number one export, e hit dem hard. As American historian Thomas Odom talk, Zaire shift from “prosperity to bankruptcy almost overnight.” Because de economy break down, Zaire run go International Monetary Fund (IMF) for help to manage dem debt, but when IMF dig into dem books, dem discover heavy corruption. Mobutu come waka go China for 1974, take inspiration from Cultural Revolution. E come back wearing Mao jacket and call himself “Citoyen Mobutu” or “Citizen Mobutu.” E say he go “radicalize de Zairian revolution.” Di same businesses wey e first give to Zairians, Mobutu come collect dem back, nationalize everything under full state control. As if dat no do, e cut government workers ein salaries by 50%, wey provoke one failed coup attempt against am for June 1975. By 1977, Mobutu ein earlier move to nationalize foreign businesses don backfire hard—e economy don fall serious, and e no get choice but to beg foreign investors come back. But before e fit recover, Katangan rebels wey base for Angola storm Zaire dat same year, as payback for Mobutu ein support to anti-MPLA fighters. France respond quick—dem airlift 1,500 Moroccan paratroopers into Zaire, push de rebels back, and end di crisis wey dem call ''Shaba I''. But no long after, for 1978, de rebels regroup with even more numbers and invade again—this time na ''Shaba II''. Belgium and France come deploy troops again, backed by US logistics, and dem manage stop de attack once more. Mobutu get big embarrassment from how badly de Zairian Army perform for both invasions—e need foreign help to fight small rebel forces. Yet, instead of reforming de army, e just reduce am from 51,000 troops in 1978 to 23,000 by 1980. By dat time, about 90% of de army be Ngbandi—Mobutu ein own ethnic group—’cos e no trust other ethnic groups with weapons. De most loyal and strongest force Mobutu get be ein bodyguards—the ''Special Presidential Division''—trained by Israel, made up only of Ngbandi, and always led by Mobutu ein relative. Mobutu win election again for 1977 and 1984, but nobody dey run against am. E use most of ein time dey build ein own fortune, and by 1988, dem estimate say ein money reach no less than $50 million. Most of de money e hide am abroad, especially for Swiss banks—but when dem remove am later, dem only find small $3.4 million there. Funny enough, ein fortune nearly match de whole country ein foreign debt dat time. One time for 20 May 1976, Mobutu talk for stadium wey hold like 70,000 people for Kinshasa. E talk say, “If you wan thief, thief small and style am nice. But if you thief too much to turn rich fast-fast, dem go catch you.” By 1989, Zaire govment no fit pay dem loans again from Belgium. Mobutu dey ride in fleet of Mercedes-Benz from one palace to another, while roads dey spoil and people dey hungry. Workers no dey get pay for months, ’cos de national money dey disappear go Mobutu, ein family, and top political plus army people. Na only Special Presidential Division wey dey protect Mobutu wey dem dey pay correct and on time. Dem even get saying wey go like dis: “De civil servants dey pretend say dem dey work, while de state dey pretend say e dey pay dem.” De national army—Forces Armées Zaïroises (FAZ)—no get morale at all. Salaries no dey come, living conditions bad, supplies no dey, and officers dey chop people. De army soldiers just turn like armed thieves—dey rob civilians anyhow. Roadblocks full everywhere, and dem dey extort money from anybody wey dey pass with car or truck. Mobutu ein poor handling of de economy cause serious inflation wey mess up de value of people dem salaries. As money value dey drop fast, plenty public servants start dey do their own way—corruption plus dishonesty turn daily survival style for workers all across de system. Mobutu himself live large. E cruise for de Congo River inside ein yacht, Kamanyola. For Gbadolite, e build one huge mansion wey people dey call “Versailles of de jungle.” Anytime e wan go shopping for Paris, e go charter Air France ein Concorde jet. E even build Gbadolite Airport with long runway make Concorde fit land and take off there. For 1989 alone, e use dat jet fly go give speech for United Nations in New York, attend de French bicentennial party as President François Mitterrand ein guest, and carry Zaire youth choir from Paris to Gbadolite, then fly go Marseille—all with Concorde. Mobutu also get villa for French Riviera wey dem call ''Villa del Mere''. Ein whole leadership style come be example of real kleptocracy and nepotism. Mobutu dey put ein Ngbandi tribe people plus close relatives for top positions inside de military and govment. E dey groom ein first-born son, Nyiwa, to take over presidency from am, but Nyiwa die from AIDS for 1994. Mobutu rule be one of de longest autocracies for Africa. E stash over $50 million from Congo ein natural resources, while ordinary people dey suffer. E form one totalitarian system wey break plenty human rights, try wipe out Belgian influence from de country, and still hold strong anti-communist position to gain favor from international powers. Mobutu ein personality cult reach levels wey few leaders for history fit match. De evening news go start with video wey show am dey descend from cloud top like some god figure. Ein face full public places everywhere—portrait hang for walls, and govment workers dey wear lapel pins wey carry ein photo. Dem give am plenty grand titles: “Father of de Nation,” “Messiah,” “Guide of de Revolution,” “Helmsman,” “Founder,” “Savior of de People,” and “Supreme Combatant.” For de 1996 documentary about de legendary 1974 Foreman–Ali boxing match wey happen for Zaire, you go hear dancers chant “Sese Seko, Sese Seko!” as dem welcome de fighters—na clear sign of how deep e presence dey everywhere, even inside pop culture moments. For early 1975, e reach point wey Mobutu no gree make media call anybody ein name—only Mobutu fit be called by name, everybody else dem just refer to dem position. E really build one kind system wey make am look like dem no fit mention Congo without mention am. Mobutu take advantage proper of de Cold War tension wey dey between de European countries plus de United States. He win strong support from de West plus dem international organizations like de International Monetary Fund (IMF). === Space program === For late 1970s, one West Germany company called OTRAG dey work on satellite launch wey dem talk say be peaceful mission to reduce cost. But because of one 1954 amendment to de Treaty of Brussels, dem no fit build or launch missile insyd Germany. So dem pay Mobutu $130 million make dem run de program for Zaire. For one 1978 agreement, Mobutu dash OTRAG 25 years lease for land insyd Zaire. De first rocket, OTRAG-1, launch on 18 May 1977 wey Mobutu dey watch from far. E take off well but e crash back down shortly after. By 6 June 1978, dem launch two more rockets but dem crash again for Zaire. Still, Mobutu push de program say over 200 Zairians dey work for there and say Zaire go benefit from royalties when dem begin sell rocket. But two years later, Soviet Union accuse de program say former Nazi scientists dey involved plus say dem dey use am spy for military reason. Mobutu gree to Soviet pressure, end de project, plus cut ties with OTRAG. === Foreign policy === Main article: Foreign policy of de Mobutu Sese Seko administration ==== Relations plus Belgium ==== De relationship wey dey between Zaire and Belgium under Mobutu time dey mix — sometimes dem be paddy, other times dem turn real enemies. Most of de time, Belgian leaders no really react strong even when Mobutu do tins wey no favour Belgium; dis be partly because de Belgian political side demself no dey united. From early Mobutu rule, yawa start between dem because of plenty Belgian businesses wey dey Congo. But things cool small after. For 1968, Mobutu and ein family go Belgium as special guest of de Belgian king, and dat same year dem sign one science plus technical agreement. For 1970, King Baudouin visit Kinshasa and everybody hail am; dem even sign treaty of friendship and cooperation. But Mobutu tear dis same treaty insyd 1974 because Belgium no gree ban one anti-Mobutu book wey Jules Chomé, one left-wing lawyer, write. Mobutu e "Zairianisation" policy, wey be say he seize foreign businesses and give dem to Zairians, make matters worse. Even though yawa dey, Mobutu still get personal friendship with some top Belgians. He admire Edmond Leburton, wey be Belgian prime minister (1973–1974), and he be paddy to Alfred Cahen, one diplomat wey Mobutu meet from his Brussels university days. Mobutu and King Baudouin too dey cool until Mobutu leak one handwritten letter from de king — after dat, palace shut door gidi-gidi. Because of dis, Mobutu no get invitation go de king ein funeral; only Saddam Hussein from Iraq join am for dat black list. Apart from Belgians wey dey Belgium, Mobutu keep Belgian advisors close — like Hugues Leclercq and Colonel Willy Mallants, wey even show for Thierry Michel ein documentary ''Mobutu, King of Zaire''. ==== Relations plus France ==== As Zaire be de second most populous French-speaking country for de world by den (plus now e even pass France sef) and de biggest one for sub-Saharan Africa, France see am as one big strategic paddy. During de First Republic time, France mostly support conservative and federalist people, no be de unitarist dem like Lumumba. Right after dem crush de Katangan secession, Zaire (wey dem dey call Republic of de Congo by den) sign technical plus cultural cooperation treaty plus France. Under Charles de Gaulle ein presidency, di two countries start bond tight because dem share plenty geopolitical interests. For 1971, France ein Finance Minister, Valéry Giscard d’Estaing, visit Zaire. Later when he turn France ein president, he and Mobutu become close pals, and France turn Mobutu ein strong foreign ally. During de Shaba invasions, France no dull — dem stand full support for Mobutu. For de first Shaba wahala, France carry 1,500 Moroccan troops come Zaire by airlift; dem help drive de rebels. One year later, as de second Shaba invasion land, France and Belgium both send French Foreign Legion paratroopers (2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment) come help Mobutu fight dem off. ==== Relations plus de People ein Republic of China ==== At de beginning, Zaire ein relationship plus de People's Republic of China no better pass how e dey with Soviet Union. Mobutu still dey remember how China help Mulele plus some Maoist rebels wey fight for Kwilu province during de Simba Rebellion wahala. E no dey like make China get seat for United Nations too. But by 1972, Mobutu start dey see China inna new way — like one balance wey go fit check Soviet Union power and even balance ein own close relationship plus United States, Israel, and South Africa. So for November 1972, Mobutu gree recognize China as one country diplomatically (plus East Germany and North Korea join body). Di next year, Mobutu fly go Beijing, meet chairman Mao Zedong, and dem promise am $100 million technical aid. For 1983, when Chinese Prime Minister Zhao Ziyang come visit Zaire, he talk say make Mobutu no worry repay de $100 million — e be gift. For 1974, Mobutu surprise everybody as e travel go China plus North Korea, even though originally dem plan say e go visit Soviet Union. As e return come Zaire, ein politics den de way e dey talk turn more radical. Na dis time Mobutu start bash Belgium plus United States — e vex say America no dey do enough to fight white minority rule for South Africa and Rhodesia. E introduce one new civic duty program wey dem call ''salongo'' — everybody must do compulsory national work. E sana bring "radicalization" wey be extension of de 1973 ''Zairianization'' policy, wey take foreign-owned things give to locals. Mobutu even borrow title from Mao — "de Helmsman". Around dis same time, from late 1974 to early 1975, ein personality cult reach peak — everywhere na Mobutu name, face, den slogan. China plus Zaire get one common target for Central Africa: make dem stop Soviet Union from gain any stronghold for dat side. So dem join hand undercover take support National Liberation Front of Angola (later dem support UNITA too) make dem block MPLA — de People's Movement for de Liberation of Angola — wey Soviet Union plus Cuba dey back. Cuba get big power for Africa dat time, as dem dey help all left-wing, anti-imperialist groups, and Soviet dey sponsor dem heavy. China invite Holden Roberto, wey be de leader of de National Liberation Front of Angola, plus ein guerilla fighters go Beijing make dem train. Dem also give dem weapons plus money. Zaire sef try enter Angola first, try put their own friendly government for power, but Cuban soldiers push dem back. De invasion no work — e be big wahala wey lead to Shaba I and Shaba II invasions later. China no support dis rebels at all; dem even send weapons go support Zaire during both invasions. China come accuse Soviet Union plus Cuba say dem dey behind de Shaba rebel trouble, say dem dey try scatter peace for Central Africa — even though nobody sure whether Soviet plus Cuba really dey involved or no. '''Relations''' '''plus de Soviet Union''' Mobutu ein relationship plus Soviet Union no be cool koraa. He be hard-core anti-communist, so he no dey rush go recognize de Soviets. USSR bin support—tho e be mostly in words—both Patrice Lumumba, Mobutu ein democratically elected predecessor, plus de Simba rebellion. However, to make e look like say he no dey side any bloc, he renew ties for 1967; de first Soviet ambassador come land and present ein credentials for 1968. Mobutu still join United States condemn de Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia dat year. Mobutu take de Soviet presence as advantage for two reasons: e help am keep de image say he be non-aligned leader, plus e give am better excuse to blame things wey dey go wrong for house. Like for 1970, he expel four Soviet diplomats say dem dey do “subversive activities,” and for 1971, he declare twenty Soviet officials as persona non grata say dem dey spark student demonstrations for Lovanium University. Moscow be de only big world capital wey Mobutu never go before, even tho he accept invitation go dey for 1974. But for reasons wey nobody know, he cancel de visit last minute, then go tour de People's Republic of China plus North Korea instead. Relations cool more for 1975, as de two countries come dey opposite sides for de Angolan Civil War. Dis one take strong toll on Zaire ein foreign policy for de next ten years; since Mobutu no fit claim say he be African leader again (he be one of de few leaders wey no gree recognize de Marxist govment of Angola), Mobutu come turn more toward US plus dem allies. He start dey support America dem stand for things like de Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, plus Israel ein position for international organizations. '''Relations''' '''plus de United States''' Most times, Zaire enjoy warm relationship plus United States. US be de third biggest country wey dey give aid to Zaire (after Belgium and France), and Mobutu be paddy man to plenty US presidents like Richard Nixon, Ronald Reagan, plus George H. W. Bush. But around 1974–1975, de relationship cool small as Mobutu start talk radical things (he bash US foreign policy hard). For 1975 summer, e even reach de worst point as Mobutu accuse CIA say dem dey plan overthrown am, come arrest eleven big Zairian generals plus some civilians, den sentence one former Central Bank boss (Albert Ndele) for absentia. But plenty people no believe say de plot be real; some like Mobutu ein strong critic Nzongola-Ntalaja talk say Mobutu just create de story to take chance sack any military man wey fit challenge am later. Still, even with all dis wahala, de cold vibe no last long—de two countries come unite again as dem dey support de same side for de Angolan Civil War. Sake of say Mobutu no dey respect human rights, de Carter government try keep small distance from de Kinshasa government. But still, Zaire chop nearly half of all de foreign aid wey Carter give to sub-Saharan Africa. During de first Shaba invasion, US no really do plenty; dem just deliver some supplies wey no be weapon. But for de second Shaba invasion, US come show stronger support—dem help transport plus organize logistics for de French and Belgian paratroopers wey come help Mobutu fight de rebels. Carter even support Mobutu ein talk say Soviet Union plus Cuba dey back de rebels, even though no evidence come prove am. For 1980, US House of Representatives vote make dem stop military aid to Zaire, but US Senate come bring am back after Carter plus US business people wey get interest for Zaire pressure dem. Mobutu get very warm relationship plus Reagan ein government, especially through money dem dey give am. During Reagan ein time, Mobutu go White House three times, and US no really bash am about de way he dey treat human rights for ein country. When Mobutu visit America for 1983, Reagan talk say Mobutu be “voice of good sense and goodwill.” Mobutu still get friendly relationship plus Reagan ein replacement, George H. W. Bush. Mobutu even be de first African president wey go visit Bush for White House. But things change sharp sharp after Cold War end. Since Soviet Union no dey again, US and Western countries no see reason again to support Mobutu sake of communism fight. Dem start dey pressure am make he open up de country to democracy. Mobutu vex say US change attitude towards am. He talk say: “I be de latest victim of de cold war, US no need me again. De lesson be say all my support for US policy no mean anything.” For 1993, when Mobutu try come Washington, US State Department bounce am, dem no give am visa. Mobutu still get some American friends wey no dey government side. One be televangelist Pat Robertson, wey promise say he go try beg US government make dem lift de ban on Mobutu. == Coalition government == For May 1990, sake of di Cold War wey end, international politics change, economy issues plus gbelemgbelem for di country, Mobutu gree make e lef di MPR ein one-man chop power. For early May, students wey dey Lubumbashi campus for National University of Zaire vex plus Mobutu ein system, dem start protest dey shout say make e step down. On di night of 11 May 1990, dem off di light for campus, den send one special army group wey dem dey call ''Les Hiboux'' (wey mean “Owls”) come, all of dem carry cutlass plus bayonet. By di morning of 12 May, dem don kill like 290 students. Dis gbelem wey happen make countries like di European Economic Community (wey now be European Union), United States, plus Canada, cut all support wey no be humanitarian. Na dis move be di beginning of di end for Mobutu ein backing from Western countries. Mobutu put transitional government make dem lead go di elections wey e promise, but e still hold serious powers for hand. After some gbelem wey unpaid soldiers cause for Kinshasa for 1991, Mobutu carry some opposition people join coalition government, but e still use corner corner hold tight di security services plus key ministries. Wahala between di different camps make dem divide into two governments for 1993 — one wey dey Mobutu ein side and one wey dey against am. Di anti-Mobutu side dey under Laurent Monsengwo plus Étienne Tshisekedi from Union for Democracy and Social Progress (UDPS). Di economic condition still dey very bad, so for 1994 di two groups come join body form High Council of Republic – Parliament of Transition (HCR-PT). Mobutu come appoint Kengo Wa Dondo, wey believe in strict spending plus free-market reforms, as Prime Minister. As all dis dey happen, Mobutu ein body too dey weak well well, and for one of ein travels go Europe for medical care, some Tutsi people come take over plenty areas for eastern Zaire. == Overthrow == Na di beginning of Mobutu e downfall start during di Rwandan genocide for 1994, wey about 800,000 Tutsis plus moderate Hutus dem kill am, mostly by about 200,000 Hutu extremists wey Rwandan government support. Di genocide end when Tutsi-controlled Rwandan Patriotic Front take over di whole country, wey make hundreds of thousands of Hutus — including many wey do di killings — run enter refugee camps for eastern Zaire. Mobutu welcome di Hutu extremists as him personal guests, allow dem build military plus political bases for eastern Zaire. From dia, dem begin attack plus kill ethnic Tutsis for Rwanda plus for Zaire itself, say dem dey prepare to go attack Rwanda again. Di new Rwandan government begin send military support give di Zairian Tutsis to protect dem. All dis kasala come make eastern Zaire start dey unstable. Mobutu wey cancer dey worry am, dey Switzerland dey take treatment, so e no fit arrange any proper resistance. Di resistance kon collapse as di rebels dey march forward. If no be say di country ein infrastructure spoil no be small, di rebels for don take over everywhere sharp. For most places, dem no get tarred road kraa; na only some rough bush roads wey people no dey use steady. Na dat one slow di rebel movement small. By mid-1997, Kabila ein people start dey move again, and Mobutu ein remaining soldiers no really put up any fight. On 16 May 1997, dem try do peace talk for Pointe-Noire inside one South African Navy ship (SAS Outeniqua), wey President Nelson Mandela from South Africa chair. But di talk no go anywhere, sake of say Kabila no wan slow ein army down or give Mobutu chance take gather ein people again. Kabila too no dey want look Mobutu face during di meeting. According to one UN official, Timothy Montague Hamilton Douglas, e talk say, “All di years wey I deal plus Mobutu, dis be di first time I see person wey pass am for superstition... Kabila sit inside di same room wey Mobutu dey, but e no gree look am for face kraa — e just dey watch di ceiling.” After some talk plus their aides, Douglas realize say Kabila dey fear say di “Old Leopard” (Mobutu) still get juju wey fit curse am if e look am for eye, and dat go stop am from winning power wey e almost grab. Di atmosphere cold pass. Dem talk say na di only time di two enemies ever meet face to face. Kabila just tell Mobutu, “Step down, hand over power without condition.” Mobutu vex bad. E just waka comot from di ship, no gree make any agreement. Mandela, wey be 78 years den, even help support Mobutu make e fit waka go ein car. Dem suppose meet again on 15 May, Mobutu show up but Kabila no show face. Di next day, Kabila ein soldiers — Alliance of Democratic Forces for de Liberation of Congo-Zaire (AFDL) — declare say dem win di fight. On 23 May 1997, dem change Zaire ein name go Democratic Republic of de Congo. == Exile den death == 6mbjp87dfo2z7pyb5twk8h626udgm3i 69110 69108 2025-07-05T22:00:04Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69110 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu wa za Banga''' ; born '''Joseph-Désiré Mobutu'''; 14 October 1930 – 7 September 1997), people dey call am Mobutu Sese Seko or Mobutu and sana known by ein initials MSS, e be Congolese politician plus military officer wey be de first and only president of Zaire from 1971 to 1997. Before dat, Mobutu serve as de second president of de Democratic Republic of de Congo, from 1965 to 1971. E sana serve as de fifth chairperson of de Organisation of African Unity from 1967 to 1968. During de Congo Crisis insyd 1960, Mobutu, wey den be Chief of Staff insyd de Congolese Army, commot de nation ein democratically elected govment of Patrice Lumumba plus support from de U.S. and Belgium. Mobutu put govment insyd wey arrange make dem execute Lumumba for 1961, and e continue dey lead de country ein armed forces till e take power direct insyd another coup for 1965. To make sure say power no escape am, he create de Popular Movement of de Revolution as de only correct political party for 1967, change Congo ein name go Zaire for 1971, plus e own name turn Mobutu Sese Seko for 1972. Mobutu protect ein rule under hard autocratic regime and end up dey rule during time wey human rights violations spread everywhere. E try purge de country from all colonial culture tins through ein "national authenticity" program. Mobutu turn de main person wey everybody dey hype like say na cult of personality he dey carry. Mobutu talk say ein political ideology no be "left", no be "right", and no be "centre" too, but people mostly know am say e dey against communism for de Françafrique zone. Because of dat, United States, France, plus Belgium support am well-well—dem dash am military, diplomatic, and economic backing. E still build tight link plus apartheid South Africa, Israel, plus de Greek junta dem. Mobutu get strong name for corruption plus nepotism: dem talk say ein personal wealth fit reach from $50 million go $5 billion, all na from economic exploitation plus corruption as president. Some people call ein govment kleptocracy, ’cos e dey pile ein own money while Zaire ein economy suffer—plenty inflation, big debt, and serious currency wahala. E too known for ein flashy lifestyle, like how e dey fly go Paris on top de fast-fast Concorde jet just to do shopping. By 1990, as de economy start dey spoil plus tension dey rise, dem force Mobutu Sese Seko make e enter coalition plus political opponents and agree make dem do multiparty system. Even though e use ein soldiers try block de change, de movement no gree stop. By May 1997, rebel dem wey Laurent-Désiré Kabila lead take over de country and push Mobutu go exile. E already dey battle prostate cancer wey hard, so three months later, e die for Morocco. == Biography == === Early years den education === Mobutu, wey come from de Ngbandi ethnic group, dem born am for 1930 insyd Lisala, Belgian Congo. Mobutu ein mommie, Marie Madeleine Yemo, be hotel maid wey run go Lisala make she escape one local village chief ein harem. Na there she jam Albéric Gbemani, cook wey dey work for one Belgian judge, den she marry am. Not long after, she born Mobutu. Na one uncle pick de name “Mobutu” give am. Gbemani die when Mobutu be just eight years. After dat, one uncle plus ein grandfather raise am. De Belgian judge ein wife take fine eye see Mobutu, so she teach am how to speak, read plus write French well-well, wey be de official language of de colony. Ein mommie Yemo wey be widow, lean on family help to take care of her four pikin dem, and dem dey move from place to place often. Mobutu ein first schooling happen for capital town Léopoldville (wey now dem dey call Kinshasa). Later, ein mommie send am go ein uncle for Coquilhatville (now Mbandaka), where e attend Christian Brothers School, one Catholic-mission boarding school. Mobutu shine for books top and even run de class newspaper. People still know am for ein stubborn pranks and sharp small-boy sense of humor. One classmate remember say anytime de Belgian priests—wey ein main language be Dutch—make mistake for French, Mobutu go jump from ein seat for class top and point out de error sharp. For 1949, Mobutu sneak enter one boat wey dey go downriver to Léopoldville, where e jam one girl. Some weeks later, de priests find am. As school year end, instead of dem send am go prison, dem order make e serve seven years insyd de colonial army, Force Publique (FP). Dat kind punishment na normal tin for students wey dey act stubborn. === Army service === Mobutu find discipline for army life top, and e see father figure insyd Sergeant Louis Bobozo. Mobutu no stop ein studies—e dey borrow European newspapers from de Belgian officers plus pick books from anywhere e fit find, then e go read dem during sentry duty or any small chance e get. De ones wey e like pass be de writings of French president Charles de Gaulle, British prime minister Winston Churchill, plus de Italian Renaissance philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli. After e pass one course for accounting, Mobutu start small-small dey do journalism work proper. Still vexed about how e and de school priests jam wahala, e no marry for church. De only thing e fit bring for de wedding enjoyment be one crate of beer—na all ein army salary fit buy. === Early political involvement === As soldier, Mobutu dey write politics matter under fake name for Actualités Africaines (African News), one magazine wey one Belgian colonial set up. For 1956, e comot from army and turn full-time journalist, dey write for Léopoldville daily L'Avenir. Two years later, e go Belgium to report de 1958 World Exposition, then e stay back make e learn journalism better. By dis time, Mobutu don meet plenty young Congolese intellectuals wey dey challenge colonial rule. E come build friendship plus Patrice Lumumba and join Lumumba ein party—Congolese National Movement (MNC). Mobutu later become Lumumba ein personal aide. Some people wey know de matter talk say Belgian intelligence fit don recruit Mobutu as informant give de government. During de 1960 talks wey happen for Brussels about Congolese independence, de US embassy organize one reception give de Congolese delegation. Each embassy staff get list of delegates wey dem suppose meet, and later dem come talk about de people dem meet. De ambassador talk say, “One name just dey pop up steady. But nobody get am for ein list 'cos e no be official delegation member—e be Lumumba ein secretary. But everybody agree say dis guy get strong brain, e be young, maybe small immature, but e get big future ahead.” After de general election, dem assign Lumumba make e form govment. E give Mobutu de position of Secretary of State to de Presidency. Mobutu carry plenty weight for deciding de rest of de govment people. But after independence land, e no fit see Lumumba one-on-one again like before, 'cos de new prime minister start dey busy plus plenty aides and colleagues surround am. From there, both of dem slowly start drift apart. === Congo Crisis === Main article: Congo Crisis On 5 July 1960, soldiers of de Force Publique wey dey Camp Léopold II for Léopoldville vex over dem all-white leaders and bad working conditions, so dem rise mutiny. Di revolt spread go other places sharp-sharp. Mobutu join other officials talk to de mutineers so dem fit free de officers plus dem families. Then on 8 July, de full Council of Ministers gather for one special meeting under President Joseph Kasa-Vubu ein chairmanship for Camp Léopold II to face de matter of Africanising de garrison. De ministers start dey argue who go fit take de top job as army chief of staff. Two people wey stand out be Minister of Youth and Sports Maurice Mpolo, plus Mobutu. Mpolo don already show say e get some control over de soldiers wey dey mutiny, but Kasa-Vubu plus de Bakongo ministers fear say if dem give am power, e fit run coup. Mobutu on de other hand, people see am as cool-head wey dey think before e act. Lumumba respect Mpolo for ein boldness, but e prefer Mobutu ein cautious style. As de argument go on, de cabinet start split based on who dem support to be chief of staff. Lumumba no wan lose any of de two camps, so e try keep both men for ein team. In de end, dem give Mobutu de position and promote am to colonel. Next day, govment teams comot from de capital to supervise how dem go Africanise de army; Mobutu own assignment na for Équateur. While Mobutu dey there, Mpolo begin act as ANC Chief of Staff. Mobutu no happy at all with dat move, so when e return to de capital, e face Lumumba inside cabinet meeting and tell am plain: “Either I no deserve am and you gots sack me, or I do de mission well and I go keep my rank plus position.” De British diplomat Brian Urquhart, wey dey work plus de United Nations, yarn say: “When I first meet Mobutu for July 1960, e be Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba ein chief military assistant and e just promote himself from sergeant go lieutenant-colonel. Compared to ein boss, Mobutu be like pillar of common sense and sharp reasoning. Na to am we go when Lumumba ein hashish-high guards arrest our people. Na Mobutu too dey casually bring up Lumumba ein wild requests—like say make UN pay salary give Congolese army wey fit mutiny. For dem early days, Mobutu look like reasonable young man, wey maybe, just maybe, dey reason good for ein new independent country.” Backed by Belgian govment wey wan still hold tight to de rich Congolese mines, secessionist violence burst out for south. As UN soldiers wey dem send come restore order no dey help crush de secession, Lumumba go turn to Soviet Union for help. Inside six weeks, e receive serious military aid plus about thousand Soviet technical advisers. Since na Cold War time, US govment fear say dis Soviet move be trick to spread communist power for Central Africa. US and Belgium come ginger Kasa-Vubu make e sack Lumumba, and on 5 September, e do am. Lumumba vex rough and say Kasa-Vubu no be president again. Parliament no gree sack any of dem, instead dem beg for reconciliation, but no headway. Lumumba plus Kasa-Vubu each tell Mobutu make e arrest de other one. As Army Chief of Staff, Mobutu start face heavy pressure from all angle. Western countries' embassies—wey dey pay soldiers salary—plus Kasa-Vubu and Mobutu ein own men, all dem want make Soviet people pack. So on 14 September, Mobutu do coup wey no draw blood, announce say both Kasa-Vubu and Lumumba dey “neutralised” and form one new govment of university graduates—dem call am College of Commissioners-General. Lumumba no accept am but dem force am retire go ein house, where UN peacekeepers block Mobutu ein soldiers make dem no arrest am. Urquhart talk say on de coup day, Mobutu just waka enter UN headquarters for Léopoldville without invite and no gree comot till radio announce de coup; na dat time Mobutu begin repeat “C’est moi!”—“Na me!” Urquhart realise say Mobutu just land there in case de coup mess up, so e tell am to comot. As confidence drop say de international community go support am come back to power, Lumumba run commot for late November go meet ein supporters for Stanleyville to form new govment. Early December, Mobutu ein soldiers catch am, then keep am for ein base insyd Thysville. But Mobutu still see am as danger, so on 17 January 1961, e move Lumumba go de rebel State of Katanga. From dat point, nobody see Lumumba again. Later dem find out say same day wey dem move am, de secessionist forces under Moise Tshombe execute am, after Mobutu ein govment hand am over. On 23 January 1961, Kasa-Vubu promote Mobutu go major-general. One historian, De Witte, talk say na political move wey aim to make de army stronger, since na de president ein only support, and to boost Mobutu ein stand inside de army. For 1964, Pierre Mulele lead some fighters start another rebellion. Dem fast take over two-thirds of Congo. Mobutu lead de Congolese army respond, and by 1965, dem take back de whole land. === Second ''coup'' and consolidation of power === Sanso see: Second Mobutu coup d'état Prime Minister Moise Tshombe ein party, de Congolese National Convention, win big majority for March 1965 elections, but Kasa-Vubu appoint Évariste Kimba, one anti-Tshombe man, as prime minister-designate. Parliament no gree approve am two times. As de govment almost jam dead end, Mobutu take over power through coup wey no draw blood on 24 November—he just turn 35 one month before. Under one system wey dem call state of exception (regime d'exception), Mobutu grab full—almost absolute—power for five years. For ein first speech after e take power, Mobutu talk give big crowd for Léopoldville main stadium say, since na politicians spoil Congo within five years, e go need at least dat same time to fix am. So, for dat reason, no political party go do anything for five years. On 30 November 1965, Parliament pass law wey give Mobutu plus ein cabinet most of de legislative powers, but still hold small power to check ein decrees. By early March 1966, when Parliament start new session, Mobutu announce say he dey cancel dat review power, and two weeks after, ein govment shutdown Parliament for good and collect all de remaining authority. At de start, Mobutu ein govment come out like say e no dey into politics—or even dey against am. People begin see “politician” as bad word, wey mean person wey wicked or corrupt. For 1966, dem set up de Corps of Volunteers of de Republic, one strong frontline group wey aim to gather plenty public support behind Mobutu. Na same year dem hail am as de country ein “Second National Hero” after Lumumba. Even though Mobutu play role for how Lumumba commot power, e try package himself like person wey dey carry Lumumba ein legacy continue. One of de key things wey Mobutu dey preach for early part of ein rule be “authentic Congolese nationalism”. Na dat 1966 too e begin change city names wey get European roots to names wey sound more African—na so Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Stanleyville become Kisangani, and Élisabethville change to Lubumbashi. Then for 1967, Mobutu bring out de Popular Movement of de Revolution (MPR). From dat time go reach 1990, na only dat party dem dey allow for politics. Inside de MPR ein beliefs—wey dem write for Manifesto of N'Sele—dem push nationalism, revolution, plus “authenticity”. Dem describe revolution as “truly national and very practical,” wey reject both capitalism and communism. One popular slogan from de MPR be “Neither left nor right,” and later dem add “nor even center” join. That same year, all de trade unions dem join body into one single union—National Union of Zairian Workers—and de govment take full control over am. Mobutu plan say de union no go operate on ein own, but rather support govment policy like tool. From dat time till 1991, any independent trade union be illegal. As e face plenty wahala for de beginning of ein rule, Mobutu use favour-sharing (patronage) win over most of ein opposition; de ones wey no gree, e handle dem rough. For 1966, four cabinet members chop arrest because dem say dem join plan coup. Military court try dem case, then dem do public execution wey over 50,000 people watch live for open ground. Former Katangan gendarmeries wey rise also face Mobutu ein force and dem smash dem down—same as de Stanleyville mutinies of 1967 wey white mercenaries lead. By 1970, almost all de people wey fit challenge Mobutu power don fall, and for most parts of de country, law plus order start dey show face. That 1970 be de peak time of Mobutu ein power and respect. For 1970, King Baudouin of Belgium come Kinshasa do big state visit wey go well. Dat same year, dem hold presidential plus legislative elections. Even though de constitution say two parties fit dey, na only MPR dem allow nominate candidates. For de presidential election, Mobutu be de only person wey run. Voting no dey private; if you support Mobutu, you go drop green paper, but if you no dey support am, na red paper you go use. Green vote mean say you dey vote for hope, while red vote mean chaos. Under dat kind condition, de result no be surprise—official result talk say Mobutu win with almost everybody behind am, collect 10,131,669 votes, and only 157 people say “no”. Later dem come find out say over 30,500 more votes appear pass de number of voters wey register. Dem run de legislative elections same style. People get just one list from MPR; official result talk say unbelievable 98.33% people vote for de MPR list. As Mobutu dey cement ein power, e build different military groups wey na only to protect am dem dey. These groups include de Special Presidential Division, Civil Guard plus Service for Action, and Military Intelligence (SNIP). === Authenticity campaign === Main article: Authenticité (Zaire) Mobutu start big campaign wey promote African culture wey dem call ''authenticité''. As part of am, on 1 June 1966, e begin change city names wey show colonial past—Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Elisabethville change to Lubumbashi, and Stanleyville become Kisangani. For October 1971, e change de country ein name to Republic of Zaire. E order people make dem drop dem European names for African ones, and warn priests say if dem baptize Zairian pikin plus European name, dem go chop five years for prison. Western dressing and neck tie come dey banned, and men must wear one Mao-style tunic dem dey call ''abacost'' (short for ''à bas le costume'' wey mean “down with de suit”). Even Christmas move from December go June because Mobutu say dat one be more “authentic” date. Then for 1972, Mobutu follow ein own rule from previous year and change ein name to Mobutu Sese Seko Nkuku Ngbendu Wa Za Banga (wey mean “De all-powerful warrior wey, because of ein endurance and strong will to win, dey move from victory to victory, and leave fire behind”). Around dat time, e drop de army uniform and start wear ein signature look—tall and commanding, plus walking stick, abacost, thick glasses, and leopard-skin cap wey dem sew for Paris. For 1974, new constitution land wey tighten Mobutu ein hold on de country. Dis constitution talk say MPR be de “single institution” for de nation. Dem even define am as “de nation politically organized”—which mean say de state just be machine wey dey push party agenda. Every citizen automatically turn MPR member from de moment dem born. De constitution explain say de MPR dey inside de body of de party ein president, wey dem dey elect every seven years during national convention. But at de same time, dat same president automatically turn de only person wey go run for president of de country. Den dem go use referendum confirm am. De document come turn Mobutu ein emergency powers wey e dey use since 1965 into legal backing; e give am full authority—wey dem write as “plenitude of power exercise”—so all power now dey Mobutu ein hand. Mobutu win election three times under dis system, and each time, dem talk say e win with over 98 percent of de votes. For de legislative side, dem dey bring one single MPR list every five years, and de results dey show crazy numbers—either everybody vote for dem, or almost everybody. One of dem elections for 1975, dem no even vote at all—dem just show candidates around public places make people clap give dem. Dat one na how voting be. == One-man rule == Mobutu start use public executions early insyd ein rule to stamp ein power well-well. Any political rival, secessionist, coup planner, or anybody wey e see as threat, e go deal with dem hard. Many of dem people chop hanging for front big crowd. One serious example be former Prime Minister Évariste Kimba. Mobutu govment carry Kimba plus three of ein cabinet members—Jérôme Anany (Defense Minister), Emmanuel Bamba (Finance Minister), and Alexandre Mahamba (Minister of Mines and Energy)—put for trial May 1966. By 30 May, dem hang all four men in front of over 50,000 people. Dem say dem dey link up plus Colonel Alphonse Bangala and Major Pierre Efomi to run coup. Mobutu come talk say, “One had to strike through a spectacular example, and create the conditions of regime discipline. When a chief takes a decision, he decides – period.” Then for 1968, Pierre Mulele—Lumumba ein Education Minister and big rebel during de 1964 Simba uprising—Mobutu people trick am come out from exile for Brazzaville by telling am say amnesty go dey. But instead of peace, dem torture and kill am bad. Before Mulele die, dem gouge ein eyes, tear off ein genitals, and cut off ein limbs one by one. Mobutu later change ein strategy—e start dey buy political opponents instead of always use force. E like repeat one slogan: “Keep your friends close, but your enemies closer still,” to show how e dey use bribe pull rivals to ein side. One trick wey Mobutu really enjoy be “musical chairs”—e dey rotate ministers like game, change cabinet list anyhow, so nobody go build power wey fit threaten am. From November 1965 to April 1997, Mobutu reshuffle cabinet 60 times. Dis constant shuffle put fear inside ministers, because everybody know say Mobutu go change people anyhow, no matter whether you dey work well or not. Because ministers no sabi how long dem go last for position, e lead to serious stealing—everybody dey rush grab wetin dem fit while dem still dey office. Mobutu still dey arrest, even torture, some dissident govment members—then later forgive dem and even give dem bigger posts. E be like e just use power play confuse everybody. Congolese historian Emizet F. Kisangani talk say plenty public officials believe say no matter how corrupt or useless dem be, dem fit come back to govment position. To hold post no require management skill or clean conscience. In fact, if you too correct or too honest, dem see you as obstacle. Wetin Mobutu want be total loyalty in exchange for chance to chop money. By 1970, reports talk say Mobutu don carry 60% of de national budget enter ein pocket—people begin see am as one of de most corrupt leaders for Africa and de whole world. Kisangani add say Mobutu build full system of corruption wey spoil public values and reward greed and selfishness. Mobutu no slow down with de self-promotion moves—man try for 1972 make dem crown am president for life, but that one no land well. Then for June 1983, e raise himself go military top-top level as Marshal. Na General Likulia Bolongo sign dat order. Shortly after, Victor Nendaka Bika—de number two man for country as Vice-President of de Bureau of de Central Committee—drop one big speech full of praise give Mobutu. To chop revenue from Congo ein natural resources, Mobutu first chase out European investors and nationalize plenty foreign companies. But instead of letting dem run proper, e dash control of these firms give ein relatives and close padi dem—wey quickly use am do corruption and chop company assets clean. For 1973–1974, Mobutu start one big “Zairianization” program, take over more foreign businesses and hand dem to Zairians. But e no end there. By October 1973, de Arab oil shock come crash global economy—the same one wey don dey grow steady since 1945. One serious side effect be say copper price fall by 50% in 1974, and since copper na Zaire ein number one export, e hit dem hard. As American historian Thomas Odom talk, Zaire shift from “prosperity to bankruptcy almost overnight.” Because de economy break down, Zaire run go International Monetary Fund (IMF) for help to manage dem debt, but when IMF dig into dem books, dem discover heavy corruption. Mobutu come waka go China for 1974, take inspiration from Cultural Revolution. E come back wearing Mao jacket and call himself “Citoyen Mobutu” or “Citizen Mobutu.” E say he go “radicalize de Zairian revolution.” Di same businesses wey e first give to Zairians, Mobutu come collect dem back, nationalize everything under full state control. As if dat no do, e cut government workers ein salaries by 50%, wey provoke one failed coup attempt against am for June 1975. By 1977, Mobutu ein earlier move to nationalize foreign businesses don backfire hard—e economy don fall serious, and e no get choice but to beg foreign investors come back. But before e fit recover, Katangan rebels wey base for Angola storm Zaire dat same year, as payback for Mobutu ein support to anti-MPLA fighters. France respond quick—dem airlift 1,500 Moroccan paratroopers into Zaire, push de rebels back, and end di crisis wey dem call ''Shaba I''. But no long after, for 1978, de rebels regroup with even more numbers and invade again—this time na ''Shaba II''. Belgium and France come deploy troops again, backed by US logistics, and dem manage stop de attack once more. Mobutu get big embarrassment from how badly de Zairian Army perform for both invasions—e need foreign help to fight small rebel forces. Yet, instead of reforming de army, e just reduce am from 51,000 troops in 1978 to 23,000 by 1980. By dat time, about 90% of de army be Ngbandi—Mobutu ein own ethnic group—’cos e no trust other ethnic groups with weapons. De most loyal and strongest force Mobutu get be ein bodyguards—the ''Special Presidential Division''—trained by Israel, made up only of Ngbandi, and always led by Mobutu ein relative. Mobutu win election again for 1977 and 1984, but nobody dey run against am. E use most of ein time dey build ein own fortune, and by 1988, dem estimate say ein money reach no less than $50 million. Most of de money e hide am abroad, especially for Swiss banks—but when dem remove am later, dem only find small $3.4 million there. Funny enough, ein fortune nearly match de whole country ein foreign debt dat time. One time for 20 May 1976, Mobutu talk for stadium wey hold like 70,000 people for Kinshasa. E talk say, “If you wan thief, thief small and style am nice. But if you thief too much to turn rich fast-fast, dem go catch you.” By 1989, Zaire govment no fit pay dem loans again from Belgium. Mobutu dey ride in fleet of Mercedes-Benz from one palace to another, while roads dey spoil and people dey hungry. Workers no dey get pay for months, ’cos de national money dey disappear go Mobutu, ein family, and top political plus army people. Na only Special Presidential Division wey dey protect Mobutu wey dem dey pay correct and on time. Dem even get saying wey go like dis: “De civil servants dey pretend say dem dey work, while de state dey pretend say e dey pay dem.” De national army—Forces Armées Zaïroises (FAZ)—no get morale at all. Salaries no dey come, living conditions bad, supplies no dey, and officers dey chop people. De army soldiers just turn like armed thieves—dey rob civilians anyhow. Roadblocks full everywhere, and dem dey extort money from anybody wey dey pass with car or truck. Mobutu ein poor handling of de economy cause serious inflation wey mess up de value of people dem salaries. As money value dey drop fast, plenty public servants start dey do their own way—corruption plus dishonesty turn daily survival style for workers all across de system. Mobutu himself live large. E cruise for de Congo River inside ein yacht, Kamanyola. For Gbadolite, e build one huge mansion wey people dey call “Versailles of de jungle.” Anytime e wan go shopping for Paris, e go charter Air France ein Concorde jet. E even build Gbadolite Airport with long runway make Concorde fit land and take off there. For 1989 alone, e use dat jet fly go give speech for United Nations in New York, attend de French bicentennial party as President François Mitterrand ein guest, and carry Zaire youth choir from Paris to Gbadolite, then fly go Marseille—all with Concorde. Mobutu also get villa for French Riviera wey dem call ''Villa del Mere''. Ein whole leadership style come be example of real kleptocracy and nepotism. Mobutu dey put ein Ngbandi tribe people plus close relatives for top positions inside de military and govment. E dey groom ein first-born son, Nyiwa, to take over presidency from am, but Nyiwa die from AIDS for 1994. Mobutu rule be one of de longest autocracies for Africa. E stash over $50 million from Congo ein natural resources, while ordinary people dey suffer. E form one totalitarian system wey break plenty human rights, try wipe out Belgian influence from de country, and still hold strong anti-communist position to gain favor from international powers. Mobutu ein personality cult reach levels wey few leaders for history fit match. De evening news go start with video wey show am dey descend from cloud top like some god figure. Ein face full public places everywhere—portrait hang for walls, and govment workers dey wear lapel pins wey carry ein photo. Dem give am plenty grand titles: “Father of de Nation,” “Messiah,” “Guide of de Revolution,” “Helmsman,” “Founder,” “Savior of de People,” and “Supreme Combatant.” For de 1996 documentary about de legendary 1974 Foreman–Ali boxing match wey happen for Zaire, you go hear dancers chant “Sese Seko, Sese Seko!” as dem welcome de fighters—na clear sign of how deep e presence dey everywhere, even inside pop culture moments. For early 1975, e reach point wey Mobutu no gree make media call anybody ein name—only Mobutu fit be called by name, everybody else dem just refer to dem position. E really build one kind system wey make am look like dem no fit mention Congo without mention am. Mobutu take advantage proper of de Cold War tension wey dey between de European countries plus de United States. He win strong support from de West plus dem international organizations like de International Monetary Fund (IMF). === Space program === For late 1970s, one West Germany company called OTRAG dey work on satellite launch wey dem talk say be peaceful mission to reduce cost. But because of one 1954 amendment to de Treaty of Brussels, dem no fit build or launch missile insyd Germany. So dem pay Mobutu $130 million make dem run de program for Zaire. For one 1978 agreement, Mobutu dash OTRAG 25 years lease for land insyd Zaire. De first rocket, OTRAG-1, launch on 18 May 1977 wey Mobutu dey watch from far. E take off well but e crash back down shortly after. By 6 June 1978, dem launch two more rockets but dem crash again for Zaire. Still, Mobutu push de program say over 200 Zairians dey work for there and say Zaire go benefit from royalties when dem begin sell rocket. But two years later, Soviet Union accuse de program say former Nazi scientists dey involved plus say dem dey use am spy for military reason. Mobutu gree to Soviet pressure, end de project, plus cut ties with OTRAG. === Foreign policy === Main article: Foreign policy of de Mobutu Sese Seko administration ==== Relations plus Belgium ==== De relationship wey dey between Zaire and Belgium under Mobutu time dey mix — sometimes dem be paddy, other times dem turn real enemies. Most of de time, Belgian leaders no really react strong even when Mobutu do tins wey no favour Belgium; dis be partly because de Belgian political side demself no dey united. From early Mobutu rule, yawa start between dem because of plenty Belgian businesses wey dey Congo. But things cool small after. For 1968, Mobutu and ein family go Belgium as special guest of de Belgian king, and dat same year dem sign one science plus technical agreement. For 1970, King Baudouin visit Kinshasa and everybody hail am; dem even sign treaty of friendship and cooperation. But Mobutu tear dis same treaty insyd 1974 because Belgium no gree ban one anti-Mobutu book wey Jules Chomé, one left-wing lawyer, write. Mobutu e "Zairianisation" policy, wey be say he seize foreign businesses and give dem to Zairians, make matters worse. Even though yawa dey, Mobutu still get personal friendship with some top Belgians. He admire Edmond Leburton, wey be Belgian prime minister (1973–1974), and he be paddy to Alfred Cahen, one diplomat wey Mobutu meet from his Brussels university days. Mobutu and King Baudouin too dey cool until Mobutu leak one handwritten letter from de king — after dat, palace shut door gidi-gidi. Because of dis, Mobutu no get invitation go de king ein funeral; only Saddam Hussein from Iraq join am for dat black list. Apart from Belgians wey dey Belgium, Mobutu keep Belgian advisors close — like Hugues Leclercq and Colonel Willy Mallants, wey even show for Thierry Michel ein documentary ''Mobutu, King of Zaire''. ==== Relations plus France ==== As Zaire be de second most populous French-speaking country for de world by den (plus now e even pass France sef) and de biggest one for sub-Saharan Africa, France see am as one big strategic paddy. During de First Republic time, France mostly support conservative and federalist people, no be de unitarist dem like Lumumba. Right after dem crush de Katangan secession, Zaire (wey dem dey call Republic of de Congo by den) sign technical plus cultural cooperation treaty plus France. Under Charles de Gaulle ein presidency, di two countries start bond tight because dem share plenty geopolitical interests. For 1971, France ein Finance Minister, Valéry Giscard d’Estaing, visit Zaire. Later when he turn France ein president, he and Mobutu become close pals, and France turn Mobutu ein strong foreign ally. During de Shaba invasions, France no dull — dem stand full support for Mobutu. For de first Shaba wahala, France carry 1,500 Moroccan troops come Zaire by airlift; dem help drive de rebels. One year later, as de second Shaba invasion land, France and Belgium both send French Foreign Legion paratroopers (2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment) come help Mobutu fight dem off. ==== Relations plus de People ein Republic of China ==== At de beginning, Zaire ein relationship plus de People's Republic of China no better pass how e dey with Soviet Union. Mobutu still dey remember how China help Mulele plus some Maoist rebels wey fight for Kwilu province during de Simba Rebellion wahala. E no dey like make China get seat for United Nations too. But by 1972, Mobutu start dey see China inna new way — like one balance wey go fit check Soviet Union power and even balance ein own close relationship plus United States, Israel, and South Africa. So for November 1972, Mobutu gree recognize China as one country diplomatically (plus East Germany and North Korea join body). Di next year, Mobutu fly go Beijing, meet chairman Mao Zedong, and dem promise am $100 million technical aid. For 1983, when Chinese Prime Minister Zhao Ziyang come visit Zaire, he talk say make Mobutu no worry repay de $100 million — e be gift. For 1974, Mobutu surprise everybody as e travel go China plus North Korea, even though originally dem plan say e go visit Soviet Union. As e return come Zaire, ein politics den de way e dey talk turn more radical. Na dis time Mobutu start bash Belgium plus United States — e vex say America no dey do enough to fight white minority rule for South Africa and Rhodesia. E introduce one new civic duty program wey dem call ''salongo'' — everybody must do compulsory national work. E sana bring "radicalization" wey be extension of de 1973 ''Zairianization'' policy, wey take foreign-owned things give to locals. Mobutu even borrow title from Mao — "de Helmsman". Around dis same time, from late 1974 to early 1975, ein personality cult reach peak — everywhere na Mobutu name, face, den slogan. China plus Zaire get one common target for Central Africa: make dem stop Soviet Union from gain any stronghold for dat side. So dem join hand undercover take support National Liberation Front of Angola (later dem support UNITA too) make dem block MPLA — de People's Movement for de Liberation of Angola — wey Soviet Union plus Cuba dey back. Cuba get big power for Africa dat time, as dem dey help all left-wing, anti-imperialist groups, and Soviet dey sponsor dem heavy. China invite Holden Roberto, wey be de leader of de National Liberation Front of Angola, plus ein guerilla fighters go Beijing make dem train. Dem also give dem weapons plus money. Zaire sef try enter Angola first, try put their own friendly government for power, but Cuban soldiers push dem back. De invasion no work — e be big wahala wey lead to Shaba I and Shaba II invasions later. China no support dis rebels at all; dem even send weapons go support Zaire during both invasions. China come accuse Soviet Union plus Cuba say dem dey behind de Shaba rebel trouble, say dem dey try scatter peace for Central Africa — even though nobody sure whether Soviet plus Cuba really dey involved or no. '''Relations''' '''plus de Soviet Union''' Mobutu ein relationship plus Soviet Union no be cool koraa. He be hard-core anti-communist, so he no dey rush go recognize de Soviets. USSR bin support—tho e be mostly in words—both Patrice Lumumba, Mobutu ein democratically elected predecessor, plus de Simba rebellion. However, to make e look like say he no dey side any bloc, he renew ties for 1967; de first Soviet ambassador come land and present ein credentials for 1968. Mobutu still join United States condemn de Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia dat year. Mobutu take de Soviet presence as advantage for two reasons: e help am keep de image say he be non-aligned leader, plus e give am better excuse to blame things wey dey go wrong for house. Like for 1970, he expel four Soviet diplomats say dem dey do “subversive activities,” and for 1971, he declare twenty Soviet officials as persona non grata say dem dey spark student demonstrations for Lovanium University. Moscow be de only big world capital wey Mobutu never go before, even tho he accept invitation go dey for 1974. But for reasons wey nobody know, he cancel de visit last minute, then go tour de People's Republic of China plus North Korea instead. Relations cool more for 1975, as de two countries come dey opposite sides for de Angolan Civil War. Dis one take strong toll on Zaire ein foreign policy for de next ten years; since Mobutu no fit claim say he be African leader again (he be one of de few leaders wey no gree recognize de Marxist govment of Angola), Mobutu come turn more toward US plus dem allies. He start dey support America dem stand for things like de Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, plus Israel ein position for international organizations. '''Relations''' '''plus de United States''' Most times, Zaire enjoy warm relationship plus United States. US be de third biggest country wey dey give aid to Zaire (after Belgium and France), and Mobutu be paddy man to plenty US presidents like Richard Nixon, Ronald Reagan, plus George H. W. Bush. But around 1974–1975, de relationship cool small as Mobutu start talk radical things (he bash US foreign policy hard). For 1975 summer, e even reach de worst point as Mobutu accuse CIA say dem dey plan overthrown am, come arrest eleven big Zairian generals plus some civilians, den sentence one former Central Bank boss (Albert Ndele) for absentia. But plenty people no believe say de plot be real; some like Mobutu ein strong critic Nzongola-Ntalaja talk say Mobutu just create de story to take chance sack any military man wey fit challenge am later. Still, even with all dis wahala, de cold vibe no last long—de two countries come unite again as dem dey support de same side for de Angolan Civil War. Sake of say Mobutu no dey respect human rights, de Carter government try keep small distance from de Kinshasa government. But still, Zaire chop nearly half of all de foreign aid wey Carter give to sub-Saharan Africa. During de first Shaba invasion, US no really do plenty; dem just deliver some supplies wey no be weapon. But for de second Shaba invasion, US come show stronger support—dem help transport plus organize logistics for de French and Belgian paratroopers wey come help Mobutu fight de rebels. Carter even support Mobutu ein talk say Soviet Union plus Cuba dey back de rebels, even though no evidence come prove am. For 1980, US House of Representatives vote make dem stop military aid to Zaire, but US Senate come bring am back after Carter plus US business people wey get interest for Zaire pressure dem. Mobutu get very warm relationship plus Reagan ein government, especially through money dem dey give am. During Reagan ein time, Mobutu go White House three times, and US no really bash am about de way he dey treat human rights for ein country. When Mobutu visit America for 1983, Reagan talk say Mobutu be “voice of good sense and goodwill.” Mobutu still get friendly relationship plus Reagan ein replacement, George H. W. Bush. Mobutu even be de first African president wey go visit Bush for White House. But things change sharp sharp after Cold War end. Since Soviet Union no dey again, US and Western countries no see reason again to support Mobutu sake of communism fight. Dem start dey pressure am make he open up de country to democracy. Mobutu vex say US change attitude towards am. He talk say: “I be de latest victim of de cold war, US no need me again. De lesson be say all my support for US policy no mean anything.” For 1993, when Mobutu try come Washington, US State Department bounce am, dem no give am visa. Mobutu still get some American friends wey no dey government side. One be televangelist Pat Robertson, wey promise say he go try beg US government make dem lift de ban on Mobutu. == Coalition government == For May 1990, sake of di Cold War wey end, international politics change, economy issues plus gbelemgbelem for di country, Mobutu gree make e lef di MPR ein one-man chop power. For early May, students wey dey Lubumbashi campus for National University of Zaire vex plus Mobutu ein system, dem start protest dey shout say make e step down. On di night of 11 May 1990, dem off di light for campus, den send one special army group wey dem dey call ''Les Hiboux'' (wey mean “Owls”) come, all of dem carry cutlass plus bayonet. By di morning of 12 May, dem don kill like 290 students. Dis gbelem wey happen make countries like di European Economic Community (wey now be European Union), United States, plus Canada, cut all support wey no be humanitarian. Na dis move be di beginning of di end for Mobutu ein backing from Western countries. Mobutu put transitional government make dem lead go di elections wey e promise, but e still hold serious powers for hand. After some gbelem wey unpaid soldiers cause for Kinshasa for 1991, Mobutu carry some opposition people join coalition government, but e still use corner corner hold tight di security services plus key ministries. Wahala between di different camps make dem divide into two governments for 1993 — one wey dey Mobutu ein side and one wey dey against am. Di anti-Mobutu side dey under Laurent Monsengwo plus Étienne Tshisekedi from Union for Democracy and Social Progress (UDPS). Di economic condition still dey very bad, so for 1994 di two groups come join body form High Council of Republic – Parliament of Transition (HCR-PT). Mobutu come appoint Kengo Wa Dondo, wey believe in strict spending plus free-market reforms, as Prime Minister. As all dis dey happen, Mobutu ein body too dey weak well well, and for one of ein travels go Europe for medical care, some Tutsi people come take over plenty areas for eastern Zaire. == Overthrow == Na di beginning of Mobutu e downfall start during di Rwandan genocide for 1994, wey about 800,000 Tutsis plus moderate Hutus dem kill am, mostly by about 200,000 Hutu extremists wey Rwandan government support. Di genocide end when Tutsi-controlled Rwandan Patriotic Front take over di whole country, wey make hundreds of thousands of Hutus — including many wey do di killings — run enter refugee camps for eastern Zaire. Mobutu welcome di Hutu extremists as him personal guests, allow dem build military plus political bases for eastern Zaire. From dia, dem begin attack plus kill ethnic Tutsis for Rwanda plus for Zaire itself, say dem dey prepare to go attack Rwanda again. Di new Rwandan government begin send military support give di Zairian Tutsis to protect dem. All dis kasala come make eastern Zaire start dey unstable. Mobutu wey cancer dey worry am, dey Switzerland dey take treatment, so e no fit arrange any proper resistance. Di resistance kon collapse as di rebels dey march forward. If no be say di country ein infrastructure spoil no be small, di rebels for don take over everywhere sharp. For most places, dem no get tarred road kraa; na only some rough bush roads wey people no dey use steady. Na dat one slow di rebel movement small. By mid-1997, Kabila ein people start dey move again, and Mobutu ein remaining soldiers no really put up any fight. On 16 May 1997, dem try do peace talk for Pointe-Noire inside one South African Navy ship (SAS Outeniqua), wey President Nelson Mandela from South Africa chair. But di talk no go anywhere, sake of say Kabila no wan slow ein army down or give Mobutu chance take gather ein people again. Kabila too no dey want look Mobutu face during di meeting. According to one UN official, Timothy Montague Hamilton Douglas, e talk say, “All di years wey I deal plus Mobutu, dis be di first time I see person wey pass am for superstition... Kabila sit inside di same room wey Mobutu dey, but e no gree look am for face kraa — e just dey watch di ceiling.” After some talk plus their aides, Douglas realize say Kabila dey fear say di “Old Leopard” (Mobutu) still get juju wey fit curse am if e look am for eye, and dat go stop am from winning power wey e almost grab. Di atmosphere cold pass. Dem talk say na di only time di two enemies ever meet face to face. Kabila just tell Mobutu, “Step down, hand over power without condition.” Mobutu vex bad. E just waka comot from di ship, no gree make any agreement. Mandela, wey be 78 years den, even help support Mobutu make e fit waka go ein car. Dem suppose meet again on 15 May, Mobutu show up but Kabila no show face. Di next day, Kabila ein soldiers — Alliance of Democratic Forces for de Liberation of Congo-Zaire (AFDL) — declare say dem win di fight. On 23 May 1997, dem change Zaire ein name go Democratic Republic of de Congo. == Exile den death == Mobutu run go hide small for Togo after dem chase am, but di Togo president, Gnassingbé Eyadéma, tell am few days later say make e comot from ein country. From 23 May 1997, Mobutu go settle mostly for Rabat, Morocco. E die there on 7 September 1997 from prostate cancer, wey carry am go at di age of 66. Dem bury am for one above ground tomb inside Rabat, for Christian cemetery wey dem dey call ''Cimetière Européen.'' For December 2007, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) ein National Assembly recommend say make dem carry Mobutu ein body come back home plus bury am for big man tomb (mausoleum) for inside DRC. But up till now, dem never do am. Mobutu still dey bury for Morocco. == Family == Mobutu marry two times. E first wife be Marie-Antoinette Gbiatibwa Gogbe Yetene, dem marry for 1955. Dem born nine pikin together. She die from heart failure on 22 October 1977 for Genolier, Switzerland, as she be 36 years. On 1 May 1980, Mobutu marry ein girlfriend, Bobi Ladawa, just before Pope John Paul II visit di kontri, so say church go see di relationship as correct. Two of ein sons from di first marriage die before Mobutu die — Nyiwa (wey die 16 September 1994) plus Konga (wey die 1992). Three more die after Mobutu die: Kongulu (24 September 1998), Manda (27 November 2004), plus Ndokula (4 November 2011). Ein senior son from di second marriage, Nzanga Mobutu, wey now be di head of di family, come fourth for 2006 presidential elections plus later serve for Congo government as Minister of State plus Deputy Prime Minister. Another son, Giala, serve for National Assembly and later Senate. Mobutu ein daughter, Yakpwa (wey people dey call Yaki), marry one Belgian man small time — Pierre Janssen — wey later write book wey talk Mobutu ein lifestyle clear-clear. kuhf17mn6rfektdj5xb9nf54b0ixfa8 69112 69110 2025-07-05T22:04:55Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69112 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu wa za Banga''' ; born '''Joseph-Désiré Mobutu'''; 14 October 1930 – 7 September 1997), people dey call am Mobutu Sese Seko or Mobutu and sana known by ein initials MSS, e be Congolese politician plus military officer wey be de first and only president of Zaire from 1971 to 1997. Before dat, Mobutu serve as de second president of de Democratic Republic of de Congo, from 1965 to 1971. E sana serve as de fifth chairperson of de Organisation of African Unity from 1967 to 1968. During de Congo Crisis insyd 1960, Mobutu, wey den be Chief of Staff insyd de Congolese Army, commot de nation ein democratically elected govment of Patrice Lumumba plus support from de U.S. and Belgium. Mobutu put govment insyd wey arrange make dem execute Lumumba for 1961, and e continue dey lead de country ein armed forces till e take power direct insyd another coup for 1965. To make sure say power no escape am, he create de Popular Movement of de Revolution as de only correct political party for 1967, change Congo ein name go Zaire for 1971, plus e own name turn Mobutu Sese Seko for 1972. Mobutu protect ein rule under hard autocratic regime and end up dey rule during time wey human rights violations spread everywhere. E try purge de country from all colonial culture tins through ein "national authenticity" program. Mobutu turn de main person wey everybody dey hype like say na cult of personality he dey carry. Mobutu talk say ein political ideology no be "left", no be "right", and no be "centre" too, but people mostly know am say e dey against communism for de Françafrique zone. Because of dat, United States, France, plus Belgium support am well-well—dem dash am military, diplomatic, and economic backing. E still build tight link plus apartheid South Africa, Israel, plus de Greek junta dem. Mobutu get strong name for corruption plus nepotism: dem talk say ein personal wealth fit reach from $50 million go $5 billion, all na from economic exploitation plus corruption as president. Some people call ein govment kleptocracy, ’cos e dey pile ein own money while Zaire ein economy suffer—plenty inflation, big debt, and serious currency wahala. E too known for ein flashy lifestyle, like how e dey fly go Paris on top de fast-fast Concorde jet just to do shopping. By 1990, as de economy start dey spoil plus tension dey rise, dem force Mobutu Sese Seko make e enter coalition plus political opponents and agree make dem do multiparty system. Even though e use ein soldiers try block de change, de movement no gree stop. By May 1997, rebel dem wey Laurent-Désiré Kabila lead take over de country and push Mobutu go exile. E already dey battle prostate cancer wey hard, so three months later, e die for Morocco. == Biography == === Early years den education === Mobutu, wey come from de Ngbandi ethnic group, dem born am for 1930 insyd Lisala, Belgian Congo. Mobutu ein mommie, Marie Madeleine Yemo, be hotel maid wey run go Lisala make she escape one local village chief ein harem. Na there she jam Albéric Gbemani, cook wey dey work for one Belgian judge, den she marry am. Not long after, she born Mobutu. Na one uncle pick de name “Mobutu” give am. Gbemani die when Mobutu be just eight years. After dat, one uncle plus ein grandfather raise am. De Belgian judge ein wife take fine eye see Mobutu, so she teach am how to speak, read plus write French well-well, wey be de official language of de colony. Ein mommie Yemo wey be widow, lean on family help to take care of her four pikin dem, and dem dey move from place to place often. Mobutu ein first schooling happen for capital town Léopoldville (wey now dem dey call Kinshasa). Later, ein mommie send am go ein uncle for Coquilhatville (now Mbandaka), where e attend Christian Brothers School, one Catholic-mission boarding school. Mobutu shine for books top and even run de class newspaper. People still know am for ein stubborn pranks and sharp small-boy sense of humor. One classmate remember say anytime de Belgian priests—wey ein main language be Dutch—make mistake for French, Mobutu go jump from ein seat for class top and point out de error sharp. For 1949, Mobutu sneak enter one boat wey dey go downriver to Léopoldville, where e jam one girl. Some weeks later, de priests find am. As school year end, instead of dem send am go prison, dem order make e serve seven years insyd de colonial army, Force Publique (FP). Dat kind punishment na normal tin for students wey dey act stubborn. === Army service === Mobutu find discipline for army life top, and e see father figure insyd Sergeant Louis Bobozo. Mobutu no stop ein studies—e dey borrow European newspapers from de Belgian officers plus pick books from anywhere e fit find, then e go read dem during sentry duty or any small chance e get. De ones wey e like pass be de writings of French president Charles de Gaulle, British prime minister Winston Churchill, plus de Italian Renaissance philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli. After e pass one course for accounting, Mobutu start small-small dey do journalism work proper. Still vexed about how e and de school priests jam wahala, e no marry for church. De only thing e fit bring for de wedding enjoyment be one crate of beer—na all ein army salary fit buy. === Early political involvement === As soldier, Mobutu dey write politics matter under fake name for Actualités Africaines (African News), one magazine wey one Belgian colonial set up. For 1956, e comot from army and turn full-time journalist, dey write for Léopoldville daily L'Avenir. Two years later, e go Belgium to report de 1958 World Exposition, then e stay back make e learn journalism better. By dis time, Mobutu don meet plenty young Congolese intellectuals wey dey challenge colonial rule. E come build friendship plus Patrice Lumumba and join Lumumba ein party—Congolese National Movement (MNC). Mobutu later become Lumumba ein personal aide. Some people wey know de matter talk say Belgian intelligence fit don recruit Mobutu as informant give de government. During de 1960 talks wey happen for Brussels about Congolese independence, de US embassy organize one reception give de Congolese delegation. Each embassy staff get list of delegates wey dem suppose meet, and later dem come talk about de people dem meet. De ambassador talk say, “One name just dey pop up steady. But nobody get am for ein list 'cos e no be official delegation member—e be Lumumba ein secretary. But everybody agree say dis guy get strong brain, e be young, maybe small immature, but e get big future ahead.” After de general election, dem assign Lumumba make e form govment. E give Mobutu de position of Secretary of State to de Presidency. Mobutu carry plenty weight for deciding de rest of de govment people. But after independence land, e no fit see Lumumba one-on-one again like before, 'cos de new prime minister start dey busy plus plenty aides and colleagues surround am. From there, both of dem slowly start drift apart. === Congo Crisis === Main article: Congo Crisis On 5 July 1960, soldiers of de Force Publique wey dey Camp Léopold II for Léopoldville vex over dem all-white leaders and bad working conditions, so dem rise mutiny. Di revolt spread go other places sharp-sharp. Mobutu join other officials talk to de mutineers so dem fit free de officers plus dem families. Then on 8 July, de full Council of Ministers gather for one special meeting under President Joseph Kasa-Vubu ein chairmanship for Camp Léopold II to face de matter of Africanising de garrison. De ministers start dey argue who go fit take de top job as army chief of staff. Two people wey stand out be Minister of Youth and Sports Maurice Mpolo, plus Mobutu. Mpolo don already show say e get some control over de soldiers wey dey mutiny, but Kasa-Vubu plus de Bakongo ministers fear say if dem give am power, e fit run coup. Mobutu on de other hand, people see am as cool-head wey dey think before e act. Lumumba respect Mpolo for ein boldness, but e prefer Mobutu ein cautious style. As de argument go on, de cabinet start split based on who dem support to be chief of staff. Lumumba no wan lose any of de two camps, so e try keep both men for ein team. In de end, dem give Mobutu de position and promote am to colonel. Next day, govment teams comot from de capital to supervise how dem go Africanise de army; Mobutu own assignment na for Équateur. While Mobutu dey there, Mpolo begin act as ANC Chief of Staff. Mobutu no happy at all with dat move, so when e return to de capital, e face Lumumba inside cabinet meeting and tell am plain: “Either I no deserve am and you gots sack me, or I do de mission well and I go keep my rank plus position.” De British diplomat Brian Urquhart, wey dey work plus de United Nations, yarn say: “When I first meet Mobutu for July 1960, e be Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba ein chief military assistant and e just promote himself from sergeant go lieutenant-colonel. Compared to ein boss, Mobutu be like pillar of common sense and sharp reasoning. Na to am we go when Lumumba ein hashish-high guards arrest our people. Na Mobutu too dey casually bring up Lumumba ein wild requests—like say make UN pay salary give Congolese army wey fit mutiny. For dem early days, Mobutu look like reasonable young man, wey maybe, just maybe, dey reason good for ein new independent country.” Backed by Belgian govment wey wan still hold tight to de rich Congolese mines, secessionist violence burst out for south. As UN soldiers wey dem send come restore order no dey help crush de secession, Lumumba go turn to Soviet Union for help. Inside six weeks, e receive serious military aid plus about thousand Soviet technical advisers. Since na Cold War time, US govment fear say dis Soviet move be trick to spread communist power for Central Africa. US and Belgium come ginger Kasa-Vubu make e sack Lumumba, and on 5 September, e do am. Lumumba vex rough and say Kasa-Vubu no be president again. Parliament no gree sack any of dem, instead dem beg for reconciliation, but no headway. Lumumba plus Kasa-Vubu each tell Mobutu make e arrest de other one. As Army Chief of Staff, Mobutu start face heavy pressure from all angle. Western countries' embassies—wey dey pay soldiers salary—plus Kasa-Vubu and Mobutu ein own men, all dem want make Soviet people pack. So on 14 September, Mobutu do coup wey no draw blood, announce say both Kasa-Vubu and Lumumba dey “neutralised” and form one new govment of university graduates—dem call am College of Commissioners-General. Lumumba no accept am but dem force am retire go ein house, where UN peacekeepers block Mobutu ein soldiers make dem no arrest am. Urquhart talk say on de coup day, Mobutu just waka enter UN headquarters for Léopoldville without invite and no gree comot till radio announce de coup; na dat time Mobutu begin repeat “C’est moi!”—“Na me!” Urquhart realise say Mobutu just land there in case de coup mess up, so e tell am to comot. As confidence drop say de international community go support am come back to power, Lumumba run commot for late November go meet ein supporters for Stanleyville to form new govment. Early December, Mobutu ein soldiers catch am, then keep am for ein base insyd Thysville. But Mobutu still see am as danger, so on 17 January 1961, e move Lumumba go de rebel State of Katanga. From dat point, nobody see Lumumba again. Later dem find out say same day wey dem move am, de secessionist forces under Moise Tshombe execute am, after Mobutu ein govment hand am over. On 23 January 1961, Kasa-Vubu promote Mobutu go major-general. One historian, De Witte, talk say na political move wey aim to make de army stronger, since na de president ein only support, and to boost Mobutu ein stand inside de army. For 1964, Pierre Mulele lead some fighters start another rebellion. Dem fast take over two-thirds of Congo. Mobutu lead de Congolese army respond, and by 1965, dem take back de whole land. === Second ''coup'' and consolidation of power === Sanso see: Second Mobutu coup d'état Prime Minister Moise Tshombe ein party, de Congolese National Convention, win big majority for March 1965 elections, but Kasa-Vubu appoint Évariste Kimba, one anti-Tshombe man, as prime minister-designate. Parliament no gree approve am two times. As de govment almost jam dead end, Mobutu take over power through coup wey no draw blood on 24 November—he just turn 35 one month before. Under one system wey dem call state of exception (regime d'exception), Mobutu grab full—almost absolute—power for five years. For ein first speech after e take power, Mobutu talk give big crowd for Léopoldville main stadium say, since na politicians spoil Congo within five years, e go need at least dat same time to fix am. So, for dat reason, no political party go do anything for five years. On 30 November 1965, Parliament pass law wey give Mobutu plus ein cabinet most of de legislative powers, but still hold small power to check ein decrees. By early March 1966, when Parliament start new session, Mobutu announce say he dey cancel dat review power, and two weeks after, ein govment shutdown Parliament for good and collect all de remaining authority. At de start, Mobutu ein govment come out like say e no dey into politics—or even dey against am. People begin see “politician” as bad word, wey mean person wey wicked or corrupt. For 1966, dem set up de Corps of Volunteers of de Republic, one strong frontline group wey aim to gather plenty public support behind Mobutu. Na same year dem hail am as de country ein “Second National Hero” after Lumumba. Even though Mobutu play role for how Lumumba commot power, e try package himself like person wey dey carry Lumumba ein legacy continue. One of de key things wey Mobutu dey preach for early part of ein rule be “authentic Congolese nationalism”. Na dat 1966 too e begin change city names wey get European roots to names wey sound more African—na so Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Stanleyville become Kisangani, and Élisabethville change to Lubumbashi. Then for 1967, Mobutu bring out de Popular Movement of de Revolution (MPR). From dat time go reach 1990, na only dat party dem dey allow for politics. Inside de MPR ein beliefs—wey dem write for Manifesto of N'Sele—dem push nationalism, revolution, plus “authenticity”. Dem describe revolution as “truly national and very practical,” wey reject both capitalism and communism. One popular slogan from de MPR be “Neither left nor right,” and later dem add “nor even center” join. That same year, all de trade unions dem join body into one single union—National Union of Zairian Workers—and de govment take full control over am. Mobutu plan say de union no go operate on ein own, but rather support govment policy like tool. From dat time till 1991, any independent trade union be illegal. As e face plenty wahala for de beginning of ein rule, Mobutu use favour-sharing (patronage) win over most of ein opposition; de ones wey no gree, e handle dem rough. For 1966, four cabinet members chop arrest because dem say dem join plan coup. Military court try dem case, then dem do public execution wey over 50,000 people watch live for open ground. Former Katangan gendarmeries wey rise also face Mobutu ein force and dem smash dem down—same as de Stanleyville mutinies of 1967 wey white mercenaries lead. By 1970, almost all de people wey fit challenge Mobutu power don fall, and for most parts of de country, law plus order start dey show face. That 1970 be de peak time of Mobutu ein power and respect. For 1970, King Baudouin of Belgium come Kinshasa do big state visit wey go well. Dat same year, dem hold presidential plus legislative elections. Even though de constitution say two parties fit dey, na only MPR dem allow nominate candidates. For de presidential election, Mobutu be de only person wey run. Voting no dey private; if you support Mobutu, you go drop green paper, but if you no dey support am, na red paper you go use. Green vote mean say you dey vote for hope, while red vote mean chaos. Under dat kind condition, de result no be surprise—official result talk say Mobutu win with almost everybody behind am, collect 10,131,669 votes, and only 157 people say “no”. Later dem come find out say over 30,500 more votes appear pass de number of voters wey register. Dem run de legislative elections same style. People get just one list from MPR; official result talk say unbelievable 98.33% people vote for de MPR list. As Mobutu dey cement ein power, e build different military groups wey na only to protect am dem dey. These groups include de Special Presidential Division, Civil Guard plus Service for Action, and Military Intelligence (SNIP). === Authenticity campaign === Main article: Authenticité (Zaire) Mobutu start big campaign wey promote African culture wey dem call ''authenticité''. As part of am, on 1 June 1966, e begin change city names wey show colonial past—Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Elisabethville change to Lubumbashi, and Stanleyville become Kisangani. For October 1971, e change de country ein name to Republic of Zaire. E order people make dem drop dem European names for African ones, and warn priests say if dem baptize Zairian pikin plus European name, dem go chop five years for prison. Western dressing and neck tie come dey banned, and men must wear one Mao-style tunic dem dey call ''abacost'' (short for ''à bas le costume'' wey mean “down with de suit”). Even Christmas move from December go June because Mobutu say dat one be more “authentic” date. Then for 1972, Mobutu follow ein own rule from previous year and change ein name to Mobutu Sese Seko Nkuku Ngbendu Wa Za Banga (wey mean “De all-powerful warrior wey, because of ein endurance and strong will to win, dey move from victory to victory, and leave fire behind”). Around dat time, e drop de army uniform and start wear ein signature look—tall and commanding, plus walking stick, abacost, thick glasses, and leopard-skin cap wey dem sew for Paris. For 1974, new constitution land wey tighten Mobutu ein hold on de country. Dis constitution talk say MPR be de “single institution” for de nation. Dem even define am as “de nation politically organized”—which mean say de state just be machine wey dey push party agenda. Every citizen automatically turn MPR member from de moment dem born. De constitution explain say de MPR dey inside de body of de party ein president, wey dem dey elect every seven years during national convention. But at de same time, dat same president automatically turn de only person wey go run for president of de country. Den dem go use referendum confirm am. De document come turn Mobutu ein emergency powers wey e dey use since 1965 into legal backing; e give am full authority—wey dem write as “plenitude of power exercise”—so all power now dey Mobutu ein hand. Mobutu win election three times under dis system, and each time, dem talk say e win with over 98 percent of de votes. For de legislative side, dem dey bring one single MPR list every five years, and de results dey show crazy numbers—either everybody vote for dem, or almost everybody. One of dem elections for 1975, dem no even vote at all—dem just show candidates around public places make people clap give dem. Dat one na how voting be. == One-man rule == Mobutu start use public executions early insyd ein rule to stamp ein power well-well. Any political rival, secessionist, coup planner, or anybody wey e see as threat, e go deal with dem hard. Many of dem people chop hanging for front big crowd. One serious example be former Prime Minister Évariste Kimba. Mobutu govment carry Kimba plus three of ein cabinet members—Jérôme Anany (Defense Minister), Emmanuel Bamba (Finance Minister), and Alexandre Mahamba (Minister of Mines and Energy)—put for trial May 1966. By 30 May, dem hang all four men in front of over 50,000 people. Dem say dem dey link up plus Colonel Alphonse Bangala and Major Pierre Efomi to run coup. Mobutu come talk say, “One had to strike through a spectacular example, and create the conditions of regime discipline. When a chief takes a decision, he decides – period.” Then for 1968, Pierre Mulele—Lumumba ein Education Minister and big rebel during de 1964 Simba uprising—Mobutu people trick am come out from exile for Brazzaville by telling am say amnesty go dey. But instead of peace, dem torture and kill am bad. Before Mulele die, dem gouge ein eyes, tear off ein genitals, and cut off ein limbs one by one. Mobutu later change ein strategy—e start dey buy political opponents instead of always use force. E like repeat one slogan: “Keep your friends close, but your enemies closer still,” to show how e dey use bribe pull rivals to ein side. One trick wey Mobutu really enjoy be “musical chairs”—e dey rotate ministers like game, change cabinet list anyhow, so nobody go build power wey fit threaten am. From November 1965 to April 1997, Mobutu reshuffle cabinet 60 times. Dis constant shuffle put fear inside ministers, because everybody know say Mobutu go change people anyhow, no matter whether you dey work well or not. Because ministers no sabi how long dem go last for position, e lead to serious stealing—everybody dey rush grab wetin dem fit while dem still dey office. Mobutu still dey arrest, even torture, some dissident govment members—then later forgive dem and even give dem bigger posts. E be like e just use power play confuse everybody. Congolese historian Emizet F. Kisangani talk say plenty public officials believe say no matter how corrupt or useless dem be, dem fit come back to govment position. To hold post no require management skill or clean conscience. In fact, if you too correct or too honest, dem see you as obstacle. Wetin Mobutu want be total loyalty in exchange for chance to chop money. By 1970, reports talk say Mobutu don carry 60% of de national budget enter ein pocket—people begin see am as one of de most corrupt leaders for Africa and de whole world. Kisangani add say Mobutu build full system of corruption wey spoil public values and reward greed and selfishness. Mobutu no slow down with de self-promotion moves—man try for 1972 make dem crown am president for life, but that one no land well. Then for June 1983, e raise himself go military top-top level as Marshal. Na General Likulia Bolongo sign dat order. Shortly after, Victor Nendaka Bika—de number two man for country as Vice-President of de Bureau of de Central Committee—drop one big speech full of praise give Mobutu. To chop revenue from Congo ein natural resources, Mobutu first chase out European investors and nationalize plenty foreign companies. But instead of letting dem run proper, e dash control of these firms give ein relatives and close padi dem—wey quickly use am do corruption and chop company assets clean. For 1973–1974, Mobutu start one big “Zairianization” program, take over more foreign businesses and hand dem to Zairians. But e no end there. By October 1973, de Arab oil shock come crash global economy—the same one wey don dey grow steady since 1945. One serious side effect be say copper price fall by 50% in 1974, and since copper na Zaire ein number one export, e hit dem hard. As American historian Thomas Odom talk, Zaire shift from “prosperity to bankruptcy almost overnight.” Because de economy break down, Zaire run go International Monetary Fund (IMF) for help to manage dem debt, but when IMF dig into dem books, dem discover heavy corruption. Mobutu come waka go China for 1974, take inspiration from Cultural Revolution. E come back wearing Mao jacket and call himself “Citoyen Mobutu” or “Citizen Mobutu.” E say he go “radicalize de Zairian revolution.” Di same businesses wey e first give to Zairians, Mobutu come collect dem back, nationalize everything under full state control. As if dat no do, e cut government workers ein salaries by 50%, wey provoke one failed coup attempt against am for June 1975. By 1977, Mobutu ein earlier move to nationalize foreign businesses don backfire hard—e economy don fall serious, and e no get choice but to beg foreign investors come back. But before e fit recover, Katangan rebels wey base for Angola storm Zaire dat same year, as payback for Mobutu ein support to anti-MPLA fighters. France respond quick—dem airlift 1,500 Moroccan paratroopers into Zaire, push de rebels back, and end di crisis wey dem call ''Shaba I''. But no long after, for 1978, de rebels regroup with even more numbers and invade again—this time na ''Shaba II''. Belgium and France come deploy troops again, backed by US logistics, and dem manage stop de attack once more. Mobutu get big embarrassment from how badly de Zairian Army perform for both invasions—e need foreign help to fight small rebel forces. Yet, instead of reforming de army, e just reduce am from 51,000 troops in 1978 to 23,000 by 1980. By dat time, about 90% of de army be Ngbandi—Mobutu ein own ethnic group—’cos e no trust other ethnic groups with weapons. De most loyal and strongest force Mobutu get be ein bodyguards—the ''Special Presidential Division''—trained by Israel, made up only of Ngbandi, and always led by Mobutu ein relative. Mobutu win election again for 1977 and 1984, but nobody dey run against am. E use most of ein time dey build ein own fortune, and by 1988, dem estimate say ein money reach no less than $50 million. Most of de money e hide am abroad, especially for Swiss banks—but when dem remove am later, dem only find small $3.4 million there. Funny enough, ein fortune nearly match de whole country ein foreign debt dat time. One time for 20 May 1976, Mobutu talk for stadium wey hold like 70,000 people for Kinshasa. E talk say, “If you wan thief, thief small and style am nice. But if you thief too much to turn rich fast-fast, dem go catch you.” By 1989, Zaire govment no fit pay dem loans again from Belgium. Mobutu dey ride in fleet of Mercedes-Benz from one palace to another, while roads dey spoil and people dey hungry. Workers no dey get pay for months, ’cos de national money dey disappear go Mobutu, ein family, and top political plus army people. Na only Special Presidential Division wey dey protect Mobutu wey dem dey pay correct and on time. Dem even get saying wey go like dis: “De civil servants dey pretend say dem dey work, while de state dey pretend say e dey pay dem.” De national army—Forces Armées Zaïroises (FAZ)—no get morale at all. Salaries no dey come, living conditions bad, supplies no dey, and officers dey chop people. De army soldiers just turn like armed thieves—dey rob civilians anyhow. Roadblocks full everywhere, and dem dey extort money from anybody wey dey pass with car or truck. Mobutu ein poor handling of de economy cause serious inflation wey mess up de value of people dem salaries. As money value dey drop fast, plenty public servants start dey do their own way—corruption plus dishonesty turn daily survival style for workers all across de system. Mobutu himself live large. E cruise for de Congo River inside ein yacht, Kamanyola. For Gbadolite, e build one huge mansion wey people dey call “Versailles of de jungle.” Anytime e wan go shopping for Paris, e go charter Air France ein Concorde jet. E even build Gbadolite Airport with long runway make Concorde fit land and take off there. For 1989 alone, e use dat jet fly go give speech for United Nations in New York, attend de French bicentennial party as President François Mitterrand ein guest, and carry Zaire youth choir from Paris to Gbadolite, then fly go Marseille—all with Concorde. Mobutu also get villa for French Riviera wey dem call ''Villa del Mere''. Ein whole leadership style come be example of real kleptocracy and nepotism. Mobutu dey put ein Ngbandi tribe people plus close relatives for top positions inside de military and govment. E dey groom ein first-born son, Nyiwa, to take over presidency from am, but Nyiwa die from AIDS for 1994. Mobutu rule be one of de longest autocracies for Africa. E stash over $50 million from Congo ein natural resources, while ordinary people dey suffer. E form one totalitarian system wey break plenty human rights, try wipe out Belgian influence from de country, and still hold strong anti-communist position to gain favor from international powers. Mobutu ein personality cult reach levels wey few leaders for history fit match. De evening news go start with video wey show am dey descend from cloud top like some god figure. Ein face full public places everywhere—portrait hang for walls, and govment workers dey wear lapel pins wey carry ein photo. Dem give am plenty grand titles: “Father of de Nation,” “Messiah,” “Guide of de Revolution,” “Helmsman,” “Founder,” “Savior of de People,” and “Supreme Combatant.” For de 1996 documentary about de legendary 1974 Foreman–Ali boxing match wey happen for Zaire, you go hear dancers chant “Sese Seko, Sese Seko!” as dem welcome de fighters—na clear sign of how deep e presence dey everywhere, even inside pop culture moments. For early 1975, e reach point wey Mobutu no gree make media call anybody ein name—only Mobutu fit be called by name, everybody else dem just refer to dem position. E really build one kind system wey make am look like dem no fit mention Congo without mention am. Mobutu take advantage proper of de Cold War tension wey dey between de European countries plus de United States. He win strong support from de West plus dem international organizations like de International Monetary Fund (IMF). === Space program === For late 1970s, one West Germany company called OTRAG dey work on satellite launch wey dem talk say be peaceful mission to reduce cost. But because of one 1954 amendment to de Treaty of Brussels, dem no fit build or launch missile insyd Germany. So dem pay Mobutu $130 million make dem run de program for Zaire. For one 1978 agreement, Mobutu dash OTRAG 25 years lease for land insyd Zaire. De first rocket, OTRAG-1, launch on 18 May 1977 wey Mobutu dey watch from far. E take off well but e crash back down shortly after. By 6 June 1978, dem launch two more rockets but dem crash again for Zaire. Still, Mobutu push de program say over 200 Zairians dey work for there and say Zaire go benefit from royalties when dem begin sell rocket. But two years later, Soviet Union accuse de program say former Nazi scientists dey involved plus say dem dey use am spy for military reason. Mobutu gree to Soviet pressure, end de project, plus cut ties with OTRAG. === Foreign policy === Main article: Foreign policy of de Mobutu Sese Seko administration ==== Relations plus Belgium ==== De relationship wey dey between Zaire and Belgium under Mobutu time dey mix — sometimes dem be paddy, other times dem turn real enemies. Most of de time, Belgian leaders no really react strong even when Mobutu do tins wey no favour Belgium; dis be partly because de Belgian political side demself no dey united. From early Mobutu rule, yawa start between dem because of plenty Belgian businesses wey dey Congo. But things cool small after. For 1968, Mobutu and ein family go Belgium as special guest of de Belgian king, and dat same year dem sign one science plus technical agreement. For 1970, King Baudouin visit Kinshasa and everybody hail am; dem even sign treaty of friendship and cooperation. But Mobutu tear dis same treaty insyd 1974 because Belgium no gree ban one anti-Mobutu book wey Jules Chomé, one left-wing lawyer, write. Mobutu e "Zairianisation" policy, wey be say he seize foreign businesses and give dem to Zairians, make matters worse. Even though yawa dey, Mobutu still get personal friendship with some top Belgians. He admire Edmond Leburton, wey be Belgian prime minister (1973–1974), and he be paddy to Alfred Cahen, one diplomat wey Mobutu meet from his Brussels university days. Mobutu and King Baudouin too dey cool until Mobutu leak one handwritten letter from de king — after dat, palace shut door gidi-gidi. Because of dis, Mobutu no get invitation go de king ein funeral; only Saddam Hussein from Iraq join am for dat black list. Apart from Belgians wey dey Belgium, Mobutu keep Belgian advisors close — like Hugues Leclercq and Colonel Willy Mallants, wey even show for Thierry Michel ein documentary ''Mobutu, King of Zaire''. ==== Relations plus France ==== As Zaire be de second most populous French-speaking country for de world by den (plus now e even pass France sef) and de biggest one for sub-Saharan Africa, France see am as one big strategic paddy. During de First Republic time, France mostly support conservative and federalist people, no be de unitarist dem like Lumumba. Right after dem crush de Katangan secession, Zaire (wey dem dey call Republic of de Congo by den) sign technical plus cultural cooperation treaty plus France. Under Charles de Gaulle ein presidency, di two countries start bond tight because dem share plenty geopolitical interests. For 1971, France ein Finance Minister, Valéry Giscard d’Estaing, visit Zaire. Later when he turn France ein president, he and Mobutu become close pals, and France turn Mobutu ein strong foreign ally. During de Shaba invasions, France no dull — dem stand full support for Mobutu. For de first Shaba wahala, France carry 1,500 Moroccan troops come Zaire by airlift; dem help drive de rebels. One year later, as de second Shaba invasion land, France and Belgium both send French Foreign Legion paratroopers (2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment) come help Mobutu fight dem off. ==== Relations plus de People ein Republic of China ==== At de beginning, Zaire ein relationship plus de People's Republic of China no better pass how e dey with Soviet Union. Mobutu still dey remember how China help Mulele plus some Maoist rebels wey fight for Kwilu province during de Simba Rebellion wahala. E no dey like make China get seat for United Nations too. But by 1972, Mobutu start dey see China inna new way — like one balance wey go fit check Soviet Union power and even balance ein own close relationship plus United States, Israel, and South Africa. So for November 1972, Mobutu gree recognize China as one country diplomatically (plus East Germany and North Korea join body). Di next year, Mobutu fly go Beijing, meet chairman Mao Zedong, and dem promise am $100 million technical aid. For 1983, when Chinese Prime Minister Zhao Ziyang come visit Zaire, he talk say make Mobutu no worry repay de $100 million — e be gift. For 1974, Mobutu surprise everybody as e travel go China plus North Korea, even though originally dem plan say e go visit Soviet Union. As e return come Zaire, ein politics den de way e dey talk turn more radical. Na dis time Mobutu start bash Belgium plus United States — e vex say America no dey do enough to fight white minority rule for South Africa and Rhodesia. E introduce one new civic duty program wey dem call ''salongo'' — everybody must do compulsory national work. E sana bring "radicalization" wey be extension of de 1973 ''Zairianization'' policy, wey take foreign-owned things give to locals. Mobutu even borrow title from Mao — "de Helmsman". Around dis same time, from late 1974 to early 1975, ein personality cult reach peak — everywhere na Mobutu name, face, den slogan. China plus Zaire get one common target for Central Africa: make dem stop Soviet Union from gain any stronghold for dat side. So dem join hand undercover take support National Liberation Front of Angola (later dem support UNITA too) make dem block MPLA — de People's Movement for de Liberation of Angola — wey Soviet Union plus Cuba dey back. Cuba get big power for Africa dat time, as dem dey help all left-wing, anti-imperialist groups, and Soviet dey sponsor dem heavy. China invite Holden Roberto, wey be de leader of de National Liberation Front of Angola, plus ein guerilla fighters go Beijing make dem train. Dem also give dem weapons plus money. Zaire sef try enter Angola first, try put their own friendly government for power, but Cuban soldiers push dem back. De invasion no work — e be big wahala wey lead to Shaba I and Shaba II invasions later. China no support dis rebels at all; dem even send weapons go support Zaire during both invasions. China come accuse Soviet Union plus Cuba say dem dey behind de Shaba rebel trouble, say dem dey try scatter peace for Central Africa — even though nobody sure whether Soviet plus Cuba really dey involved or no. '''Relations''' '''plus de Soviet Union''' Mobutu ein relationship plus Soviet Union no be cool koraa. He be hard-core anti-communist, so he no dey rush go recognize de Soviets. USSR bin support—tho e be mostly in words—both Patrice Lumumba, Mobutu ein democratically elected predecessor, plus de Simba rebellion. However, to make e look like say he no dey side any bloc, he renew ties for 1967; de first Soviet ambassador come land and present ein credentials for 1968. Mobutu still join United States condemn de Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia dat year. Mobutu take de Soviet presence as advantage for two reasons: e help am keep de image say he be non-aligned leader, plus e give am better excuse to blame things wey dey go wrong for house. Like for 1970, he expel four Soviet diplomats say dem dey do “subversive activities,” and for 1971, he declare twenty Soviet officials as persona non grata say dem dey spark student demonstrations for Lovanium University. Moscow be de only big world capital wey Mobutu never go before, even tho he accept invitation go dey for 1974. But for reasons wey nobody know, he cancel de visit last minute, then go tour de People's Republic of China plus North Korea instead. Relations cool more for 1975, as de two countries come dey opposite sides for de Angolan Civil War. Dis one take strong toll on Zaire ein foreign policy for de next ten years; since Mobutu no fit claim say he be African leader again (he be one of de few leaders wey no gree recognize de Marxist govment of Angola), Mobutu come turn more toward US plus dem allies. He start dey support America dem stand for things like de Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, plus Israel ein position for international organizations. '''Relations''' '''plus de United States''' Most times, Zaire enjoy warm relationship plus United States. US be de third biggest country wey dey give aid to Zaire (after Belgium and France), and Mobutu be paddy man to plenty US presidents like Richard Nixon, Ronald Reagan, plus George H. W. Bush. But around 1974–1975, de relationship cool small as Mobutu start talk radical things (he bash US foreign policy hard). For 1975 summer, e even reach de worst point as Mobutu accuse CIA say dem dey plan overthrown am, come arrest eleven big Zairian generals plus some civilians, den sentence one former Central Bank boss (Albert Ndele) for absentia. But plenty people no believe say de plot be real; some like Mobutu ein strong critic Nzongola-Ntalaja talk say Mobutu just create de story to take chance sack any military man wey fit challenge am later. Still, even with all dis wahala, de cold vibe no last long—de two countries come unite again as dem dey support de same side for de Angolan Civil War. Sake of say Mobutu no dey respect human rights, de Carter government try keep small distance from de Kinshasa government. But still, Zaire chop nearly half of all de foreign aid wey Carter give to sub-Saharan Africa. During de first Shaba invasion, US no really do plenty; dem just deliver some supplies wey no be weapon. But for de second Shaba invasion, US come show stronger support—dem help transport plus organize logistics for de French and Belgian paratroopers wey come help Mobutu fight de rebels. Carter even support Mobutu ein talk say Soviet Union plus Cuba dey back de rebels, even though no evidence come prove am. For 1980, US House of Representatives vote make dem stop military aid to Zaire, but US Senate come bring am back after Carter plus US business people wey get interest for Zaire pressure dem. Mobutu get very warm relationship plus Reagan ein government, especially through money dem dey give am. During Reagan ein time, Mobutu go White House three times, and US no really bash am about de way he dey treat human rights for ein country. When Mobutu visit America for 1983, Reagan talk say Mobutu be “voice of good sense and goodwill.” Mobutu still get friendly relationship plus Reagan ein replacement, George H. W. Bush. Mobutu even be de first African president wey go visit Bush for White House. But things change sharp sharp after Cold War end. Since Soviet Union no dey again, US and Western countries no see reason again to support Mobutu sake of communism fight. Dem start dey pressure am make he open up de country to democracy. Mobutu vex say US change attitude towards am. He talk say: “I be de latest victim of de cold war, US no need me again. De lesson be say all my support for US policy no mean anything.” For 1993, when Mobutu try come Washington, US State Department bounce am, dem no give am visa. Mobutu still get some American friends wey no dey government side. One be televangelist Pat Robertson, wey promise say he go try beg US government make dem lift de ban on Mobutu. == Coalition government == For May 1990, sake of di Cold War wey end, international politics change, economy issues plus gbelemgbelem for di country, Mobutu gree make e lef di MPR ein one-man chop power. For early May, students wey dey Lubumbashi campus for National University of Zaire vex plus Mobutu ein system, dem start protest dey shout say make e step down. On di night of 11 May 1990, dem off di light for campus, den send one special army group wey dem dey call ''Les Hiboux'' (wey mean “Owls”) come, all of dem carry cutlass plus bayonet. By di morning of 12 May, dem don kill like 290 students. Dis gbelem wey happen make countries like di European Economic Community (wey now be European Union), United States, plus Canada, cut all support wey no be humanitarian. Na dis move be di beginning of di end for Mobutu ein backing from Western countries. Mobutu put transitional government make dem lead go di elections wey e promise, but e still hold serious powers for hand. After some gbelem wey unpaid soldiers cause for Kinshasa for 1991, Mobutu carry some opposition people join coalition government, but e still use corner corner hold tight di security services plus key ministries. Wahala between di different camps make dem divide into two governments for 1993 — one wey dey Mobutu ein side and one wey dey against am. Di anti-Mobutu side dey under Laurent Monsengwo plus Étienne Tshisekedi from Union for Democracy and Social Progress (UDPS). Di economic condition still dey very bad, so for 1994 di two groups come join body form High Council of Republic – Parliament of Transition (HCR-PT). Mobutu come appoint Kengo Wa Dondo, wey believe in strict spending plus free-market reforms, as Prime Minister. As all dis dey happen, Mobutu ein body too dey weak well well, and for one of ein travels go Europe for medical care, some Tutsi people come take over plenty areas for eastern Zaire. == Overthrow == Na di beginning of Mobutu e downfall start during di Rwandan genocide for 1994, wey about 800,000 Tutsis plus moderate Hutus dem kill am, mostly by about 200,000 Hutu extremists wey Rwandan government support. Di genocide end when Tutsi-controlled Rwandan Patriotic Front take over di whole country, wey make hundreds of thousands of Hutus — including many wey do di killings — run enter refugee camps for eastern Zaire. Mobutu welcome di Hutu extremists as him personal guests, allow dem build military plus political bases for eastern Zaire. From dia, dem begin attack plus kill ethnic Tutsis for Rwanda plus for Zaire itself, say dem dey prepare to go attack Rwanda again. Di new Rwandan government begin send military support give di Zairian Tutsis to protect dem. All dis kasala come make eastern Zaire start dey unstable. Mobutu wey cancer dey worry am, dey Switzerland dey take treatment, so e no fit arrange any proper resistance. Di resistance kon collapse as di rebels dey march forward. If no be say di country ein infrastructure spoil no be small, di rebels for don take over everywhere sharp. For most places, dem no get tarred road kraa; na only some rough bush roads wey people no dey use steady. Na dat one slow di rebel movement small. By mid-1997, Kabila ein people start dey move again, and Mobutu ein remaining soldiers no really put up any fight. On 16 May 1997, dem try do peace talk for Pointe-Noire inside one South African Navy ship (SAS Outeniqua), wey President Nelson Mandela from South Africa chair. But di talk no go anywhere, sake of say Kabila no wan slow ein army down or give Mobutu chance take gather ein people again. Kabila too no dey want look Mobutu face during di meeting. According to one UN official, Timothy Montague Hamilton Douglas, e talk say, “All di years wey I deal plus Mobutu, dis be di first time I see person wey pass am for superstition... Kabila sit inside di same room wey Mobutu dey, but e no gree look am for face kraa — e just dey watch di ceiling.” After some talk plus their aides, Douglas realize say Kabila dey fear say di “Old Leopard” (Mobutu) still get juju wey fit curse am if e look am for eye, and dat go stop am from winning power wey e almost grab. Di atmosphere cold pass. Dem talk say na di only time di two enemies ever meet face to face. Kabila just tell Mobutu, “Step down, hand over power without condition.” Mobutu vex bad. E just waka comot from di ship, no gree make any agreement. Mandela, wey be 78 years den, even help support Mobutu make e fit waka go ein car. Dem suppose meet again on 15 May, Mobutu show up but Kabila no show face. Di next day, Kabila ein soldiers — Alliance of Democratic Forces for de Liberation of Congo-Zaire (AFDL) — declare say dem win di fight. On 23 May 1997, dem change Zaire ein name go Democratic Republic of de Congo. == Exile den death == Mobutu run go hide small for Togo after dem chase am, but di Togo president, Gnassingbé Eyadéma, tell am few days later say make e comot from ein country. From 23 May 1997, Mobutu go settle mostly for Rabat, Morocco. E die there on 7 September 1997 from prostate cancer, wey carry am go at di age of 66. Dem bury am for one above ground tomb inside Rabat, for Christian cemetery wey dem dey call ''Cimetière Européen.'' For December 2007, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) ein National Assembly recommend say make dem carry Mobutu ein body come back home plus bury am for big man tomb (mausoleum) for inside DRC. But up till now, dem never do am. Mobutu still dey bury for Morocco. == Family == Mobutu marry two times. E first wife be Marie-Antoinette Gbiatibwa Gogbe Yetene, dem marry for 1955. Dem born nine pikin together. She die from heart failure on 22 October 1977 for Genolier, Switzerland, as she be 36 years. On 1 May 1980, Mobutu marry ein girlfriend, Bobi Ladawa, just before Pope John Paul II visit di kontri, so say church go see di relationship as correct. Two of ein sons from di first marriage die before Mobutu die — Nyiwa (wey die 16 September 1994) plus Konga (wey die 1992). Three more die after Mobutu die: Kongulu (24 September 1998), Manda (27 November 2004), plus Ndokula (4 November 2011). Ein senior son from di second marriage, Nzanga Mobutu, wey now be di head of di family, come fourth for 2006 presidential elections plus later serve for Congo government as Minister of State plus Deputy Prime Minister. Another son, Giala, serve for National Assembly and later Senate. Mobutu ein daughter, Yakpwa (wey people dey call Yaki), marry one Belgian man small time — Pierre Janssen — wey later write book wey talk Mobutu ein lifestyle clear-clear. Altogether, Mobutu have sixteen children: * Plus Marie-Antoinette (first wife): Nyiwa, Ngombo, Manda, Konga, Ngawali, Yango, Yakpwa, Kongulu, Ndagbia (9) * Plus Bobi Ladawa (second wife): Nzanga, Giala, Toku, Ndokula (4) * Plus Kosia Ngama (mistress den twin sister of ein second wife): Yalitho, Tende, Ayessa (3) == In art den literature == Mobutu be de main person wey dem show for one 1999 Belgian documentary wey Thierry Michel direct, e name be ''Mobutu, King of Zaire''. Mobutu too show for one 2000 film ''Lumumba'' wey Raoul Peck direct, wey talk about di time before and during di coup from Lumumba ein angle. Mobutu show too for one 1996 American documentary ''When We Were Kings'', wey focus on di famous ''Rumble in the Jungle'' boxing fight between George Foreman plus Muhammad Ali, wey happen for Kinshasa under Mobutu ein rule. For one 1978 war adventure film ''The Wild Geese'', di bad guy General Ndofa—wey dem describe as one very corrupt leader for one copper-rich country for central Africa—na clear imitation of Mobutu. Mobutu fit be seen as inspiration for some characters wey appear for Wole Soyinka ein poems, ''A Bend in the River'' by V. S. Naipaul, plus ''Anthills of the Savannah'' by Chinua Achebe. William Close, wey be di poppie of actress Glenn Close, serve as Mobutu ein personal doctor before, and e write book wey talk about him time for Zaire. Barbara Kingsolver ein 1998 historical novel ''The Poisonwood Bible'' show di Congo Crisis from fictional angle, wey feature Mobutu ein role for di wahala. Mobutu too dey portrayed by Belgian actor Marc Zinga for di 2011 film ''Mister Bob''. French critic Isabelle Hanne praise how Zinga take act Mobutu, say e "carry di Shakespeare-like and bloodthirsty character very well." Mobutu even show up as extra promo card for di strategy board game ''Twilight Struggle''. If you play ein card, e go make Zaire more stable and give US more power for di country. qhy7g6acs9f3p1pqz71dpso03ed0l30 69113 69112 2025-07-05T22:12:31Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69113 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu wa za Banga''' ; born '''Joseph-Désiré Mobutu'''; 14 October 1930 – 7 September 1997), people dey call am Mobutu Sese Seko or Mobutu and sana known by ein initials MSS, e be Congolese politician plus military officer wey be de first and only president of Zaire from 1971 to 1997. Before dat, Mobutu serve as de second president of de Democratic Republic of de Congo, from 1965 to 1971. E sana serve as de fifth chairperson of de Organisation of African Unity from 1967 to 1968. During de Congo Crisis insyd 1960, Mobutu, wey den be Chief of Staff insyd de Congolese Army, commot de nation ein democratically elected govment of Patrice Lumumba plus support from de U.S. and Belgium. Mobutu put govment insyd wey arrange make dem execute Lumumba for 1961, and e continue dey lead de country ein armed forces till e take power direct insyd another coup for 1965. To make sure say power no escape am, he create de Popular Movement of de Revolution as de only correct political party for 1967, change Congo ein name go Zaire for 1971, plus e own name turn Mobutu Sese Seko for 1972. Mobutu protect ein rule under hard autocratic regime and end up dey rule during time wey human rights violations spread everywhere. E try purge de country from all colonial culture tins through ein "national authenticity" program. Mobutu turn de main person wey everybody dey hype like say na cult of personality he dey carry. Mobutu talk say ein political ideology no be "left", no be "right", and no be "centre" too, but people mostly know am say e dey against communism for de Françafrique zone. Because of dat, United States, France, plus Belgium support am well-well—dem dash am military, diplomatic, and economic backing. E still build tight link plus apartheid South Africa, Israel, plus de Greek junta dem. Mobutu get strong name for corruption plus nepotism: dem talk say ein personal wealth fit reach from $50 million go $5 billion, all na from economic exploitation plus corruption as president. Some people call ein govment kleptocracy, ’cos e dey pile ein own money while Zaire ein economy suffer—plenty inflation, big debt, and serious currency wahala. E too known for ein flashy lifestyle, like how e dey fly go Paris on top de fast-fast Concorde jet just to do shopping. By 1990, as de economy start dey spoil plus tension dey rise, dem force Mobutu Sese Seko make e enter coalition plus political opponents and agree make dem do multiparty system. Even though e use ein soldiers try block de change, de movement no gree stop. By May 1997, rebel dem wey Laurent-Désiré Kabila lead take over de country and push Mobutu go exile. E already dey battle prostate cancer wey hard, so three months later, e die for Morocco. == Biography == === Early years den education === Mobutu, wey come from de Ngbandi ethnic group, dem born am for 1930 insyd Lisala, Belgian Congo. Mobutu ein mommie, Marie Madeleine Yemo, be hotel maid wey run go Lisala make she escape one local village chief ein harem. Na there she jam Albéric Gbemani, cook wey dey work for one Belgian judge, den she marry am. Not long after, she born Mobutu. Na one uncle pick de name “Mobutu” give am. Gbemani die when Mobutu be just eight years. After dat, one uncle plus ein grandfather raise am. De Belgian judge ein wife take fine eye see Mobutu, so she teach am how to speak, read plus write French well-well, wey be de official language of de colony. Ein mommie Yemo wey be widow, lean on family help to take care of her four pikin dem, and dem dey move from place to place often. Mobutu ein first schooling happen for capital town Léopoldville (wey now dem dey call Kinshasa). Later, ein mommie send am go ein uncle for Coquilhatville (now Mbandaka), where e attend Christian Brothers School, one Catholic-mission boarding school. Mobutu shine for books top and even run de class newspaper. People still know am for ein stubborn pranks and sharp small-boy sense of humor. One classmate remember say anytime de Belgian priests—wey ein main language be Dutch—make mistake for French, Mobutu go jump from ein seat for class top and point out de error sharp. For 1949, Mobutu sneak enter one boat wey dey go downriver to Léopoldville, where e jam one girl. Some weeks later, de priests find am. As school year end, instead of dem send am go prison, dem order make e serve seven years insyd de colonial army, Force Publique (FP). Dat kind punishment na normal tin for students wey dey act stubborn. === Army service === Mobutu find discipline for army life top, and e see father figure insyd Sergeant Louis Bobozo. Mobutu no stop ein studies—e dey borrow European newspapers from de Belgian officers plus pick books from anywhere e fit find, then e go read dem during sentry duty or any small chance e get. De ones wey e like pass be de writings of French president Charles de Gaulle, British prime minister Winston Churchill, plus de Italian Renaissance philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli. After e pass one course for accounting, Mobutu start small-small dey do journalism work proper. Still vexed about how e and de school priests jam wahala, e no marry for church. De only thing e fit bring for de wedding enjoyment be one crate of beer—na all ein army salary fit buy. === Early political involvement === As soldier, Mobutu dey write politics matter under fake name for Actualités Africaines (African News), one magazine wey one Belgian colonial set up. For 1956, e comot from army and turn full-time journalist, dey write for Léopoldville daily L'Avenir. Two years later, e go Belgium to report de 1958 World Exposition, then e stay back make e learn journalism better. By dis time, Mobutu don meet plenty young Congolese intellectuals wey dey challenge colonial rule. E come build friendship plus Patrice Lumumba and join Lumumba ein party—Congolese National Movement (MNC). Mobutu later become Lumumba ein personal aide. Some people wey know de matter talk say Belgian intelligence fit don recruit Mobutu as informant give de government. During de 1960 talks wey happen for Brussels about Congolese independence, de US embassy organize one reception give de Congolese delegation. Each embassy staff get list of delegates wey dem suppose meet, and later dem come talk about de people dem meet. De ambassador talk say, “One name just dey pop up steady. But nobody get am for ein list 'cos e no be official delegation member—e be Lumumba ein secretary. But everybody agree say dis guy get strong brain, e be young, maybe small immature, but e get big future ahead.” After de general election, dem assign Lumumba make e form govment. E give Mobutu de position of Secretary of State to de Presidency. Mobutu carry plenty weight for deciding de rest of de govment people. But after independence land, e no fit see Lumumba one-on-one again like before, 'cos de new prime minister start dey busy plus plenty aides and colleagues surround am. From there, both of dem slowly start drift apart. === Congo Crisis === Main article: Congo Crisis On 5 July 1960, soldiers of de Force Publique wey dey Camp Léopold II for Léopoldville vex over dem all-white leaders and bad working conditions, so dem rise mutiny. Di revolt spread go other places sharp-sharp. Mobutu join other officials talk to de mutineers so dem fit free de officers plus dem families. Then on 8 July, de full Council of Ministers gather for one special meeting under President Joseph Kasa-Vubu ein chairmanship for Camp Léopold II to face de matter of Africanising de garrison. De ministers start dey argue who go fit take de top job as army chief of staff. Two people wey stand out be Minister of Youth and Sports Maurice Mpolo, plus Mobutu. Mpolo don already show say e get some control over de soldiers wey dey mutiny, but Kasa-Vubu plus de Bakongo ministers fear say if dem give am power, e fit run coup. Mobutu on de other hand, people see am as cool-head wey dey think before e act. Lumumba respect Mpolo for ein boldness, but e prefer Mobutu ein cautious style. As de argument go on, de cabinet start split based on who dem support to be chief of staff. Lumumba no wan lose any of de two camps, so e try keep both men for ein team. In de end, dem give Mobutu de position and promote am to colonel. Next day, govment teams comot from de capital to supervise how dem go Africanise de army; Mobutu own assignment na for Équateur. While Mobutu dey there, Mpolo begin act as ANC Chief of Staff. Mobutu no happy at all with dat move, so when e return to de capital, e face Lumumba inside cabinet meeting and tell am plain: “Either I no deserve am and you gots sack me, or I do de mission well and I go keep my rank plus position.” De British diplomat Brian Urquhart, wey dey work plus de United Nations, yarn say: “When I first meet Mobutu for July 1960, e be Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba ein chief military assistant and e just promote himself from sergeant go lieutenant-colonel. Compared to ein boss, Mobutu be like pillar of common sense and sharp reasoning. Na to am we go when Lumumba ein hashish-high guards arrest our people. Na Mobutu too dey casually bring up Lumumba ein wild requests—like say make UN pay salary give Congolese army wey fit mutiny. For dem early days, Mobutu look like reasonable young man, wey maybe, just maybe, dey reason good for ein new independent country.” Backed by Belgian govment wey wan still hold tight to de rich Congolese mines, secessionist violence burst out for south. As UN soldiers wey dem send come restore order no dey help crush de secession, Lumumba go turn to Soviet Union for help. Inside six weeks, e receive serious military aid plus about thousand Soviet technical advisers. Since na Cold War time, US govment fear say dis Soviet move be trick to spread communist power for Central Africa. US and Belgium come ginger Kasa-Vubu make e sack Lumumba, and on 5 September, e do am. Lumumba vex rough and say Kasa-Vubu no be president again. Parliament no gree sack any of dem, instead dem beg for reconciliation, but no headway. Lumumba plus Kasa-Vubu each tell Mobutu make e arrest de other one. As Army Chief of Staff, Mobutu start face heavy pressure from all angle. Western countries' embassies—wey dey pay soldiers salary—plus Kasa-Vubu and Mobutu ein own men, all dem want make Soviet people pack. So on 14 September, Mobutu do coup wey no draw blood, announce say both Kasa-Vubu and Lumumba dey “neutralised” and form one new govment of university graduates—dem call am College of Commissioners-General. Lumumba no accept am but dem force am retire go ein house, where UN peacekeepers block Mobutu ein soldiers make dem no arrest am. Urquhart talk say on de coup day, Mobutu just waka enter UN headquarters for Léopoldville without invite and no gree comot till radio announce de coup; na dat time Mobutu begin repeat “C’est moi!”—“Na me!” Urquhart realise say Mobutu just land there in case de coup mess up, so e tell am to comot. As confidence drop say de international community go support am come back to power, Lumumba run commot for late November go meet ein supporters for Stanleyville to form new govment. Early December, Mobutu ein soldiers catch am, then keep am for ein base insyd Thysville. But Mobutu still see am as danger, so on 17 January 1961, e move Lumumba go de rebel State of Katanga. From dat point, nobody see Lumumba again. Later dem find out say same day wey dem move am, de secessionist forces under Moise Tshombe execute am, after Mobutu ein govment hand am over. On 23 January 1961, Kasa-Vubu promote Mobutu go major-general. One historian, De Witte, talk say na political move wey aim to make de army stronger, since na de president ein only support, and to boost Mobutu ein stand inside de army. For 1964, Pierre Mulele lead some fighters start another rebellion. Dem fast take over two-thirds of Congo. Mobutu lead de Congolese army respond, and by 1965, dem take back de whole land. === Second ''coup'' and consolidation of power === Sanso see: Second Mobutu coup d'état Prime Minister Moise Tshombe ein party, de Congolese National Convention, win big majority for March 1965 elections, but Kasa-Vubu appoint Évariste Kimba, one anti-Tshombe man, as prime minister-designate. Parliament no gree approve am two times. As de govment almost jam dead end, Mobutu take over power through coup wey no draw blood on 24 November—he just turn 35 one month before. Under one system wey dem call state of exception (regime d'exception), Mobutu grab full—almost absolute—power for five years. For ein first speech after e take power, Mobutu talk give big crowd for Léopoldville main stadium say, since na politicians spoil Congo within five years, e go need at least dat same time to fix am. So, for dat reason, no political party go do anything for five years. On 30 November 1965, Parliament pass law wey give Mobutu plus ein cabinet most of de legislative powers, but still hold small power to check ein decrees. By early March 1966, when Parliament start new session, Mobutu announce say he dey cancel dat review power, and two weeks after, ein govment shutdown Parliament for good and collect all de remaining authority. At de start, Mobutu ein govment come out like say e no dey into politics—or even dey against am. People begin see “politician” as bad word, wey mean person wey wicked or corrupt. For 1966, dem set up de Corps of Volunteers of de Republic, one strong frontline group wey aim to gather plenty public support behind Mobutu. Na same year dem hail am as de country ein “Second National Hero” after Lumumba. Even though Mobutu play role for how Lumumba commot power, e try package himself like person wey dey carry Lumumba ein legacy continue. One of de key things wey Mobutu dey preach for early part of ein rule be “authentic Congolese nationalism”. Na dat 1966 too e begin change city names wey get European roots to names wey sound more African—na so Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Stanleyville become Kisangani, and Élisabethville change to Lubumbashi. Then for 1967, Mobutu bring out de Popular Movement of de Revolution (MPR). From dat time go reach 1990, na only dat party dem dey allow for politics. Inside de MPR ein beliefs—wey dem write for Manifesto of N'Sele—dem push nationalism, revolution, plus “authenticity”. Dem describe revolution as “truly national and very practical,” wey reject both capitalism and communism. One popular slogan from de MPR be “Neither left nor right,” and later dem add “nor even center” join. That same year, all de trade unions dem join body into one single union—National Union of Zairian Workers—and de govment take full control over am. Mobutu plan say de union no go operate on ein own, but rather support govment policy like tool. From dat time till 1991, any independent trade union be illegal. As e face plenty wahala for de beginning of ein rule, Mobutu use favour-sharing (patronage) win over most of ein opposition; de ones wey no gree, e handle dem rough. For 1966, four cabinet members chop arrest because dem say dem join plan coup. Military court try dem case, then dem do public execution wey over 50,000 people watch live for open ground. Former Katangan gendarmeries wey rise also face Mobutu ein force and dem smash dem down—same as de Stanleyville mutinies of 1967 wey white mercenaries lead. By 1970, almost all de people wey fit challenge Mobutu power don fall, and for most parts of de country, law plus order start dey show face. That 1970 be de peak time of Mobutu ein power and respect. For 1970, King Baudouin of Belgium come Kinshasa do big state visit wey go well. Dat same year, dem hold presidential plus legislative elections. Even though de constitution say two parties fit dey, na only MPR dem allow nominate candidates. For de presidential election, Mobutu be de only person wey run. Voting no dey private; if you support Mobutu, you go drop green paper, but if you no dey support am, na red paper you go use. Green vote mean say you dey vote for hope, while red vote mean chaos. Under dat kind condition, de result no be surprise—official result talk say Mobutu win with almost everybody behind am, collect 10,131,669 votes, and only 157 people say “no”. Later dem come find out say over 30,500 more votes appear pass de number of voters wey register. Dem run de legislative elections same style. People get just one list from MPR; official result talk say unbelievable 98.33% people vote for de MPR list. As Mobutu dey cement ein power, e build different military groups wey na only to protect am dem dey. These groups include de Special Presidential Division, Civil Guard plus Service for Action, and Military Intelligence (SNIP). === Authenticity campaign === Main article: Authenticité (Zaire) Mobutu start big campaign wey promote African culture wey dem call ''authenticité''. As part of am, on 1 June 1966, e begin change city names wey show colonial past—Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Elisabethville change to Lubumbashi, and Stanleyville become Kisangani. For October 1971, e change de country ein name to Republic of Zaire. E order people make dem drop dem European names for African ones, and warn priests say if dem baptize Zairian pikin plus European name, dem go chop five years for prison. Western dressing and neck tie come dey banned, and men must wear one Mao-style tunic dem dey call ''abacost'' (short for ''à bas le costume'' wey mean “down with de suit”). Even Christmas move from December go June because Mobutu say dat one be more “authentic” date. Then for 1972, Mobutu follow ein own rule from previous year and change ein name to Mobutu Sese Seko Nkuku Ngbendu Wa Za Banga (wey mean “De all-powerful warrior wey, because of ein endurance and strong will to win, dey move from victory to victory, and leave fire behind”). Around dat time, e drop de army uniform and start wear ein signature look—tall and commanding, plus walking stick, abacost, thick glasses, and leopard-skin cap wey dem sew for Paris. For 1974, new constitution land wey tighten Mobutu ein hold on de country. Dis constitution talk say MPR be de “single institution” for de nation. Dem even define am as “de nation politically organized”—which mean say de state just be machine wey dey push party agenda. Every citizen automatically turn MPR member from de moment dem born. De constitution explain say de MPR dey inside de body of de party ein president, wey dem dey elect every seven years during national convention. But at de same time, dat same president automatically turn de only person wey go run for president of de country. Den dem go use referendum confirm am. De document come turn Mobutu ein emergency powers wey e dey use since 1965 into legal backing; e give am full authority—wey dem write as “plenitude of power exercise”—so all power now dey Mobutu ein hand. Mobutu win election three times under dis system, and each time, dem talk say e win with over 98 percent of de votes. For de legislative side, dem dey bring one single MPR list every five years, and de results dey show crazy numbers—either everybody vote for dem, or almost everybody. One of dem elections for 1975, dem no even vote at all—dem just show candidates around public places make people clap give dem. Dat one na how voting be. == One-man rule == Mobutu start use public executions early insyd ein rule to stamp ein power well-well. Any political rival, secessionist, coup planner, or anybody wey e see as threat, e go deal with dem hard. Many of dem people chop hanging for front big crowd. One serious example be former Prime Minister Évariste Kimba. Mobutu govment carry Kimba plus three of ein cabinet members—Jérôme Anany (Defense Minister), Emmanuel Bamba (Finance Minister), and Alexandre Mahamba (Minister of Mines and Energy)—put for trial May 1966. By 30 May, dem hang all four men in front of over 50,000 people. Dem say dem dey link up plus Colonel Alphonse Bangala and Major Pierre Efomi to run coup. Mobutu come talk say, “One had to strike through a spectacular example, and create the conditions of regime discipline. When a chief takes a decision, he decides – period.” Then for 1968, Pierre Mulele—Lumumba ein Education Minister and big rebel during de 1964 Simba uprising—Mobutu people trick am come out from exile for Brazzaville by telling am say amnesty go dey. But instead of peace, dem torture and kill am bad. Before Mulele die, dem gouge ein eyes, tear off ein genitals, and cut off ein limbs one by one. Mobutu later change ein strategy—e start dey buy political opponents instead of always use force. E like repeat one slogan: “Keep your friends close, but your enemies closer still,” to show how e dey use bribe pull rivals to ein side. One trick wey Mobutu really enjoy be “musical chairs”—e dey rotate ministers like game, change cabinet list anyhow, so nobody go build power wey fit threaten am. From November 1965 to April 1997, Mobutu reshuffle cabinet 60 times. Dis constant shuffle put fear inside ministers, because everybody know say Mobutu go change people anyhow, no matter whether you dey work well or not. Because ministers no sabi how long dem go last for position, e lead to serious stealing—everybody dey rush grab wetin dem fit while dem still dey office. Mobutu still dey arrest, even torture, some dissident govment members—then later forgive dem and even give dem bigger posts. E be like e just use power play confuse everybody. Congolese historian Emizet F. Kisangani talk say plenty public officials believe say no matter how corrupt or useless dem be, dem fit come back to govment position. To hold post no require management skill or clean conscience. In fact, if you too correct or too honest, dem see you as obstacle. Wetin Mobutu want be total loyalty in exchange for chance to chop money. By 1970, reports talk say Mobutu don carry 60% of de national budget enter ein pocket—people begin see am as one of de most corrupt leaders for Africa and de whole world. Kisangani add say Mobutu build full system of corruption wey spoil public values and reward greed and selfishness. Mobutu no slow down with de self-promotion moves—man try for 1972 make dem crown am president for life, but that one no land well. Then for June 1983, e raise himself go military top-top level as Marshal. Na General Likulia Bolongo sign dat order. Shortly after, Victor Nendaka Bika—de number two man for country as Vice-President of de Bureau of de Central Committee—drop one big speech full of praise give Mobutu. To chop revenue from Congo ein natural resources, Mobutu first chase out European investors and nationalize plenty foreign companies. But instead of letting dem run proper, e dash control of these firms give ein relatives and close padi dem—wey quickly use am do corruption and chop company assets clean. For 1973–1974, Mobutu start one big “Zairianization” program, take over more foreign businesses and hand dem to Zairians. But e no end there. By October 1973, de Arab oil shock come crash global economy—the same one wey don dey grow steady since 1945. One serious side effect be say copper price fall by 50% in 1974, and since copper na Zaire ein number one export, e hit dem hard. As American historian Thomas Odom talk, Zaire shift from “prosperity to bankruptcy almost overnight.” Because de economy break down, Zaire run go International Monetary Fund (IMF) for help to manage dem debt, but when IMF dig into dem books, dem discover heavy corruption. Mobutu come waka go China for 1974, take inspiration from Cultural Revolution. E come back wearing Mao jacket and call himself “Citoyen Mobutu” or “Citizen Mobutu.” E say he go “radicalize de Zairian revolution.” Di same businesses wey e first give to Zairians, Mobutu come collect dem back, nationalize everything under full state control. As if dat no do, e cut government workers ein salaries by 50%, wey provoke one failed coup attempt against am for June 1975. By 1977, Mobutu ein earlier move to nationalize foreign businesses don backfire hard—e economy don fall serious, and e no get choice but to beg foreign investors come back. But before e fit recover, Katangan rebels wey base for Angola storm Zaire dat same year, as payback for Mobutu ein support to anti-MPLA fighters. France respond quick—dem airlift 1,500 Moroccan paratroopers into Zaire, push de rebels back, and end di crisis wey dem call ''Shaba I''. But no long after, for 1978, de rebels regroup with even more numbers and invade again—this time na ''Shaba II''. Belgium and France come deploy troops again, backed by US logistics, and dem manage stop de attack once more. Mobutu get big embarrassment from how badly de Zairian Army perform for both invasions—e need foreign help to fight small rebel forces. Yet, instead of reforming de army, e just reduce am from 51,000 troops in 1978 to 23,000 by 1980. By dat time, about 90% of de army be Ngbandi—Mobutu ein own ethnic group—’cos e no trust other ethnic groups with weapons. De most loyal and strongest force Mobutu get be ein bodyguards—the ''Special Presidential Division''—trained by Israel, made up only of Ngbandi, and always led by Mobutu ein relative. Mobutu win election again for 1977 and 1984, but nobody dey run against am. E use most of ein time dey build ein own fortune, and by 1988, dem estimate say ein money reach no less than $50 million. Most of de money e hide am abroad, especially for Swiss banks—but when dem remove am later, dem only find small $3.4 million there. Funny enough, ein fortune nearly match de whole country ein foreign debt dat time. One time for 20 May 1976, Mobutu talk for stadium wey hold like 70,000 people for Kinshasa. E talk say, “If you wan thief, thief small and style am nice. But if you thief too much to turn rich fast-fast, dem go catch you.” By 1989, Zaire govment no fit pay dem loans again from Belgium. Mobutu dey ride in fleet of Mercedes-Benz from one palace to another, while roads dey spoil and people dey hungry. Workers no dey get pay for months, ’cos de national money dey disappear go Mobutu, ein family, and top political plus army people. Na only Special Presidential Division wey dey protect Mobutu wey dem dey pay correct and on time. Dem even get saying wey go like dis: “De civil servants dey pretend say dem dey work, while de state dey pretend say e dey pay dem.” De national army—Forces Armées Zaïroises (FAZ)—no get morale at all. Salaries no dey come, living conditions bad, supplies no dey, and officers dey chop people. De army soldiers just turn like armed thieves—dey rob civilians anyhow. Roadblocks full everywhere, and dem dey extort money from anybody wey dey pass with car or truck. Mobutu ein poor handling of de economy cause serious inflation wey mess up de value of people dem salaries. As money value dey drop fast, plenty public servants start dey do their own way—corruption plus dishonesty turn daily survival style for workers all across de system. Mobutu himself live large. E cruise for de Congo River inside ein yacht, Kamanyola. For Gbadolite, e build one huge mansion wey people dey call “Versailles of de jungle.” Anytime e wan go shopping for Paris, e go charter Air France ein Concorde jet. E even build Gbadolite Airport with long runway make Concorde fit land and take off there. For 1989 alone, e use dat jet fly go give speech for United Nations in New York, attend de French bicentennial party as President François Mitterrand ein guest, and carry Zaire youth choir from Paris to Gbadolite, then fly go Marseille—all with Concorde. Mobutu also get villa for French Riviera wey dem call ''Villa del Mere''. Ein whole leadership style come be example of real kleptocracy and nepotism. Mobutu dey put ein Ngbandi tribe people plus close relatives for top positions inside de military and govment. E dey groom ein first-born son, Nyiwa, to take over presidency from am, but Nyiwa die from AIDS for 1994. Mobutu rule be one of de longest autocracies for Africa. E stash over $50 million from Congo ein natural resources, while ordinary people dey suffer. E form one totalitarian system wey break plenty human rights, try wipe out Belgian influence from de country, and still hold strong anti-communist position to gain favor from international powers. Mobutu ein personality cult reach levels wey few leaders for history fit match. De evening news go start with video wey show am dey descend from cloud top like some god figure. Ein face full public places everywhere—portrait hang for walls, and govment workers dey wear lapel pins wey carry ein photo. Dem give am plenty grand titles: “Father of de Nation,” “Messiah,” “Guide of de Revolution,” “Helmsman,” “Founder,” “Savior of de People,” and “Supreme Combatant.” For de 1996 documentary about de legendary 1974 Foreman–Ali boxing match wey happen for Zaire, you go hear dancers chant “Sese Seko, Sese Seko!” as dem welcome de fighters—na clear sign of how deep e presence dey everywhere, even inside pop culture moments. For early 1975, e reach point wey Mobutu no gree make media call anybody ein name—only Mobutu fit be called by name, everybody else dem just refer to dem position. E really build one kind system wey make am look like dem no fit mention Congo without mention am. Mobutu take advantage proper of de Cold War tension wey dey between de European countries plus de United States. He win strong support from de West plus dem international organizations like de International Monetary Fund (IMF). === Space program === For late 1970s, one West Germany company called OTRAG dey work on satellite launch wey dem talk say be peaceful mission to reduce cost. But because of one 1954 amendment to de Treaty of Brussels, dem no fit build or launch missile insyd Germany. So dem pay Mobutu $130 million make dem run de program for Zaire. For one 1978 agreement, Mobutu dash OTRAG 25 years lease for land insyd Zaire. De first rocket, OTRAG-1, launch on 18 May 1977 wey Mobutu dey watch from far. E take off well but e crash back down shortly after. By 6 June 1978, dem launch two more rockets but dem crash again for Zaire. Still, Mobutu push de program say over 200 Zairians dey work for there and say Zaire go benefit from royalties when dem begin sell rocket. But two years later, Soviet Union accuse de program say former Nazi scientists dey involved plus say dem dey use am spy for military reason. Mobutu gree to Soviet pressure, end de project, plus cut ties with OTRAG. === Foreign policy === Main article: Foreign policy of de Mobutu Sese Seko administration ==== Relations plus Belgium ==== De relationship wey dey between Zaire and Belgium under Mobutu time dey mix — sometimes dem be paddy, other times dem turn real enemies. Most of de time, Belgian leaders no really react strong even when Mobutu do tins wey no favour Belgium; dis be partly because de Belgian political side demself no dey united. From early Mobutu rule, yawa start between dem because of plenty Belgian businesses wey dey Congo. But things cool small after. For 1968, Mobutu and ein family go Belgium as special guest of de Belgian king, and dat same year dem sign one science plus technical agreement. For 1970, King Baudouin visit Kinshasa and everybody hail am; dem even sign treaty of friendship and cooperation. But Mobutu tear dis same treaty insyd 1974 because Belgium no gree ban one anti-Mobutu book wey Jules Chomé, one left-wing lawyer, write. Mobutu e "Zairianisation" policy, wey be say he seize foreign businesses and give dem to Zairians, make matters worse. Even though yawa dey, Mobutu still get personal friendship with some top Belgians. He admire Edmond Leburton, wey be Belgian prime minister (1973–1974), and he be paddy to Alfred Cahen, one diplomat wey Mobutu meet from his Brussels university days. Mobutu and King Baudouin too dey cool until Mobutu leak one handwritten letter from de king — after dat, palace shut door gidi-gidi. Because of dis, Mobutu no get invitation go de king ein funeral; only Saddam Hussein from Iraq join am for dat black list. Apart from Belgians wey dey Belgium, Mobutu keep Belgian advisors close — like Hugues Leclercq and Colonel Willy Mallants, wey even show for Thierry Michel ein documentary ''Mobutu, King of Zaire''. ==== Relations plus France ==== As Zaire be de second most populous French-speaking country for de world by den (plus now e even pass France sef) and de biggest one for sub-Saharan Africa, France see am as one big strategic paddy. During de First Republic time, France mostly support conservative and federalist people, no be de unitarist dem like Lumumba. Right after dem crush de Katangan secession, Zaire (wey dem dey call Republic of de Congo by den) sign technical plus cultural cooperation treaty plus France. Under Charles de Gaulle ein presidency, di two countries start bond tight because dem share plenty geopolitical interests. For 1971, France ein Finance Minister, Valéry Giscard d’Estaing, visit Zaire. Later when he turn France ein president, he and Mobutu become close pals, and France turn Mobutu ein strong foreign ally. During de Shaba invasions, France no dull — dem stand full support for Mobutu. For de first Shaba wahala, France carry 1,500 Moroccan troops come Zaire by airlift; dem help drive de rebels. One year later, as de second Shaba invasion land, France and Belgium both send French Foreign Legion paratroopers (2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment) come help Mobutu fight dem off. ==== Relations plus de People ein Republic of China ==== At de beginning, Zaire ein relationship plus de People's Republic of China no better pass how e dey with Soviet Union. Mobutu still dey remember how China help Mulele plus some Maoist rebels wey fight for Kwilu province during de Simba Rebellion wahala. E no dey like make China get seat for United Nations too. But by 1972, Mobutu start dey see China inna new way — like one balance wey go fit check Soviet Union power and even balance ein own close relationship plus United States, Israel, and South Africa. So for November 1972, Mobutu gree recognize China as one country diplomatically (plus East Germany and North Korea join body). Di next year, Mobutu fly go Beijing, meet chairman Mao Zedong, and dem promise am $100 million technical aid. For 1983, when Chinese Prime Minister Zhao Ziyang come visit Zaire, he talk say make Mobutu no worry repay de $100 million — e be gift. For 1974, Mobutu surprise everybody as e travel go China plus North Korea, even though originally dem plan say e go visit Soviet Union. As e return come Zaire, ein politics den de way e dey talk turn more radical. Na dis time Mobutu start bash Belgium plus United States — e vex say America no dey do enough to fight white minority rule for South Africa and Rhodesia. E introduce one new civic duty program wey dem call ''salongo'' — everybody must do compulsory national work. E sana bring "radicalization" wey be extension of de 1973 ''Zairianization'' policy, wey take foreign-owned things give to locals. Mobutu even borrow title from Mao — "de Helmsman". Around dis same time, from late 1974 to early 1975, ein personality cult reach peak — everywhere na Mobutu name, face, den slogan. China plus Zaire get one common target for Central Africa: make dem stop Soviet Union from gain any stronghold for dat side. So dem join hand undercover take support National Liberation Front of Angola (later dem support UNITA too) make dem block MPLA — de People's Movement for de Liberation of Angola — wey Soviet Union plus Cuba dey back. Cuba get big power for Africa dat time, as dem dey help all left-wing, anti-imperialist groups, and Soviet dey sponsor dem heavy. China invite Holden Roberto, wey be de leader of de National Liberation Front of Angola, plus ein guerilla fighters go Beijing make dem train. Dem also give dem weapons plus money. Zaire sef try enter Angola first, try put their own friendly government for power, but Cuban soldiers push dem back. De invasion no work — e be big wahala wey lead to Shaba I and Shaba II invasions later. China no support dis rebels at all; dem even send weapons go support Zaire during both invasions. China come accuse Soviet Union plus Cuba say dem dey behind de Shaba rebel trouble, say dem dey try scatter peace for Central Africa — even though nobody sure whether Soviet plus Cuba really dey involved or no. '''Relations''' '''plus de Soviet Union''' Mobutu ein relationship plus Soviet Union no be cool koraa. He be hard-core anti-communist, so he no dey rush go recognize de Soviets. USSR bin support—tho e be mostly in words—both Patrice Lumumba, Mobutu ein democratically elected predecessor, plus de Simba rebellion. However, to make e look like say he no dey side any bloc, he renew ties for 1967; de first Soviet ambassador come land and present ein credentials for 1968. Mobutu still join United States condemn de Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia dat year. Mobutu take de Soviet presence as advantage for two reasons: e help am keep de image say he be non-aligned leader, plus e give am better excuse to blame things wey dey go wrong for house. Like for 1970, he expel four Soviet diplomats say dem dey do “subversive activities,” and for 1971, he declare twenty Soviet officials as persona non grata say dem dey spark student demonstrations for Lovanium University. Moscow be de only big world capital wey Mobutu never go before, even tho he accept invitation go dey for 1974. But for reasons wey nobody know, he cancel de visit last minute, then go tour de People's Republic of China plus North Korea instead. Relations cool more for 1975, as de two countries come dey opposite sides for de Angolan Civil War. Dis one take strong toll on Zaire ein foreign policy for de next ten years; since Mobutu no fit claim say he be African leader again (he be one of de few leaders wey no gree recognize de Marxist govment of Angola), Mobutu come turn more toward US plus dem allies. He start dey support America dem stand for things like de Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, plus Israel ein position for international organizations. '''Relations''' '''plus de United States''' Most times, Zaire enjoy warm relationship plus United States. US be de third biggest country wey dey give aid to Zaire (after Belgium and France), and Mobutu be paddy man to plenty US presidents like Richard Nixon, Ronald Reagan, plus George H. W. Bush. But around 1974–1975, de relationship cool small as Mobutu start talk radical things (he bash US foreign policy hard). For 1975 summer, e even reach de worst point as Mobutu accuse CIA say dem dey plan overthrown am, come arrest eleven big Zairian generals plus some civilians, den sentence one former Central Bank boss (Albert Ndele) for absentia. But plenty people no believe say de plot be real; some like Mobutu ein strong critic Nzongola-Ntalaja talk say Mobutu just create de story to take chance sack any military man wey fit challenge am later. Still, even with all dis wahala, de cold vibe no last long—de two countries come unite again as dem dey support de same side for de Angolan Civil War. Sake of say Mobutu no dey respect human rights, de Carter government try keep small distance from de Kinshasa government. But still, Zaire chop nearly half of all de foreign aid wey Carter give to sub-Saharan Africa. During de first Shaba invasion, US no really do plenty; dem just deliver some supplies wey no be weapon. But for de second Shaba invasion, US come show stronger support—dem help transport plus organize logistics for de French and Belgian paratroopers wey come help Mobutu fight de rebels. Carter even support Mobutu ein talk say Soviet Union plus Cuba dey back de rebels, even though no evidence come prove am. For 1980, US House of Representatives vote make dem stop military aid to Zaire, but US Senate come bring am back after Carter plus US business people wey get interest for Zaire pressure dem. Mobutu get very warm relationship plus Reagan ein government, especially through money dem dey give am. During Reagan ein time, Mobutu go White House three times, and US no really bash am about de way he dey treat human rights for ein country. When Mobutu visit America for 1983, Reagan talk say Mobutu be “voice of good sense and goodwill.” Mobutu still get friendly relationship plus Reagan ein replacement, George H. W. Bush. Mobutu even be de first African president wey go visit Bush for White House. But things change sharp sharp after Cold War end. Since Soviet Union no dey again, US and Western countries no see reason again to support Mobutu sake of communism fight. Dem start dey pressure am make he open up de country to democracy. Mobutu vex say US change attitude towards am. He talk say: “I be de latest victim of de cold war, US no need me again. De lesson be say all my support for US policy no mean anything.” For 1993, when Mobutu try come Washington, US State Department bounce am, dem no give am visa. Mobutu still get some American friends wey no dey government side. One be televangelist Pat Robertson, wey promise say he go try beg US government make dem lift de ban on Mobutu. == Coalition government == For May 1990, sake of di Cold War wey end, international politics change, economy issues plus gbelemgbelem for di country, Mobutu gree make e lef di MPR ein one-man chop power. For early May, students wey dey Lubumbashi campus for National University of Zaire vex plus Mobutu ein system, dem start protest dey shout say make e step down. On di night of 11 May 1990, dem off di light for campus, den send one special army group wey dem dey call ''Les Hiboux'' (wey mean “Owls”) come, all of dem carry cutlass plus bayonet. By di morning of 12 May, dem don kill like 290 students. Dis gbelem wey happen make countries like di European Economic Community (wey now be European Union), United States, plus Canada, cut all support wey no be humanitarian. Na dis move be di beginning of di end for Mobutu ein backing from Western countries. Mobutu put transitional government make dem lead go di elections wey e promise, but e still hold serious powers for hand. After some gbelem wey unpaid soldiers cause for Kinshasa for 1991, Mobutu carry some opposition people join coalition government, but e still use corner corner hold tight di security services plus key ministries. Wahala between di different camps make dem divide into two governments for 1993 — one wey dey Mobutu ein side and one wey dey against am. Di anti-Mobutu side dey under Laurent Monsengwo plus Étienne Tshisekedi from Union for Democracy and Social Progress (UDPS). Di economic condition still dey very bad, so for 1994 di two groups come join body form High Council of Republic – Parliament of Transition (HCR-PT). Mobutu come appoint Kengo Wa Dondo, wey believe in strict spending plus free-market reforms, as Prime Minister. As all dis dey happen, Mobutu ein body too dey weak well well, and for one of ein travels go Europe for medical care, some Tutsi people come take over plenty areas for eastern Zaire. == Overthrow == Na di beginning of Mobutu e downfall start during di Rwandan genocide for 1994, wey about 800,000 Tutsis plus moderate Hutus dem kill am, mostly by about 200,000 Hutu extremists wey Rwandan government support. Di genocide end when Tutsi-controlled Rwandan Patriotic Front take over di whole country, wey make hundreds of thousands of Hutus — including many wey do di killings — run enter refugee camps for eastern Zaire. Mobutu welcome di Hutu extremists as him personal guests, allow dem build military plus political bases for eastern Zaire. From dia, dem begin attack plus kill ethnic Tutsis for Rwanda plus for Zaire itself, say dem dey prepare to go attack Rwanda again. Di new Rwandan government begin send military support give di Zairian Tutsis to protect dem. All dis kasala come make eastern Zaire start dey unstable. Mobutu wey cancer dey worry am, dey Switzerland dey take treatment, so e no fit arrange any proper resistance. Di resistance kon collapse as di rebels dey march forward. If no be say di country ein infrastructure spoil no be small, di rebels for don take over everywhere sharp. For most places, dem no get tarred road kraa; na only some rough bush roads wey people no dey use steady. Na dat one slow di rebel movement small. By mid-1997, Kabila ein people start dey move again, and Mobutu ein remaining soldiers no really put up any fight. On 16 May 1997, dem try do peace talk for Pointe-Noire inside one South African Navy ship (SAS Outeniqua), wey President Nelson Mandela from South Africa chair. But di talk no go anywhere, sake of say Kabila no wan slow ein army down or give Mobutu chance take gather ein people again. Kabila too no dey want look Mobutu face during di meeting. According to one UN official, Timothy Montague Hamilton Douglas, e talk say, “All di years wey I deal plus Mobutu, dis be di first time I see person wey pass am for superstition... Kabila sit inside di same room wey Mobutu dey, but e no gree look am for face kraa — e just dey watch di ceiling.” After some talk plus their aides, Douglas realize say Kabila dey fear say di “Old Leopard” (Mobutu) still get juju wey fit curse am if e look am for eye, and dat go stop am from winning power wey e almost grab. Di atmosphere cold pass. Dem talk say na di only time di two enemies ever meet face to face. Kabila just tell Mobutu, “Step down, hand over power without condition.” Mobutu vex bad. E just waka comot from di ship, no gree make any agreement. Mandela, wey be 78 years den, even help support Mobutu make e fit waka go ein car. Dem suppose meet again on 15 May, Mobutu show up but Kabila no show face. Di next day, Kabila ein soldiers — Alliance of Democratic Forces for de Liberation of Congo-Zaire (AFDL) — declare say dem win di fight. On 23 May 1997, dem change Zaire ein name go Democratic Republic of de Congo. == Exile den death == Mobutu run go hide small for Togo after dem chase am, but di Togo president, Gnassingbé Eyadéma, tell am few days later say make e comot from ein country. From 23 May 1997, Mobutu go settle mostly for Rabat, Morocco. E die there on 7 September 1997 from prostate cancer, wey carry am go at di age of 66. Dem bury am for one above ground tomb inside Rabat, for Christian cemetery wey dem dey call ''Cimetière Européen.'' For December 2007, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) ein National Assembly recommend say make dem carry Mobutu ein body come back home plus bury am for big man tomb (mausoleum) for inside DRC. But up till now, dem never do am. Mobutu still dey bury for Morocco. == Family == Mobutu marry two times. E first wife be Marie-Antoinette Gbiatibwa Gogbe Yetene, dem marry for 1955. Dem born nine pikin together. She die from heart failure on 22 October 1977 for Genolier, Switzerland, as she be 36 years. On 1 May 1980, Mobutu marry ein girlfriend, Bobi Ladawa, just before Pope John Paul II visit di kontri, so say church go see di relationship as correct. Two of ein sons from di first marriage die before Mobutu die — Nyiwa (wey die 16 September 1994) plus Konga (wey die 1992). Three more die after Mobutu die: Kongulu (24 September 1998), Manda (27 November 2004), plus Ndokula (4 November 2011). Ein senior son from di second marriage, Nzanga Mobutu, wey now be di head of di family, come fourth for 2006 presidential elections plus later serve for Congo government as Minister of State plus Deputy Prime Minister. Another son, Giala, serve for National Assembly and later Senate. Mobutu ein daughter, Yakpwa (wey people dey call Yaki), marry one Belgian man small time — Pierre Janssen — wey later write book wey talk Mobutu ein lifestyle clear-clear. Altogether, Mobutu have sixteen children: * Plus Marie-Antoinette (first wife): Nyiwa, Ngombo, Manda, Konga, Ngawali, Yango, Yakpwa, Kongulu, Ndagbia (9) * Plus Bobi Ladawa (second wife): Nzanga, Giala, Toku, Ndokula (4) * Plus Kosia Ngama (mistress den twin sister of ein second wife): Yalitho, Tende, Ayessa (3) == In art den literature == Mobutu be de main person wey dem show for one 1999 Belgian documentary wey Thierry Michel direct, e name be ''Mobutu, King of Zaire''. Mobutu too show for one 2000 film ''Lumumba'' wey Raoul Peck direct, wey talk about di time before and during di coup from Lumumba ein angle. Mobutu show too for one 1996 American documentary ''When We Were Kings'', wey focus on di famous ''Rumble in the Jungle'' boxing fight between George Foreman plus Muhammad Ali, wey happen for Kinshasa under Mobutu ein rule. For one 1978 war adventure film ''The Wild Geese'', di bad guy General Ndofa—wey dem describe as one very corrupt leader for one copper-rich country for central Africa—na clear imitation of Mobutu. Mobutu fit be seen as inspiration for some characters wey appear for Wole Soyinka ein poems, ''A Bend in the River'' by V. S. Naipaul, plus ''Anthills of the Savannah'' by Chinua Achebe. William Close, wey be di poppie of actress Glenn Close, serve as Mobutu ein personal doctor before, and e write book wey talk about him time for Zaire. Barbara Kingsolver ein 1998 historical novel ''The Poisonwood Bible'' show di Congo Crisis from fictional angle, wey feature Mobutu ein role for di wahala. Mobutu too dey portrayed by Belgian actor Marc Zinga for di 2011 film ''Mister Bob''. French critic Isabelle Hanne praise how Zinga take act Mobutu, say e "carry di Shakespeare-like and bloodthirsty character very well." Mobutu even show up as extra promo card for di strategy board game ''Twilight Struggle''. If you play ein card, e go make Zaire more stable and give US more power for di country. == Legacy == According to wetin ''New York Times'' talk for Mobutu ein obituary: "E base ein long stay for power on three things — violence, cunning, plus how e take use government money dash enemies to calm dem down. Di way e take chop national treasury and big-big industries sotey e inspire people to coin di word ''<nowiki/>'kleptocracy''', rule wey be all about official stealing. Dis same style make am one of di richest heads of state for di whole world, according to wetin people talk." Insyd 2011, ''Time'' magazine describe him as de "archetypal African dictator". Mobutu get bad name for how e take gather plenti millions of dollars from ein kontri. Even di smallest estimate say e tiff around US$50–125 million, but some people even talk say di money reach US$150 million. According to Pierre Janssen, wey marry Mobutu ein daughter Yaki before, Mobutu no dey care how much expensive gift e dey dash ein people. Di wedding between Janssen plus Yaki be real show: dem invite three full orchestras, do wedding cake wey cost US$65,000, plus firework scatter everywhere. Yaki wear wedding dress wey cost US$70,000 plus US$3 million worth of jewels. For ein book, Janssen talk how Mobutu ein daily lifestyle involve drinking plenti bottles of wine, calling retainers from abroad, plus chop fine-fine food everyday. h8fmjxau916egelo8hkmg4t29vbuxtx 69117 69113 2025-07-05T22:23:57Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69117 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu wa za Banga''' ; born '''Joseph-Désiré Mobutu'''; 14 October 1930 – 7 September 1997), people dey call am Mobutu Sese Seko or Mobutu and sana known by ein initials MSS, e be Congolese politician plus military officer wey be de first and only president of Zaire from 1971 to 1997. Before dat, Mobutu serve as de second president of de Democratic Republic of de Congo, from 1965 to 1971. E sana serve as de fifth chairperson of de Organisation of African Unity from 1967 to 1968. During de Congo Crisis insyd 1960, Mobutu, wey den be Chief of Staff insyd de Congolese Army, commot de nation ein democratically elected govment of Patrice Lumumba plus support from de U.S. and Belgium. Mobutu put govment insyd wey arrange make dem execute Lumumba for 1961, and e continue dey lead de country ein armed forces till e take power direct insyd another coup for 1965. To make sure say power no escape am, he create de Popular Movement of de Revolution as de only correct political party for 1967, change Congo ein name go Zaire for 1971, plus e own name turn Mobutu Sese Seko for 1972. Mobutu protect ein rule under hard autocratic regime and end up dey rule during time wey human rights violations spread everywhere. E try purge de country from all colonial culture tins through ein "national authenticity" program. Mobutu turn de main person wey everybody dey hype like say na cult of personality he dey carry. Mobutu talk say ein political ideology no be "left", no be "right", and no be "centre" too, but people mostly know am say e dey against communism for de Françafrique zone. Because of dat, United States, France, plus Belgium support am well-well—dem dash am military, diplomatic, and economic backing. E still build tight link plus apartheid South Africa, Israel, plus de Greek junta dem. Mobutu get strong name for corruption plus nepotism: dem talk say ein personal wealth fit reach from $50 million go $5 billion, all na from economic exploitation plus corruption as president. Some people call ein govment kleptocracy, ’cos e dey pile ein own money while Zaire ein economy suffer—plenty inflation, big debt, and serious currency wahala. E too known for ein flashy lifestyle, like how e dey fly go Paris on top de fast-fast Concorde jet just to do shopping. By 1990, as de economy start dey spoil plus tension dey rise, dem force Mobutu Sese Seko make e enter coalition plus political opponents and agree make dem do multiparty system. Even though e use ein soldiers try block de change, de movement no gree stop. By May 1997, rebel dem wey Laurent-Désiré Kabila lead take over de country and push Mobutu go exile. E already dey battle prostate cancer wey hard, so three months later, e die for Morocco. == Biography == === Early years den education === Mobutu, wey come from de Ngbandi ethnic group, dem born am for 1930 insyd Lisala, Belgian Congo. Mobutu ein mommie, Marie Madeleine Yemo, be hotel maid wey run go Lisala make she escape one local village chief ein harem. Na there she jam Albéric Gbemani, cook wey dey work for one Belgian judge, den she marry am. Not long after, she born Mobutu. Na one uncle pick de name “Mobutu” give am. Gbemani die when Mobutu be just eight years. After dat, one uncle plus ein grandfather raise am. De Belgian judge ein wife take fine eye see Mobutu, so she teach am how to speak, read plus write French well-well, wey be de official language of de colony. Ein mommie Yemo wey be widow, lean on family help to take care of her four pikin dem, and dem dey move from place to place often. Mobutu ein first schooling happen for capital town Léopoldville (wey now dem dey call Kinshasa). Later, ein mommie send am go ein uncle for Coquilhatville (now Mbandaka), where e attend Christian Brothers School, one Catholic-mission boarding school. Mobutu shine for books top and even run de class newspaper. People still know am for ein stubborn pranks and sharp small-boy sense of humor. One classmate remember say anytime de Belgian priests—wey ein main language be Dutch—make mistake for French, Mobutu go jump from ein seat for class top and point out de error sharp. For 1949, Mobutu sneak enter one boat wey dey go downriver to Léopoldville, where e jam one girl. Some weeks later, de priests find am. As school year end, instead of dem send am go prison, dem order make e serve seven years insyd de colonial army, Force Publique (FP). Dat kind punishment na normal tin for students wey dey act stubborn. === Army service === Mobutu find discipline for army life top, and e see father figure insyd Sergeant Louis Bobozo. Mobutu no stop ein studies—e dey borrow European newspapers from de Belgian officers plus pick books from anywhere e fit find, then e go read dem during sentry duty or any small chance e get. De ones wey e like pass be de writings of French president Charles de Gaulle, British prime minister Winston Churchill, plus de Italian Renaissance philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli. After e pass one course for accounting, Mobutu start small-small dey do journalism work proper. Still vexed about how e and de school priests jam wahala, e no marry for church. De only thing e fit bring for de wedding enjoyment be one crate of beer—na all ein army salary fit buy. === Early political involvement === As soldier, Mobutu dey write politics matter under fake name for Actualités Africaines (African News), one magazine wey one Belgian colonial set up. For 1956, e comot from army and turn full-time journalist, dey write for Léopoldville daily L'Avenir. Two years later, e go Belgium to report de 1958 World Exposition, then e stay back make e learn journalism better. By dis time, Mobutu don meet plenty young Congolese intellectuals wey dey challenge colonial rule. E come build friendship plus Patrice Lumumba and join Lumumba ein party—Congolese National Movement (MNC). Mobutu later become Lumumba ein personal aide. Some people wey know de matter talk say Belgian intelligence fit don recruit Mobutu as informant give de government. During de 1960 talks wey happen for Brussels about Congolese independence, de US embassy organize one reception give de Congolese delegation. Each embassy staff get list of delegates wey dem suppose meet, and later dem come talk about de people dem meet. De ambassador talk say, “One name just dey pop up steady. But nobody get am for ein list 'cos e no be official delegation member—e be Lumumba ein secretary. But everybody agree say dis guy get strong brain, e be young, maybe small immature, but e get big future ahead.” After de general election, dem assign Lumumba make e form govment. E give Mobutu de position of Secretary of State to de Presidency. Mobutu carry plenty weight for deciding de rest of de govment people. But after independence land, e no fit see Lumumba one-on-one again like before, 'cos de new prime minister start dey busy plus plenty aides and colleagues surround am. From there, both of dem slowly start drift apart. === Congo Crisis === Main article: Congo Crisis On 5 July 1960, soldiers of de Force Publique wey dey Camp Léopold II for Léopoldville vex over dem all-white leaders and bad working conditions, so dem rise mutiny. Di revolt spread go other places sharp-sharp. Mobutu join other officials talk to de mutineers so dem fit free de officers plus dem families. Then on 8 July, de full Council of Ministers gather for one special meeting under President Joseph Kasa-Vubu ein chairmanship for Camp Léopold II to face de matter of Africanising de garrison. De ministers start dey argue who go fit take de top job as army chief of staff. Two people wey stand out be Minister of Youth and Sports Maurice Mpolo, plus Mobutu. Mpolo don already show say e get some control over de soldiers wey dey mutiny, but Kasa-Vubu plus de Bakongo ministers fear say if dem give am power, e fit run coup. Mobutu on de other hand, people see am as cool-head wey dey think before e act. Lumumba respect Mpolo for ein boldness, but e prefer Mobutu ein cautious style. As de argument go on, de cabinet start split based on who dem support to be chief of staff. Lumumba no wan lose any of de two camps, so e try keep both men for ein team. In de end, dem give Mobutu de position and promote am to colonel. Next day, govment teams comot from de capital to supervise how dem go Africanise de army; Mobutu own assignment na for Équateur. While Mobutu dey there, Mpolo begin act as ANC Chief of Staff. Mobutu no happy at all with dat move, so when e return to de capital, e face Lumumba inside cabinet meeting and tell am plain: “Either I no deserve am and you gots sack me, or I do de mission well and I go keep my rank plus position.” De British diplomat Brian Urquhart, wey dey work plus de United Nations, yarn say: “When I first meet Mobutu for July 1960, e be Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba ein chief military assistant and e just promote himself from sergeant go lieutenant-colonel. Compared to ein boss, Mobutu be like pillar of common sense and sharp reasoning. Na to am we go when Lumumba ein hashish-high guards arrest our people. Na Mobutu too dey casually bring up Lumumba ein wild requests—like say make UN pay salary give Congolese army wey fit mutiny. For dem early days, Mobutu look like reasonable young man, wey maybe, just maybe, dey reason good for ein new independent country.” Backed by Belgian govment wey wan still hold tight to de rich Congolese mines, secessionist violence burst out for south. As UN soldiers wey dem send come restore order no dey help crush de secession, Lumumba go turn to Soviet Union for help. Inside six weeks, e receive serious military aid plus about thousand Soviet technical advisers. Since na Cold War time, US govment fear say dis Soviet move be trick to spread communist power for Central Africa. US and Belgium come ginger Kasa-Vubu make e sack Lumumba, and on 5 September, e do am. Lumumba vex rough and say Kasa-Vubu no be president again. Parliament no gree sack any of dem, instead dem beg for reconciliation, but no headway. Lumumba plus Kasa-Vubu each tell Mobutu make e arrest de other one. As Army Chief of Staff, Mobutu start face heavy pressure from all angle. Western countries' embassies—wey dey pay soldiers salary—plus Kasa-Vubu and Mobutu ein own men, all dem want make Soviet people pack. So on 14 September, Mobutu do coup wey no draw blood, announce say both Kasa-Vubu and Lumumba dey “neutralised” and form one new govment of university graduates—dem call am College of Commissioners-General. Lumumba no accept am but dem force am retire go ein house, where UN peacekeepers block Mobutu ein soldiers make dem no arrest am. Urquhart talk say on de coup day, Mobutu just waka enter UN headquarters for Léopoldville without invite and no gree comot till radio announce de coup; na dat time Mobutu begin repeat “C’est moi!”—“Na me!” Urquhart realise say Mobutu just land there in case de coup mess up, so e tell am to comot. As confidence drop say de international community go support am come back to power, Lumumba run commot for late November go meet ein supporters for Stanleyville to form new govment. Early December, Mobutu ein soldiers catch am, then keep am for ein base insyd Thysville. But Mobutu still see am as danger, so on 17 January 1961, e move Lumumba go de rebel State of Katanga. From dat point, nobody see Lumumba again. Later dem find out say same day wey dem move am, de secessionist forces under Moise Tshombe execute am, after Mobutu ein govment hand am over. On 23 January 1961, Kasa-Vubu promote Mobutu go major-general. One historian, De Witte, talk say na political move wey aim to make de army stronger, since na de president ein only support, and to boost Mobutu ein stand inside de army. For 1964, Pierre Mulele lead some fighters start another rebellion. Dem fast take over two-thirds of Congo. Mobutu lead de Congolese army respond, and by 1965, dem take back de whole land. === Second ''coup'' and consolidation of power === Sanso see: Second Mobutu coup d'état Prime Minister Moise Tshombe ein party, de Congolese National Convention, win big majority for March 1965 elections, but Kasa-Vubu appoint Évariste Kimba, one anti-Tshombe man, as prime minister-designate. Parliament no gree approve am two times. As de govment almost jam dead end, Mobutu take over power through coup wey no draw blood on 24 November—he just turn 35 one month before. Under one system wey dem call state of exception (regime d'exception), Mobutu grab full—almost absolute—power for five years. For ein first speech after e take power, Mobutu talk give big crowd for Léopoldville main stadium say, since na politicians spoil Congo within five years, e go need at least dat same time to fix am. So, for dat reason, no political party go do anything for five years. On 30 November 1965, Parliament pass law wey give Mobutu plus ein cabinet most of de legislative powers, but still hold small power to check ein decrees. By early March 1966, when Parliament start new session, Mobutu announce say he dey cancel dat review power, and two weeks after, ein govment shutdown Parliament for good and collect all de remaining authority. At de start, Mobutu ein govment come out like say e no dey into politics—or even dey against am. People begin see “politician” as bad word, wey mean person wey wicked or corrupt. For 1966, dem set up de Corps of Volunteers of de Republic, one strong frontline group wey aim to gather plenty public support behind Mobutu. Na same year dem hail am as de country ein “Second National Hero” after Lumumba. Even though Mobutu play role for how Lumumba commot power, e try package himself like person wey dey carry Lumumba ein legacy continue. One of de key things wey Mobutu dey preach for early part of ein rule be “authentic Congolese nationalism”. Na dat 1966 too e begin change city names wey get European roots to names wey sound more African—na so Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Stanleyville become Kisangani, and Élisabethville change to Lubumbashi. Then for 1967, Mobutu bring out de Popular Movement of de Revolution (MPR). From dat time go reach 1990, na only dat party dem dey allow for politics. Inside de MPR ein beliefs—wey dem write for Manifesto of N'Sele—dem push nationalism, revolution, plus “authenticity”. Dem describe revolution as “truly national and very practical,” wey reject both capitalism and communism. One popular slogan from de MPR be “Neither left nor right,” and later dem add “nor even center” join. That same year, all de trade unions dem join body into one single union—National Union of Zairian Workers—and de govment take full control over am. Mobutu plan say de union no go operate on ein own, but rather support govment policy like tool. From dat time till 1991, any independent trade union be illegal. As e face plenty wahala for de beginning of ein rule, Mobutu use favour-sharing (patronage) win over most of ein opposition; de ones wey no gree, e handle dem rough. For 1966, four cabinet members chop arrest because dem say dem join plan coup. Military court try dem case, then dem do public execution wey over 50,000 people watch live for open ground. Former Katangan gendarmeries wey rise also face Mobutu ein force and dem smash dem down—same as de Stanleyville mutinies of 1967 wey white mercenaries lead. By 1970, almost all de people wey fit challenge Mobutu power don fall, and for most parts of de country, law plus order start dey show face. That 1970 be de peak time of Mobutu ein power and respect. For 1970, King Baudouin of Belgium come Kinshasa do big state visit wey go well. Dat same year, dem hold presidential plus legislative elections. Even though de constitution say two parties fit dey, na only MPR dem allow nominate candidates. For de presidential election, Mobutu be de only person wey run. Voting no dey private; if you support Mobutu, you go drop green paper, but if you no dey support am, na red paper you go use. Green vote mean say you dey vote for hope, while red vote mean chaos. Under dat kind condition, de result no be surprise—official result talk say Mobutu win with almost everybody behind am, collect 10,131,669 votes, and only 157 people say “no”. Later dem come find out say over 30,500 more votes appear pass de number of voters wey register. Dem run de legislative elections same style. People get just one list from MPR; official result talk say unbelievable 98.33% people vote for de MPR list. As Mobutu dey cement ein power, e build different military groups wey na only to protect am dem dey. These groups include de Special Presidential Division, Civil Guard plus Service for Action, and Military Intelligence (SNIP). === Authenticity campaign === Main article: Authenticité (Zaire) Mobutu start big campaign wey promote African culture wey dem call ''authenticité''. As part of am, on 1 June 1966, e begin change city names wey show colonial past—Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Elisabethville change to Lubumbashi, and Stanleyville become Kisangani. For October 1971, e change de country ein name to Republic of Zaire. E order people make dem drop dem European names for African ones, and warn priests say if dem baptize Zairian pikin plus European name, dem go chop five years for prison. Western dressing and neck tie come dey banned, and men must wear one Mao-style tunic dem dey call ''abacost'' (short for ''à bas le costume'' wey mean “down with de suit”). Even Christmas move from December go June because Mobutu say dat one be more “authentic” date. Then for 1972, Mobutu follow ein own rule from previous year and change ein name to Mobutu Sese Seko Nkuku Ngbendu Wa Za Banga (wey mean “De all-powerful warrior wey, because of ein endurance and strong will to win, dey move from victory to victory, and leave fire behind”). Around dat time, e drop de army uniform and start wear ein signature look—tall and commanding, plus walking stick, abacost, thick glasses, and leopard-skin cap wey dem sew for Paris. For 1974, new constitution land wey tighten Mobutu ein hold on de country. Dis constitution talk say MPR be de “single institution” for de nation. Dem even define am as “de nation politically organized”—which mean say de state just be machine wey dey push party agenda. Every citizen automatically turn MPR member from de moment dem born. De constitution explain say de MPR dey inside de body of de party ein president, wey dem dey elect every seven years during national convention. But at de same time, dat same president automatically turn de only person wey go run for president of de country. Den dem go use referendum confirm am. De document come turn Mobutu ein emergency powers wey e dey use since 1965 into legal backing; e give am full authority—wey dem write as “plenitude of power exercise”—so all power now dey Mobutu ein hand. Mobutu win election three times under dis system, and each time, dem talk say e win with over 98 percent of de votes. For de legislative side, dem dey bring one single MPR list every five years, and de results dey show crazy numbers—either everybody vote for dem, or almost everybody. One of dem elections for 1975, dem no even vote at all—dem just show candidates around public places make people clap give dem. Dat one na how voting be. == One-man rule == Mobutu start use public executions early insyd ein rule to stamp ein power well-well. Any political rival, secessionist, coup planner, or anybody wey e see as threat, e go deal with dem hard. Many of dem people chop hanging for front big crowd. One serious example be former Prime Minister Évariste Kimba. Mobutu govment carry Kimba plus three of ein cabinet members—Jérôme Anany (Defense Minister), Emmanuel Bamba (Finance Minister), and Alexandre Mahamba (Minister of Mines and Energy)—put for trial May 1966. By 30 May, dem hang all four men in front of over 50,000 people. Dem say dem dey link up plus Colonel Alphonse Bangala and Major Pierre Efomi to run coup. Mobutu come talk say, “One had to strike through a spectacular example, and create the conditions of regime discipline. When a chief takes a decision, he decides – period.” Then for 1968, Pierre Mulele—Lumumba ein Education Minister and big rebel during de 1964 Simba uprising—Mobutu people trick am come out from exile for Brazzaville by telling am say amnesty go dey. But instead of peace, dem torture and kill am bad. Before Mulele die, dem gouge ein eyes, tear off ein genitals, and cut off ein limbs one by one. Mobutu later change ein strategy—e start dey buy political opponents instead of always use force. E like repeat one slogan: “Keep your friends close, but your enemies closer still,” to show how e dey use bribe pull rivals to ein side. One trick wey Mobutu really enjoy be “musical chairs”—e dey rotate ministers like game, change cabinet list anyhow, so nobody go build power wey fit threaten am. From November 1965 to April 1997, Mobutu reshuffle cabinet 60 times. Dis constant shuffle put fear inside ministers, because everybody know say Mobutu go change people anyhow, no matter whether you dey work well or not. Because ministers no sabi how long dem go last for position, e lead to serious stealing—everybody dey rush grab wetin dem fit while dem still dey office. Mobutu still dey arrest, even torture, some dissident govment members—then later forgive dem and even give dem bigger posts. E be like e just use power play confuse everybody. Congolese historian Emizet F. Kisangani talk say plenty public officials believe say no matter how corrupt or useless dem be, dem fit come back to govment position. To hold post no require management skill or clean conscience. In fact, if you too correct or too honest, dem see you as obstacle. Wetin Mobutu want be total loyalty in exchange for chance to chop money. By 1970, reports talk say Mobutu don carry 60% of de national budget enter ein pocket—people begin see am as one of de most corrupt leaders for Africa and de whole world. Kisangani add say Mobutu build full system of corruption wey spoil public values and reward greed and selfishness. Mobutu no slow down with de self-promotion moves—man try for 1972 make dem crown am president for life, but that one no land well. Then for June 1983, e raise himself go military top-top level as Marshal. Na General Likulia Bolongo sign dat order. Shortly after, Victor Nendaka Bika—de number two man for country as Vice-President of de Bureau of de Central Committee—drop one big speech full of praise give Mobutu. To chop revenue from Congo ein natural resources, Mobutu first chase out European investors and nationalize plenty foreign companies. But instead of letting dem run proper, e dash control of these firms give ein relatives and close padi dem—wey quickly use am do corruption and chop company assets clean. For 1973–1974, Mobutu start one big “Zairianization” program, take over more foreign businesses and hand dem to Zairians. But e no end there. By October 1973, de Arab oil shock come crash global economy—the same one wey don dey grow steady since 1945. One serious side effect be say copper price fall by 50% in 1974, and since copper na Zaire ein number one export, e hit dem hard. As American historian Thomas Odom talk, Zaire shift from “prosperity to bankruptcy almost overnight.” Because de economy break down, Zaire run go International Monetary Fund (IMF) for help to manage dem debt, but when IMF dig into dem books, dem discover heavy corruption. Mobutu come waka go China for 1974, take inspiration from Cultural Revolution. E come back wearing Mao jacket and call himself “Citoyen Mobutu” or “Citizen Mobutu.” E say he go “radicalize de Zairian revolution.” Di same businesses wey e first give to Zairians, Mobutu come collect dem back, nationalize everything under full state control. As if dat no do, e cut government workers ein salaries by 50%, wey provoke one failed coup attempt against am for June 1975. By 1977, Mobutu ein earlier move to nationalize foreign businesses don backfire hard—e economy don fall serious, and e no get choice but to beg foreign investors come back. But before e fit recover, Katangan rebels wey base for Angola storm Zaire dat same year, as payback for Mobutu ein support to anti-MPLA fighters. France respond quick—dem airlift 1,500 Moroccan paratroopers into Zaire, push de rebels back, and end di crisis wey dem call ''Shaba I''. But no long after, for 1978, de rebels regroup with even more numbers and invade again—this time na ''Shaba II''. Belgium and France come deploy troops again, backed by US logistics, and dem manage stop de attack once more. Mobutu get big embarrassment from how badly de Zairian Army perform for both invasions—e need foreign help to fight small rebel forces. Yet, instead of reforming de army, e just reduce am from 51,000 troops in 1978 to 23,000 by 1980. By dat time, about 90% of de army be Ngbandi—Mobutu ein own ethnic group—’cos e no trust other ethnic groups with weapons. De most loyal and strongest force Mobutu get be ein bodyguards—the ''Special Presidential Division''—trained by Israel, made up only of Ngbandi, and always led by Mobutu ein relative. Mobutu win election again for 1977 and 1984, but nobody dey run against am. E use most of ein time dey build ein own fortune, and by 1988, dem estimate say ein money reach no less than $50 million. Most of de money e hide am abroad, especially for Swiss banks—but when dem remove am later, dem only find small $3.4 million there. Funny enough, ein fortune nearly match de whole country ein foreign debt dat time. One time for 20 May 1976, Mobutu talk for stadium wey hold like 70,000 people for Kinshasa. E talk say, “If you wan thief, thief small and style am nice. But if you thief too much to turn rich fast-fast, dem go catch you.” By 1989, Zaire govment no fit pay dem loans again from Belgium. Mobutu dey ride in fleet of Mercedes-Benz from one palace to another, while roads dey spoil and people dey hungry. Workers no dey get pay for months, ’cos de national money dey disappear go Mobutu, ein family, and top political plus army people. Na only Special Presidential Division wey dey protect Mobutu wey dem dey pay correct and on time. Dem even get saying wey go like dis: “De civil servants dey pretend say dem dey work, while de state dey pretend say e dey pay dem.” De national army—Forces Armées Zaïroises (FAZ)—no get morale at all. Salaries no dey come, living conditions bad, supplies no dey, and officers dey chop people. De army soldiers just turn like armed thieves—dey rob civilians anyhow. Roadblocks full everywhere, and dem dey extort money from anybody wey dey pass with car or truck. Mobutu ein poor handling of de economy cause serious inflation wey mess up de value of people dem salaries. As money value dey drop fast, plenty public servants start dey do their own way—corruption plus dishonesty turn daily survival style for workers all across de system. Mobutu himself live large. E cruise for de Congo River inside ein yacht, Kamanyola. For Gbadolite, e build one huge mansion wey people dey call “Versailles of de jungle.” Anytime e wan go shopping for Paris, e go charter Air France ein Concorde jet. E even build Gbadolite Airport with long runway make Concorde fit land and take off there. For 1989 alone, e use dat jet fly go give speech for United Nations in New York, attend de French bicentennial party as President François Mitterrand ein guest, and carry Zaire youth choir from Paris to Gbadolite, then fly go Marseille—all with Concorde. Mobutu also get villa for French Riviera wey dem call ''Villa del Mere''. Ein whole leadership style come be example of real kleptocracy and nepotism. Mobutu dey put ein Ngbandi tribe people plus close relatives for top positions inside de military and govment. E dey groom ein first-born son, Nyiwa, to take over presidency from am, but Nyiwa die from AIDS for 1994. Mobutu rule be one of de longest autocracies for Africa. E stash over $50 million from Congo ein natural resources, while ordinary people dey suffer. E form one totalitarian system wey break plenty human rights, try wipe out Belgian influence from de country, and still hold strong anti-communist position to gain favor from international powers. Mobutu ein personality cult reach levels wey few leaders for history fit match. De evening news go start with video wey show am dey descend from cloud top like some god figure. Ein face full public places everywhere—portrait hang for walls, and govment workers dey wear lapel pins wey carry ein photo. Dem give am plenty grand titles: “Father of de Nation,” “Messiah,” “Guide of de Revolution,” “Helmsman,” “Founder,” “Savior of de People,” and “Supreme Combatant.” For de 1996 documentary about de legendary 1974 Foreman–Ali boxing match wey happen for Zaire, you go hear dancers chant “Sese Seko, Sese Seko!” as dem welcome de fighters—na clear sign of how deep e presence dey everywhere, even inside pop culture moments. For early 1975, e reach point wey Mobutu no gree make media call anybody ein name—only Mobutu fit be called by name, everybody else dem just refer to dem position. E really build one kind system wey make am look like dem no fit mention Congo without mention am. Mobutu take advantage proper of de Cold War tension wey dey between de European countries plus de United States. He win strong support from de West plus dem international organizations like de International Monetary Fund (IMF). === Space program === For late 1970s, one West Germany company called OTRAG dey work on satellite launch wey dem talk say be peaceful mission to reduce cost. But because of one 1954 amendment to de Treaty of Brussels, dem no fit build or launch missile insyd Germany. So dem pay Mobutu $130 million make dem run de program for Zaire. For one 1978 agreement, Mobutu dash OTRAG 25 years lease for land insyd Zaire. De first rocket, OTRAG-1, launch on 18 May 1977 wey Mobutu dey watch from far. E take off well but e crash back down shortly after. By 6 June 1978, dem launch two more rockets but dem crash again for Zaire. Still, Mobutu push de program say over 200 Zairians dey work for there and say Zaire go benefit from royalties when dem begin sell rocket. But two years later, Soviet Union accuse de program say former Nazi scientists dey involved plus say dem dey use am spy for military reason. Mobutu gree to Soviet pressure, end de project, plus cut ties with OTRAG. === Foreign policy === Main article: Foreign policy of de Mobutu Sese Seko administration ==== Relations plus Belgium ==== De relationship wey dey between Zaire and Belgium under Mobutu time dey mix — sometimes dem be paddy, other times dem turn real enemies. Most of de time, Belgian leaders no really react strong even when Mobutu do tins wey no favour Belgium; dis be partly because de Belgian political side demself no dey united. From early Mobutu rule, yawa start between dem because of plenty Belgian businesses wey dey Congo. But things cool small after. For 1968, Mobutu and ein family go Belgium as special guest of de Belgian king, and dat same year dem sign one science plus technical agreement. For 1970, King Baudouin visit Kinshasa and everybody hail am; dem even sign treaty of friendship and cooperation. But Mobutu tear dis same treaty insyd 1974 because Belgium no gree ban one anti-Mobutu book wey Jules Chomé, one left-wing lawyer, write. Mobutu e "Zairianisation" policy, wey be say he seize foreign businesses and give dem to Zairians, make matters worse. Even though yawa dey, Mobutu still get personal friendship with some top Belgians. He admire Edmond Leburton, wey be Belgian prime minister (1973–1974), and he be paddy to Alfred Cahen, one diplomat wey Mobutu meet from his Brussels university days. Mobutu and King Baudouin too dey cool until Mobutu leak one handwritten letter from de king — after dat, palace shut door gidi-gidi. Because of dis, Mobutu no get invitation go de king ein funeral; only Saddam Hussein from Iraq join am for dat black list. Apart from Belgians wey dey Belgium, Mobutu keep Belgian advisors close — like Hugues Leclercq and Colonel Willy Mallants, wey even show for Thierry Michel ein documentary ''Mobutu, King of Zaire''. ==== Relations plus France ==== As Zaire be de second most populous French-speaking country for de world by den (plus now e even pass France sef) and de biggest one for sub-Saharan Africa, France see am as one big strategic paddy. During de First Republic time, France mostly support conservative and federalist people, no be de unitarist dem like Lumumba. Right after dem crush de Katangan secession, Zaire (wey dem dey call Republic of de Congo by den) sign technical plus cultural cooperation treaty plus France. Under Charles de Gaulle ein presidency, di two countries start bond tight because dem share plenty geopolitical interests. For 1971, France ein Finance Minister, Valéry Giscard d’Estaing, visit Zaire. Later when he turn France ein president, he and Mobutu become close pals, and France turn Mobutu ein strong foreign ally. During de Shaba invasions, France no dull — dem stand full support for Mobutu. For de first Shaba wahala, France carry 1,500 Moroccan troops come Zaire by airlift; dem help drive de rebels. One year later, as de second Shaba invasion land, France and Belgium both send French Foreign Legion paratroopers (2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment) come help Mobutu fight dem off. ==== Relations plus de People ein Republic of China ==== At de beginning, Zaire ein relationship plus de People's Republic of China no better pass how e dey with Soviet Union. Mobutu still dey remember how China help Mulele plus some Maoist rebels wey fight for Kwilu province during de Simba Rebellion wahala. E no dey like make China get seat for United Nations too. But by 1972, Mobutu start dey see China inna new way — like one balance wey go fit check Soviet Union power and even balance ein own close relationship plus United States, Israel, and South Africa. So for November 1972, Mobutu gree recognize China as one country diplomatically (plus East Germany and North Korea join body). Di next year, Mobutu fly go Beijing, meet chairman Mao Zedong, and dem promise am $100 million technical aid. For 1983, when Chinese Prime Minister Zhao Ziyang come visit Zaire, he talk say make Mobutu no worry repay de $100 million — e be gift. For 1974, Mobutu surprise everybody as e travel go China plus North Korea, even though originally dem plan say e go visit Soviet Union. As e return come Zaire, ein politics den de way e dey talk turn more radical. Na dis time Mobutu start bash Belgium plus United States — e vex say America no dey do enough to fight white minority rule for South Africa and Rhodesia. E introduce one new civic duty program wey dem call ''salongo'' — everybody must do compulsory national work. E sana bring "radicalization" wey be extension of de 1973 ''Zairianization'' policy, wey take foreign-owned things give to locals. Mobutu even borrow title from Mao — "de Helmsman". Around dis same time, from late 1974 to early 1975, ein personality cult reach peak — everywhere na Mobutu name, face, den slogan. China plus Zaire get one common target for Central Africa: make dem stop Soviet Union from gain any stronghold for dat side. So dem join hand undercover take support National Liberation Front of Angola (later dem support UNITA too) make dem block MPLA — de People's Movement for de Liberation of Angola — wey Soviet Union plus Cuba dey back. Cuba get big power for Africa dat time, as dem dey help all left-wing, anti-imperialist groups, and Soviet dey sponsor dem heavy. China invite Holden Roberto, wey be de leader of de National Liberation Front of Angola, plus ein guerilla fighters go Beijing make dem train. Dem also give dem weapons plus money. Zaire sef try enter Angola first, try put their own friendly government for power, but Cuban soldiers push dem back. De invasion no work — e be big wahala wey lead to Shaba I and Shaba II invasions later. China no support dis rebels at all; dem even send weapons go support Zaire during both invasions. China come accuse Soviet Union plus Cuba say dem dey behind de Shaba rebel trouble, say dem dey try scatter peace for Central Africa — even though nobody sure whether Soviet plus Cuba really dey involved or no. '''Relations''' '''plus de Soviet Union''' Mobutu ein relationship plus Soviet Union no be cool koraa. He be hard-core anti-communist, so he no dey rush go recognize de Soviets. USSR bin support—tho e be mostly in words—both Patrice Lumumba, Mobutu ein democratically elected predecessor, plus de Simba rebellion. However, to make e look like say he no dey side any bloc, he renew ties for 1967; de first Soviet ambassador come land and present ein credentials for 1968. Mobutu still join United States condemn de Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia dat year. Mobutu take de Soviet presence as advantage for two reasons: e help am keep de image say he be non-aligned leader, plus e give am better excuse to blame things wey dey go wrong for house. Like for 1970, he expel four Soviet diplomats say dem dey do “subversive activities,” and for 1971, he declare twenty Soviet officials as persona non grata say dem dey spark student demonstrations for Lovanium University. Moscow be de only big world capital wey Mobutu never go before, even tho he accept invitation go dey for 1974. But for reasons wey nobody know, he cancel de visit last minute, then go tour de People's Republic of China plus North Korea instead. Relations cool more for 1975, as de two countries come dey opposite sides for de Angolan Civil War. Dis one take strong toll on Zaire ein foreign policy for de next ten years; since Mobutu no fit claim say he be African leader again (he be one of de few leaders wey no gree recognize de Marxist govment of Angola), Mobutu come turn more toward US plus dem allies. He start dey support America dem stand for things like de Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, plus Israel ein position for international organizations. '''Relations''' '''plus de United States''' Most times, Zaire enjoy warm relationship plus United States. US be de third biggest country wey dey give aid to Zaire (after Belgium and France), and Mobutu be paddy man to plenty US presidents like Richard Nixon, Ronald Reagan, plus George H. W. Bush. But around 1974–1975, de relationship cool small as Mobutu start talk radical things (he bash US foreign policy hard). For 1975 summer, e even reach de worst point as Mobutu accuse CIA say dem dey plan overthrown am, come arrest eleven big Zairian generals plus some civilians, den sentence one former Central Bank boss (Albert Ndele) for absentia. But plenty people no believe say de plot be real; some like Mobutu ein strong critic Nzongola-Ntalaja talk say Mobutu just create de story to take chance sack any military man wey fit challenge am later. Still, even with all dis wahala, de cold vibe no last long—de two countries come unite again as dem dey support de same side for de Angolan Civil War. Sake of say Mobutu no dey respect human rights, de Carter government try keep small distance from de Kinshasa government. But still, Zaire chop nearly half of all de foreign aid wey Carter give to sub-Saharan Africa. During de first Shaba invasion, US no really do plenty; dem just deliver some supplies wey no be weapon. But for de second Shaba invasion, US come show stronger support—dem help transport plus organize logistics for de French and Belgian paratroopers wey come help Mobutu fight de rebels. Carter even support Mobutu ein talk say Soviet Union plus Cuba dey back de rebels, even though no evidence come prove am. For 1980, US House of Representatives vote make dem stop military aid to Zaire, but US Senate come bring am back after Carter plus US business people wey get interest for Zaire pressure dem. Mobutu get very warm relationship plus Reagan ein government, especially through money dem dey give am. During Reagan ein time, Mobutu go White House three times, and US no really bash am about de way he dey treat human rights for ein country. When Mobutu visit America for 1983, Reagan talk say Mobutu be “voice of good sense and goodwill.” Mobutu still get friendly relationship plus Reagan ein replacement, George H. W. Bush. Mobutu even be de first African president wey go visit Bush for White House. But things change sharp sharp after Cold War end. Since Soviet Union no dey again, US and Western countries no see reason again to support Mobutu sake of communism fight. Dem start dey pressure am make he open up de country to democracy. Mobutu vex say US change attitude towards am. He talk say: “I be de latest victim of de cold war, US no need me again. De lesson be say all my support for US policy no mean anything.” For 1993, when Mobutu try come Washington, US State Department bounce am, dem no give am visa. Mobutu still get some American friends wey no dey government side. One be televangelist Pat Robertson, wey promise say he go try beg US government make dem lift de ban on Mobutu. == Coalition government == For May 1990, sake of di Cold War wey end, international politics change, economy issues plus gbelemgbelem for di country, Mobutu gree make e lef di MPR ein one-man chop power. For early May, students wey dey Lubumbashi campus for National University of Zaire vex plus Mobutu ein system, dem start protest dey shout say make e step down. On di night of 11 May 1990, dem off di light for campus, den send one special army group wey dem dey call ''Les Hiboux'' (wey mean “Owls”) come, all of dem carry cutlass plus bayonet. By di morning of 12 May, dem don kill like 290 students. Dis gbelem wey happen make countries like di European Economic Community (wey now be European Union), United States, plus Canada, cut all support wey no be humanitarian. Na dis move be di beginning of di end for Mobutu ein backing from Western countries. Mobutu put transitional government make dem lead go di elections wey e promise, but e still hold serious powers for hand. After some gbelem wey unpaid soldiers cause for Kinshasa for 1991, Mobutu carry some opposition people join coalition government, but e still use corner corner hold tight di security services plus key ministries. Wahala between di different camps make dem divide into two governments for 1993 — one wey dey Mobutu ein side and one wey dey against am. Di anti-Mobutu side dey under Laurent Monsengwo plus Étienne Tshisekedi from Union for Democracy and Social Progress (UDPS). Di economic condition still dey very bad, so for 1994 di two groups come join body form High Council of Republic – Parliament of Transition (HCR-PT). Mobutu come appoint Kengo Wa Dondo, wey believe in strict spending plus free-market reforms, as Prime Minister. As all dis dey happen, Mobutu ein body too dey weak well well, and for one of ein travels go Europe for medical care, some Tutsi people come take over plenty areas for eastern Zaire. == Overthrow == Na di beginning of Mobutu e downfall start during di Rwandan genocide for 1994, wey about 800,000 Tutsis plus moderate Hutus dem kill am, mostly by about 200,000 Hutu extremists wey Rwandan government support. Di genocide end when Tutsi-controlled Rwandan Patriotic Front take over di whole country, wey make hundreds of thousands of Hutus — including many wey do di killings — run enter refugee camps for eastern Zaire. Mobutu welcome di Hutu extremists as him personal guests, allow dem build military plus political bases for eastern Zaire. From dia, dem begin attack plus kill ethnic Tutsis for Rwanda plus for Zaire itself, say dem dey prepare to go attack Rwanda again. Di new Rwandan government begin send military support give di Zairian Tutsis to protect dem. All dis kasala come make eastern Zaire start dey unstable. Mobutu wey cancer dey worry am, dey Switzerland dey take treatment, so e no fit arrange any proper resistance. Di resistance kon collapse as di rebels dey march forward. If no be say di country ein infrastructure spoil no be small, di rebels for don take over everywhere sharp. For most places, dem no get tarred road kraa; na only some rough bush roads wey people no dey use steady. Na dat one slow di rebel movement small. By mid-1997, Kabila ein people start dey move again, and Mobutu ein remaining soldiers no really put up any fight. On 16 May 1997, dem try do peace talk for Pointe-Noire inside one South African Navy ship (SAS Outeniqua), wey President Nelson Mandela from South Africa chair. But di talk no go anywhere, sake of say Kabila no wan slow ein army down or give Mobutu chance take gather ein people again. Kabila too no dey want look Mobutu face during di meeting. According to one UN official, Timothy Montague Hamilton Douglas, e talk say, “All di years wey I deal plus Mobutu, dis be di first time I see person wey pass am for superstition... Kabila sit inside di same room wey Mobutu dey, but e no gree look am for face kraa — e just dey watch di ceiling.” After some talk plus their aides, Douglas realize say Kabila dey fear say di “Old Leopard” (Mobutu) still get juju wey fit curse am if e look am for eye, and dat go stop am from winning power wey e almost grab. Di atmosphere cold pass. Dem talk say na di only time di two enemies ever meet face to face. Kabila just tell Mobutu, “Step down, hand over power without condition.” Mobutu vex bad. E just waka comot from di ship, no gree make any agreement. Mandela, wey be 78 years den, even help support Mobutu make e fit waka go ein car. Dem suppose meet again on 15 May, Mobutu show up but Kabila no show face. Di next day, Kabila ein soldiers — Alliance of Democratic Forces for de Liberation of Congo-Zaire (AFDL) — declare say dem win di fight. On 23 May 1997, dem change Zaire ein name go Democratic Republic of de Congo. == Exile den death == Mobutu run go hide small for Togo after dem chase am, but di Togo president, Gnassingbé Eyadéma, tell am few days later say make e comot from ein country. From 23 May 1997, Mobutu go settle mostly for Rabat, Morocco. E die there on 7 September 1997 from prostate cancer, wey carry am go at di age of 66. Dem bury am for one above ground tomb inside Rabat, for Christian cemetery wey dem dey call ''Cimetière Européen.'' For December 2007, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) ein National Assembly recommend say make dem carry Mobutu ein body come back home plus bury am for big man tomb (mausoleum) for inside DRC. But up till now, dem never do am. Mobutu still dey bury for Morocco. == Family == Mobutu marry two times. E first wife be Marie-Antoinette Gbiatibwa Gogbe Yetene, dem marry for 1955. Dem born nine pikin together. She die from heart failure on 22 October 1977 for Genolier, Switzerland, as she be 36 years. On 1 May 1980, Mobutu marry ein girlfriend, Bobi Ladawa, just before Pope John Paul II visit di kontri, so say church go see di relationship as correct. Two of ein sons from di first marriage die before Mobutu die — Nyiwa (wey die 16 September 1994) plus Konga (wey die 1992). Three more die after Mobutu die: Kongulu (24 September 1998), Manda (27 November 2004), plus Ndokula (4 November 2011). Ein senior son from di second marriage, Nzanga Mobutu, wey now be di head of di family, come fourth for 2006 presidential elections plus later serve for Congo government as Minister of State plus Deputy Prime Minister. Another son, Giala, serve for National Assembly and later Senate. Mobutu ein daughter, Yakpwa (wey people dey call Yaki), marry one Belgian man small time — Pierre Janssen — wey later write book wey talk Mobutu ein lifestyle clear-clear. Altogether, Mobutu have sixteen children: * Plus Marie-Antoinette (first wife): Nyiwa, Ngombo, Manda, Konga, Ngawali, Yango, Yakpwa, Kongulu, Ndagbia (9) * Plus Bobi Ladawa (second wife): Nzanga, Giala, Toku, Ndokula (4) * Plus Kosia Ngama (mistress den twin sister of ein second wife): Yalitho, Tende, Ayessa (3) == In art den literature == Mobutu be de main person wey dem show for one 1999 Belgian documentary wey Thierry Michel direct, e name be ''Mobutu, King of Zaire''. Mobutu too show for one 2000 film ''Lumumba'' wey Raoul Peck direct, wey talk about di time before and during di coup from Lumumba ein angle. Mobutu show too for one 1996 American documentary ''When We Were Kings'', wey focus on di famous ''Rumble in the Jungle'' boxing fight between George Foreman plus Muhammad Ali, wey happen for Kinshasa under Mobutu ein rule. For one 1978 war adventure film ''The Wild Geese'', di bad guy General Ndofa—wey dem describe as one very corrupt leader for one copper-rich country for central Africa—na clear imitation of Mobutu. Mobutu fit be seen as inspiration for some characters wey appear for Wole Soyinka ein poems, ''A Bend in the River'' by V. S. Naipaul, plus ''Anthills of the Savannah'' by Chinua Achebe. William Close, wey be di poppie of actress Glenn Close, serve as Mobutu ein personal doctor before, and e write book wey talk about him time for Zaire. Barbara Kingsolver ein 1998 historical novel ''The Poisonwood Bible'' show di Congo Crisis from fictional angle, wey feature Mobutu ein role for di wahala. Mobutu too dey portrayed by Belgian actor Marc Zinga for di 2011 film ''Mister Bob''. French critic Isabelle Hanne praise how Zinga take act Mobutu, say e "carry di Shakespeare-like and bloodthirsty character very well." Mobutu even show up as extra promo card for di strategy board game ''Twilight Struggle''. If you play ein card, e go make Zaire more stable and give US more power for di country. == Legacy == According to wetin ''New York Times'' talk for Mobutu ein obituary: "E base ein long stay for power on three things — violence, cunning, plus how e take use government money dash enemies to calm dem down. Di way e take chop national treasury and big-big industries sotey e inspire people to coin di word ''<nowiki/>'kleptocracy''', rule wey be all about official stealing. Dis same style make am one of di richest heads of state for di whole world, according to wetin people talk." Insyd 2011, ''Time'' magazine describe him as de "archetypal African dictator". Mobutu get bad name for how e take gather plenti millions of dollars from ein kontri. Even di smallest estimate say e tiff around US$50–125 million, but some people even talk say di money reach US$150 million. According to Pierre Janssen, wey marry Mobutu ein daughter Yaki before, Mobutu no dey care how much expensive gift e dey dash ein people. Di wedding between Janssen plus Yaki be real show: dem invite three full orchestras, do wedding cake wey cost US$65,000, plus firework scatter everywhere. Yaki wear wedding dress wey cost US$70,000 plus US$3 million worth of jewels. For ein book, Janssen talk how Mobutu ein daily lifestyle involve drinking plenti bottles of wine, calling retainers from abroad, plus chop fine-fine food everyday. According to ''Washington Post'', Mobutu carry between US$50–125 million from ein kontri, wey make dem rank am as di third-most corrupt leader since 1984, plus di most corrupt African leader for dat same time. Philip Gourevitch, for ein 1998 book ''We Wish to Inform You That Tomorrow We Will Be Killed with Our Families'', write say:<blockquote>Mobutu really do like say ein bury one whole generation of African leaders wey dem dey see am as di perfect example: dem dey call am "di Dinosaur" cos e represent dat Cold War time dictator wey dey serve foreign masters, wey dey rule alone, chop money pass everybody, plus destroy ein own kontri proper proper.</blockquote>Mobutu na de main man wey make de Rumble insyd de Jungle boxing match between Muhammad Ali plus George Foreman happen for Zaire on 30 October 1974. According to di documentary ''When We Were Kings'', promoter Don King talk say he go pay each fighter five million dollars. So King come open di offer give any African kontri wey fit drop di money host am, as exchange make dem recognize am. Mobutu gree fund di whole ten million dollars plus host di fight sake of say he want make di world recognize am plus make ein regime legit. Di fight make Zaire and ein pipol get big attention all over de world even before dem show di fight live. One quote inside di film talk say Ali yarn: “Some kontries dey go war just make dem name show for world, and war dey cost more than ten million.” On 22 September 1974, Mobutu come hand over de rebuilt 20 May Stadium — one sports project wey cost plenti money wey dem build for di fight — give Zaire Ministry of Youth and Sport and di pipol of Zaire. 9hdcusa9veanvdix5127zbmaiadah3t 69118 69117 2025-07-05T22:25:37Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69118 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu wa za Banga''' ; born '''Joseph-Désiré Mobutu'''; 14 October 1930 – 7 September 1997), people dey call am Mobutu Sese Seko or Mobutu and sana known by ein initials MSS, e be Congolese politician plus military officer wey be de first and only president of Zaire from 1971 to 1997. Before dat, Mobutu serve as de second president of de Democratic Republic of de Congo, from 1965 to 1971. E sana serve as de fifth chairperson of de Organisation of African Unity from 1967 to 1968. During de Congo Crisis insyd 1960, Mobutu, wey den be Chief of Staff insyd de Congolese Army, commot de nation ein democratically elected govment of Patrice Lumumba plus support from de U.S. and Belgium. Mobutu put govment insyd wey arrange make dem execute Lumumba for 1961, and e continue dey lead de country ein armed forces till e take power direct insyd another coup for 1965. To make sure say power no escape am, he create de Popular Movement of de Revolution as de only correct political party for 1967, change Congo ein name go Zaire for 1971, plus e own name turn Mobutu Sese Seko for 1972. Mobutu protect ein rule under hard autocratic regime and end up dey rule during time wey human rights violations spread everywhere. E try purge de country from all colonial culture tins through ein "national authenticity" program. Mobutu turn de main person wey everybody dey hype like say na cult of personality he dey carry. Mobutu talk say ein political ideology no be "left", no be "right", and no be "centre" too, but people mostly know am say e dey against communism for de Françafrique zone. Because of dat, United States, France, plus Belgium support am well-well—dem dash am military, diplomatic, and economic backing. E still build tight link plus apartheid South Africa, Israel, plus de Greek junta dem. Mobutu get strong name for corruption plus nepotism: dem talk say ein personal wealth fit reach from $50 million go $5 billion, all na from economic exploitation plus corruption as president. Some people call ein govment kleptocracy, ’cos e dey pile ein own money while Zaire ein economy suffer—plenty inflation, big debt, and serious currency wahala. E too known for ein flashy lifestyle, like how e dey fly go Paris on top de fast-fast Concorde jet just to do shopping. By 1990, as de economy start dey spoil plus tension dey rise, dem force Mobutu Sese Seko make e enter coalition plus political opponents and agree make dem do multiparty system. Even though e use ein soldiers try block de change, de movement no gree stop. By May 1997, rebel dem wey Laurent-Désiré Kabila lead take over de country and push Mobutu go exile. E already dey battle prostate cancer wey hard, so three months later, e die for Morocco. == Biography == === Early years den education === Mobutu, wey come from de Ngbandi ethnic group, dem born am for 1930 insyd Lisala, Belgian Congo. Mobutu ein mommie, Marie Madeleine Yemo, be hotel maid wey run go Lisala make she escape one local village chief ein harem. Na there she jam Albéric Gbemani, cook wey dey work for one Belgian judge, den she marry am. Not long after, she born Mobutu. Na one uncle pick de name “Mobutu” give am. Gbemani die when Mobutu be just eight years. After dat, one uncle plus ein grandfather raise am. De Belgian judge ein wife take fine eye see Mobutu, so she teach am how to speak, read plus write French well-well, wey be de official language of de colony. Ein mommie Yemo wey be widow, lean on family help to take care of her four pikin dem, and dem dey move from place to place often. Mobutu ein first schooling happen for capital town Léopoldville (wey now dem dey call Kinshasa). Later, ein mommie send am go ein uncle for Coquilhatville (now Mbandaka), where e attend Christian Brothers School, one Catholic-mission boarding school. Mobutu shine for books top and even run de class newspaper. People still know am for ein stubborn pranks and sharp small-boy sense of humor. One classmate remember say anytime de Belgian priests—wey ein main language be Dutch—make mistake for French, Mobutu go jump from ein seat for class top and point out de error sharp. For 1949, Mobutu sneak enter one boat wey dey go downriver to Léopoldville, where e jam one girl. Some weeks later, de priests find am. As school year end, instead of dem send am go prison, dem order make e serve seven years insyd de colonial army, Force Publique (FP). Dat kind punishment na normal tin for students wey dey act stubborn. === Army service === Mobutu find discipline for army life top, and e see father figure insyd Sergeant Louis Bobozo. Mobutu no stop ein studies—e dey borrow European newspapers from de Belgian officers plus pick books from anywhere e fit find, then e go read dem during sentry duty or any small chance e get. De ones wey e like pass be de writings of French president Charles de Gaulle, British prime minister Winston Churchill, plus de Italian Renaissance philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli. After e pass one course for accounting, Mobutu start small-small dey do journalism work proper. Still vexed about how e and de school priests jam wahala, e no marry for church. De only thing e fit bring for de wedding enjoyment be one crate of beer—na all ein army salary fit buy. === Early political involvement === As soldier, Mobutu dey write politics matter under fake name for Actualités Africaines (African News), one magazine wey one Belgian colonial set up. For 1956, e comot from army and turn full-time journalist, dey write for Léopoldville daily L'Avenir. Two years later, e go Belgium to report de 1958 World Exposition, then e stay back make e learn journalism better. By dis time, Mobutu don meet plenty young Congolese intellectuals wey dey challenge colonial rule. E come build friendship plus Patrice Lumumba and join Lumumba ein party—Congolese National Movement (MNC). Mobutu later become Lumumba ein personal aide. Some people wey know de matter talk say Belgian intelligence fit don recruit Mobutu as informant give de government. During de 1960 talks wey happen for Brussels about Congolese independence, de US embassy organize one reception give de Congolese delegation. Each embassy staff get list of delegates wey dem suppose meet, and later dem come talk about de people dem meet. De ambassador talk say, “One name just dey pop up steady. But nobody get am for ein list 'cos e no be official delegation member—e be Lumumba ein secretary. But everybody agree say dis guy get strong brain, e be young, maybe small immature, but e get big future ahead.” After de general election, dem assign Lumumba make e form govment. E give Mobutu de position of Secretary of State to de Presidency. Mobutu carry plenty weight for deciding de rest of de govment people. But after independence land, e no fit see Lumumba one-on-one again like before, 'cos de new prime minister start dey busy plus plenty aides and colleagues surround am. From there, both of dem slowly start drift apart. === Congo Crisis === Main article: Congo Crisis On 5 July 1960, soldiers of de Force Publique wey dey Camp Léopold II for Léopoldville vex over dem all-white leaders and bad working conditions, so dem rise mutiny. Di revolt spread go other places sharp-sharp. Mobutu join other officials talk to de mutineers so dem fit free de officers plus dem families. Then on 8 July, de full Council of Ministers gather for one special meeting under President Joseph Kasa-Vubu ein chairmanship for Camp Léopold II to face de matter of Africanising de garrison. De ministers start dey argue who go fit take de top job as army chief of staff. Two people wey stand out be Minister of Youth and Sports Maurice Mpolo, plus Mobutu. Mpolo don already show say e get some control over de soldiers wey dey mutiny, but Kasa-Vubu plus de Bakongo ministers fear say if dem give am power, e fit run coup. Mobutu on de other hand, people see am as cool-head wey dey think before e act. Lumumba respect Mpolo for ein boldness, but e prefer Mobutu ein cautious style. As de argument go on, de cabinet start split based on who dem support to be chief of staff. Lumumba no wan lose any of de two camps, so e try keep both men for ein team. In de end, dem give Mobutu de position and promote am to colonel. Next day, govment teams comot from de capital to supervise how dem go Africanise de army; Mobutu own assignment na for Équateur. While Mobutu dey there, Mpolo begin act as ANC Chief of Staff. Mobutu no happy at all with dat move, so when e return to de capital, e face Lumumba inside cabinet meeting and tell am plain: “Either I no deserve am and you gots sack me, or I do de mission well and I go keep my rank plus position.” De British diplomat Brian Urquhart, wey dey work plus de United Nations, yarn say: “When I first meet Mobutu for July 1960, e be Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba ein chief military assistant and e just promote himself from sergeant go lieutenant-colonel. Compared to ein boss, Mobutu be like pillar of common sense and sharp reasoning. Na to am we go when Lumumba ein hashish-high guards arrest our people. Na Mobutu too dey casually bring up Lumumba ein wild requests—like say make UN pay salary give Congolese army wey fit mutiny. For dem early days, Mobutu look like reasonable young man, wey maybe, just maybe, dey reason good for ein new independent country.” Backed by Belgian govment wey wan still hold tight to de rich Congolese mines, secessionist violence burst out for south. As UN soldiers wey dem send come restore order no dey help crush de secession, Lumumba go turn to Soviet Union for help. Inside six weeks, e receive serious military aid plus about thousand Soviet technical advisers. Since na Cold War time, US govment fear say dis Soviet move be trick to spread communist power for Central Africa. US and Belgium come ginger Kasa-Vubu make e sack Lumumba, and on 5 September, e do am. Lumumba vex rough and say Kasa-Vubu no be president again. Parliament no gree sack any of dem, instead dem beg for reconciliation, but no headway. Lumumba plus Kasa-Vubu each tell Mobutu make e arrest de other one. As Army Chief of Staff, Mobutu start face heavy pressure from all angle. Western countries' embassies—wey dey pay soldiers salary—plus Kasa-Vubu and Mobutu ein own men, all dem want make Soviet people pack. So on 14 September, Mobutu do coup wey no draw blood, announce say both Kasa-Vubu and Lumumba dey “neutralised” and form one new govment of university graduates—dem call am College of Commissioners-General. Lumumba no accept am but dem force am retire go ein house, where UN peacekeepers block Mobutu ein soldiers make dem no arrest am. Urquhart talk say on de coup day, Mobutu just waka enter UN headquarters for Léopoldville without invite and no gree comot till radio announce de coup; na dat time Mobutu begin repeat “C’est moi!”—“Na me!” Urquhart realise say Mobutu just land there in case de coup mess up, so e tell am to comot. As confidence drop say de international community go support am come back to power, Lumumba run commot for late November go meet ein supporters for Stanleyville to form new govment. Early December, Mobutu ein soldiers catch am, then keep am for ein base insyd Thysville. But Mobutu still see am as danger, so on 17 January 1961, e move Lumumba go de rebel State of Katanga. From dat point, nobody see Lumumba again. Later dem find out say same day wey dem move am, de secessionist forces under Moise Tshombe execute am, after Mobutu ein govment hand am over. On 23 January 1961, Kasa-Vubu promote Mobutu go major-general. One historian, De Witte, talk say na political move wey aim to make de army stronger, since na de president ein only support, and to boost Mobutu ein stand inside de army. For 1964, Pierre Mulele lead some fighters start another rebellion. Dem fast take over two-thirds of Congo. Mobutu lead de Congolese army respond, and by 1965, dem take back de whole land. === Second ''coup'' and consolidation of power === Sanso see: Second Mobutu coup d'état Prime Minister Moise Tshombe ein party, de Congolese National Convention, win big majority for March 1965 elections, but Kasa-Vubu appoint Évariste Kimba, one anti-Tshombe man, as prime minister-designate. Parliament no gree approve am two times. As de govment almost jam dead end, Mobutu take over power through coup wey no draw blood on 24 November—he just turn 35 one month before. Under one system wey dem call state of exception (regime d'exception), Mobutu grab full—almost absolute—power for five years. For ein first speech after e take power, Mobutu talk give big crowd for Léopoldville main stadium say, since na politicians spoil Congo within five years, e go need at least dat same time to fix am. So, for dat reason, no political party go do anything for five years. On 30 November 1965, Parliament pass law wey give Mobutu plus ein cabinet most of de legislative powers, but still hold small power to check ein decrees. By early March 1966, when Parliament start new session, Mobutu announce say he dey cancel dat review power, and two weeks after, ein govment shutdown Parliament for good and collect all de remaining authority. At de start, Mobutu ein govment come out like say e no dey into politics—or even dey against am. People begin see “politician” as bad word, wey mean person wey wicked or corrupt. For 1966, dem set up de Corps of Volunteers of de Republic, one strong frontline group wey aim to gather plenty public support behind Mobutu. Na same year dem hail am as de country ein “Second National Hero” after Lumumba. Even though Mobutu play role for how Lumumba commot power, e try package himself like person wey dey carry Lumumba ein legacy continue. One of de key things wey Mobutu dey preach for early part of ein rule be “authentic Congolese nationalism”. Na dat 1966 too e begin change city names wey get European roots to names wey sound more African—na so Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Stanleyville become Kisangani, and Élisabethville change to Lubumbashi. Then for 1967, Mobutu bring out de Popular Movement of de Revolution (MPR). From dat time go reach 1990, na only dat party dem dey allow for politics. Inside de MPR ein beliefs—wey dem write for Manifesto of N'Sele—dem push nationalism, revolution, plus “authenticity”. Dem describe revolution as “truly national and very practical,” wey reject both capitalism and communism. One popular slogan from de MPR be “Neither left nor right,” and later dem add “nor even center” join. That same year, all de trade unions dem join body into one single union—National Union of Zairian Workers—and de govment take full control over am. Mobutu plan say de union no go operate on ein own, but rather support govment policy like tool. From dat time till 1991, any independent trade union be illegal. As e face plenty wahala for de beginning of ein rule, Mobutu use favour-sharing (patronage) win over most of ein opposition; de ones wey no gree, e handle dem rough. For 1966, four cabinet members chop arrest because dem say dem join plan coup. Military court try dem case, then dem do public execution wey over 50,000 people watch live for open ground. Former Katangan gendarmeries wey rise also face Mobutu ein force and dem smash dem down—same as de Stanleyville mutinies of 1967 wey white mercenaries lead. By 1970, almost all de people wey fit challenge Mobutu power don fall, and for most parts of de country, law plus order start dey show face. That 1970 be de peak time of Mobutu ein power and respect. For 1970, King Baudouin of Belgium come Kinshasa do big state visit wey go well. Dat same year, dem hold presidential plus legislative elections. Even though de constitution say two parties fit dey, na only MPR dem allow nominate candidates. For de presidential election, Mobutu be de only person wey run. Voting no dey private; if you support Mobutu, you go drop green paper, but if you no dey support am, na red paper you go use. Green vote mean say you dey vote for hope, while red vote mean chaos. Under dat kind condition, de result no be surprise—official result talk say Mobutu win with almost everybody behind am, collect 10,131,669 votes, and only 157 people say “no”. Later dem come find out say over 30,500 more votes appear pass de number of voters wey register. Dem run de legislative elections same style. People get just one list from MPR; official result talk say unbelievable 98.33% people vote for de MPR list. As Mobutu dey cement ein power, e build different military groups wey na only to protect am dem dey. These groups include de Special Presidential Division, Civil Guard plus Service for Action, and Military Intelligence (SNIP). === Authenticity campaign === Main article: Authenticité (Zaire) Mobutu start big campaign wey promote African culture wey dem call ''authenticité''. As part of am, on 1 June 1966, e begin change city names wey show colonial past—Léopoldville turn Kinshasa, Elisabethville change to Lubumbashi, and Stanleyville become Kisangani. For October 1971, e change de country ein name to Republic of Zaire. E order people make dem drop dem European names for African ones, and warn priests say if dem baptize Zairian pikin plus European name, dem go chop five years for prison. Western dressing and neck tie come dey banned, and men must wear one Mao-style tunic dem dey call ''abacost'' (short for ''à bas le costume'' wey mean “down with de suit”). Even Christmas move from December go June because Mobutu say dat one be more “authentic” date. Then for 1972, Mobutu follow ein own rule from previous year and change ein name to Mobutu Sese Seko Nkuku Ngbendu Wa Za Banga (wey mean “De all-powerful warrior wey, because of ein endurance and strong will to win, dey move from victory to victory, and leave fire behind”). Around dat time, e drop de army uniform and start wear ein signature look—tall and commanding, plus walking stick, abacost, thick glasses, and leopard-skin cap wey dem sew for Paris. For 1974, new constitution land wey tighten Mobutu ein hold on de country. Dis constitution talk say MPR be de “single institution” for de nation. Dem even define am as “de nation politically organized”—which mean say de state just be machine wey dey push party agenda. Every citizen automatically turn MPR member from de moment dem born. De constitution explain say de MPR dey inside de body of de party ein president, wey dem dey elect every seven years during national convention. But at de same time, dat same president automatically turn de only person wey go run for president of de country. Den dem go use referendum confirm am. De document come turn Mobutu ein emergency powers wey e dey use since 1965 into legal backing; e give am full authority—wey dem write as “plenitude of power exercise”—so all power now dey Mobutu ein hand. Mobutu win election three times under dis system, and each time, dem talk say e win with over 98 percent of de votes. For de legislative side, dem dey bring one single MPR list every five years, and de results dey show crazy numbers—either everybody vote for dem, or almost everybody. One of dem elections for 1975, dem no even vote at all—dem just show candidates around public places make people clap give dem. Dat one na how voting be. == One-man rule == Mobutu start use public executions early insyd ein rule to stamp ein power well-well. Any political rival, secessionist, coup planner, or anybody wey e see as threat, e go deal with dem hard. Many of dem people chop hanging for front big crowd. One serious example be former Prime Minister Évariste Kimba. Mobutu govment carry Kimba plus three of ein cabinet members—Jérôme Anany (Defense Minister), Emmanuel Bamba (Finance Minister), and Alexandre Mahamba (Minister of Mines and Energy)—put for trial May 1966. By 30 May, dem hang all four men in front of over 50,000 people. Dem say dem dey link up plus Colonel Alphonse Bangala and Major Pierre Efomi to run coup. Mobutu come talk say, “One had to strike through a spectacular example, and create the conditions of regime discipline. When a chief takes a decision, he decides – period.” Then for 1968, Pierre Mulele—Lumumba ein Education Minister and big rebel during de 1964 Simba uprising—Mobutu people trick am come out from exile for Brazzaville by telling am say amnesty go dey. But instead of peace, dem torture and kill am bad. Before Mulele die, dem gouge ein eyes, tear off ein genitals, and cut off ein limbs one by one. Mobutu later change ein strategy—e start dey buy political opponents instead of always use force. E like repeat one slogan: “Keep your friends close, but your enemies closer still,” to show how e dey use bribe pull rivals to ein side. One trick wey Mobutu really enjoy be “musical chairs”—e dey rotate ministers like game, change cabinet list anyhow, so nobody go build power wey fit threaten am. From November 1965 to April 1997, Mobutu reshuffle cabinet 60 times. Dis constant shuffle put fear inside ministers, because everybody know say Mobutu go change people anyhow, no matter whether you dey work well or not. Because ministers no sabi how long dem go last for position, e lead to serious stealing—everybody dey rush grab wetin dem fit while dem still dey office. Mobutu still dey arrest, even torture, some dissident govment members—then later forgive dem and even give dem bigger posts. E be like e just use power play confuse everybody. Congolese historian Emizet F. Kisangani talk say plenty public officials believe say no matter how corrupt or useless dem be, dem fit come back to govment position. To hold post no require management skill or clean conscience. In fact, if you too correct or too honest, dem see you as obstacle. Wetin Mobutu want be total loyalty in exchange for chance to chop money. By 1970, reports talk say Mobutu don carry 60% of de national budget enter ein pocket—people begin see am as one of de most corrupt leaders for Africa and de whole world. Kisangani add say Mobutu build full system of corruption wey spoil public values and reward greed and selfishness. Mobutu no slow down with de self-promotion moves—man try for 1972 make dem crown am president for life, but that one no land well. Then for June 1983, e raise himself go military top-top level as Marshal. Na General Likulia Bolongo sign dat order. Shortly after, Victor Nendaka Bika—de number two man for country as Vice-President of de Bureau of de Central Committee—drop one big speech full of praise give Mobutu. To chop revenue from Congo ein natural resources, Mobutu first chase out European investors and nationalize plenty foreign companies. But instead of letting dem run proper, e dash control of these firms give ein relatives and close padi dem—wey quickly use am do corruption and chop company assets clean. For 1973–1974, Mobutu start one big “Zairianization” program, take over more foreign businesses and hand dem to Zairians. But e no end there. By October 1973, de Arab oil shock come crash global economy—the same one wey don dey grow steady since 1945. One serious side effect be say copper price fall by 50% in 1974, and since copper na Zaire ein number one export, e hit dem hard. As American historian Thomas Odom talk, Zaire shift from “prosperity to bankruptcy almost overnight.” Because de economy break down, Zaire run go International Monetary Fund (IMF) for help to manage dem debt, but when IMF dig into dem books, dem discover heavy corruption. Mobutu come waka go China for 1974, take inspiration from Cultural Revolution. E come back wearing Mao jacket and call himself “Citoyen Mobutu” or “Citizen Mobutu.” E say he go “radicalize de Zairian revolution.” Di same businesses wey e first give to Zairians, Mobutu come collect dem back, nationalize everything under full state control. As if dat no do, e cut government workers ein salaries by 50%, wey provoke one failed coup attempt against am for June 1975. By 1977, Mobutu ein earlier move to nationalize foreign businesses don backfire hard—e economy don fall serious, and e no get choice but to beg foreign investors come back. But before e fit recover, Katangan rebels wey base for Angola storm Zaire dat same year, as payback for Mobutu ein support to anti-MPLA fighters. France respond quick—dem airlift 1,500 Moroccan paratroopers into Zaire, push de rebels back, and end di crisis wey dem call ''Shaba I''. But no long after, for 1978, de rebels regroup with even more numbers and invade again—this time na ''Shaba II''. Belgium and France come deploy troops again, backed by US logistics, and dem manage stop de attack once more. Mobutu get big embarrassment from how badly de Zairian Army perform for both invasions—e need foreign help to fight small rebel forces. Yet, instead of reforming de army, e just reduce am from 51,000 troops in 1978 to 23,000 by 1980. By dat time, about 90% of de army be Ngbandi—Mobutu ein own ethnic group—’cos e no trust other ethnic groups with weapons. De most loyal and strongest force Mobutu get be ein bodyguards—the ''Special Presidential Division''—trained by Israel, made up only of Ngbandi, and always led by Mobutu ein relative. Mobutu win election again for 1977 and 1984, but nobody dey run against am. E use most of ein time dey build ein own fortune, and by 1988, dem estimate say ein money reach no less than $50 million. Most of de money e hide am abroad, especially for Swiss banks—but when dem remove am later, dem only find small $3.4 million there. Funny enough, ein fortune nearly match de whole country ein foreign debt dat time. One time for 20 May 1976, Mobutu talk for stadium wey hold like 70,000 people for Kinshasa. E talk say, “If you wan thief, thief small and style am nice. But if you thief too much to turn rich fast-fast, dem go catch you.” By 1989, Zaire govment no fit pay dem loans again from Belgium. Mobutu dey ride in fleet of Mercedes-Benz from one palace to another, while roads dey spoil and people dey hungry. Workers no dey get pay for months, ’cos de national money dey disappear go Mobutu, ein family, and top political plus army people. Na only Special Presidential Division wey dey protect Mobutu wey dem dey pay correct and on time. Dem even get saying wey go like dis: “De civil servants dey pretend say dem dey work, while de state dey pretend say e dey pay dem.” De national army—Forces Armées Zaïroises (FAZ)—no get morale at all. Salaries no dey come, living conditions bad, supplies no dey, and officers dey chop people. De army soldiers just turn like armed thieves—dey rob civilians anyhow. Roadblocks full everywhere, and dem dey extort money from anybody wey dey pass with car or truck. Mobutu ein poor handling of de economy cause serious inflation wey mess up de value of people dem salaries. As money value dey drop fast, plenty public servants start dey do their own way—corruption plus dishonesty turn daily survival style for workers all across de system. Mobutu himself live large. E cruise for de Congo River inside ein yacht, Kamanyola. For Gbadolite, e build one huge mansion wey people dey call “Versailles of de jungle.” Anytime e wan go shopping for Paris, e go charter Air France ein Concorde jet. E even build Gbadolite Airport with long runway make Concorde fit land and take off there. For 1989 alone, e use dat jet fly go give speech for United Nations in New York, attend de French bicentennial party as President François Mitterrand ein guest, and carry Zaire youth choir from Paris to Gbadolite, then fly go Marseille—all with Concorde. Mobutu also get villa for French Riviera wey dem call ''Villa del Mere''. Ein whole leadership style come be example of real kleptocracy and nepotism. Mobutu dey put ein Ngbandi tribe people plus close relatives for top positions inside de military and govment. E dey groom ein first-born son, Nyiwa, to take over presidency from am, but Nyiwa die from AIDS for 1994. Mobutu rule be one of de longest autocracies for Africa. E stash over $50 million from Congo ein natural resources, while ordinary people dey suffer. E form one totalitarian system wey break plenty human rights, try wipe out Belgian influence from de country, and still hold strong anti-communist position to gain favor from international powers. Mobutu ein personality cult reach levels wey few leaders for history fit match. De evening news go start with video wey show am dey descend from cloud top like some god figure. Ein face full public places everywhere—portrait hang for walls, and govment workers dey wear lapel pins wey carry ein photo. Dem give am plenty grand titles: “Father of de Nation,” “Messiah,” “Guide of de Revolution,” “Helmsman,” “Founder,” “Savior of de People,” and “Supreme Combatant.” For de 1996 documentary about de legendary 1974 Foreman–Ali boxing match wey happen for Zaire, you go hear dancers chant “Sese Seko, Sese Seko!” as dem welcome de fighters—na clear sign of how deep e presence dey everywhere, even inside pop culture moments. For early 1975, e reach point wey Mobutu no gree make media call anybody ein name—only Mobutu fit be called by name, everybody else dem just refer to dem position. E really build one kind system wey make am look like dem no fit mention Congo without mention am. Mobutu take advantage proper of de Cold War tension wey dey between de European countries plus de United States. He win strong support from de West plus dem international organizations like de International Monetary Fund (IMF). === Space program === For late 1970s, one West Germany company called OTRAG dey work on satellite launch wey dem talk say be peaceful mission to reduce cost. But because of one 1954 amendment to de Treaty of Brussels, dem no fit build or launch missile insyd Germany. So dem pay Mobutu $130 million make dem run de program for Zaire. For one 1978 agreement, Mobutu dash OTRAG 25 years lease for land insyd Zaire. De first rocket, OTRAG-1, launch on 18 May 1977 wey Mobutu dey watch from far. E take off well but e crash back down shortly after. By 6 June 1978, dem launch two more rockets but dem crash again for Zaire. Still, Mobutu push de program say over 200 Zairians dey work for there and say Zaire go benefit from royalties when dem begin sell rocket. But two years later, Soviet Union accuse de program say former Nazi scientists dey involved plus say dem dey use am spy for military reason. Mobutu gree to Soviet pressure, end de project, plus cut ties with OTRAG. === Foreign policy === Main article: Foreign policy of de Mobutu Sese Seko administration ==== Relations plus Belgium ==== De relationship wey dey between Zaire and Belgium under Mobutu time dey mix — sometimes dem be paddy, other times dem turn real enemies. Most of de time, Belgian leaders no really react strong even when Mobutu do tins wey no favour Belgium; dis be partly because de Belgian political side demself no dey united. From early Mobutu rule, yawa start between dem because of plenty Belgian businesses wey dey Congo. But things cool small after. For 1968, Mobutu and ein family go Belgium as special guest of de Belgian king, and dat same year dem sign one science plus technical agreement. For 1970, King Baudouin visit Kinshasa and everybody hail am; dem even sign treaty of friendship and cooperation. But Mobutu tear dis same treaty insyd 1974 because Belgium no gree ban one anti-Mobutu book wey Jules Chomé, one left-wing lawyer, write. Mobutu e "Zairianisation" policy, wey be say he seize foreign businesses and give dem to Zairians, make matters worse. Even though yawa dey, Mobutu still get personal friendship with some top Belgians. He admire Edmond Leburton, wey be Belgian prime minister (1973–1974), and he be paddy to Alfred Cahen, one diplomat wey Mobutu meet from his Brussels university days. Mobutu and King Baudouin too dey cool until Mobutu leak one handwritten letter from de king — after dat, palace shut door gidi-gidi. Because of dis, Mobutu no get invitation go de king ein funeral; only Saddam Hussein from Iraq join am for dat black list. Apart from Belgians wey dey Belgium, Mobutu keep Belgian advisors close — like Hugues Leclercq and Colonel Willy Mallants, wey even show for Thierry Michel ein documentary ''Mobutu, King of Zaire''. ==== Relations plus France ==== As Zaire be de second most populous French-speaking country for de world by den (plus now e even pass France sef) and de biggest one for sub-Saharan Africa, France see am as one big strategic paddy. During de First Republic time, France mostly support conservative and federalist people, no be de unitarist dem like Lumumba. Right after dem crush de Katangan secession, Zaire (wey dem dey call Republic of de Congo by den) sign technical plus cultural cooperation treaty plus France. Under Charles de Gaulle ein presidency, di two countries start bond tight because dem share plenty geopolitical interests. For 1971, France ein Finance Minister, Valéry Giscard d’Estaing, visit Zaire. Later when he turn France ein president, he and Mobutu become close pals, and France turn Mobutu ein strong foreign ally. During de Shaba invasions, France no dull — dem stand full support for Mobutu. For de first Shaba wahala, France carry 1,500 Moroccan troops come Zaire by airlift; dem help drive de rebels. One year later, as de second Shaba invasion land, France and Belgium both send French Foreign Legion paratroopers (2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment) come help Mobutu fight dem off. ==== Relations plus de People ein Republic of China ==== At de beginning, Zaire ein relationship plus de People's Republic of China no better pass how e dey with Soviet Union. Mobutu still dey remember how China help Mulele plus some Maoist rebels wey fight for Kwilu province during de Simba Rebellion wahala. E no dey like make China get seat for United Nations too. But by 1972, Mobutu start dey see China inna new way — like one balance wey go fit check Soviet Union power and even balance ein own close relationship plus United States, Israel, and South Africa. So for November 1972, Mobutu gree recognize China as one country diplomatically (plus East Germany and North Korea join body). Di next year, Mobutu fly go Beijing, meet chairman Mao Zedong, and dem promise am $100 million technical aid. For 1983, when Chinese Prime Minister Zhao Ziyang come visit Zaire, he talk say make Mobutu no worry repay de $100 million — e be gift. For 1974, Mobutu surprise everybody as e travel go China plus North Korea, even though originally dem plan say e go visit Soviet Union. As e return come Zaire, ein politics den de way e dey talk turn more radical. Na dis time Mobutu start bash Belgium plus United States — e vex say America no dey do enough to fight white minority rule for South Africa and Rhodesia. E introduce one new civic duty program wey dem call ''salongo'' — everybody must do compulsory national work. E sana bring "radicalization" wey be extension of de 1973 ''Zairianization'' policy, wey take foreign-owned things give to locals. Mobutu even borrow title from Mao — "de Helmsman". Around dis same time, from late 1974 to early 1975, ein personality cult reach peak — everywhere na Mobutu name, face, den slogan. China plus Zaire get one common target for Central Africa: make dem stop Soviet Union from gain any stronghold for dat side. So dem join hand undercover take support National Liberation Front of Angola (later dem support UNITA too) make dem block MPLA — de People's Movement for de Liberation of Angola — wey Soviet Union plus Cuba dey back. Cuba get big power for Africa dat time, as dem dey help all left-wing, anti-imperialist groups, and Soviet dey sponsor dem heavy. China invite Holden Roberto, wey be de leader of de National Liberation Front of Angola, plus ein guerilla fighters go Beijing make dem train. Dem also give dem weapons plus money. Zaire sef try enter Angola first, try put their own friendly government for power, but Cuban soldiers push dem back. De invasion no work — e be big wahala wey lead to Shaba I and Shaba II invasions later. China no support dis rebels at all; dem even send weapons go support Zaire during both invasions. China come accuse Soviet Union plus Cuba say dem dey behind de Shaba rebel trouble, say dem dey try scatter peace for Central Africa — even though nobody sure whether Soviet plus Cuba really dey involved or no. '''Relations''' '''plus de Soviet Union''' Mobutu ein relationship plus Soviet Union no be cool koraa. He be hard-core anti-communist, so he no dey rush go recognize de Soviets. USSR bin support—tho e be mostly in words—both Patrice Lumumba, Mobutu ein democratically elected predecessor, plus de Simba rebellion. However, to make e look like say he no dey side any bloc, he renew ties for 1967; de first Soviet ambassador come land and present ein credentials for 1968. Mobutu still join United States condemn de Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia dat year. Mobutu take de Soviet presence as advantage for two reasons: e help am keep de image say he be non-aligned leader, plus e give am better excuse to blame things wey dey go wrong for house. Like for 1970, he expel four Soviet diplomats say dem dey do “subversive activities,” and for 1971, he declare twenty Soviet officials as persona non grata say dem dey spark student demonstrations for Lovanium University. Moscow be de only big world capital wey Mobutu never go before, even tho he accept invitation go dey for 1974. But for reasons wey nobody know, he cancel de visit last minute, then go tour de People's Republic of China plus North Korea instead. Relations cool more for 1975, as de two countries come dey opposite sides for de Angolan Civil War. Dis one take strong toll on Zaire ein foreign policy for de next ten years; since Mobutu no fit claim say he be African leader again (he be one of de few leaders wey no gree recognize de Marxist govment of Angola), Mobutu come turn more toward US plus dem allies. He start dey support America dem stand for things like de Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, plus Israel ein position for international organizations. '''Relations''' '''plus de United States''' Most times, Zaire enjoy warm relationship plus United States. US be de third biggest country wey dey give aid to Zaire (after Belgium and France), and Mobutu be paddy man to plenty US presidents like Richard Nixon, Ronald Reagan, plus George H. W. Bush. But around 1974–1975, de relationship cool small as Mobutu start talk radical things (he bash US foreign policy hard). For 1975 summer, e even reach de worst point as Mobutu accuse CIA say dem dey plan overthrown am, come arrest eleven big Zairian generals plus some civilians, den sentence one former Central Bank boss (Albert Ndele) for absentia. But plenty people no believe say de plot be real; some like Mobutu ein strong critic Nzongola-Ntalaja talk say Mobutu just create de story to take chance sack any military man wey fit challenge am later. Still, even with all dis wahala, de cold vibe no last long—de two countries come unite again as dem dey support de same side for de Angolan Civil War. Sake of say Mobutu no dey respect human rights, de Carter government try keep small distance from de Kinshasa government. But still, Zaire chop nearly half of all de foreign aid wey Carter give to sub-Saharan Africa. During de first Shaba invasion, US no really do plenty; dem just deliver some supplies wey no be weapon. But for de second Shaba invasion, US come show stronger support—dem help transport plus organize logistics for de French and Belgian paratroopers wey come help Mobutu fight de rebels. Carter even support Mobutu ein talk say Soviet Union plus Cuba dey back de rebels, even though no evidence come prove am. For 1980, US House of Representatives vote make dem stop military aid to Zaire, but US Senate come bring am back after Carter plus US business people wey get interest for Zaire pressure dem. Mobutu get very warm relationship plus Reagan ein government, especially through money dem dey give am. During Reagan ein time, Mobutu go White House three times, and US no really bash am about de way he dey treat human rights for ein country. When Mobutu visit America for 1983, Reagan talk say Mobutu be “voice of good sense and goodwill.” Mobutu still get friendly relationship plus Reagan ein replacement, George H. W. Bush. Mobutu even be de first African president wey go visit Bush for White House. But things change sharp sharp after Cold War end. Since Soviet Union no dey again, US and Western countries no see reason again to support Mobutu sake of communism fight. Dem start dey pressure am make he open up de country to democracy. Mobutu vex say US change attitude towards am. He talk say: “I be de latest victim of de cold war, US no need me again. De lesson be say all my support for US policy no mean anything.” For 1993, when Mobutu try come Washington, US State Department bounce am, dem no give am visa. Mobutu still get some American friends wey no dey government side. One be televangelist Pat Robertson, wey promise say he go try beg US government make dem lift de ban on Mobutu. == Coalition government == For May 1990, sake of di Cold War wey end, international politics change, economy issues plus gbelemgbelem for di country, Mobutu gree make e lef di MPR ein one-man chop power. For early May, students wey dey Lubumbashi campus for National University of Zaire vex plus Mobutu ein system, dem start protest dey shout say make e step down. On di night of 11 May 1990, dem off di light for campus, den send one special army group wey dem dey call ''Les Hiboux'' (wey mean “Owls”) come, all of dem carry cutlass plus bayonet. By di morning of 12 May, dem don kill like 290 students. Dis gbelem wey happen make countries like di European Economic Community (wey now be European Union), United States, plus Canada, cut all support wey no be humanitarian. Na dis move be di beginning of di end for Mobutu ein backing from Western countries. Mobutu put transitional government make dem lead go di elections wey e promise, but e still hold serious powers for hand. After some gbelem wey unpaid soldiers cause for Kinshasa for 1991, Mobutu carry some opposition people join coalition government, but e still use corner corner hold tight di security services plus key ministries. Wahala between di different camps make dem divide into two governments for 1993 — one wey dey Mobutu ein side and one wey dey against am. Di anti-Mobutu side dey under Laurent Monsengwo plus Étienne Tshisekedi from Union for Democracy and Social Progress (UDPS). Di economic condition still dey very bad, so for 1994 di two groups come join body form High Council of Republic – Parliament of Transition (HCR-PT). Mobutu come appoint Kengo Wa Dondo, wey believe in strict spending plus free-market reforms, as Prime Minister. As all dis dey happen, Mobutu ein body too dey weak well well, and for one of ein travels go Europe for medical care, some Tutsi people come take over plenty areas for eastern Zaire. == Overthrow == Na di beginning of Mobutu e downfall start during di Rwandan genocide for 1994, wey about 800,000 Tutsis plus moderate Hutus dem kill am, mostly by about 200,000 Hutu extremists wey Rwandan government support. Di genocide end when Tutsi-controlled Rwandan Patriotic Front take over di whole country, wey make hundreds of thousands of Hutus — including many wey do di killings — run enter refugee camps for eastern Zaire. Mobutu welcome di Hutu extremists as him personal guests, allow dem build military plus political bases for eastern Zaire. From dia, dem begin attack plus kill ethnic Tutsis for Rwanda plus for Zaire itself, say dem dey prepare to go attack Rwanda again. Di new Rwandan government begin send military support give di Zairian Tutsis to protect dem. All dis kasala come make eastern Zaire start dey unstable. Mobutu wey cancer dey worry am, dey Switzerland dey take treatment, so e no fit arrange any proper resistance. Di resistance kon collapse as di rebels dey march forward. If no be say di country ein infrastructure spoil no be small, di rebels for don take over everywhere sharp. For most places, dem no get tarred road kraa; na only some rough bush roads wey people no dey use steady. Na dat one slow di rebel movement small. By mid-1997, Kabila ein people start dey move again, and Mobutu ein remaining soldiers no really put up any fight. On 16 May 1997, dem try do peace talk for Pointe-Noire inside one South African Navy ship (SAS Outeniqua), wey President Nelson Mandela from South Africa chair. But di talk no go anywhere, sake of say Kabila no wan slow ein army down or give Mobutu chance take gather ein people again. Kabila too no dey want look Mobutu face during di meeting. According to one UN official, Timothy Montague Hamilton Douglas, e talk say, “All di years wey I deal plus Mobutu, dis be di first time I see person wey pass am for superstition... Kabila sit inside di same room wey Mobutu dey, but e no gree look am for face kraa — e just dey watch di ceiling.” After some talk plus their aides, Douglas realize say Kabila dey fear say di “Old Leopard” (Mobutu) still get juju wey fit curse am if e look am for eye, and dat go stop am from winning power wey e almost grab. Di atmosphere cold pass. Dem talk say na di only time di two enemies ever meet face to face. Kabila just tell Mobutu, “Step down, hand over power without condition.” Mobutu vex bad. E just waka comot from di ship, no gree make any agreement. Mandela, wey be 78 years den, even help support Mobutu make e fit waka go ein car. Dem suppose meet again on 15 May, Mobutu show up but Kabila no show face. Di next day, Kabila ein soldiers — Alliance of Democratic Forces for de Liberation of Congo-Zaire (AFDL) — declare say dem win di fight. On 23 May 1997, dem change Zaire ein name go Democratic Republic of de Congo. == Exile den death == Mobutu run go hide small for Togo after dem chase am, but di Togo president, Gnassingbé Eyadéma, tell am few days later say make e comot from ein country. From 23 May 1997, Mobutu go settle mostly for Rabat, Morocco. E die there on 7 September 1997 from prostate cancer, wey carry am go at di age of 66. Dem bury am for one above ground tomb inside Rabat, for Christian cemetery wey dem dey call ''Cimetière Européen.'' For December 2007, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) ein National Assembly recommend say make dem carry Mobutu ein body come back home plus bury am for big man tomb (mausoleum) for inside DRC. But up till now, dem never do am. Mobutu still dey bury for Morocco. == Family == Mobutu marry two times. E first wife be Marie-Antoinette Gbiatibwa Gogbe Yetene, dem marry for 1955. Dem born nine pikin together. She die from heart failure on 22 October 1977 for Genolier, Switzerland, as she be 36 years. On 1 May 1980, Mobutu marry ein girlfriend, Bobi Ladawa, just before Pope John Paul II visit di kontri, so say church go see di relationship as correct. Two of ein sons from di first marriage die before Mobutu die — Nyiwa (wey die 16 September 1994) plus Konga (wey die 1992). Three more die after Mobutu die: Kongulu (24 September 1998), Manda (27 November 2004), plus Ndokula (4 November 2011). Ein senior son from di second marriage, Nzanga Mobutu, wey now be di head of di family, come fourth for 2006 presidential elections plus later serve for Congo government as Minister of State plus Deputy Prime Minister. Another son, Giala, serve for National Assembly and later Senate. Mobutu ein daughter, Yakpwa (wey people dey call Yaki), marry one Belgian man small time — Pierre Janssen — wey later write book wey talk Mobutu ein lifestyle clear-clear. Altogether, Mobutu have sixteen children: * Plus Marie-Antoinette (first wife): Nyiwa, Ngombo, Manda, Konga, Ngawali, Yango, Yakpwa, Kongulu, Ndagbia (9) * Plus Bobi Ladawa (second wife): Nzanga, Giala, Toku, Ndokula (4) * Plus Kosia Ngama (mistress den twin sister of ein second wife): Yalitho, Tende, Ayessa (3) == In art den literature == Mobutu be de main person wey dem show for one 1999 Belgian documentary wey Thierry Michel direct, e name be ''Mobutu, King of Zaire''. Mobutu too show for one 2000 film ''Lumumba'' wey Raoul Peck direct, wey talk about di time before and during di coup from Lumumba ein angle. Mobutu show too for one 1996 American documentary ''When We Were Kings'', wey focus on di famous ''Rumble in the Jungle'' boxing fight between George Foreman plus Muhammad Ali, wey happen for Kinshasa under Mobutu ein rule. For one 1978 war adventure film ''The Wild Geese'', di bad guy General Ndofa—wey dem describe as one very corrupt leader for one copper-rich country for central Africa—na clear imitation of Mobutu. Mobutu fit be seen as inspiration for some characters wey appear for Wole Soyinka ein poems, ''A Bend in the River'' by V. S. Naipaul, plus ''Anthills of the Savannah'' by Chinua Achebe. William Close, wey be di poppie of actress Glenn Close, serve as Mobutu ein personal doctor before, and e write book wey talk about him time for Zaire. Barbara Kingsolver ein 1998 historical novel ''The Poisonwood Bible'' show di Congo Crisis from fictional angle, wey feature Mobutu ein role for di wahala. Mobutu too dey portrayed by Belgian actor Marc Zinga for di 2011 film ''Mister Bob''. French critic Isabelle Hanne praise how Zinga take act Mobutu, say e "carry di Shakespeare-like and bloodthirsty character very well." Mobutu even show up as extra promo card for di strategy board game ''Twilight Struggle''. If you play ein card, e go make Zaire more stable and give US more power for di country. == Legacy == According to wetin ''New York Times'' talk for Mobutu ein obituary: "E base ein long stay for power on three things — violence, cunning, plus how e take use government money dash enemies to calm dem down. Di way e take chop national treasury and big-big industries sotey e inspire people to coin di word ''<nowiki/>'kleptocracy''', rule wey be all about official stealing. Dis same style make am one of di richest heads of state for di whole world, according to wetin people talk." Insyd 2011, ''Time'' magazine describe him as de "archetypal African dictator". Mobutu get bad name for how e take gather plenti millions of dollars from ein kontri. Even di smallest estimate say e tiff around US$50–125 million, but some people even talk say di money reach US$150 million. According to Pierre Janssen, wey marry Mobutu ein daughter Yaki before, Mobutu no dey care how much expensive gift e dey dash ein people. Di wedding between Janssen plus Yaki be real show: dem invite three full orchestras, do wedding cake wey cost US$65,000, plus firework scatter everywhere. Yaki wear wedding dress wey cost US$70,000 plus US$3 million worth of jewels. For ein book, Janssen talk how Mobutu ein daily lifestyle involve drinking plenti bottles of wine, calling retainers from abroad, plus chop fine-fine food everyday. According to ''Washington Post'', Mobutu carry between US$50–125 million from ein kontri, wey make dem rank am as di third-most corrupt leader since 1984, plus di most corrupt African leader for dat same time. Philip Gourevitch, for ein 1998 book ''We Wish to Inform You That Tomorrow We Will Be Killed with Our Families'', write say:<blockquote>Mobutu really do like say ein bury one whole generation of African leaders wey dem dey see am as di perfect example: dem dey call am "di Dinosaur" cos e represent dat Cold War time dictator wey dey serve foreign masters, wey dey rule alone, chop money pass everybody, plus destroy ein own kontri proper proper.</blockquote>Mobutu na de main man wey make de Rumble insyd de Jungle boxing match between Muhammad Ali plus George Foreman happen for Zaire on 30 October 1974. According to di documentary ''When We Were Kings'', promoter Don King talk say he go pay each fighter five million dollars. So King come open di offer give any African kontri wey fit drop di money host am, as exchange make dem recognize am. Mobutu gree fund di whole ten million dollars plus host di fight sake of say he want make di world recognize am plus make ein regime legit. Di fight make Zaire and ein pipol get big attention all over de world even before dem show di fight live. One quote inside di film talk say Ali yarn: “Some kontries dey go war just make dem name show for world, and war dey cost more than ten million.” On 22 September 1974, Mobutu come hand over de rebuilt 20 May Stadium — one sports project wey cost plenti money wey dem build for di fight — give Zaire Ministry of Youth and Sport and di pipol of Zaire. == Awards den honors == === National === * Zaire: ** National Order of the Leopard === Foreign === * Belgium: ** Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold (1969) * Imperial Iran: ** Commemorative Medal of the 2500th Anniversary of the Founding of the Persian Empire (1971) * Italy: ** Knight Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic (1973) * Netherlands: ** Order of the Golden Ark (1973) * Portugal: ** Grand Collar of the Order of Prince Henry (1984) * Spain: ** Knight of the Collar of the Order of Isabella the Catholic (1983) * South Korea: ** Grand Order of Mugunghwa (1982) * Taiwan: ** Grand Cordon of the Order of Brilliant Jade (1971) * United States: ** Commander of the Legion of Merit (1964) == Explanatory notes == # The name translates as "the warrior who goes from conquest to conquest, leaving fire in his path", "the warrior who leaves a trail of fire in his path", or "the warrior who knows no defeat because of his endurance and inflexible will and is all powerful, leaving fire in his wake as he goes from conquest to conquest". == Sanso see == * Kinsangani battle (1997) == References == 3bucbq0ccmna4em0bhy0bw9ruv79q5p Nzanga Mobutu 0 18354 69119 2025-07-05T22:29:53Z KISUMAR123 1270 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1297914191|Nzanga Mobutu]]" 69119 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Nzanga Mobutu''' (born 24 March 1970) na Congolese politician. He be pikin of di long-time President Mobutu Sese Seko. From 2007 go 2011, he serve insyd government of Democratic Republic of Congo — first as Minister of State for Agriculture, then later as Deputy Prime Minister for Basic Social Needs, plus again as Deputy Prime Minister for Labor, Employment plus Social Security. For di 2006 presidential election, Nzanga come place number four for di vote count. For 2007, he form one new party wey dem call Union of Mobutist Democrats to replace ein poppie ein old party, Popular Movement of the Revolution, and since den he don dey lead am. [[Category:Living people]] p387rmk0gjgqjxdesimslfm1wzn5stc 69123 69119 2025-07-05T22:40:19Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69123 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Nzanga Mobutu''' (born 24 March 1970) na Congolese politician. He be pikin of di long-time President Mobutu Sese Seko. From 2007 go 2011, he serve insyd government of Democratic Republic of Congo — first as Minister of State for Agriculture, then later as Deputy Prime Minister for Basic Social Needs, plus again as Deputy Prime Minister for Labor, Employment plus Social Security. For di 2006 presidential election, Nzanga come place number four for di vote count. For 2007, he form one new party wey dem call Union of Mobutist Democrats to replace ein poppie ein old party, Popular Movement of the Revolution, and since den he don dey lead am. == Background == Nzanga Mobutu be di first-born son of Mobutu Sese Seko plus ein second wife, Bobi Ladawa. He grow up for Belgium, then go study communications plus international relations for Canada and France before he return come Zaire around mid-1990s. After he come back, he work as spokesman plus communications advisor to ein poppie, and he still be chairman for di board of Soza Bank, one bank for Zaire.For May 1997, Nzanga run enter exile go Morocco plus ein poppie when rebel leader Laurent-Désiré Kabila take over Kinshasa. He marry Catherine Bemba, wey be daughter of businessman Jeannot Bemba Saolona, and dem get three children: Nyiwa, Bobi, and Sese. == Enterprises == For 1998, Nzanga plus ein mommie, Bobi Ladawa, form di "Mobutu Foundation" wey aim help young men and women for Africa make dem reach dema full potential. After dat, Nzanga start Aries Communication, one communications firm for Morocco. He still work as director for Casa Agricola Solear, one Portuguese agriculture plus livestock company. Later, he join Renaissance think tank for Belgium as member. == UDEMO insyd Équateur == For 2003, Nzanga plus ein bro Giala form de Union of Mobutist Democrats (UDEMO) as NGO. On December 12, 2005, Nzanga talk sey he go take part for di next presidential election wey dem hold for July 2006. Later dat same year, during di second round of de election, UDEMO turn political platform. On January 8, 2007, Nzanga start ein political career officially as leader of UDEMO, one political party wey dey push for peace, national unity plus territorial integrity. People like am pass for de northwestern province of Équateur, especially Gbadolite wey be where ein poppie from. [[Category:Living people]] arfu5d3xn10k88bmj1d4q27bp4a0q7x 69127 69123 2025-07-05T22:45:53Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69127 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Nzanga Mobutu''' (born 24 March 1970) na Congolese politician. He be pikin of di long-time President Mobutu Sese Seko. From 2007 go 2011, he serve insyd government of Democratic Republic of Congo — first as Minister of State for Agriculture, then later as Deputy Prime Minister for Basic Social Needs, plus again as Deputy Prime Minister for Labor, Employment plus Social Security. For di 2006 presidential election, Nzanga come place number four for di vote count. For 2007, he form one new party wey dem call Union of Mobutist Democrats to replace ein poppie ein old party, Popular Movement of the Revolution, and since den he don dey lead am. == Background == Nzanga Mobutu be di first-born son of Mobutu Sese Seko plus ein second wife, Bobi Ladawa. He grow up for Belgium, then go study communications plus international relations for Canada and France before he return come Zaire around mid-1990s. After he come back, he work as spokesman plus communications advisor to ein poppie, and he still be chairman for di board of Soza Bank, one bank for Zaire.For May 1997, Nzanga run enter exile go Morocco plus ein poppie when rebel leader Laurent-Désiré Kabila take over Kinshasa. He marry Catherine Bemba, wey be daughter of businessman Jeannot Bemba Saolona, and dem get three children: Nyiwa, Bobi, and Sese. == Enterprises == For 1998, Nzanga plus ein mommie, Bobi Ladawa, form di "Mobutu Foundation" wey aim help young men and women for Africa make dem reach dema full potential. After dat, Nzanga start Aries Communication, one communications firm for Morocco. He still work as director for Casa Agricola Solear, one Portuguese agriculture plus livestock company. Later, he join Renaissance think tank for Belgium as member. == UDEMO insyd Équateur == For 2003, Nzanga plus ein bro Giala form de Union of Mobutist Democrats (UDEMO) as NGO. On December 12, 2005, Nzanga talk sey he go take part for di next presidential election wey dem hold for July 2006. Later dat same year, during di second round of de election, UDEMO turn political platform. On January 8, 2007, Nzanga start ein political career officially as leader of UDEMO, one political party wey dey push for peace, national unity plus territorial integrity. People like am pass for de northwestern province of Équateur, especially Gbadolite wey be where ein poppie from. == 2006 Presidential election == For di 2006 presidential election, Nzanga contest as candidate den come place fourth, as he gather like 4.8% of de vote. After de first round of voting, Mobutu join body plus de sitting president Joseph Kabila for one platform political coalition wey dem take try gather votes from Équateur region. Di coalition too carry join PALU, wey be Antoine Gizenga ein political party. Ein kidda broda, Giala Mobutu, plus eight oda UDEMO candidates win seat enter National Assembly for di 2006 election. == Government Minister == Gizenga turn Prime Minister for December 2006, and Mobutu get post as Minister of State for Agriculture when dem announce Gizenga ein government on February 5, 2007—wey make am second most important person for di government after Gizenga. When Gizenga comot and Adolphe Muzito take over, dem appoint Mobutu as Deputy Prime Minister for Basic Social Needs for Muzito ein government wey dem announce on October 26, 2008. Later, on February 20, 2010, dem move am go be Deputy Prime Minister for Labor, Employment plus Social Security. [[Category:Living people]] a3qjki7erhkmjavepjhbn1gusvnxuwt 69129 69127 2025-07-05T22:52:17Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69129 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Nzanga Mobutu''' (born 24 March 1970) na Congolese politician. He be pikin of di long-time President Mobutu Sese Seko. From 2007 go 2011, he serve insyd government of Democratic Republic of Congo — first as Minister of State for Agriculture, then later as Deputy Prime Minister for Basic Social Needs, plus again as Deputy Prime Minister for Labor, Employment plus Social Security. For di 2006 presidential election, Nzanga come place number four for di vote count. For 2007, he form one new party wey dem call Union of Mobutist Democrats to replace ein poppie ein old party, Popular Movement of the Revolution, and since den he don dey lead am. == Background == Nzanga Mobutu be di first-born son of Mobutu Sese Seko plus ein second wife, Bobi Ladawa. He grow up for Belgium, then go study communications plus international relations for Canada and France before he return come Zaire around mid-1990s. After he come back, he work as spokesman plus communications advisor to ein poppie, and he still be chairman for di board of Soza Bank, one bank for Zaire.For May 1997, Nzanga run enter exile go Morocco plus ein poppie when rebel leader Laurent-Désiré Kabila take over Kinshasa. He marry Catherine Bemba, wey be daughter of businessman Jeannot Bemba Saolona, and dem get three children: Nyiwa, Bobi, and Sese. == Enterprises == For 1998, Nzanga plus ein mommie, Bobi Ladawa, form di "Mobutu Foundation" wey aim help young men and women for Africa make dem reach dema full potential. After dat, Nzanga start Aries Communication, one communications firm for Morocco. He still work as director for Casa Agricola Solear, one Portuguese agriculture plus livestock company. Later, he join Renaissance think tank for Belgium as member. == UDEMO insyd Équateur == For 2003, Nzanga plus ein bro Giala form de Union of Mobutist Democrats (UDEMO) as NGO. On December 12, 2005, Nzanga talk sey he go take part for di next presidential election wey dem hold for July 2006. Later dat same year, during di second round of de election, UDEMO turn political platform. On January 8, 2007, Nzanga start ein political career officially as leader of UDEMO, one political party wey dey push for peace, national unity plus territorial integrity. People like am pass for de northwestern province of Équateur, especially Gbadolite wey be where ein poppie from. == 2006 Presidential election == For de 2006 presidential election, Nzanga contest as candidate den come place fourth, as he gather like 4.8% of de vote. After de first round of voting, Mobutu join body plus de sitting president Joseph Kabila for one platform political coalition wey dem take try gather votes from Équateur region. Di coalition too carry join PALU, wey be Antoine Gizenga ein political party. Ein kidda broda, Giala Mobutu, plus eight oda UDEMO candidates win seat enter National Assembly for di 2006 election. == Government Minister == Gizenga turn Prime Minister for December 2006, and Mobutu get post as Minister of State for Agriculture when dem announce Gizenga ein government on February 5, 2007—wey make am second most important person for di government after Gizenga. When Gizenga comot and Adolphe Muzito take over, dem appoint Mobutu as Deputy Prime Minister for Basic Social Needs for Muzito ein government wey dem announce on October 26, 2008. Later, on February 20, 2010, dem move am go be Deputy Prime Minister for Labor, Employment plus Social Security. For March 2011, President Kabila sack Mobutu from government sake of say e no dey active. As dem explain am, government spokesman Lambert Mende talk say Mobutu do "abandonment of service" as e stay Europe from November 2010 without give any reason. Mende emphasize say dis action be against Mobutu alone, no be ein party. E be like say Kabila try make better relationship plus Mobutu by give am big-big positions for government, but Mobutu no show much interest, e just dey focus on ein private work. Dem talk say di reason why Mobutu stay long for Europe be say e no dey agree plus how Kabila dey build friendship plus Kagame ein government, wey many people believe say dem cause plenty violence for de eastern part of Congo. After dem comot am from ein post, Mobutu run again for president for di 2011 elections wey go against di sitting president. == Recent years == For de years wey come after, Nzanga live life den do business moves between United States den Morocco, as ein broda Giala take over de leadership of UDEMO. For di 2018 elections, Nzanga support opposition candidate Martin Fayulu. But on January 10, 2023, e return go DRC where e still dey lead ein political party den dis time, e support de current President Felix Tshisekedi for de December 2023 elections. [[Category:Living people]] ado6urh6bwn5qn5m0bs9gsz6kse48qc 69130 69129 2025-07-05T22:52:44Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69130 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Nzanga Mobutu''' (born 24 March 1970) na Congolese politician. He be pikin of di long-time President Mobutu Sese Seko. From 2007 go 2011, he serve insyd government of Democratic Republic of Congo — first as Minister of State for Agriculture, then later as Deputy Prime Minister for Basic Social Needs, plus again as Deputy Prime Minister for Labor, Employment plus Social Security. For di 2006 presidential election, Nzanga come place number four for di vote count. For 2007, he form one new party wey dem call Union of Mobutist Democrats to replace ein poppie ein old party, Popular Movement of the Revolution, and since den he don dey lead am. == Background == Nzanga Mobutu be di first-born son of Mobutu Sese Seko plus ein second wife, Bobi Ladawa. He grow up for Belgium, then go study communications plus international relations for Canada and France before he return come Zaire around mid-1990s. After he come back, he work as spokesman plus communications advisor to ein poppie, and he still be chairman for di board of Soza Bank, one bank for Zaire.For May 1997, Nzanga run enter exile go Morocco plus ein poppie when rebel leader Laurent-Désiré Kabila take over Kinshasa. He marry Catherine Bemba, wey be daughter of businessman Jeannot Bemba Saolona, and dem get three children: Nyiwa, Bobi, and Sese. == Enterprises == For 1998, Nzanga plus ein mommie, Bobi Ladawa, form di "Mobutu Foundation" wey aim help young men and women for Africa make dem reach dema full potential. After dat, Nzanga start Aries Communication, one communications firm for Morocco. He still work as director for Casa Agricola Solear, one Portuguese agriculture plus livestock company. Later, he join Renaissance think tank for Belgium as member. == UDEMO insyd Équateur == For 2003, Nzanga plus ein bro Giala form de Union of Mobutist Democrats (UDEMO) as NGO. On December 12, 2005, Nzanga talk sey he go take part for di next presidential election wey dem hold for July 2006. Later dat same year, during di second round of de election, UDEMO turn political platform. On January 8, 2007, Nzanga start ein political career officially as leader of UDEMO, one political party wey dey push for peace, national unity plus territorial integrity. People like am pass for de northwestern province of Équateur, especially Gbadolite wey be where ein poppie from. == 2006 Presidential election == For de 2006 presidential election, Nzanga contest as candidate den come place fourth, as he gather like 4.8% of de vote. After de first round of voting, Mobutu join body plus de sitting president Joseph Kabila for one platform political coalition wey dem take try gather votes from Équateur region. Di coalition too carry join PALU, wey be Antoine Gizenga ein political party. Ein kidda broda, Giala Mobutu, plus eight oda UDEMO candidates win seat enter National Assembly for di 2006 election. == Government Minister == Gizenga turn Prime Minister for December 2006, and Mobutu get post as Minister of State for Agriculture when dem announce Gizenga ein government on February 5, 2007—wey make am second most important person for di government after Gizenga. When Gizenga comot and Adolphe Muzito take over, dem appoint Mobutu as Deputy Prime Minister for Basic Social Needs for Muzito ein government wey dem announce on October 26, 2008. Later, on February 20, 2010, dem move am go be Deputy Prime Minister for Labor, Employment plus Social Security. For March 2011, President Kabila sack Mobutu from government sake of say e no dey active. As dem explain am, government spokesman Lambert Mende talk say Mobutu do "abandonment of service" as e stay Europe from November 2010 without give any reason. Mende emphasize say dis action be against Mobutu alone, no be ein party. E be like say Kabila try make better relationship plus Mobutu by give am big-big positions for government, but Mobutu no show much interest, e just dey focus on ein private work. Dem talk say di reason why Mobutu stay long for Europe be say e no dey agree plus how Kabila dey build friendship plus Kagame ein government, wey many people believe say dem cause plenty violence for de eastern part of Congo. After dem comot am from ein post, Mobutu run again for president for di 2011 elections wey go against di sitting president. == Recent years == For de years wey come after, Nzanga live life den do business moves between United States den Morocco, as ein broda Giala take over de leadership of UDEMO. For di 2018 elections, Nzanga support opposition candidate Martin Fayulu. But on January 10, 2023, e return go DRC where e still dey lead ein political party den dis time, e support de current President Felix Tshisekedi for de December 2023 elections. == Election results == {| class="wikitable" !Year !Party !Votes !% !Position |- !'''2006''' |Union of Mobutist Democrats |808,397 |5% |4th |- !'''2011''' |Union of Mobutist Democrats |285,273 |2% |6th |} == References == [[Category:Living people]] srjhrhtd1p4a8zn8lprxj6fp85s4alg Laurent-Désiré Kabila 0 18355 69131 2025-07-05T22:57:58Z KISUMAR123 1270 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1293620633|Laurent-Désiré Kabila]]" 69131 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Laurent-Désiré Kabila''' (; 27 November 1939 – 16 January 2001), wey people mostly dey call as Laurent Kabila or Kabila de Poppie, na Congolese rebel plus politician wey serve as de third president of Democratic Republic of Congo from 1997 till dem assassinate am for 2001. b7iwce0l3m0ajwilvfbn725prr5yps3 69132 69131 2025-07-05T23:07:02Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69132 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Laurent-Désiré Kabila''' (; 27 November 1939 – 16 January 2001), wey people mostly dey call as Laurent Kabila or Kabila de Poppie, na Congolese rebel plus politician wey serve as de third president of Democratic Republic of Congo from 1997 till dem assassinate am for 2001. Kabila first show face as Mobutu Sese Seko ein opposition during di Congo Crisis (1960–1965). He join di Simba rebellion and lead one Communist-style breakaway state wey dem call Fizi insyd eastern Congo from 1967 to 1988 before he comot for public eye. For di 1990s, Kabila come back again as leader of di Alliance of Democratic Forces for di Liberation of Congo (ADFL), one rebel group wey Rwanda plus Uganda dey back. Dem invade Zaire and overthrow Mobutu during di First Congo War (1996–1997). After di war, Kabila become di new president, and dem change di kontri ein name back to Democratic Republic of Congo. De following year, after di Kasika massacre, Kabila order all foreign troops make dem commot from di kontri to block any possible coup. Dis action spark di Second Congo War (1998–2003), as Rwanda plus Uganda come support some rebel groups wey wan overthrow am. For 2001, one of ein own bodyguards assassinate am, and ein 29-year-old pikin Joseph take over as president. == Early life == Kabila na Luba man wey dem born for Baudouinville for Katanga Province (wey now be Moba for Tanganyika Province), or some people talk say na for Jadotville (wey now be Likasi for Haut-Katanga Province) inside Belgian Congo. Ein poppie be Luba and ein mommie be Lunda, but because dem dey use poppie ein side for di patriarchal kinship system, na Luba dem take know am. People talk say he go study political philosophy abroad—say he get PhD for places like Paris, Tashkent, Belgrade, and finally Dar es Salaam—but up till now, nobody show clear evidence or proof for all dis claims. == Political activities == === 1960s Congo Crisis === Sanso see: Congo Crisis Just after Congo gain independence for 1960, Katanga break away under Moïse Tshombe ein leadership. Kabila come organize di Baluba people for Manono to fight against de secession. For September 1962, dem create new province wey dem call North Katanga. Kabila become member of de provincial assembly plus serve as chief of cabinet for Minister of Information Ferdinand Tumba. But by September 1963, Kabila plus some other young assembly members dem force dem make dem resign, as people accuse dem say dem dey support communism. kgxacm5twohzx9uai1r0vtzgzvv9two 69133 69132 2025-07-05T23:13:01Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69133 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Laurent-Désiré Kabila''' (; 27 November 1939 – 16 January 2001), wey people mostly dey call as Laurent Kabila or Kabila de Poppie, na Congolese rebel plus politician wey serve as de third president of Democratic Republic of Congo from 1997 till dem assassinate am for 2001. Kabila first show face as Mobutu Sese Seko ein opposition during di Congo Crisis (1960–1965). He join di Simba rebellion and lead one Communist-style breakaway state wey dem call Fizi insyd eastern Congo from 1967 to 1988 before he comot for public eye. For di 1990s, Kabila come back again as leader of di Alliance of Democratic Forces for di Liberation of Congo (ADFL), one rebel group wey Rwanda plus Uganda dey back. Dem invade Zaire and overthrow Mobutu during di First Congo War (1996–1997). After di war, Kabila become di new president, and dem change di kontri ein name back to Democratic Republic of Congo. De following year, after di Kasika massacre, Kabila order all foreign troops make dem commot from di kontri to block any possible coup. Dis action spark di Second Congo War (1998–2003), as Rwanda plus Uganda come support some rebel groups wey wan overthrow am. For 2001, one of ein own bodyguards assassinate am, and ein 29-year-old pikin Joseph take over as president. == Early life == Kabila na Luba man wey dem born for Baudouinville for Katanga Province (wey now be Moba for Tanganyika Province), or some people talk say na for Jadotville (wey now be Likasi for Haut-Katanga Province) inside Belgian Congo. Ein poppie be Luba and ein mommie be Lunda, but because dem dey use poppie ein side for di patriarchal kinship system, na Luba dem take know am. People talk say he go study political philosophy abroad—say he get PhD for places like Paris, Tashkent, Belgrade, and finally Dar es Salaam—but up till now, nobody show clear evidence or proof for all dis claims. == Political activities == === 1960s Congo Crisis === Sanso see: Congo Crisis Just after Congo gain independence for 1960, Katanga break away under Moïse Tshombe ein leadership. Kabila come organize di Baluba people for Manono to fight against de secession. For September 1962, dem create new province wey dem call North Katanga. Kabila become member of de provincial assembly plus serve as chief of cabinet for Minister of Information Ferdinand Tumba. But by September 1963, Kabila plus some other young assembly members dem force dem make dem resign, as people accuse dem say dem dey support communism. Kabila take side plus de hard-core Lumumbist Prosper Mwamba Ilunga. Wen de Lumumbist dem form Conseil National de Libération, dem send am go eastern Congo make e help organize revolution, especially for Kivu plus North Katanga provinces. Dis revolution na part of di bigger Simba rebellions wey dey happen across di provinces dat time. For 1965, Kabila set up one rebel base for cross-border from Kigoma, Tanzania, across Lake Tanganyika. === Association plus Che Guevara === Kabila meet Che Guevara for late April 1965, dat time wey Guevara land for Congo plus like 100 Cuban men wey wan spark Cuban-style revolution take overthrow di Congolese government. Guevara support Kabila plus im rebel men for some months, but later Guevara reason say Kabila (wey be 26 years den) no be “di man of di hour” as e first believe. E talk say Kabila no dey serious — e dey always distracted, e men no get beta training or discipline. Guevara even complain say Kabila dey show up days late when e suppose bring supplies or backup, and instead of preparing for fight, Kabila dey spend plenty time for local bars plus brothels. Di wahala between Kabila and Guevara make di whole rebellion collapse by November dat same year. ea03c4vvlcwoye1tuw60ynpnl69yw2u 69140 69133 2025-07-05T23:27:48Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69140 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Laurent-Désiré Kabila''' (; 27 November 1939 – 16 January 2001), wey people mostly dey call as Laurent Kabila or Kabila de Poppie, na Congolese rebel plus politician wey serve as de third president of Democratic Republic of Congo from 1997 till dem assassinate am for 2001. Kabila first show face as Mobutu Sese Seko ein opposition during di Congo Crisis (1960–1965). He join di Simba rebellion and lead one Communist-style breakaway state wey dem call Fizi insyd eastern Congo from 1967 to 1988 before he comot for public eye. For di 1990s, Kabila come back again as leader of di Alliance of Democratic Forces for di Liberation of Congo (ADFL), one rebel group wey Rwanda plus Uganda dey back. Dem invade Zaire and overthrow Mobutu during di First Congo War (1996–1997). After di war, Kabila become di new president, and dem change di kontri ein name back to Democratic Republic of Congo. De following year, after di Kasika massacre, Kabila order all foreign troops make dem commot from di kontri to block any possible coup. Dis action spark di Second Congo War (1998–2003), as Rwanda plus Uganda come support some rebel groups wey wan overthrow am. For 2001, one of ein own bodyguards assassinate am, and ein 29-year-old pikin Joseph take over as president. == Early life == Kabila na Luba man wey dem born for Baudouinville for Katanga Province (wey now be Moba for Tanganyika Province), or some people talk say na for Jadotville (wey now be Likasi for Haut-Katanga Province) inside Belgian Congo. Ein poppie be Luba and ein mommie be Lunda, but because dem dey use poppie ein side for di patriarchal kinship system, na Luba dem take know am. People talk say he go study political philosophy abroad—say he get PhD for places like Paris, Tashkent, Belgrade, and finally Dar es Salaam—but up till now, nobody show clear evidence or proof for all dis claims. == Political activities == === 1960s Congo Crisis === Sanso see: Congo Crisis Just after Congo gain independence for 1960, Katanga break away under Moïse Tshombe ein leadership. Kabila come organize di Baluba people for Manono to fight against de secession. For September 1962, dem create new province wey dem call North Katanga. Kabila become member of de provincial assembly plus serve as chief of cabinet for Minister of Information Ferdinand Tumba. But by September 1963, Kabila plus some other young assembly members dem force dem make dem resign, as people accuse dem say dem dey support communism. Kabila take side plus de hard-core Lumumbist Prosper Mwamba Ilunga. Wen de Lumumbist dem form Conseil National de Libération, dem send am go eastern Congo make e help organize revolution, especially for Kivu plus North Katanga provinces. Dis revolution na part of di bigger Simba rebellions wey dey happen across di provinces dat time. For 1965, Kabila set up one rebel base for cross-border from Kigoma, Tanzania, across Lake Tanganyika. === Association plus Che Guevara === Kabila meet Che Guevara for late April 1965, dat time wey Guevara land for Congo plus like 100 Cuban men wey wan spark Cuban-style revolution take overthrow di Congolese government. Guevara support Kabila plus im rebel men for some months, but later Guevara reason say Kabila (wey be 26 years den) no be “di man of di hour” as e first believe. E talk say Kabila no dey serious — e dey always distracted, e men no get beta training or discipline. Guevara even complain say Kabila dey show up days late when e suppose bring supplies or backup, and instead of preparing for fight, Kabila dey spend plenty time for local bars plus brothels. Di wahala between Kabila and Guevara make di whole rebellion collapse by November dat same year. For Guevara ein eye top, out of all de pipol wey he meet during ein Congo campaign, na only Kabila get "real qualities of mass leader"; but Guevara bash Kabila say he no get "revolutionary seriousness". After de rebellion fail, Kabila start dey do gold plus timber smuggling for Lake Tanganyika. He sana run bar plus brothel for Kigoma, Tanzania. === Marxist mini-state (1967–1988) === Main article: Maquis of Fizi For 1967, Kabila plus de small group of supporters move go de mountain area dem dey call Fizi – Baraka for South Kivu insyd Congo, wey dem form one party dem call People's Revolutionary Party (PRP). Plus help from de People's Republic of China, PRP create one secessionist Marxist state for South Kivu province, west of Lake Tanganyika. De PRP state end for 1988 wey Kabila vanish, plenty pipol tink say he die. As he land Kampala, dem talk say Kabila meet Yoweri Museveni, wey later turn president of Uganda. Museveni plus former Tanzanian president Julius Nyerere later link Kabila to Paul Kagame, wey go turn Rwanda ein president. Dis personal link dem turn very important for de mid-1990s time, as Uganda plus Rwanda dey look for Congolese face to use for their action for Zaire. == First Congo War == Main article: First Congo War As Rwandan Hutu refugees run enter Congo (wey dem dey call Zaire by den) after de 1994 genocide for Rwanda, de refugee camps wey dey de Zaire-Rwanda border turn like army base, as Hutu militia talk say dem go come back take power for Rwanda. De Kigali government see dem militia as threat to dem security, so dem dey look way to scatter de camps. After Kigali talk ein security worry give Kinshasa, say make dem move de camps go deeper insyd de country, but Kinshasa no mind dem, Kigali come believe say na only military action fit solve de matter. But to run military move insyd Zaire fit make de international community see am like invasion. So dem plan say make Banyamulenge rebellion start wey go act like cover. Na from there wey dem born de Alliance of Democratic Forces for de Liberation of Congo (AFDL), as Rwanda gather four Congolese political exiles, wey Kabila be dem spokesperson plus one of de co-founders, for 18 October 1996. Later, on 4 January 1997, dem gree say make dem join de four founding political parties into one movement wey go "gather all de live forces of de Congolese nation." Dem make Kabila de leader of AFDL as chairman of de executive committee. 919nja597httskimm7s5xulrce6asdv 69141 69140 2025-07-05T23:33:37Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69141 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Laurent-Désiré Kabila''' (; 27 November 1939 – 16 January 2001), wey people mostly dey call as Laurent Kabila or Kabila de Poppie, na Congolese rebel plus politician wey serve as de third president of Democratic Republic of Congo from 1997 till dem assassinate am for 2001. Kabila first show face as Mobutu Sese Seko ein opposition during di Congo Crisis (1960–1965). He join di Simba rebellion and lead one Communist-style breakaway state wey dem call Fizi insyd eastern Congo from 1967 to 1988 before he comot for public eye. For di 1990s, Kabila come back again as leader of di Alliance of Democratic Forces for di Liberation of Congo (ADFL), one rebel group wey Rwanda plus Uganda dey back. Dem invade Zaire and overthrow Mobutu during di First Congo War (1996–1997). After di war, Kabila become di new president, and dem change di kontri ein name back to Democratic Republic of Congo. De following year, after di Kasika massacre, Kabila order all foreign troops make dem commot from di kontri to block any possible coup. Dis action spark di Second Congo War (1998–2003), as Rwanda plus Uganda come support some rebel groups wey wan overthrow am. For 2001, one of ein own bodyguards assassinate am, and ein 29-year-old pikin Joseph take over as president. == Early life == Kabila na Luba man wey dem born for Baudouinville for Katanga Province (wey now be Moba for Tanganyika Province), or some people talk say na for Jadotville (wey now be Likasi for Haut-Katanga Province) inside Belgian Congo. Ein poppie be Luba and ein mommie be Lunda, but because dem dey use poppie ein side for di patriarchal kinship system, na Luba dem take know am. People talk say he go study political philosophy abroad—say he get PhD for places like Paris, Tashkent, Belgrade, and finally Dar es Salaam—but up till now, nobody show clear evidence or proof for all dis claims. == Political activities == === 1960s Congo Crisis === Sanso see: Congo Crisis Just after Congo gain independence for 1960, Katanga break away under Moïse Tshombe ein leadership. Kabila come organize di Baluba people for Manono to fight against de secession. For September 1962, dem create new province wey dem call North Katanga. Kabila become member of de provincial assembly plus serve as chief of cabinet for Minister of Information Ferdinand Tumba. But by September 1963, Kabila plus some other young assembly members dem force dem make dem resign, as people accuse dem say dem dey support communism. Kabila take side plus de hard-core Lumumbist Prosper Mwamba Ilunga. Wen de Lumumbist dem form Conseil National de Libération, dem send am go eastern Congo make e help organize revolution, especially for Kivu plus North Katanga provinces. Dis revolution na part of di bigger Simba rebellions wey dey happen across di provinces dat time. For 1965, Kabila set up one rebel base for cross-border from Kigoma, Tanzania, across Lake Tanganyika. === Association plus Che Guevara === Kabila meet Che Guevara for late April 1965, dat time wey Guevara land for Congo plus like 100 Cuban men wey wan spark Cuban-style revolution take overthrow di Congolese government. Guevara support Kabila plus im rebel men for some months, but later Guevara reason say Kabila (wey be 26 years den) no be “di man of di hour” as e first believe. E talk say Kabila no dey serious — e dey always distracted, e men no get beta training or discipline. Guevara even complain say Kabila dey show up days late when e suppose bring supplies or backup, and instead of preparing for fight, Kabila dey spend plenty time for local bars plus brothels. Di wahala between Kabila and Guevara make di whole rebellion collapse by November dat same year. For Guevara ein eye top, out of all de pipol wey he meet during ein Congo campaign, na only Kabila get "real qualities of mass leader"; but Guevara bash Kabila say he no get "revolutionary seriousness". After de rebellion fail, Kabila start dey do gold plus timber smuggling for Lake Tanganyika. He sana run bar plus brothel for Kigoma, Tanzania. === Marxist mini-state (1967–1988) === Main article: Maquis of Fizi For 1967, Kabila plus de small group of supporters move go de mountain area dem dey call Fizi – Baraka for South Kivu insyd Congo, wey dem form one party dem call People's Revolutionary Party (PRP). Plus help from de People's Republic of China, PRP create one secessionist Marxist state for South Kivu province, west of Lake Tanganyika. De PRP state end for 1988 wey Kabila vanish, plenty pipol tink say he die. As he land Kampala, dem talk say Kabila meet Yoweri Museveni, wey later turn president of Uganda. Museveni plus former Tanzanian president Julius Nyerere later link Kabila to Paul Kagame, wey go turn Rwanda ein president. Dis personal link dem turn very important for de mid-1990s time, as Uganda plus Rwanda dey look for Congolese face to use for their action for Zaire. == First Congo War == Main article: First Congo War As Rwandan Hutu refugees run enter Congo (wey dem dey call Zaire by den) after de 1994 genocide for Rwanda, de refugee camps wey dey de Zaire-Rwanda border turn like army base, as Hutu militia talk say dem go come back take power for Rwanda. De Kigali government see dem militia as threat to dem security, so dem dey look way to scatter de camps. After Kigali talk ein security worry give Kinshasa, say make dem move de camps go deeper insyd de country, but Kinshasa no mind dem, Kigali come believe say na only military action fit solve de matter. But to run military move insyd Zaire fit make de international community see am like invasion. So dem plan say make Banyamulenge rebellion start wey go act like cover. Na from there wey dem born de Alliance of Democratic Forces for de Liberation of Congo (AFDL), as Rwanda gather four Congolese political exiles, wey Kabila be dem spokesperson plus one of de co-founders, for 18 October 1996. Later, on 4 January 1997, dem gree say make dem join de four founding political parties into one movement wey go "gather all de live forces of de Congolese nation." Dem make Kabila de leader of AFDL as chairman of de executive committee. As Kabila be native of Katanga, dem use am make de AFDL look more like national movement wey get Congolese face, no be just Tutsi movement. By mid-1997, de AFDL almost take over de whole country plus scatter wetin remain of Mobutu ein army. Na only de bad roads plus poor infrastructure slow down Kabila ein people; for plenti places, na only rough dirt road dem dey use wey people no dey pass regular. After peace talk wey no go anywhere wey dem do for South African ship wey dem dey call SAS Outeniqua, Mobutu run go exile on 16 May. De next day, from ein base for Lubumbashi, Kabila declare say dem win de war and he make himself president. He suspend de Constitution plus change de name of de country from Zaire go Democratic Republic of de Congo — wey be de official name from 1964 reach 1971. Kabila enter Kinshasa grandly on 20 May and dem swear am in as president on 31 May, wey mark de start of ein time for power. porkah3k0objty3zr2tvv0dvc4nmhl7 69142 69141 2025-07-05T23:35:13Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69142 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Laurent-Désiré Kabila''' (; 27 November 1939 – 16 January 2001), wey people mostly dey call as Laurent Kabila or Kabila de Poppie, na Congolese rebel plus politician wey serve as de third president of Democratic Republic of Congo from 1997 till dem assassinate am for 2001. Kabila first show face as Mobutu Sese Seko ein opposition during di Congo Crisis (1960–1965). He join di Simba rebellion and lead one Communist-style breakaway state wey dem call Fizi insyd eastern Congo from 1967 to 1988 before he comot for public eye. For di 1990s, Kabila come back again as leader of di Alliance of Democratic Forces for di Liberation of Congo (ADFL), one rebel group wey Rwanda plus Uganda dey back. Dem invade Zaire and overthrow Mobutu during di First Congo War (1996–1997). After di war, Kabila become di new president, and dem change di kontri ein name back to Democratic Republic of Congo. De following year, after di Kasika massacre, Kabila order all foreign troops make dem commot from di kontri to block any possible coup. Dis action spark di Second Congo War (1998–2003), as Rwanda plus Uganda come support some rebel groups wey wan overthrow am. For 2001, one of ein own bodyguards assassinate am, and ein 29-year-old pikin Joseph take over as president. == Early life == Kabila na Luba man wey dem born for Baudouinville for Katanga Province (wey now be Moba for Tanganyika Province), or some people talk say na for Jadotville (wey now be Likasi for Haut-Katanga Province) inside Belgian Congo. Ein poppie be Luba and ein mommie be Lunda, but because dem dey use poppie ein side for di patriarchal kinship system, na Luba dem take know am. People talk say he go study political philosophy abroad—say he get PhD for places like Paris, Tashkent, Belgrade, and finally Dar es Salaam—but up till now, nobody show clear evidence or proof for all dis claims. == Political activities == === 1960s Congo Crisis === Sanso see: Congo Crisis Just after Congo gain independence for 1960, Katanga break away under Moïse Tshombe ein leadership. Kabila come organize di Baluba people for Manono to fight against de secession. For September 1962, dem create new province wey dem call North Katanga. Kabila become member of de provincial assembly plus serve as chief of cabinet for Minister of Information Ferdinand Tumba. But by September 1963, Kabila plus some other young assembly members dem force dem make dem resign, as people accuse dem say dem dey support communism. Kabila take side plus de hard-core Lumumbist Prosper Mwamba Ilunga. Wen de Lumumbist dem form Conseil National de Libération, dem send am go eastern Congo make e help organize revolution, especially for Kivu plus North Katanga provinces. Dis revolution na part of di bigger Simba rebellions wey dey happen across di provinces dat time. For 1965, Kabila set up one rebel base for cross-border from Kigoma, Tanzania, across Lake Tanganyika. === Association plus Che Guevara === Kabila meet Che Guevara for late April 1965, dat time wey Guevara land for Congo plus like 100 Cuban men wey wan spark Cuban-style revolution take overthrow di Congolese government. Guevara support Kabila plus im rebel men for some months, but later Guevara reason say Kabila (wey be 26 years den) no be “di man of di hour” as e first believe. E talk say Kabila no dey serious — e dey always distracted, e men no get beta training or discipline. Guevara even complain say Kabila dey show up days late when e suppose bring supplies or backup, and instead of preparing for fight, Kabila dey spend plenty time for local bars plus brothels. Di wahala between Kabila and Guevara make di whole rebellion collapse by November dat same year. For Guevara ein eye top, out of all de pipol wey he meet during ein Congo campaign, na only Kabila get "real qualities of mass leader"; but Guevara bash Kabila say he no get "revolutionary seriousness". After de rebellion fail, Kabila start dey do gold plus timber smuggling for Lake Tanganyika. He sana run bar plus brothel for Kigoma, Tanzania. === Marxist mini-state (1967–1988) === Main article: Maquis of Fizi For 1967, Kabila plus de small group of supporters move go de mountain area dem dey call Fizi – Baraka for South Kivu insyd Congo, wey dem form one party dem call People's Revolutionary Party (PRP). Plus help from de People's Republic of China, PRP create one secessionist Marxist state for South Kivu province, west of Lake Tanganyika. De PRP state end for 1988 wey Kabila vanish, plenty pipol tink say he die. As he land Kampala, dem talk say Kabila meet Yoweri Museveni, wey later turn president of Uganda. Museveni plus former Tanzanian president Julius Nyerere later link Kabila to Paul Kagame, wey go turn Rwanda ein president. Dis personal link dem turn very important for de mid-1990s time, as Uganda plus Rwanda dey look for Congolese face to use for their action for Zaire. == First Congo War == Main article: First Congo War As Rwandan Hutu refugees run enter Congo (wey dem dey call Zaire by den) after de 1994 genocide for Rwanda, de refugee camps wey dey de Zaire-Rwanda border turn like army base, as Hutu militia talk say dem go come back take power for Rwanda. De Kigali government see dem militia as threat to dem security, so dem dey look way to scatter de camps. After Kigali talk ein security worry give Kinshasa, say make dem move de camps go deeper insyd de country, but Kinshasa no mind dem, Kigali come believe say na only military action fit solve de matter. But to run military move insyd Zaire fit make de international community see am like invasion. So dem plan say make Banyamulenge rebellion start wey go act like cover. Na from there wey dem born de Alliance of Democratic Forces for de Liberation of Congo (AFDL), as Rwanda gather four Congolese political exiles, wey Kabila be dem spokesperson plus one of de co-founders, for 18 October 1996. Later, on 4 January 1997, dem gree say make dem join de four founding political parties into one movement wey go "gather all de live forces of de Congolese nation." Dem make Kabila de leader of AFDL as chairman of de executive committee. As Kabila be native of Katanga, dem use am make de AFDL look more like national movement wey get Congolese face, no be just Tutsi movement. By mid-1997, de AFDL almost take over de whole country plus scatter wetin remain of Mobutu ein army. Na only de bad roads plus poor infrastructure slow down Kabila ein people; for plenti places, na only rough dirt road dem dey use wey people no dey pass regular. After peace talk wey no go anywhere wey dem do for South African ship wey dem dey call SAS Outeniqua, Mobutu run go exile on 16 May. De next day, from ein base for Lubumbashi, Kabila declare say dem win de war and he make himself president. He suspend de Constitution plus change de name of de country from Zaire go Democratic Republic of de Congo — wey be de official name from 1964 reach 1971. Kabila enter Kinshasa grandly on 20 May and dem swear am in as president on 31 May, wey mark de start of ein time for power. == Presidency (1997–2001) == ib3qbrs0bwmn9avkvuyolu5quxp5trf 69148 69142 2025-07-05T23:46:06Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69148 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Laurent-Désiré Kabila''' (; 27 November 1939 – 16 January 2001), wey people mostly dey call as Laurent Kabila or Kabila de Poppie, na Congolese rebel plus politician wey serve as de third president of Democratic Republic of Congo from 1997 till dem assassinate am for 2001. Kabila first show face as Mobutu Sese Seko ein opposition during di Congo Crisis (1960–1965). He join di Simba rebellion and lead one Communist-style breakaway state wey dem call Fizi insyd eastern Congo from 1967 to 1988 before he comot for public eye. For di 1990s, Kabila come back again as leader of di Alliance of Democratic Forces for di Liberation of Congo (ADFL), one rebel group wey Rwanda plus Uganda dey back. Dem invade Zaire and overthrow Mobutu during di First Congo War (1996–1997). After di war, Kabila become di new president, and dem change di kontri ein name back to Democratic Republic of Congo. De following year, after di Kasika massacre, Kabila order all foreign troops make dem commot from di kontri to block any possible coup. Dis action spark di Second Congo War (1998–2003), as Rwanda plus Uganda come support some rebel groups wey wan overthrow am. For 2001, one of ein own bodyguards assassinate am, and ein 29-year-old pikin Joseph take over as president. == Early life == Kabila na Luba man wey dem born for Baudouinville for Katanga Province (wey now be Moba for Tanganyika Province), or some people talk say na for Jadotville (wey now be Likasi for Haut-Katanga Province) inside Belgian Congo. Ein poppie be Luba and ein mommie be Lunda, but because dem dey use poppie ein side for di patriarchal kinship system, na Luba dem take know am. People talk say he go study political philosophy abroad—say he get PhD for places like Paris, Tashkent, Belgrade, and finally Dar es Salaam—but up till now, nobody show clear evidence or proof for all dis claims. == Political activities == === 1960s Congo Crisis === Sanso see: Congo Crisis Just after Congo gain independence for 1960, Katanga break away under Moïse Tshombe ein leadership. Kabila come organize di Baluba people for Manono to fight against de secession. For September 1962, dem create new province wey dem call North Katanga. Kabila become member of de provincial assembly plus serve as chief of cabinet for Minister of Information Ferdinand Tumba. But by September 1963, Kabila plus some other young assembly members dem force dem make dem resign, as people accuse dem say dem dey support communism. Kabila take side plus de hard-core Lumumbist Prosper Mwamba Ilunga. Wen de Lumumbist dem form Conseil National de Libération, dem send am go eastern Congo make e help organize revolution, especially for Kivu plus North Katanga provinces. Dis revolution na part of di bigger Simba rebellions wey dey happen across di provinces dat time. For 1965, Kabila set up one rebel base for cross-border from Kigoma, Tanzania, across Lake Tanganyika. === Association plus Che Guevara === Kabila meet Che Guevara for late April 1965, dat time wey Guevara land for Congo plus like 100 Cuban men wey wan spark Cuban-style revolution take overthrow di Congolese government. Guevara support Kabila plus im rebel men for some months, but later Guevara reason say Kabila (wey be 26 years den) no be “di man of di hour” as e first believe. E talk say Kabila no dey serious — e dey always distracted, e men no get beta training or discipline. Guevara even complain say Kabila dey show up days late when e suppose bring supplies or backup, and instead of preparing for fight, Kabila dey spend plenty time for local bars plus brothels. Di wahala between Kabila and Guevara make di whole rebellion collapse by November dat same year. For Guevara ein eye top, out of all de pipol wey he meet during ein Congo campaign, na only Kabila get "real qualities of mass leader"; but Guevara bash Kabila say he no get "revolutionary seriousness". After de rebellion fail, Kabila start dey do gold plus timber smuggling for Lake Tanganyika. He sana run bar plus brothel for Kigoma, Tanzania. === Marxist mini-state (1967–1988) === Main article: Maquis of Fizi For 1967, Kabila plus de small group of supporters move go de mountain area dem dey call Fizi – Baraka for South Kivu insyd Congo, wey dem form one party dem call People's Revolutionary Party (PRP). Plus help from de People's Republic of China, PRP create one secessionist Marxist state for South Kivu province, west of Lake Tanganyika. De PRP state end for 1988 wey Kabila vanish, plenty pipol tink say he die. As he land Kampala, dem talk say Kabila meet Yoweri Museveni, wey later turn president of Uganda. Museveni plus former Tanzanian president Julius Nyerere later link Kabila to Paul Kagame, wey go turn Rwanda ein president. Dis personal link dem turn very important for de mid-1990s time, as Uganda plus Rwanda dey look for Congolese face to use for their action for Zaire. == First Congo War == Main article: First Congo War As Rwandan Hutu refugees run enter Congo (wey dem dey call Zaire by den) after de 1994 genocide for Rwanda, de refugee camps wey dey de Zaire-Rwanda border turn like army base, as Hutu militia talk say dem go come back take power for Rwanda. De Kigali government see dem militia as threat to dem security, so dem dey look way to scatter de camps. After Kigali talk ein security worry give Kinshasa, say make dem move de camps go deeper insyd de country, but Kinshasa no mind dem, Kigali come believe say na only military action fit solve de matter. But to run military move insyd Zaire fit make de international community see am like invasion. So dem plan say make Banyamulenge rebellion start wey go act like cover. Na from there wey dem born de Alliance of Democratic Forces for de Liberation of Congo (AFDL), as Rwanda gather four Congolese political exiles, wey Kabila be dem spokesperson plus one of de co-founders, for 18 October 1996. Later, on 4 January 1997, dem gree say make dem join de four founding political parties into one movement wey go "gather all de live forces of de Congolese nation." Dem make Kabila de leader of AFDL as chairman of de executive committee. As Kabila be native of Katanga, dem use am make de AFDL look more like national movement wey get Congolese face, no be just Tutsi movement. By mid-1997, de AFDL almost take over de whole country plus scatter wetin remain of Mobutu ein army. Na only de bad roads plus poor infrastructure slow down Kabila ein people; for plenti places, na only rough dirt road dem dey use wey people no dey pass regular. After peace talk wey no go anywhere wey dem do for South African ship wey dem dey call SAS Outeniqua, Mobutu run go exile on 16 May. De next day, from ein base for Lubumbashi, Kabila declare say dem win de war and he make himself president. He suspend de Constitution plus change de name of de country from Zaire go Democratic Republic of de Congo — wey be de official name from 1964 reach 1971. Kabila enter Kinshasa grandly on 20 May and dem swear am in as president on 31 May, wey mark de start of ein time for power. == Presidency (1997–2001) == Sanso see: Second Congo War Before before, Kabila be strong Marxist, but by dis time, ein policies turn more like social democracy. He talk say elections no go happen for two years, 'cause he need dat time to bring back order. Some people for West dey praise am say he be part of new kind African leaders, but critics dey talk say ein way no be different from Mobutu own — still be same authoritarian rule, corruption plus human rights wahala. As early as late 1997, people don already dey call am "another Mobutu. "Dem even accuse am say he dey try build ein own personality cult. Mobutu ein old information minister, Dominique Sakombi Inongo, Kabila still keep am. Na him come dey call Kabila “de Mzee,” and posters scatter all over de country wey talk say “Voici l'homme que nous avions besoin” — wey mean “Here be de man wey we need.” By 1998, Kabila ein old allies wey be Uganda plus Rwanda turn against am, then dem start support new rebel groups — Rally for Congolese Democracy (RCD) plus Movement for de Liberation of Congo (MLC). But Kabila find new friends for Angola, Namibia plus Zimbabwe, and e manage hold ground for de south plus west side of de country. By July 1999, peace talks come lead to de withdrawal of most of de foreign soldiers dem. == Assassination den trial == Main article: Assassination of Laurent-Désiré Kabila Sanso see: Murder insyd Kinshasa On 16 January 2001, Kabila dey inside ein office for Palais de Marbre wey dem shoot am, then dem rush am go Zimbabwe for medical treatment. DRC authorities still manage keep power, even though dem kill Kabila. But how e all happen still no clear. Some talk say Kabila die right there, as DRC ein then-health minister Leonard Mashako Mamba (wey dey de next office) reach sharp after de shooting. But government claim say Kabila still dey alive, so dem fly am go hospital for Zimbabwe after de shooting, make dem fit prepare for who go take over. On 18 January, DRC government finally announce say he die from de gun wounds. One week later, dem bring ein body back to Congo for state funeral, then ten days later ein son, Joseph Kabila, take over as president. Dis move be say dem follow de "verbal testimony" wey de dead president give. De then Justice Minister Mwenze Kongolo plus Kabila ein aide-de-camp Eddy Kapend talk say Kabila tell dem say if anything happen to am, make ein son Joseph (wey be number two for de army by den) take over. 3rcb5gnch6yt4cnjejtwoxeslcaymjo 69150 69148 2025-07-05T23:50:13Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69150 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Laurent-Désiré Kabila''' (; 27 November 1939 – 16 January 2001), wey people mostly dey call as Laurent Kabila or Kabila de Poppie, na Congolese rebel plus politician wey serve as de third president of Democratic Republic of Congo from 1997 till dem assassinate am for 2001. Kabila first show face as Mobutu Sese Seko ein opposition during di Congo Crisis (1960–1965). He join di Simba rebellion and lead one Communist-style breakaway state wey dem call Fizi insyd eastern Congo from 1967 to 1988 before he comot for public eye. For di 1990s, Kabila come back again as leader of di Alliance of Democratic Forces for di Liberation of Congo (ADFL), one rebel group wey Rwanda plus Uganda dey back. Dem invade Zaire and overthrow Mobutu during di First Congo War (1996–1997). After di war, Kabila become di new president, and dem change di kontri ein name back to Democratic Republic of Congo. De following year, after di Kasika massacre, Kabila order all foreign troops make dem commot from di kontri to block any possible coup. Dis action spark di Second Congo War (1998–2003), as Rwanda plus Uganda come support some rebel groups wey wan overthrow am. For 2001, one of ein own bodyguards assassinate am, and ein 29-year-old pikin Joseph take over as president. == Early life == Kabila na Luba man wey dem born for Baudouinville for Katanga Province (wey now be Moba for Tanganyika Province), or some people talk say na for Jadotville (wey now be Likasi for Haut-Katanga Province) inside Belgian Congo. Ein poppie be Luba and ein mommie be Lunda, but because dem dey use poppie ein side for di patriarchal kinship system, na Luba dem take know am. People talk say he go study political philosophy abroad—say he get PhD for places like Paris, Tashkent, Belgrade, and finally Dar es Salaam—but up till now, nobody show clear evidence or proof for all dis claims. == Political activities == === 1960s Congo Crisis === Sanso see: Congo Crisis Just after Congo gain independence for 1960, Katanga break away under Moïse Tshombe ein leadership. Kabila come organize di Baluba people for Manono to fight against de secession. For September 1962, dem create new province wey dem call North Katanga. Kabila become member of de provincial assembly plus serve as chief of cabinet for Minister of Information Ferdinand Tumba. But by September 1963, Kabila plus some other young assembly members dem force dem make dem resign, as people accuse dem say dem dey support communism. Kabila take side plus de hard-core Lumumbist Prosper Mwamba Ilunga. Wen de Lumumbist dem form Conseil National de Libération, dem send am go eastern Congo make e help organize revolution, especially for Kivu plus North Katanga provinces. Dis revolution na part of di bigger Simba rebellions wey dey happen across di provinces dat time. For 1965, Kabila set up one rebel base for cross-border from Kigoma, Tanzania, across Lake Tanganyika. === Association plus Che Guevara === Kabila meet Che Guevara for late April 1965, dat time wey Guevara land for Congo plus like 100 Cuban men wey wan spark Cuban-style revolution take overthrow di Congolese government. Guevara support Kabila plus im rebel men for some months, but later Guevara reason say Kabila (wey be 26 years den) no be “di man of di hour” as e first believe. E talk say Kabila no dey serious — e dey always distracted, e men no get beta training or discipline. Guevara even complain say Kabila dey show up days late when e suppose bring supplies or backup, and instead of preparing for fight, Kabila dey spend plenty time for local bars plus brothels. Di wahala between Kabila and Guevara make di whole rebellion collapse by November dat same year. For Guevara ein eye top, out of all de pipol wey he meet during ein Congo campaign, na only Kabila get "real qualities of mass leader"; but Guevara bash Kabila say he no get "revolutionary seriousness". After de rebellion fail, Kabila start dey do gold plus timber smuggling for Lake Tanganyika. He sana run bar plus brothel for Kigoma, Tanzania. === Marxist mini-state (1967–1988) === Main article: Maquis of Fizi For 1967, Kabila plus de small group of supporters move go de mountain area dem dey call Fizi – Baraka for South Kivu insyd Congo, wey dem form one party dem call People's Revolutionary Party (PRP). Plus help from de People's Republic of China, PRP create one secessionist Marxist state for South Kivu province, west of Lake Tanganyika. De PRP state end for 1988 wey Kabila vanish, plenty pipol tink say he die. As he land Kampala, dem talk say Kabila meet Yoweri Museveni, wey later turn president of Uganda. Museveni plus former Tanzanian president Julius Nyerere later link Kabila to Paul Kagame, wey go turn Rwanda ein president. Dis personal link dem turn very important for de mid-1990s time, as Uganda plus Rwanda dey look for Congolese face to use for their action for Zaire. == First Congo War == Main article: First Congo War As Rwandan Hutu refugees run enter Congo (wey dem dey call Zaire by den) after de 1994 genocide for Rwanda, de refugee camps wey dey de Zaire-Rwanda border turn like army base, as Hutu militia talk say dem go come back take power for Rwanda. De Kigali government see dem militia as threat to dem security, so dem dey look way to scatter de camps. After Kigali talk ein security worry give Kinshasa, say make dem move de camps go deeper insyd de country, but Kinshasa no mind dem, Kigali come believe say na only military action fit solve de matter. But to run military move insyd Zaire fit make de international community see am like invasion. So dem plan say make Banyamulenge rebellion start wey go act like cover. Na from there wey dem born de Alliance of Democratic Forces for de Liberation of Congo (AFDL), as Rwanda gather four Congolese political exiles, wey Kabila be dem spokesperson plus one of de co-founders, for 18 October 1996. Later, on 4 January 1997, dem gree say make dem join de four founding political parties into one movement wey go "gather all de live forces of de Congolese nation." Dem make Kabila de leader of AFDL as chairman of de executive committee. As Kabila be native of Katanga, dem use am make de AFDL look more like national movement wey get Congolese face, no be just Tutsi movement. By mid-1997, de AFDL almost take over de whole country plus scatter wetin remain of Mobutu ein army. Na only de bad roads plus poor infrastructure slow down Kabila ein people; for plenti places, na only rough dirt road dem dey use wey people no dey pass regular. After peace talk wey no go anywhere wey dem do for South African ship wey dem dey call SAS Outeniqua, Mobutu run go exile on 16 May. De next day, from ein base for Lubumbashi, Kabila declare say dem win de war and he make himself president. He suspend de Constitution plus change de name of de country from Zaire go Democratic Republic of de Congo — wey be de official name from 1964 reach 1971. Kabila enter Kinshasa grandly on 20 May and dem swear am in as president on 31 May, wey mark de start of ein time for power. == Presidency (1997–2001) == Sanso see: Second Congo War Before before, Kabila be strong Marxist, but by dis time, ein policies turn more like social democracy. He talk say elections no go happen for two years, 'cause he need dat time to bring back order. Some people for West dey praise am say he be part of new kind African leaders, but critics dey talk say ein way no be different from Mobutu own — still be same authoritarian rule, corruption plus human rights wahala. As early as late 1997, people don already dey call am "another Mobutu. "Dem even accuse am say he dey try build ein own personality cult. Mobutu ein old information minister, Dominique Sakombi Inongo, Kabila still keep am. Na him come dey call Kabila “de Mzee,” and posters scatter all over de country wey talk say “Voici l'homme que nous avions besoin” — wey mean “Here be de man wey we need.” By 1998, Kabila ein old allies wey be Uganda plus Rwanda turn against am, then dem start support new rebel groups — Rally for Congolese Democracy (RCD) plus Movement for de Liberation of Congo (MLC). But Kabila find new friends for Angola, Namibia plus Zimbabwe, and e manage hold ground for de south plus west side of de country. By July 1999, peace talks come lead to de withdrawal of most of de foreign soldiers dem. == Assassination den trial == Main article: Assassination of Laurent-Désiré Kabila Sanso see: Murder insyd Kinshasa On 16 January 2001, Kabila dey inside ein office for Palais de Marbre wey dem shoot am, then dem rush am go Zimbabwe for medical treatment. DRC authorities still manage keep power, even though dem kill Kabila. But how e all happen still no clear. Some talk say Kabila die right there, as DRC ein then-health minister Leonard Mashako Mamba (wey dey de next office) reach sharp after de shooting. But government claim say Kabila still dey alive, so dem fly am go hospital for Zimbabwe after de shooting, make dem fit prepare for who go take over. On 18 January, DRC government finally announce say he die from de gun wounds. One week later, dem bring ein body back to Congo for state funeral, then ten days later ein son, Joseph Kabila, take over as president. Dis move be say dem follow de "verbal testimony" wey de dead president give. De then Justice Minister Mwenze Kongolo plus Kabila ein aide-de-camp Eddy Kapend talk say Kabila tell dem say if anything happen to am, make ein son Joseph (wey be number two for de army by den) take over. De investigation wey dem do on top Kabila ein killing make dem arrest 135 people, wey include four pikin, wey dem carry go special military tribunal. Dem say de main brain behind de killing be Colonel Eddy Kapend (wey be Kabila ein cousin), plus 25 others, wey dem sentence to death for January 2003, but dem no kill any of dem. Among de rest, 64 people get prison sentence — from six months reach life sentence — and 45 people dem free dem. Some people inside, like Kabila ein special advisor Emmanuel Dungia (wey be former ambassador to South Africa), dem accuse say dem try plan coup against Joseph Kabila. But plenty people believe say de trial no be fair, and say dem jail innocent people. One Al Jazeera documentary called ''Murder in Kinshasa'' break down all de doubts plus problems wey dey inside de case. 4u0jk2mj4zzjf9ovmbkpcoqzuiu7bx0 69154 69150 2025-07-05T23:59:49Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69154 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Laurent-Désiré Kabila''' (; 27 November 1939 – 16 January 2001), wey people mostly dey call as Laurent Kabila or Kabila de Poppie, na Congolese rebel plus politician wey serve as de third president of Democratic Republic of Congo from 1997 till dem assassinate am for 2001. Kabila first show face as Mobutu Sese Seko ein opposition during di Congo Crisis (1960–1965). He join di Simba rebellion and lead one Communist-style breakaway state wey dem call Fizi insyd eastern Congo from 1967 to 1988 before he comot for public eye. For di 1990s, Kabila come back again as leader of di Alliance of Democratic Forces for di Liberation of Congo (ADFL), one rebel group wey Rwanda plus Uganda dey back. Dem invade Zaire and overthrow Mobutu during di First Congo War (1996–1997). After di war, Kabila become di new president, and dem change di kontri ein name back to Democratic Republic of Congo. De following year, after di Kasika massacre, Kabila order all foreign troops make dem commot from di kontri to block any possible coup. Dis action spark di Second Congo War (1998–2003), as Rwanda plus Uganda come support some rebel groups wey wan overthrow am. For 2001, one of ein own bodyguards assassinate am, and ein 29-year-old pikin Joseph take over as president. == Early life == Kabila na Luba man wey dem born for Baudouinville for Katanga Province (wey now be Moba for Tanganyika Province), or some people talk say na for Jadotville (wey now be Likasi for Haut-Katanga Province) inside Belgian Congo. Ein poppie be Luba and ein mommie be Lunda, but because dem dey use poppie ein side for di patriarchal kinship system, na Luba dem take know am. People talk say he go study political philosophy abroad—say he get PhD for places like Paris, Tashkent, Belgrade, and finally Dar es Salaam—but up till now, nobody show clear evidence or proof for all dis claims. == Political activities == === 1960s Congo Crisis === Sanso see: Congo Crisis Just after Congo gain independence for 1960, Katanga break away under Moïse Tshombe ein leadership. Kabila come organize di Baluba people for Manono to fight against de secession. For September 1962, dem create new province wey dem call North Katanga. Kabila become member of de provincial assembly plus serve as chief of cabinet for Minister of Information Ferdinand Tumba. But by September 1963, Kabila plus some other young assembly members dem force dem make dem resign, as people accuse dem say dem dey support communism. Kabila take side plus de hard-core Lumumbist Prosper Mwamba Ilunga. Wen de Lumumbist dem form Conseil National de Libération, dem send am go eastern Congo make e help organize revolution, especially for Kivu plus North Katanga provinces. Dis revolution na part of di bigger Simba rebellions wey dey happen across di provinces dat time. For 1965, Kabila set up one rebel base for cross-border from Kigoma, Tanzania, across Lake Tanganyika. === Association plus Che Guevara === Kabila meet Che Guevara for late April 1965, dat time wey Guevara land for Congo plus like 100 Cuban men wey wan spark Cuban-style revolution take overthrow di Congolese government. Guevara support Kabila plus im rebel men for some months, but later Guevara reason say Kabila (wey be 26 years den) no be “di man of di hour” as e first believe. E talk say Kabila no dey serious — e dey always distracted, e men no get beta training or discipline. Guevara even complain say Kabila dey show up days late when e suppose bring supplies or backup, and instead of preparing for fight, Kabila dey spend plenty time for local bars plus brothels. Di wahala between Kabila and Guevara make di whole rebellion collapse by November dat same year. For Guevara ein eye top, out of all de pipol wey he meet during ein Congo campaign, na only Kabila get "real qualities of mass leader"; but Guevara bash Kabila say he no get "revolutionary seriousness". After de rebellion fail, Kabila start dey do gold plus timber smuggling for Lake Tanganyika. He sana run bar plus brothel for Kigoma, Tanzania. === Marxist mini-state (1967–1988) === Main article: Maquis of Fizi For 1967, Kabila plus de small group of supporters move go de mountain area dem dey call Fizi – Baraka for South Kivu insyd Congo, wey dem form one party dem call People's Revolutionary Party (PRP). Plus help from de People's Republic of China, PRP create one secessionist Marxist state for South Kivu province, west of Lake Tanganyika. De PRP state end for 1988 wey Kabila vanish, plenty pipol tink say he die. As he land Kampala, dem talk say Kabila meet Yoweri Museveni, wey later turn president of Uganda. Museveni plus former Tanzanian president Julius Nyerere later link Kabila to Paul Kagame, wey go turn Rwanda ein president. Dis personal link dem turn very important for de mid-1990s time, as Uganda plus Rwanda dey look for Congolese face to use for their action for Zaire. == First Congo War == Main article: First Congo War As Rwandan Hutu refugees run enter Congo (wey dem dey call Zaire by den) after de 1994 genocide for Rwanda, de refugee camps wey dey de Zaire-Rwanda border turn like army base, as Hutu militia talk say dem go come back take power for Rwanda. De Kigali government see dem militia as threat to dem security, so dem dey look way to scatter de camps. After Kigali talk ein security worry give Kinshasa, say make dem move de camps go deeper insyd de country, but Kinshasa no mind dem, Kigali come believe say na only military action fit solve de matter. But to run military move insyd Zaire fit make de international community see am like invasion. So dem plan say make Banyamulenge rebellion start wey go act like cover. Na from there wey dem born de Alliance of Democratic Forces for de Liberation of Congo (AFDL), as Rwanda gather four Congolese political exiles, wey Kabila be dem spokesperson plus one of de co-founders, for 18 October 1996. Later, on 4 January 1997, dem gree say make dem join de four founding political parties into one movement wey go "gather all de live forces of de Congolese nation." Dem make Kabila de leader of AFDL as chairman of de executive committee. As Kabila be native of Katanga, dem use am make de AFDL look more like national movement wey get Congolese face, no be just Tutsi movement. By mid-1997, de AFDL almost take over de whole country plus scatter wetin remain of Mobutu ein army. Na only de bad roads plus poor infrastructure slow down Kabila ein people; for plenti places, na only rough dirt road dem dey use wey people no dey pass regular. After peace talk wey no go anywhere wey dem do for South African ship wey dem dey call SAS Outeniqua, Mobutu run go exile on 16 May. De next day, from ein base for Lubumbashi, Kabila declare say dem win de war and he make himself president. He suspend de Constitution plus change de name of de country from Zaire go Democratic Republic of de Congo — wey be de official name from 1964 reach 1971. Kabila enter Kinshasa grandly on 20 May and dem swear am in as president on 31 May, wey mark de start of ein time for power. == Presidency (1997–2001) == Sanso see: Second Congo War Before before, Kabila be strong Marxist, but by dis time, ein policies turn more like social democracy. He talk say elections no go happen for two years, 'cause he need dat time to bring back order. Some people for West dey praise am say he be part of new kind African leaders, but critics dey talk say ein way no be different from Mobutu own — still be same authoritarian rule, corruption plus human rights wahala. As early as late 1997, people don already dey call am "another Mobutu. "Dem even accuse am say he dey try build ein own personality cult. Mobutu ein old information minister, Dominique Sakombi Inongo, Kabila still keep am. Na him come dey call Kabila “de Mzee,” and posters scatter all over de country wey talk say “Voici l'homme que nous avions besoin” — wey mean “Here be de man wey we need.” By 1998, Kabila ein old allies wey be Uganda plus Rwanda turn against am, then dem start support new rebel groups — Rally for Congolese Democracy (RCD) plus Movement for de Liberation of Congo (MLC). But Kabila find new friends for Angola, Namibia plus Zimbabwe, and e manage hold ground for de south plus west side of de country. By July 1999, peace talks come lead to de withdrawal of most of de foreign soldiers dem. == Assassination den trial == Main article: Assassination of Laurent-Désiré Kabila Sanso see: Murder insyd Kinshasa On 16 January 2001, Kabila dey inside ein office for Palais de Marbre wey dem shoot am, then dem rush am go Zimbabwe for medical treatment. DRC authorities still manage keep power, even though dem kill Kabila. But how e all happen still no clear. Some talk say Kabila die right there, as DRC ein then-health minister Leonard Mashako Mamba (wey dey de next office) reach sharp after de shooting. But government claim say Kabila still dey alive, so dem fly am go hospital for Zimbabwe after de shooting, make dem fit prepare for who go take over. On 18 January, DRC government finally announce say he die from de gun wounds. One week later, dem bring ein body back to Congo for state funeral, then ten days later ein son, Joseph Kabila, take over as president. Dis move be say dem follow de "verbal testimony" wey de dead president give. De then Justice Minister Mwenze Kongolo plus Kabila ein aide-de-camp Eddy Kapend talk say Kabila tell dem say if anything happen to am, make ein son Joseph (wey be number two for de army by den) take over. De investigation wey dem do on top Kabila ein killing make dem arrest 135 people, wey include four pikin, wey dem carry go special military tribunal. Dem say de main brain behind de killing be Colonel Eddy Kapend (wey be Kabila ein cousin), plus 25 others, wey dem sentence to death for January 2003, but dem no kill any of dem. Among de rest, 64 people get prison sentence — from six months reach life sentence — and 45 people dem free dem. Some people inside, like Kabila ein special advisor Emmanuel Dungia (wey be former ambassador to South Africa), dem accuse say dem try plan coup against Joseph Kabila. But plenty people believe say de trial no be fair, and say dem jail innocent people. One Al Jazeera documentary called ''Murder in Kinshasa'' break down all de doubts plus problems wey dey inside de case. In January 2021, DRC's President Félix Tshisekedi pardoned all those convicted in the murder of Laurent-Désiré Kabila in 2001. Colonel Eddy Kapend and his co-defendants, who have been incarcerated for 15 years, were released. == Personal life == E get like nine pikin insyd ein marriage plus ein wife Sifa Mahanya: Josephine, Cécile, Fifi, Selemani, twins Jaynet plus Joseph, Zoé, Anina plus Tetia. Dem say too say he be de alleged poppie of Aimée Kabila Mulengela, wey ein mommie be Zaïna Kibangula. == Citations == tpyyes044bjio3qqp7lqi6te0zlkwv3 Category:Ethnic groups insyd Anguilla 14 18356 69137 2025-07-05T23:23:35Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 69137 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 Category:African diaspora insyd de Caribbean 14 18357 69138 2025-07-05T23:23:46Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 69138 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 Category:Anguillan people of African descent 14 18358 69139 2025-07-05T23:23:59Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 69139 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 Female slavery in the United States 0 18359 69190 2025-07-06T01:01:35Z Abdul-Rauf Moshie 1580 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1298837835|Female slavery in the United States]]" 69190 wikitext text/x-wiki Di way wey dem dey live for plenty different situations plus di fact sey dem be black women, enslaved women from Africa get beta different experiences for slavery. Historian Deborah Gray White talk sey, "di African-American woman dey stand for di crossroads of two strong ideologies for America, one for women and di other for Negro people.<ref name="White2">{{cite book|last=White|first=Deborah Gray|url=https://archive.org/details/arntiwomanfemal00whit|title=Ar'n't I a Woman?: female slaves in the plantation South|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|year=1999|isbn=0393314812|edition=Revised|location=New York|access-date=December 17, 2019|url-access=registration|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200818014828/https://archive.org/details/arntiwomanfemal00whit|archive-date=August 18, 2020|url-status=live}}</ref>" From di time dem start slave journey for Middle Passage, di treatment wey enslaved women dey receive dey different because dem be women. When e come to hard work and suffer, dem dey face di same level wahala like di men, but dem still dey go through sexual abuse from dem slave masters wey dey use stereotype sey black women too dey too sexual as excuse.<ref>{{cite book|last=White|first=Deborah Gray|title=Ar'n't I a Woman? Female Slaves in the Plantation South|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|year=1999|edition=Revised|chapter=The Nature of Female Slavery}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Bell|first=Karen Cook|date=2022-11-07|title=On War and U.S. Slavery: Enslaved Black Women’s Experiences - AAIHS|url=https://www.aaihs.org/on-war-and-u-s-slavery-enslaved-black-womens-experiences/|access-date=2025-06-08|website=www.aaihs.org|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Marshall |first=Lydia Wilson |date=2022-05-04 |title=Women, Slavery, and Labor in the United States |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/21619441.2022.2102835 |journal=Journal of African Diaspora Archaeology and Heritage |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=93–96 |doi=10.1080/21619441.2022.2102835 |issn=2161-9441 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> csutcevo52b9c3j8ha9i0kgkcvwp474 69192 69190 2025-07-06T01:03:35Z Abdul-Rauf Moshie 1580 69192 wikitext text/x-wiki Di way wey dem dey live for plenty different situations plus di fact sey dem be black women, enslaved women from Africa get beta different experiences for slavery. Historian Deborah Gray White talk sey, "di African-American woman dey stand for di crossroads of two strong ideologies for America, one for women and di other for Negro people.<ref name="White2">{{cite book|last=White|first=Deborah Gray|url=https://archive.org/details/arntiwomanfemal00whit|title=Ar'n't I a Woman?: female slaves in the plantation South|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|year=1999|isbn=0393314812|edition=Revised|location=New York|access-date=December 17, 2019|url-access=registration|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200818014828/https://archive.org/details/arntiwomanfemal00whit|archive-date=August 18, 2020|url-status=live}}</ref>" From di time dem start slave journey for Middle Passage, di treatment wey enslaved women dey receive dey different because dem be women. When e come to hard work and suffer, dem dey face di same level wahala like di men, but dem still dey go through sexual abuse from dem slave masters wey dey use stereotype sey black women too dey too sexual as excuse.<ref>{{cite book|last=White|first=Deborah Gray|title=Ar'n't I a Woman? Female Slaves in the Plantation South|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|year=1999|edition=Revised|chapter=The Nature of Female Slavery}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Bell|first=Karen Cook|date=2022-11-07|title=On War and U.S. Slavery: Enslaved Black Women’s Experiences - AAIHS|url=https://www.aaihs.org/on-war-and-u-s-slavery-enslaved-black-womens-experiences/|access-date=2025-06-08|website=www.aaihs.org|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Marshall |first=Lydia Wilson |date=2022-05-04 |title=Women, Slavery, and Labor in the United States |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/21619441.2022.2102835 |journal=Journal of African Diaspora Archaeology and Heritage |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=93–96 |doi=10.1080/21619441.2022.2102835 |issn=2161-9441 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> {{Women in society sidebar}} == Female slavery in the United States == s1e41dlgiibx2wkoqvf69tr4dx1gfh2 69193 69192 2025-07-06T01:04:16Z Abdul-Rauf Moshie 1580 /* Female slavery in the United States */ 69193 wikitext text/x-wiki Di way wey dem dey live for plenty different situations plus di fact sey dem be black women, enslaved women from Africa get beta different experiences for slavery. Historian Deborah Gray White talk sey, "di African-American woman dey stand for di crossroads of two strong ideologies for America, one for women and di other for Negro people.<ref name="White2">{{cite book|last=White|first=Deborah Gray|url=https://archive.org/details/arntiwomanfemal00whit|title=Ar'n't I a Woman?: female slaves in the plantation South|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|year=1999|isbn=0393314812|edition=Revised|location=New York|access-date=December 17, 2019|url-access=registration|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200818014828/https://archive.org/details/arntiwomanfemal00whit|archive-date=August 18, 2020|url-status=live}}</ref>" From di time dem start slave journey for Middle Passage, di treatment wey enslaved women dey receive dey different because dem be women. When e come to hard work and suffer, dem dey face di same level wahala like di men, but dem still dey go through sexual abuse from dem slave masters wey dey use stereotype sey black women too dey too sexual as excuse.<ref>{{cite book|last=White|first=Deborah Gray|title=Ar'n't I a Woman? Female Slaves in the Plantation South|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|year=1999|edition=Revised|chapter=The Nature of Female Slavery}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Bell|first=Karen Cook|date=2022-11-07|title=On War and U.S. Slavery: Enslaved Black Women’s Experiences - AAIHS|url=https://www.aaihs.org/on-war-and-u-s-slavery-enslaved-black-womens-experiences/|access-date=2025-06-08|website=www.aaihs.org|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Marshall |first=Lydia Wilson |date=2022-05-04 |title=Women, Slavery, and Labor in the United States |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/21619441.2022.2102835 |journal=Journal of African Diaspora Archaeology and Heritage |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=93–96 |doi=10.1080/21619441.2022.2102835 |issn=2161-9441 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> {{Women in society sidebar}} Stereotypes and story wey dey follow am Di way wey enslavers dey treat enslaved women, dem fit talk say na Jezebel and Mammy stereotypes dey support am. Dem dey see black women as dem get high libido, di Jezebel character start when Englishmen come Africa come buy slaves. Wetin women dey wear (wey dem need for di hot weather) and di African tradition wey dey allow plenty wives, all dis one dey show say na dem African people get uncontrollable lust. White enslavers dey use Jezebel character to paint African women as bad, so dem fit downplay all di wahala wey dem dey go through. Di Mammy stereotype na different matter, e come from story wey dem write after civil war. E show Mammy as top house help wey sabi domestic work. White people dey talk say Mammy care pass for her enslaver’s children than her own pikin. Just like di Jezebel matter, dis Mammy stereotype no correct, but e still get small truth wey fit make am believable, and e fit really affect black women well-well. Di Mammy stereotype dey try soft di harsh reality of slavery, as if house servants dey live good for dem domestic life, but dem dey work all di time... Dem get less privacy pass di field workers. Dem always dey under di eye of white family, and dem dey feel di mood of di madam pass di other slaves.” == Female slavery in the United States == nrw9fxj59zjaxwo4w0htiutd2ofqmpk 69194 69193 2025-07-06T01:05:00Z Abdul-Rauf Moshie 1580 /* Female slavery in the United States */ 69194 wikitext text/x-wiki Di way wey dem dey live for plenty different situations plus di fact sey dem be black women, enslaved women from Africa get beta different experiences for slavery. Historian Deborah Gray White talk sey, "di African-American woman dey stand for di crossroads of two strong ideologies for America, one for women and di other for Negro people.<ref name="White2">{{cite book|last=White|first=Deborah Gray|url=https://archive.org/details/arntiwomanfemal00whit|title=Ar'n't I a Woman?: female slaves in the plantation South|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|year=1999|isbn=0393314812|edition=Revised|location=New York|access-date=December 17, 2019|url-access=registration|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200818014828/https://archive.org/details/arntiwomanfemal00whit|archive-date=August 18, 2020|url-status=live}}</ref>" From di time dem start slave journey for Middle Passage, di treatment wey enslaved women dey receive dey different because dem be women. When e come to hard work and suffer, dem dey face di same level wahala like di men, but dem still dey go through sexual abuse from dem slave masters wey dey use stereotype sey black women too dey too sexual as excuse.<ref>{{cite book|last=White|first=Deborah Gray|title=Ar'n't I a Woman? Female Slaves in the Plantation South|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|year=1999|edition=Revised|chapter=The Nature of Female Slavery}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Bell|first=Karen Cook|date=2022-11-07|title=On War and U.S. Slavery: Enslaved Black Women’s Experiences - AAIHS|url=https://www.aaihs.org/on-war-and-u-s-slavery-enslaved-black-womens-experiences/|access-date=2025-06-08|website=www.aaihs.org|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Marshall |first=Lydia Wilson |date=2022-05-04 |title=Women, Slavery, and Labor in the United States |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/21619441.2022.2102835 |journal=Journal of African Diaspora Archaeology and Heritage |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=93–96 |doi=10.1080/21619441.2022.2102835 |issn=2161-9441 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> {{Women in society sidebar}} Stereotypes and story wey dey follow am Di way wey enslavers dey treat enslaved women, dem fit talk say na Jezebel and Mammy stereotypes dey support am. Dem dey see black women as dem get high libido, di Jezebel character start when Englishmen come Africa come buy slaves. Wetin women dey wear (wey dem need for di hot weather) and di African tradition wey dey allow plenty wives, all dis one dey show say na dem African people get uncontrollable lust. White enslavers dey use Jezebel character to paint African women as bad, so dem fit downplay all di wahala wey dem dey go through. Di Mammy stereotype na different matter, e come from story wey dem write after civil war. E show Mammy as top house help wey sabi domestic work. White people dey talk say Mammy care pass for her enslaver’s children than her own pikin. Just like di Jezebel matter, dis Mammy stereotype no correct, but e still get small truth wey fit make am believable, and e fit really affect black women well-well. Di Mammy stereotype dey try soft di harsh reality of slavery, as if house servants dey live good for dem domestic life, but dem dey work all di time... Dem get less privacy pass di field workers. Dem always dey under di eye of white family, and dem dey feel di mood of di madam pass di other slaves.” Motherhood experience for enslaved women dey different o. Dem black mothers weh dem hold as slaves no easy at all. Dem dey see dem as way to increase enslaved pipo. As slave masters sabi say female slaves fit give dem profit, dem turn wet-nursing into serious matter, wey female slaves go dey suckle white pipo children. Wet-nursing na wah, dem force enslaved mothers make dem dey give breast milk for white children while dem dey work far from dem own babies or sell dem away. E even fit make their own children suffer, no fit chop well if dem wean dem too early. European travelers even talk say African women dey good for suckling because dem breast long reach. Dem dey use di images of wet nurses to justify how dem dey exploit enslaved women and also how dem dey care for white children. Because of how slavery dey demand, dem female slaves dey rely on shared mothering, like how dem dey do for Africa, where women dey help each other raise pikin, no go talk say men dey help.” == Female slavery in the United States == 9stysjl8hlv1nuk7ut7fm9fkp0o14ca 69195 69194 2025-07-06T01:05:44Z Abdul-Rauf Moshie 1580 /* Female slavery in the United States */ 69195 wikitext text/x-wiki Di way wey dem dey live for plenty different situations plus di fact sey dem be black women, enslaved women from Africa get beta different experiences for slavery. Historian Deborah Gray White talk sey, "di African-American woman dey stand for di crossroads of two strong ideologies for America, one for women and di other for Negro people.<ref name="White2">{{cite book|last=White|first=Deborah Gray|url=https://archive.org/details/arntiwomanfemal00whit|title=Ar'n't I a Woman?: female slaves in the plantation South|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|year=1999|isbn=0393314812|edition=Revised|location=New York|access-date=December 17, 2019|url-access=registration|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200818014828/https://archive.org/details/arntiwomanfemal00whit|archive-date=August 18, 2020|url-status=live}}</ref>" From di time dem start slave journey for Middle Passage, di treatment wey enslaved women dey receive dey different because dem be women. When e come to hard work and suffer, dem dey face di same level wahala like di men, but dem still dey go through sexual abuse from dem slave masters wey dey use stereotype sey black women too dey too sexual as excuse.<ref>{{cite book|last=White|first=Deborah Gray|title=Ar'n't I a Woman? Female Slaves in the Plantation South|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|year=1999|edition=Revised|chapter=The Nature of Female Slavery}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Bell|first=Karen Cook|date=2022-11-07|title=On War and U.S. Slavery: Enslaved Black Women’s Experiences - AAIHS|url=https://www.aaihs.org/on-war-and-u-s-slavery-enslaved-black-womens-experiences/|access-date=2025-06-08|website=www.aaihs.org|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Marshall |first=Lydia Wilson |date=2022-05-04 |title=Women, Slavery, and Labor in the United States |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/21619441.2022.2102835 |journal=Journal of African Diaspora Archaeology and Heritage |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=93–96 |doi=10.1080/21619441.2022.2102835 |issn=2161-9441 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> {{Women in society sidebar}} Stereotypes and story wey dey follow am Di way wey enslavers dey treat enslaved women, dem fit talk say na Jezebel and Mammy stereotypes dey support am. Dem dey see black women as dem get high libido, di Jezebel character start when Englishmen come Africa come buy slaves. Wetin women dey wear (wey dem need for di hot weather) and di African tradition wey dey allow plenty wives, all dis one dey show say na dem African people get uncontrollable lust. White enslavers dey use Jezebel character to paint African women as bad, so dem fit downplay all di wahala wey dem dey go through. Di Mammy stereotype na different matter, e come from story wey dem write after civil war. E show Mammy as top house help wey sabi domestic work. White people dey talk say Mammy care pass for her enslaver’s children than her own pikin. Just like di Jezebel matter, dis Mammy stereotype no correct, but e still get small truth wey fit make am believable, and e fit really affect black women well-well. Di Mammy stereotype dey try soft di harsh reality of slavery, as if house servants dey live good for dem domestic life, but dem dey work all di time... Dem get less privacy pass di field workers. Dem always dey under di eye of white family, and dem dey feel di mood of di madam pass di other slaves.” Motherhood experience for enslaved women dey different o. Dem black mothers weh dem hold as slaves no easy at all. Dem dey see dem as way to increase enslaved pipo. As slave masters sabi say female slaves fit give dem profit, dem turn wet-nursing into serious matter, wey female slaves go dey suckle white pipo children. Wet-nursing na wah, dem force enslaved mothers make dem dey give breast milk for white children while dem dey work far from dem own babies or sell dem away. E even fit make their own children suffer, no fit chop well if dem wean dem too early. European travelers even talk say African women dey good for suckling because dem breast long reach. Dem dey use di images of wet nurses to justify how dem dey exploit enslaved women and also how dem dey care for white children. Because of how slavery dey demand, dem female slaves dey rely on shared mothering, like how dem dey do for Africa, where women dey help each other raise pikin, no go talk say men dey help.” E be sure say dis one help keep di African culture wey dey value motherhood, and di African mama fit don pass am give her daughters. == Female slavery in the United States == mxzc4pckdvmhiv6qyc2y4eff366w2z3 69196 69195 2025-07-06T01:06:44Z Abdul-Rauf Moshie 1580 /* Female slavery in the United States */ 69196 wikitext text/x-wiki Di way wey dem dey live for plenty different situations plus di fact sey dem be black women, enslaved women from Africa get beta different experiences for slavery. Historian Deborah Gray White talk sey, "di African-American woman dey stand for di crossroads of two strong ideologies for America, one for women and di other for Negro people.<ref name="White2">{{cite book|last=White|first=Deborah Gray|url=https://archive.org/details/arntiwomanfemal00whit|title=Ar'n't I a Woman?: female slaves in the plantation South|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|year=1999|isbn=0393314812|edition=Revised|location=New York|access-date=December 17, 2019|url-access=registration|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200818014828/https://archive.org/details/arntiwomanfemal00whit|archive-date=August 18, 2020|url-status=live}}</ref>" From di time dem start slave journey for Middle Passage, di treatment wey enslaved women dey receive dey different because dem be women. When e come to hard work and suffer, dem dey face di same level wahala like di men, but dem still dey go through sexual abuse from dem slave masters wey dey use stereotype sey black women too dey too sexual as excuse.<ref>{{cite book|last=White|first=Deborah Gray|title=Ar'n't I a Woman? Female Slaves in the Plantation South|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|year=1999|edition=Revised|chapter=The Nature of Female Slavery}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Bell|first=Karen Cook|date=2022-11-07|title=On War and U.S. Slavery: Enslaved Black Women’s Experiences - AAIHS|url=https://www.aaihs.org/on-war-and-u-s-slavery-enslaved-black-womens-experiences/|access-date=2025-06-08|website=www.aaihs.org|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Marshall |first=Lydia Wilson |date=2022-05-04 |title=Women, Slavery, and Labor in the United States |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/21619441.2022.2102835 |journal=Journal of African Diaspora Archaeology and Heritage |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=93–96 |doi=10.1080/21619441.2022.2102835 |issn=2161-9441 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> {{Women in society sidebar}} Stereotypes and story wey dey follow am Di way wey enslavers dey treat enslaved women, dem fit talk say na Jezebel and Mammy stereotypes dey support am. Dem dey see black women as dem get high libido, di Jezebel character start when Englishmen come Africa come buy slaves. Wetin women dey wear (wey dem need for di hot weather) and di African tradition wey dey allow plenty wives, all dis one dey show say na dem African people get uncontrollable lust. White enslavers dey use Jezebel character to paint African women as bad, so dem fit downplay all di wahala wey dem dey go through. Di Mammy stereotype na different matter, e come from story wey dem write after civil war. E show Mammy as top house help wey sabi domestic work. White people dey talk say Mammy care pass for her enslaver’s children than her own pikin. Just like di Jezebel matter, dis Mammy stereotype no correct, but e still get small truth wey fit make am believable, and e fit really affect black women well-well. Di Mammy stereotype dey try soft di harsh reality of slavery, as if house servants dey live good for dem domestic life, but dem dey work all di time... Dem get less privacy pass di field workers. Dem always dey under di eye of white family, and dem dey feel di mood of di madam pass di other slaves.” Motherhood experience for enslaved women dey different o. Dem black mothers weh dem hold as slaves no easy at all. Dem dey see dem as way to increase enslaved pipo. As slave masters sabi say female slaves fit give dem profit, dem turn wet-nursing into serious matter, wey female slaves go dey suckle white pipo children. Wet-nursing na wah, dem force enslaved mothers make dem dey give breast milk for white children while dem dey work far from dem own babies or sell dem away. E even fit make their own children suffer, no fit chop well if dem wean dem too early. European travelers even talk say African women dey good for suckling because dem breast long reach. Dem dey use di images of wet nurses to justify how dem dey exploit enslaved women and also how dem dey care for white children. Because of how slavery dey demand, dem female slaves dey rely on shared mothering, like how dem dey do for Africa, where women dey help each other raise pikin, no go talk say men dey help.” E be sure say dis one help keep di African culture wey dey value motherhood, and di African mama fit don pass am give her daughters. Sexual exploitation of enslaved women dey happen plenty. Lewis C. Robards run house wey be full of rape, from Lincoln and Bluegrass: slavery and civil war for Kentucky by William H. Townsend (1955). White men wey get slaves dey use dem women for sexual abuse gree gree. Dem dey think say enslaved women get high sexual desire, so dem no believe say dem fit carry go assault dem. Dem dey talk say 'Black men and women dey get sexual hunger wey no fit quench, so dem dey waka go look for satisfaction for other race.' Na black women dey lure men wey dey feel say dem dey higher class.[1] Dis matter fit lead to pregnancy wey go born mixed-race pikin, sexual abuse of dem women dey cause serious wahala: 'Half-white pikin dey tell story of white man wey cheat, slave woman wey dey helpless (but true, plenty white people no dey care), and white woman wey no fit fight social and legal wahala wey dey hold am for her husband no matter wetin e do.'[1] White women wey no fit punish their husbands for bad behavior dey turn anger for enslaved women: 'To punish Black women...mistresses fit use anything wey dey available – fork, butcher knife, knitting needle, boiling water. Some of di wickedest punishment wey dey cause dey mutilate and scar female servants na white mistresses go create when dem dey vex.'[2] Sexual abuse dey always dey as wahala on plantation, black and white men fit do am. Mothers dey often teach their daughters how to avoid those men wey dey make sexual advances.[3] But as e be, 'mama fit do small pass just dey pray make her daughter pass through teenage and young woman life without any sexual abuse.' == Female slavery in the United States == 75utq7zddurrh3lu2g7jdchjo6a54hn 69197 69196 2025-07-06T01:07:53Z Abdul-Rauf Moshie 1580 /* Female slavery in the United States */ 69197 wikitext text/x-wiki Di way wey dem dey live for plenty different situations plus di fact sey dem be black women, enslaved women from Africa get beta different experiences for slavery. Historian Deborah Gray White talk sey, "di African-American woman dey stand for di crossroads of two strong ideologies for America, one for women and di other for Negro people.<ref name="White2">{{cite book|last=White|first=Deborah Gray|url=https://archive.org/details/arntiwomanfemal00whit|title=Ar'n't I a Woman?: female slaves in the plantation South|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|year=1999|isbn=0393314812|edition=Revised|location=New York|access-date=December 17, 2019|url-access=registration|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200818014828/https://archive.org/details/arntiwomanfemal00whit|archive-date=August 18, 2020|url-status=live}}</ref>" From di time dem start slave journey for Middle Passage, di treatment wey enslaved women dey receive dey different because dem be women. When e come to hard work and suffer, dem dey face di same level wahala like di men, but dem still dey go through sexual abuse from dem slave masters wey dey use stereotype sey black women too dey too sexual as excuse.<ref>{{cite book|last=White|first=Deborah Gray|title=Ar'n't I a Woman? Female Slaves in the Plantation South|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|year=1999|edition=Revised|chapter=The Nature of Female Slavery}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Bell|first=Karen Cook|date=2022-11-07|title=On War and U.S. Slavery: Enslaved Black Women’s Experiences - AAIHS|url=https://www.aaihs.org/on-war-and-u-s-slavery-enslaved-black-womens-experiences/|access-date=2025-06-08|website=www.aaihs.org|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Marshall |first=Lydia Wilson |date=2022-05-04 |title=Women, Slavery, and Labor in the United States |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/21619441.2022.2102835 |journal=Journal of African Diaspora Archaeology and Heritage |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=93–96 |doi=10.1080/21619441.2022.2102835 |issn=2161-9441 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> {{Women in society sidebar}} Stereotypes and story wey dey follow am Di way wey enslavers dey treat enslaved women, dem fit talk say na Jezebel and Mammy stereotypes dey support am. Dem dey see black women as dem get high libido, di Jezebel character start when Englishmen come Africa come buy slaves. Wetin women dey wear (wey dem need for di hot weather) and di African tradition wey dey allow plenty wives, all dis one dey show say na dem African people get uncontrollable lust. White enslavers dey use Jezebel character to paint African women as bad, so dem fit downplay all di wahala wey dem dey go through. Di Mammy stereotype na different matter, e come from story wey dem write after civil war. E show Mammy as top house help wey sabi domestic work. White people dey talk say Mammy care pass for her enslaver’s children than her own pikin. Just like di Jezebel matter, dis Mammy stereotype no correct, but e still get small truth wey fit make am believable, and e fit really affect black women well-well. Di Mammy stereotype dey try soft di harsh reality of slavery, as if house servants dey live good for dem domestic life, but dem dey work all di time... Dem get less privacy pass di field workers. Dem always dey under di eye of white family, and dem dey feel di mood of di madam pass di other slaves.” Motherhood experience for enslaved women dey different o. Dem black mothers weh dem hold as slaves no easy at all. Dem dey see dem as way to increase enslaved pipo. As slave masters sabi say female slaves fit give dem profit, dem turn wet-nursing into serious matter, wey female slaves go dey suckle white pipo children. Wet-nursing na wah, dem force enslaved mothers make dem dey give breast milk for white children while dem dey work far from dem own babies or sell dem away. E even fit make their own children suffer, no fit chop well if dem wean dem too early. European travelers even talk say African women dey good for suckling because dem breast long reach. Dem dey use di images of wet nurses to justify how dem dey exploit enslaved women and also how dem dey care for white children. Because of how slavery dey demand, dem female slaves dey rely on shared mothering, like how dem dey do for Africa, where women dey help each other raise pikin, no go talk say men dey help.” E be sure say dis one help keep di African culture wey dey value motherhood, and di African mama fit don pass am give her daughters. Sexual exploitation of enslaved women dey happen plenty. Lewis C. Robards run house wey be full of rape, from Lincoln and Bluegrass: slavery and civil war for Kentucky by William H. Townsend (1955). White men wey get slaves dey use dem women for sexual abuse gree gree. Dem dey think say enslaved women get high sexual desire, so dem no believe say dem fit carry go assault dem. Dem dey talk say 'Black men and women dey get sexual hunger wey no fit quench, so dem dey waka go look for satisfaction for other race.' Na black women dey lure men wey dey feel say dem dey higher class.[1] Dis matter fit lead to pregnancy wey go born mixed-race pikin, sexual abuse of dem women dey cause serious wahala: 'Half-white pikin dey tell story of white man wey cheat, slave woman wey dey helpless (but true, plenty white people no dey care), and white woman wey no fit fight social and legal wahala wey dey hold am for her husband no matter wetin e do.'[1] White women wey no fit punish their husbands for bad behavior dey turn anger for enslaved women: 'To punish Black women...mistresses fit use anything wey dey available – fork, butcher knife, knitting needle, boiling water. Some of di wickedest punishment wey dey cause dey mutilate and scar female servants na white mistresses go create when dem dey vex.'[2] Sexual abuse dey always dey as wahala on plantation, black and white men fit do am. Mothers dey often teach their daughters how to avoid those men wey dey make sexual advances.[3] But as e be, 'mama fit do small pass just dey pray make her daughter pass through teenage and young woman life without any sexual abuse.' Colonial America Main talk: Slavery for di colonial United States More info: Redemptioner Virginia Main talk: Story of slavery for Virginia Di Old Plantation, about 1790. Enslaved Africans for one South Carolinian plantation. From 1700 to 1740, dem estimate say about 43,000 slaves enter Virginia, and almost all but 4,000 come straight from Africa. Recent research show say di number of women and men wey enter dis period dey almost equal and plenty children too. As most of dem come from West Africa, di culture dey reign for di mid to late eighteenth-century slave life for Virginia. African values dey shine and West African women culture dey strong. Some common cultural signs be di deep bond wey dey between mama and pikin, and among women for di larger female community. Among di Igbo ethnic group wey come from present-day Nigeria, dem dey make up between one-third and one-half of di slaves wey enter early eighteenth century, di female power (di omu) dey 'rule' plenty important matters wey concern women and di whole community. Di Igbo be one group wey dem carry go Chesapeake, but generally, Africans come from plenty different backgrounds. All of dem come from worlds wey women community dey strong, and dem introduce into one patriarchal and violent racist society; white men dey usually paint all black women as sexually wild to justify dem abuse and mix blood. == Female slavery in the United States == qcbn9p9lmhjgbhy2he635vsxpjvifh9 69198 69197 2025-07-06T01:09:15Z Abdul-Rauf Moshie 1580 /* Female slavery in the United States */ 69198 wikitext text/x-wiki Di way wey dem dey live for plenty different situations plus di fact sey dem be black women, enslaved women from Africa get beta different experiences for slavery. Historian Deborah Gray White talk sey, "di African-American woman dey stand for di crossroads of two strong ideologies for America, one for women and di other for Negro people.<ref name="White2">{{cite book|last=White|first=Deborah Gray|url=https://archive.org/details/arntiwomanfemal00whit|title=Ar'n't I a Woman?: female slaves in the plantation South|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|year=1999|isbn=0393314812|edition=Revised|location=New York|access-date=December 17, 2019|url-access=registration|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200818014828/https://archive.org/details/arntiwomanfemal00whit|archive-date=August 18, 2020|url-status=live}}</ref>" From di time dem start slave journey for Middle Passage, di treatment wey enslaved women dey receive dey different because dem be women. When e come to hard work and suffer, dem dey face di same level wahala like di men, but dem still dey go through sexual abuse from dem slave masters wey dey use stereotype sey black women too dey too sexual as excuse.<ref>{{cite book|last=White|first=Deborah Gray|title=Ar'n't I a Woman? Female Slaves in the Plantation South|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|year=1999|edition=Revised|chapter=The Nature of Female Slavery}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Bell|first=Karen Cook|date=2022-11-07|title=On War and U.S. Slavery: Enslaved Black Women’s Experiences - AAIHS|url=https://www.aaihs.org/on-war-and-u-s-slavery-enslaved-black-womens-experiences/|access-date=2025-06-08|website=www.aaihs.org|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Marshall |first=Lydia Wilson |date=2022-05-04 |title=Women, Slavery, and Labor in the United States |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/21619441.2022.2102835 |journal=Journal of African Diaspora Archaeology and Heritage |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=93–96 |doi=10.1080/21619441.2022.2102835 |issn=2161-9441 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> {{Women in society sidebar}} Stereotypes and story wey dey follow am Di way wey enslavers dey treat enslaved women, dem fit talk say na Jezebel and Mammy stereotypes dey support am. Dem dey see black women as dem get high libido, di Jezebel character start when Englishmen come Africa come buy slaves. Wetin women dey wear (wey dem need for di hot weather) and di African tradition wey dey allow plenty wives, all dis one dey show say na dem African people get uncontrollable lust. White enslavers dey use Jezebel character to paint African women as bad, so dem fit downplay all di wahala wey dem dey go through. Di Mammy stereotype na different matter, e come from story wey dem write after civil war. E show Mammy as top house help wey sabi domestic work. White people dey talk say Mammy care pass for her enslaver’s children than her own pikin. Just like di Jezebel matter, dis Mammy stereotype no correct, but e still get small truth wey fit make am believable, and e fit really affect black women well-well. Di Mammy stereotype dey try soft di harsh reality of slavery, as if house servants dey live good for dem domestic life, but dem dey work all di time... Dem get less privacy pass di field workers. Dem always dey under di eye of white family, and dem dey feel di mood of di madam pass di other slaves.” Motherhood experience for enslaved women dey different o. Dem black mothers weh dem hold as slaves no easy at all. Dem dey see dem as way to increase enslaved pipo. As slave masters sabi say female slaves fit give dem profit, dem turn wet-nursing into serious matter, wey female slaves go dey suckle white pipo children. Wet-nursing na wah, dem force enslaved mothers make dem dey give breast milk for white children while dem dey work far from dem own babies or sell dem away. E even fit make their own children suffer, no fit chop well if dem wean dem too early. European travelers even talk say African women dey good for suckling because dem breast long reach. Dem dey use di images of wet nurses to justify how dem dey exploit enslaved women and also how dem dey care for white children. Because of how slavery dey demand, dem female slaves dey rely on shared mothering, like how dem dey do for Africa, where women dey help each other raise pikin, no go talk say men dey help.” E be sure say dis one help keep di African culture wey dey value motherhood, and di African mama fit don pass am give her daughters. Sexual exploitation of enslaved women dey happen plenty. Lewis C. Robards run house wey be full of rape, from Lincoln and Bluegrass: slavery and civil war for Kentucky by William H. Townsend (1955). White men wey get slaves dey use dem women for sexual abuse gree gree. Dem dey think say enslaved women get high sexual desire, so dem no believe say dem fit carry go assault dem. Dem dey talk say 'Black men and women dey get sexual hunger wey no fit quench, so dem dey waka go look for satisfaction for other race.' Na black women dey lure men wey dey feel say dem dey higher class.[1] Dis matter fit lead to pregnancy wey go born mixed-race pikin, sexual abuse of dem women dey cause serious wahala: 'Half-white pikin dey tell story of white man wey cheat, slave woman wey dey helpless (but true, plenty white people no dey care), and white woman wey no fit fight social and legal wahala wey dey hold am for her husband no matter wetin e do.'[1] White women wey no fit punish their husbands for bad behavior dey turn anger for enslaved women: 'To punish Black women...mistresses fit use anything wey dey available – fork, butcher knife, knitting needle, boiling water. Some of di wickedest punishment wey dey cause dey mutilate and scar female servants na white mistresses go create when dem dey vex.'[2] Sexual abuse dey always dey as wahala on plantation, black and white men fit do am. Mothers dey often teach their daughters how to avoid those men wey dey make sexual advances.[3] But as e be, 'mama fit do small pass just dey pray make her daughter pass through teenage and young woman life without any sexual abuse.' Colonial America Main talk: Slavery for di colonial United States More info: Redemptioner Virginia Main talk: Story of slavery for Virginia Di Old Plantation, about 1790. Enslaved Africans for one South Carolinian plantation. From 1700 to 1740, dem estimate say about 43,000 slaves enter Virginia, and almost all but 4,000 come straight from Africa. Recent research show say di number of women and men wey enter dis period dey almost equal and plenty children too. As most of dem come from West Africa, di culture dey reign for di mid to late eighteenth-century slave life for Virginia. African values dey shine and West African women culture dey strong. Some common cultural signs be di deep bond wey dey between mama and pikin, and among women for di larger female community. Among di Igbo ethnic group wey come from present-day Nigeria, dem dey make up between one-third and one-half of di slaves wey enter early eighteenth century, di female power (di omu) dey 'rule' plenty important matters wey concern women and di whole community. Di Igbo be one group wey dem carry go Chesapeake, but generally, Africans come from plenty different backgrounds. All of dem come from worlds wey women community dey strong, and dem introduce into one patriarchal and violent racist society; white men dey usually paint all black women as sexually wild to justify dem abuse and mix blood. Girls wey be from Africa for Virginia dey often no sabi read or write. Dem African and African American female slaves dey fit for many jobs. The southern colonies be mostly farm places and dem enslaved women dey work for fields, dey plant and dey do chores, but plenty for house, dey nurse, take care of pikin, cook, wash cloth, etc. New England Jersey Negro (1748), John Greenwood. Dis portrait of Ann Arnold na di first portrait of black woman for North America. Ann Arnold be wet nurse for pikin wey di parents na from Jersey. Historian Ira Berlin talk say make we fit separate "slave societies" and "societies with slaves". Based on dis, New England be society with slaves, wey depend on sea trade and variety farm work, compared to di slave societies of di south wey dey depend plenty on slave labor, get many enslaved people, and masters dey get plenty power over dem slaves wey law no fit check. For New England, e get small slave population and di enslavers dey see demself as fathers wey get duty to protect, guide, and care for di slaves. Enslaved women for New England get better chance to find freedom than other areas because of di New England legal system, how owners dey free dem often, and di chance to hire dem out, especially men wey fit earn enough money to buy wife and children. == Female slavery in the United States == 2jinfa2fbhtd5ly49m0xlv5hoblmqtr 69199 69198 2025-07-06T01:09:45Z Abdul-Rauf Moshie 1580 /* Female slavery in the United States */ 69199 wikitext text/x-wiki Di way wey dem dey live for plenty different situations plus di fact sey dem be black women, enslaved women from Africa get beta different experiences for slavery. Historian Deborah Gray White talk sey, "di African-American woman dey stand for di crossroads of two strong ideologies for America, one for women and di other for Negro people.<ref name="White2">{{cite book|last=White|first=Deborah Gray|url=https://archive.org/details/arntiwomanfemal00whit|title=Ar'n't I a Woman?: female slaves in the plantation South|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|year=1999|isbn=0393314812|edition=Revised|location=New York|access-date=December 17, 2019|url-access=registration|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200818014828/https://archive.org/details/arntiwomanfemal00whit|archive-date=August 18, 2020|url-status=live}}</ref>" From di time dem start slave journey for Middle Passage, di treatment wey enslaved women dey receive dey different because dem be women. When e come to hard work and suffer, dem dey face di same level wahala like di men, but dem still dey go through sexual abuse from dem slave masters wey dey use stereotype sey black women too dey too sexual as excuse.<ref>{{cite book|last=White|first=Deborah Gray|title=Ar'n't I a Woman? Female Slaves in the Plantation South|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|year=1999|edition=Revised|chapter=The Nature of Female Slavery}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Bell|first=Karen Cook|date=2022-11-07|title=On War and U.S. Slavery: Enslaved Black Women’s Experiences - AAIHS|url=https://www.aaihs.org/on-war-and-u-s-slavery-enslaved-black-womens-experiences/|access-date=2025-06-08|website=www.aaihs.org|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Marshall |first=Lydia Wilson |date=2022-05-04 |title=Women, Slavery, and Labor in the United States |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/21619441.2022.2102835 |journal=Journal of African Diaspora Archaeology and Heritage |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=93–96 |doi=10.1080/21619441.2022.2102835 |issn=2161-9441 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> {{Women in society sidebar}} Stereotypes and story wey dey follow am Di way wey enslavers dey treat enslaved women, dem fit talk say na Jezebel and Mammy stereotypes dey support am. Dem dey see black women as dem get high libido, di Jezebel character start when Englishmen come Africa come buy slaves. Wetin women dey wear (wey dem need for di hot weather) and di African tradition wey dey allow plenty wives, all dis one dey show say na dem African people get uncontrollable lust. White enslavers dey use Jezebel character to paint African women as bad, so dem fit downplay all di wahala wey dem dey go through. Di Mammy stereotype na different matter, e come from story wey dem write after civil war. E show Mammy as top house help wey sabi domestic work. White people dey talk say Mammy care pass for her enslaver’s children than her own pikin. Just like di Jezebel matter, dis Mammy stereotype no correct, but e still get small truth wey fit make am believable, and e fit really affect black women well-well. Di Mammy stereotype dey try soft di harsh reality of slavery, as if house servants dey live good for dem domestic life, but dem dey work all di time... Dem get less privacy pass di field workers. Dem always dey under di eye of white family, and dem dey feel di mood of di madam pass di other slaves.” Motherhood experience for enslaved women dey different o. Dem black mothers weh dem hold as slaves no easy at all. Dem dey see dem as way to increase enslaved pipo. As slave masters sabi say female slaves fit give dem profit, dem turn wet-nursing into serious matter, wey female slaves go dey suckle white pipo children. Wet-nursing na wah, dem force enslaved mothers make dem dey give breast milk for white children while dem dey work far from dem own babies or sell dem away. E even fit make their own children suffer, no fit chop well if dem wean dem too early. European travelers even talk say African women dey good for suckling because dem breast long reach. Dem dey use di images of wet nurses to justify how dem dey exploit enslaved women and also how dem dey care for white children. Because of how slavery dey demand, dem female slaves dey rely on shared mothering, like how dem dey do for Africa, where women dey help each other raise pikin, no go talk say men dey help.” E be sure say dis one help keep di African culture wey dey value motherhood, and di African mama fit don pass am give her daughters. Sexual exploitation of enslaved women dey happen plenty. Lewis C. Robards run house wey be full of rape, from Lincoln and Bluegrass: slavery and civil war for Kentucky by William H. Townsend (1955). White men wey get slaves dey use dem women for sexual abuse gree gree. Dem dey think say enslaved women get high sexual desire, so dem no believe say dem fit carry go assault dem. Dem dey talk say 'Black men and women dey get sexual hunger wey no fit quench, so dem dey waka go look for satisfaction for other race.' Na black women dey lure men wey dey feel say dem dey higher class.[1] Dis matter fit lead to pregnancy wey go born mixed-race pikin, sexual abuse of dem women dey cause serious wahala: 'Half-white pikin dey tell story of white man wey cheat, slave woman wey dey helpless (but true, plenty white people no dey care), and white woman wey no fit fight social and legal wahala wey dey hold am for her husband no matter wetin e do.'[1] White women wey no fit punish their husbands for bad behavior dey turn anger for enslaved women: 'To punish Black women...mistresses fit use anything wey dey available – fork, butcher knife, knitting needle, boiling water. Some of di wickedest punishment wey dey cause dey mutilate and scar female servants na white mistresses go create when dem dey vex.'[2] Sexual abuse dey always dey as wahala on plantation, black and white men fit do am. Mothers dey often teach their daughters how to avoid those men wey dey make sexual advances.[3] But as e be, 'mama fit do small pass just dey pray make her daughter pass through teenage and young woman life without any sexual abuse.' Colonial America Main talk: Slavery for di colonial United States More info: Redemptioner Virginia Main talk: Story of slavery for Virginia Di Old Plantation, about 1790. Enslaved Africans for one South Carolinian plantation. From 1700 to 1740, dem estimate say about 43,000 slaves enter Virginia, and almost all but 4,000 come straight from Africa. Recent research show say di number of women and men wey enter dis period dey almost equal and plenty children too. As most of dem come from West Africa, di culture dey reign for di mid to late eighteenth-century slave life for Virginia. African values dey shine and West African women culture dey strong. Some common cultural signs be di deep bond wey dey between mama and pikin, and among women for di larger female community. Among di Igbo ethnic group wey come from present-day Nigeria, dem dey make up between one-third and one-half of di slaves wey enter early eighteenth century, di female power (di omu) dey 'rule' plenty important matters wey concern women and di whole community. Di Igbo be one group wey dem carry go Chesapeake, but generally, Africans come from plenty different backgrounds. All of dem come from worlds wey women community dey strong, and dem introduce into one patriarchal and violent racist society; white men dey usually paint all black women as sexually wild to justify dem abuse and mix blood. Girls wey be from Africa for Virginia dey often no sabi read or write. Dem African and African American female slaves dey fit for many jobs. The southern colonies be mostly farm places and dem enslaved women dey work for fields, dey plant and dey do chores, but plenty for house, dey nurse, take care of pikin, cook, wash cloth, etc. New England Jersey Negro (1748), John Greenwood. Dis portrait of Ann Arnold na di first portrait of black woman for North America. Ann Arnold be wet nurse for pikin wey di parents na from Jersey. Historian Ira Berlin talk say make we fit separate "slave societies" and "societies with slaves". Based on dis, New England be society with slaves, wey depend on sea trade and variety farm work, compared to di slave societies of di south wey dey depend plenty on slave labor, get many enslaved people, and masters dey get plenty power over dem slaves wey law no fit check. For New England, e get small slave population and di enslavers dey see demself as fathers wey get duty to protect, guide, and care for di slaves. Enslaved women for New England get better chance to find freedom than other areas because of di New England legal system, how owners dey free dem often, and di chance to hire dem out, especially men wey fit earn enough money to buy wife and children. Enslaved women dey do traditional domestic work, many times dem dey hire am by day. Dem dey work as maids, for kitchen, barn, and garden. Dem dey do small-small work: shine family silver, help with clothes and hair, draw bath, barber men, and dey do chores like sweep, empty chamber pots, carry water, wash dishes, brew, look after pikin and old people, cook and bake, milk cow, feed chicken, spin, knit, card, sew, and wash clothes. Their daily work no be too hard like other enslaved women for other places. But still, enslaved women for New England dey work well, even when dem dey suffer bad living conditions and no food. "Because of heavy work, bad house, and no enough food, average black woman no dey live pass forty." Enslaved women dey give white women as gifts from their husbands, and for wedding and Christmas gift too. The thing wey people talk say New England masters dey treat their slaves better pass southern masters na lie. Dem no get much freedom, movement, or chance to learn. "The record wey show slaves wey dem brand, nail them ears, run away, commit suicide, suffer family wahala, or wey dem sell secretly for Barbados before dem turn useless fit clear the lie of kind masters. Dem dey lash dem when dem vex, full of anger, or when dem fit use horsewhip. " Sometimes, slaveholders dey force female slaves enter sexual relationship with male slaves for breeding. E no rare say dem go rape and make enslaved women pregnant too. == Female slavery in the United States == 3d04ats2zwnjqem6bigo9oj5ziu5kry 69200 69199 2025-07-06T01:10:38Z Abdul-Rauf Moshie 1580 /* Female slavery in the United States */ 69200 wikitext text/x-wiki Di way wey dem dey live for plenty different situations plus di fact sey dem be black women, enslaved women from Africa get beta different experiences for slavery. Historian Deborah Gray White talk sey, "di African-American woman dey stand for di crossroads of two strong ideologies for America, one for women and di other for Negro people.<ref name="White2">{{cite book|last=White|first=Deborah Gray|url=https://archive.org/details/arntiwomanfemal00whit|title=Ar'n't I a Woman?: female slaves in the plantation South|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|year=1999|isbn=0393314812|edition=Revised|location=New York|access-date=December 17, 2019|url-access=registration|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200818014828/https://archive.org/details/arntiwomanfemal00whit|archive-date=August 18, 2020|url-status=live}}</ref>" From di time dem start slave journey for Middle Passage, di treatment wey enslaved women dey receive dey different because dem be women. When e come to hard work and suffer, dem dey face di same level wahala like di men, but dem still dey go through sexual abuse from dem slave masters wey dey use stereotype sey black women too dey too sexual as excuse.<ref>{{cite book|last=White|first=Deborah Gray|title=Ar'n't I a Woman? Female Slaves in the Plantation South|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|year=1999|edition=Revised|chapter=The Nature of Female Slavery}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Bell|first=Karen Cook|date=2022-11-07|title=On War and U.S. Slavery: Enslaved Black Women’s Experiences - AAIHS|url=https://www.aaihs.org/on-war-and-u-s-slavery-enslaved-black-womens-experiences/|access-date=2025-06-08|website=www.aaihs.org|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Marshall |first=Lydia Wilson |date=2022-05-04 |title=Women, Slavery, and Labor in the United States |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/21619441.2022.2102835 |journal=Journal of African Diaspora Archaeology and Heritage |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=93–96 |doi=10.1080/21619441.2022.2102835 |issn=2161-9441 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> {{Women in society sidebar}} Stereotypes and story wey dey follow am Di way wey enslavers dey treat enslaved women, dem fit talk say na Jezebel and Mammy stereotypes dey support am. Dem dey see black women as dem get high libido, di Jezebel character start when Englishmen come Africa come buy slaves. Wetin women dey wear (wey dem need for di hot weather) and di African tradition wey dey allow plenty wives, all dis one dey show say na dem African people get uncontrollable lust. White enslavers dey use Jezebel character to paint African women as bad, so dem fit downplay all di wahala wey dem dey go through. Di Mammy stereotype na different matter, e come from story wey dem write after civil war. E show Mammy as top house help wey sabi domestic work. White people dey talk say Mammy care pass for her enslaver’s children than her own pikin. Just like di Jezebel matter, dis Mammy stereotype no correct, but e still get small truth wey fit make am believable, and e fit really affect black women well-well. Di Mammy stereotype dey try soft di harsh reality of slavery, as if house servants dey live good for dem domestic life, but dem dey work all di time... Dem get less privacy pass di field workers. Dem always dey under di eye of white family, and dem dey feel di mood of di madam pass di other slaves.” Motherhood experience for enslaved women dey different o. Dem black mothers weh dem hold as slaves no easy at all. Dem dey see dem as way to increase enslaved pipo. As slave masters sabi say female slaves fit give dem profit, dem turn wet-nursing into serious matter, wey female slaves go dey suckle white pipo children. Wet-nursing na wah, dem force enslaved mothers make dem dey give breast milk for white children while dem dey work far from dem own babies or sell dem away. E even fit make their own children suffer, no fit chop well if dem wean dem too early. European travelers even talk say African women dey good for suckling because dem breast long reach. Dem dey use di images of wet nurses to justify how dem dey exploit enslaved women and also how dem dey care for white children. Because of how slavery dey demand, dem female slaves dey rely on shared mothering, like how dem dey do for Africa, where women dey help each other raise pikin, no go talk say men dey help.” E be sure say dis one help keep di African culture wey dey value motherhood, and di African mama fit don pass am give her daughters. Sexual exploitation of enslaved women dey happen plenty. Lewis C. Robards run house wey be full of rape, from Lincoln and Bluegrass: slavery and civil war for Kentucky by William H. Townsend (1955). White men wey get slaves dey use dem women for sexual abuse gree gree. Dem dey think say enslaved women get high sexual desire, so dem no believe say dem fit carry go assault dem. Dem dey talk say 'Black men and women dey get sexual hunger wey no fit quench, so dem dey waka go look for satisfaction for other race.' Na black women dey lure men wey dey feel say dem dey higher class.[1] Dis matter fit lead to pregnancy wey go born mixed-race pikin, sexual abuse of dem women dey cause serious wahala: 'Half-white pikin dey tell story of white man wey cheat, slave woman wey dey helpless (but true, plenty white people no dey care), and white woman wey no fit fight social and legal wahala wey dey hold am for her husband no matter wetin e do.'[1] White women wey no fit punish their husbands for bad behavior dey turn anger for enslaved women: 'To punish Black women...mistresses fit use anything wey dey available – fork, butcher knife, knitting needle, boiling water. Some of di wickedest punishment wey dey cause dey mutilate and scar female servants na white mistresses go create when dem dey vex.'[2] Sexual abuse dey always dey as wahala on plantation, black and white men fit do am. Mothers dey often teach their daughters how to avoid those men wey dey make sexual advances.[3] But as e be, 'mama fit do small pass just dey pray make her daughter pass through teenage and young woman life without any sexual abuse.' Colonial America Main talk: Slavery for di colonial United States More info: Redemptioner Virginia Main talk: Story of slavery for Virginia Di Old Plantation, about 1790. Enslaved Africans for one South Carolinian plantation. From 1700 to 1740, dem estimate say about 43,000 slaves enter Virginia, and almost all but 4,000 come straight from Africa. Recent research show say di number of women and men wey enter dis period dey almost equal and plenty children too. As most of dem come from West Africa, di culture dey reign for di mid to late eighteenth-century slave life for Virginia. African values dey shine and West African women culture dey strong. Some common cultural signs be di deep bond wey dey between mama and pikin, and among women for di larger female community. Among di Igbo ethnic group wey come from present-day Nigeria, dem dey make up between one-third and one-half of di slaves wey enter early eighteenth century, di female power (di omu) dey 'rule' plenty important matters wey concern women and di whole community. Di Igbo be one group wey dem carry go Chesapeake, but generally, Africans come from plenty different backgrounds. All of dem come from worlds wey women community dey strong, and dem introduce into one patriarchal and violent racist society; white men dey usually paint all black women as sexually wild to justify dem abuse and mix blood. Girls wey be from Africa for Virginia dey often no sabi read or write. Dem African and African American female slaves dey fit for many jobs. The southern colonies be mostly farm places and dem enslaved women dey work for fields, dey plant and dey do chores, but plenty for house, dey nurse, take care of pikin, cook, wash cloth, etc. New England Jersey Negro (1748), John Greenwood. Dis portrait of Ann Arnold na di first portrait of black woman for North America. Ann Arnold be wet nurse for pikin wey di parents na from Jersey. Historian Ira Berlin talk say make we fit separate "slave societies" and "societies with slaves". Based on dis, New England be society with slaves, wey depend on sea trade and variety farm work, compared to di slave societies of di south wey dey depend plenty on slave labor, get many enslaved people, and masters dey get plenty power over dem slaves wey law no fit check. For New England, e get small slave population and di enslavers dey see demself as fathers wey get duty to protect, guide, and care for di slaves. Enslaved women for New England get better chance to find freedom than other areas because of di New England legal system, how owners dey free dem often, and di chance to hire dem out, especially men wey fit earn enough money to buy wife and children. Enslaved women dey do traditional domestic work, many times dem dey hire am by day. Dem dey work as maids, for kitchen, barn, and garden. Dem dey do small-small work: shine family silver, help with clothes and hair, draw bath, barber men, and dey do chores like sweep, empty chamber pots, carry water, wash dishes, brew, look after pikin and old people, cook and bake, milk cow, feed chicken, spin, knit, card, sew, and wash clothes. Their daily work no be too hard like other enslaved women for other places. But still, enslaved women for New England dey work well, even when dem dey suffer bad living conditions and no food. "Because of heavy work, bad house, and no enough food, average black woman no dey live pass forty." Enslaved women dey give white women as gifts from their husbands, and for wedding and Christmas gift too. The thing wey people talk say New England masters dey treat their slaves better pass southern masters na lie. Dem no get much freedom, movement, or chance to learn. "The record wey show slaves wey dem brand, nail them ears, run away, commit suicide, suffer family wahala, or wey dem sell secretly for Barbados before dem turn useless fit clear the lie of kind masters. Dem dey lash dem when dem vex, full of anger, or when dem fit use horsewhip. " Sometimes, slaveholders dey force female slaves enter sexual relationship with male slaves for breeding. E no rare say dem go rape and make enslaved women pregnant too. Southern colonies No matter where dem dey, slaves dey suffer serious life wey no easy, but for southern colonies, e dey worst pass. Southern colonies be slave societies; dem dey depend on slave labor for everything: socially, economically, and politically, and plenty slaves dey wey masters get plenty power over dem. Plantations be di main power for South, and slave labor na di backbone. Early days, slaves for di South dey do farming, planting indigo, rice, and tobacco; cotton come be major crop after 1790s. Di women wey be slaves dey do plenty work, dem dey expected to work for field and also born pikin to boost di slave population. Before di American Revolution, di number of female slaves grow more because dem dey born, no be importation. Once slaveholders sabi say female slaves fit make dem money by dey born pikin, na so di exploitation of female slaves turn serious. Plenty enslaved women dey raise their pikin without much help from men. Dem no just do house and farm work, but dem dey carry belle, feed, and train their children. As house slaves, women be domestic workers: dem dey cook, sew, clean, and dey take care of di planter’s children. == Female slavery in the United States == cnfb3378h66wq6fhwnx8nxt4fzfkpzu 69201 69200 2025-07-06T01:11:59Z Abdul-Rauf Moshie 1580 /* Female slavery in the United States */ 69201 wikitext text/x-wiki Di way wey dem dey live for plenty different situations plus di fact sey dem be black women, enslaved women from Africa get beta different experiences for slavery. Historian Deborah Gray White talk sey, "di African-American woman dey stand for di crossroads of two strong ideologies for America, one for women and di other for Negro people.<ref name="White2">{{cite book|last=White|first=Deborah Gray|url=https://archive.org/details/arntiwomanfemal00whit|title=Ar'n't I a Woman?: female slaves in the plantation South|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|year=1999|isbn=0393314812|edition=Revised|location=New York|access-date=December 17, 2019|url-access=registration|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200818014828/https://archive.org/details/arntiwomanfemal00whit|archive-date=August 18, 2020|url-status=live}}</ref>" From di time dem start slave journey for Middle Passage, di treatment wey enslaved women dey receive dey different because dem be women. When e come to hard work and suffer, dem dey face di same level wahala like di men, but dem still dey go through sexual abuse from dem slave masters wey dey use stereotype sey black women too dey too sexual as excuse.<ref>{{cite book|last=White|first=Deborah Gray|title=Ar'n't I a Woman? Female Slaves in the Plantation South|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|year=1999|edition=Revised|chapter=The Nature of Female Slavery}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Bell|first=Karen Cook|date=2022-11-07|title=On War and U.S. Slavery: Enslaved Black Women’s Experiences - AAIHS|url=https://www.aaihs.org/on-war-and-u-s-slavery-enslaved-black-womens-experiences/|access-date=2025-06-08|website=www.aaihs.org|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Marshall |first=Lydia Wilson |date=2022-05-04 |title=Women, Slavery, and Labor in the United States |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/21619441.2022.2102835 |journal=Journal of African Diaspora Archaeology and Heritage |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=93–96 |doi=10.1080/21619441.2022.2102835 |issn=2161-9441 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> {{Women in society sidebar}} Stereotypes and story wey dey follow am Di way wey enslavers dey treat enslaved women, dem fit talk say na Jezebel and Mammy stereotypes dey support am. Dem dey see black women as dem get high libido, di Jezebel character start when Englishmen come Africa come buy slaves. Wetin women dey wear (wey dem need for di hot weather) and di African tradition wey dey allow plenty wives, all dis one dey show say na dem African people get uncontrollable lust. White enslavers dey use Jezebel character to paint African women as bad, so dem fit downplay all di wahala wey dem dey go through. Di Mammy stereotype na different matter, e come from story wey dem write after civil war. E show Mammy as top house help wey sabi domestic work. White people dey talk say Mammy care pass for her enslaver’s children than her own pikin. Just like di Jezebel matter, dis Mammy stereotype no correct, but e still get small truth wey fit make am believable, and e fit really affect black women well-well. Di Mammy stereotype dey try soft di harsh reality of slavery, as if house servants dey live good for dem domestic life, but dem dey work all di time... Dem get less privacy pass di field workers. Dem always dey under di eye of white family, and dem dey feel di mood of di madam pass di other slaves.” Motherhood experience for enslaved women dey different o. Dem black mothers weh dem hold as slaves no easy at all. Dem dey see dem as way to increase enslaved pipo. As slave masters sabi say female slaves fit give dem profit, dem turn wet-nursing into serious matter, wey female slaves go dey suckle white pipo children. Wet-nursing na wah, dem force enslaved mothers make dem dey give breast milk for white children while dem dey work far from dem own babies or sell dem away. E even fit make their own children suffer, no fit chop well if dem wean dem too early. European travelers even talk say African women dey good for suckling because dem breast long reach. Dem dey use di images of wet nurses to justify how dem dey exploit enslaved women and also how dem dey care for white children. Because of how slavery dey demand, dem female slaves dey rely on shared mothering, like how dem dey do for Africa, where women dey help each other raise pikin, no go talk say men dey help.” E be sure say dis one help keep di African culture wey dey value motherhood, and di African mama fit don pass am give her daughters. Sexual exploitation of enslaved women dey happen plenty. Lewis C. Robards run house wey be full of rape, from Lincoln and Bluegrass: slavery and civil war for Kentucky by William H. Townsend (1955). White men wey get slaves dey use dem women for sexual abuse gree gree. Dem dey think say enslaved women get high sexual desire, so dem no believe say dem fit carry go assault dem. Dem dey talk say 'Black men and women dey get sexual hunger wey no fit quench, so dem dey waka go look for satisfaction for other race.' Na black women dey lure men wey dey feel say dem dey higher class.[1] Dis matter fit lead to pregnancy wey go born mixed-race pikin, sexual abuse of dem women dey cause serious wahala: 'Half-white pikin dey tell story of white man wey cheat, slave woman wey dey helpless (but true, plenty white people no dey care), and white woman wey no fit fight social and legal wahala wey dey hold am for her husband no matter wetin e do.'[1] White women wey no fit punish their husbands for bad behavior dey turn anger for enslaved women: 'To punish Black women...mistresses fit use anything wey dey available – fork, butcher knife, knitting needle, boiling water. Some of di wickedest punishment wey dey cause dey mutilate and scar female servants na white mistresses go create when dem dey vex.'[2] Sexual abuse dey always dey as wahala on plantation, black and white men fit do am. Mothers dey often teach their daughters how to avoid those men wey dey make sexual advances.[3] But as e be, 'mama fit do small pass just dey pray make her daughter pass through teenage and young woman life without any sexual abuse.' Colonial America Main talk: Slavery for di colonial United States More info: Redemptioner Virginia Main talk: Story of slavery for Virginia Di Old Plantation, about 1790. Enslaved Africans for one South Carolinian plantation. From 1700 to 1740, dem estimate say about 43,000 slaves enter Virginia, and almost all but 4,000 come straight from Africa. Recent research show say di number of women and men wey enter dis period dey almost equal and plenty children too. As most of dem come from West Africa, di culture dey reign for di mid to late eighteenth-century slave life for Virginia. African values dey shine and West African women culture dey strong. Some common cultural signs be di deep bond wey dey between mama and pikin, and among women for di larger female community. Among di Igbo ethnic group wey come from present-day Nigeria, dem dey make up between one-third and one-half of di slaves wey enter early eighteenth century, di female power (di omu) dey 'rule' plenty important matters wey concern women and di whole community. Di Igbo be one group wey dem carry go Chesapeake, but generally, Africans come from plenty different backgrounds. All of dem come from worlds wey women community dey strong, and dem introduce into one patriarchal and violent racist society; white men dey usually paint all black women as sexually wild to justify dem abuse and mix blood. Girls wey be from Africa for Virginia dey often no sabi read or write. Dem African and African American female slaves dey fit for many jobs. The southern colonies be mostly farm places and dem enslaved women dey work for fields, dey plant and dey do chores, but plenty for house, dey nurse, take care of pikin, cook, wash cloth, etc. New England Jersey Negro (1748), John Greenwood. Dis portrait of Ann Arnold na di first portrait of black woman for North America. Ann Arnold be wet nurse for pikin wey di parents na from Jersey. Historian Ira Berlin talk say make we fit separate "slave societies" and "societies with slaves". Based on dis, New England be society with slaves, wey depend on sea trade and variety farm work, compared to di slave societies of di south wey dey depend plenty on slave labor, get many enslaved people, and masters dey get plenty power over dem slaves wey law no fit check. For New England, e get small slave population and di enslavers dey see demself as fathers wey get duty to protect, guide, and care for di slaves. Enslaved women for New England get better chance to find freedom than other areas because of di New England legal system, how owners dey free dem often, and di chance to hire dem out, especially men wey fit earn enough money to buy wife and children. Enslaved women dey do traditional domestic work, many times dem dey hire am by day. Dem dey work as maids, for kitchen, barn, and garden. Dem dey do small-small work: shine family silver, help with clothes and hair, draw bath, barber men, and dey do chores like sweep, empty chamber pots, carry water, wash dishes, brew, look after pikin and old people, cook and bake, milk cow, feed chicken, spin, knit, card, sew, and wash clothes. Their daily work no be too hard like other enslaved women for other places. But still, enslaved women for New England dey work well, even when dem dey suffer bad living conditions and no food. "Because of heavy work, bad house, and no enough food, average black woman no dey live pass forty." Enslaved women dey give white women as gifts from their husbands, and for wedding and Christmas gift too. The thing wey people talk say New England masters dey treat their slaves better pass southern masters na lie. Dem no get much freedom, movement, or chance to learn. "The record wey show slaves wey dem brand, nail them ears, run away, commit suicide, suffer family wahala, or wey dem sell secretly for Barbados before dem turn useless fit clear the lie of kind masters. Dem dey lash dem when dem vex, full of anger, or when dem fit use horsewhip. " Sometimes, slaveholders dey force female slaves enter sexual relationship with male slaves for breeding. E no rare say dem go rape and make enslaved women pregnant too. Southern colonies No matter where dem dey, slaves dey suffer serious life wey no easy, but for southern colonies, e dey worst pass. Southern colonies be slave societies; dem dey depend on slave labor for everything: socially, economically, and politically, and plenty slaves dey wey masters get plenty power over dem. Plantations be di main power for South, and slave labor na di backbone. Early days, slaves for di South dey do farming, planting indigo, rice, and tobacco; cotton come be major crop after 1790s. Di women wey be slaves dey do plenty work, dem dey expected to work for field and also born pikin to boost di slave population. Before di American Revolution, di number of female slaves grow more because dem dey born, no be importation. Once slaveholders sabi say female slaves fit make dem money by dey born pikin, na so di exploitation of female slaves turn serious. Plenty enslaved women dey raise their pikin without much help from men. Dem no just do house and farm work, but dem dey carry belle, feed, and train their children. As house slaves, women be domestic workers: dem dey cook, sew, clean, and dey take care of di planter’s children. Revolutionary era Main article: African Americans for Revolutionary War During di Revolutionary War (1775–1783), enslaved women dey serve for both sides, dem Loyalist army and dem Patriots, as nurses, laundresses, and cooks. But e be as historian Carol Berkin talk say, "African American loyalty na for dia own future, no be for Congress or king." Enslaved women dey camp and dey follow army. Dem dey help build roads, construct fortifications, and wash uniforms, "but dem still be slaves, no be refugees. Masters dey usually hire dem out to military, sometimes dem go even hire dem pikin too." Enslaved women dey work for shops, homes, fields, and plantations for all American colonies. Estimate show by 1770, over 47,000 enslaved blacks dey for di northern colonies, almost 20,000 for New York alone. Over 320,000 slaves dey work for di Chesapeake colonies, making 37 percent of di population African or African American. Over 187,000 of dem slaves dey for Virginia. For Lower South, over 92,000 slaves dey. South Carolina alone get over 75,000 slaves, and by 1770, planters dey import 4,000 Africans yearly. For plenty counties for Lower South, di slave population dey pass di white people. When war cause palaver, both men and women dey run away. Men dey more likely to escape, as pregnant women, mothers, and women wey dey nurse dia old parents or friends no dey quick leave dem wey depend on dem. Plenty slaves run away from dia plantations for South Carolina so much that no enough field hands dey to plant or harvest crops. As food dey scarce, dem wey remain suffer from hunger or enemy attack. Di Crown don give certificates of manumission to over 914 women as reward for serving with Loyalist forces. == Female slavery in the United States == 3c90zcn7lldfjktpjusome9h32ba8zz 69202 69201 2025-07-06T01:13:24Z Abdul-Rauf Moshie 1580 /* Female slavery in the United States */ 69202 wikitext text/x-wiki Di way wey dem dey live for plenty different situations plus di fact sey dem be black women, enslaved women from Africa get beta different experiences for slavery. Historian Deborah Gray White talk sey, "di African-American woman dey stand for di crossroads of two strong ideologies for America, one for women and di other for Negro people.<ref name="White2">{{cite book|last=White|first=Deborah Gray|url=https://archive.org/details/arntiwomanfemal00whit|title=Ar'n't I a Woman?: female slaves in the plantation South|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|year=1999|isbn=0393314812|edition=Revised|location=New York|access-date=December 17, 2019|url-access=registration|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200818014828/https://archive.org/details/arntiwomanfemal00whit|archive-date=August 18, 2020|url-status=live}}</ref>" From di time dem start slave journey for Middle Passage, di treatment wey enslaved women dey receive dey different because dem be women. When e come to hard work and suffer, dem dey face di same level wahala like di men, but dem still dey go through sexual abuse from dem slave masters wey dey use stereotype sey black women too dey too sexual as excuse.<ref>{{cite book|last=White|first=Deborah Gray|title=Ar'n't I a Woman? Female Slaves in the Plantation South|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|year=1999|edition=Revised|chapter=The Nature of Female Slavery}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Bell|first=Karen Cook|date=2022-11-07|title=On War and U.S. Slavery: Enslaved Black Women’s Experiences - AAIHS|url=https://www.aaihs.org/on-war-and-u-s-slavery-enslaved-black-womens-experiences/|access-date=2025-06-08|website=www.aaihs.org|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Marshall |first=Lydia Wilson |date=2022-05-04 |title=Women, Slavery, and Labor in the United States |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/21619441.2022.2102835 |journal=Journal of African Diaspora Archaeology and Heritage |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=93–96 |doi=10.1080/21619441.2022.2102835 |issn=2161-9441 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> {{Women in society sidebar}} Stereotypes and story wey dey follow am Di way wey enslavers dey treat enslaved women, dem fit talk say na Jezebel and Mammy stereotypes dey support am. Dem dey see black women as dem get high libido, di Jezebel character start when Englishmen come Africa come buy slaves. Wetin women dey wear (wey dem need for di hot weather) and di African tradition wey dey allow plenty wives, all dis one dey show say na dem African people get uncontrollable lust. White enslavers dey use Jezebel character to paint African women as bad, so dem fit downplay all di wahala wey dem dey go through. Di Mammy stereotype na different matter, e come from story wey dem write after civil war. E show Mammy as top house help wey sabi domestic work. White people dey talk say Mammy care pass for her enslaver’s children than her own pikin. Just like di Jezebel matter, dis Mammy stereotype no correct, but e still get small truth wey fit make am believable, and e fit really affect black women well-well. Di Mammy stereotype dey try soft di harsh reality of slavery, as if house servants dey live good for dem domestic life, but dem dey work all di time... Dem get less privacy pass di field workers. Dem always dey under di eye of white family, and dem dey feel di mood of di madam pass di other slaves.” Motherhood experience for enslaved women dey different o. Dem black mothers weh dem hold as slaves no easy at all. Dem dey see dem as way to increase enslaved pipo. As slave masters sabi say female slaves fit give dem profit, dem turn wet-nursing into serious matter, wey female slaves go dey suckle white pipo children. Wet-nursing na wah, dem force enslaved mothers make dem dey give breast milk for white children while dem dey work far from dem own babies or sell dem away. E even fit make their own children suffer, no fit chop well if dem wean dem too early. European travelers even talk say African women dey good for suckling because dem breast long reach. Dem dey use di images of wet nurses to justify how dem dey exploit enslaved women and also how dem dey care for white children. Because of how slavery dey demand, dem female slaves dey rely on shared mothering, like how dem dey do for Africa, where women dey help each other raise pikin, no go talk say men dey help.” E be sure say dis one help keep di African culture wey dey value motherhood, and di African mama fit don pass am give her daughters. Sexual exploitation of enslaved women dey happen plenty. Lewis C. Robards run house wey be full of rape, from Lincoln and Bluegrass: slavery and civil war for Kentucky by William H. Townsend (1955). White men wey get slaves dey use dem women for sexual abuse gree gree. Dem dey think say enslaved women get high sexual desire, so dem no believe say dem fit carry go assault dem. Dem dey talk say 'Black men and women dey get sexual hunger wey no fit quench, so dem dey waka go look for satisfaction for other race.' Na black women dey lure men wey dey feel say dem dey higher class.[1] Dis matter fit lead to pregnancy wey go born mixed-race pikin, sexual abuse of dem women dey cause serious wahala: 'Half-white pikin dey tell story of white man wey cheat, slave woman wey dey helpless (but true, plenty white people no dey care), and white woman wey no fit fight social and legal wahala wey dey hold am for her husband no matter wetin e do.'[1] White women wey no fit punish their husbands for bad behavior dey turn anger for enslaved women: 'To punish Black women...mistresses fit use anything wey dey available – fork, butcher knife, knitting needle, boiling water. Some of di wickedest punishment wey dey cause dey mutilate and scar female servants na white mistresses go create when dem dey vex.'[2] Sexual abuse dey always dey as wahala on plantation, black and white men fit do am. Mothers dey often teach their daughters how to avoid those men wey dey make sexual advances.[3] But as e be, 'mama fit do small pass just dey pray make her daughter pass through teenage and young woman life without any sexual abuse.' Colonial America Main talk: Slavery for di colonial United States More info: Redemptioner Virginia Main talk: Story of slavery for Virginia Di Old Plantation, about 1790. Enslaved Africans for one South Carolinian plantation. From 1700 to 1740, dem estimate say about 43,000 slaves enter Virginia, and almost all but 4,000 come straight from Africa. Recent research show say di number of women and men wey enter dis period dey almost equal and plenty children too. As most of dem come from West Africa, di culture dey reign for di mid to late eighteenth-century slave life for Virginia. African values dey shine and West African women culture dey strong. Some common cultural signs be di deep bond wey dey between mama and pikin, and among women for di larger female community. Among di Igbo ethnic group wey come from present-day Nigeria, dem dey make up between one-third and one-half of di slaves wey enter early eighteenth century, di female power (di omu) dey 'rule' plenty important matters wey concern women and di whole community. Di Igbo be one group wey dem carry go Chesapeake, but generally, Africans come from plenty different backgrounds. All of dem come from worlds wey women community dey strong, and dem introduce into one patriarchal and violent racist society; white men dey usually paint all black women as sexually wild to justify dem abuse and mix blood. Girls wey be from Africa for Virginia dey often no sabi read or write. Dem African and African American female slaves dey fit for many jobs. The southern colonies be mostly farm places and dem enslaved women dey work for fields, dey plant and dey do chores, but plenty for house, dey nurse, take care of pikin, cook, wash cloth, etc. New England Jersey Negro (1748), John Greenwood. Dis portrait of Ann Arnold na di first portrait of black woman for North America. Ann Arnold be wet nurse for pikin wey di parents na from Jersey. Historian Ira Berlin talk say make we fit separate "slave societies" and "societies with slaves". Based on dis, New England be society with slaves, wey depend on sea trade and variety farm work, compared to di slave societies of di south wey dey depend plenty on slave labor, get many enslaved people, and masters dey get plenty power over dem slaves wey law no fit check. For New England, e get small slave population and di enslavers dey see demself as fathers wey get duty to protect, guide, and care for di slaves. Enslaved women for New England get better chance to find freedom than other areas because of di New England legal system, how owners dey free dem often, and di chance to hire dem out, especially men wey fit earn enough money to buy wife and children. Enslaved women dey do traditional domestic work, many times dem dey hire am by day. Dem dey work as maids, for kitchen, barn, and garden. Dem dey do small-small work: shine family silver, help with clothes and hair, draw bath, barber men, and dey do chores like sweep, empty chamber pots, carry water, wash dishes, brew, look after pikin and old people, cook and bake, milk cow, feed chicken, spin, knit, card, sew, and wash clothes. Their daily work no be too hard like other enslaved women for other places. But still, enslaved women for New England dey work well, even when dem dey suffer bad living conditions and no food. "Because of heavy work, bad house, and no enough food, average black woman no dey live pass forty." Enslaved women dey give white women as gifts from their husbands, and for wedding and Christmas gift too. The thing wey people talk say New England masters dey treat their slaves better pass southern masters na lie. Dem no get much freedom, movement, or chance to learn. "The record wey show slaves wey dem brand, nail them ears, run away, commit suicide, suffer family wahala, or wey dem sell secretly for Barbados before dem turn useless fit clear the lie of kind masters. Dem dey lash dem when dem vex, full of anger, or when dem fit use horsewhip. " Sometimes, slaveholders dey force female slaves enter sexual relationship with male slaves for breeding. E no rare say dem go rape and make enslaved women pregnant too. Southern colonies No matter where dem dey, slaves dey suffer serious life wey no easy, but for southern colonies, e dey worst pass. Southern colonies be slave societies; dem dey depend on slave labor for everything: socially, economically, and politically, and plenty slaves dey wey masters get plenty power over dem. Plantations be di main power for South, and slave labor na di backbone. Early days, slaves for di South dey do farming, planting indigo, rice, and tobacco; cotton come be major crop after 1790s. Di women wey be slaves dey do plenty work, dem dey expected to work for field and also born pikin to boost di slave population. Before di American Revolution, di number of female slaves grow more because dem dey born, no be importation. Once slaveholders sabi say female slaves fit make dem money by dey born pikin, na so di exploitation of female slaves turn serious. Plenty enslaved women dey raise their pikin without much help from men. Dem no just do house and farm work, but dem dey carry belle, feed, and train their children. As house slaves, women be domestic workers: dem dey cook, sew, clean, and dey take care of di planter’s children. Revolutionary era Main article: African Americans for Revolutionary War During di Revolutionary War (1775–1783), enslaved women dey serve for both sides, dem Loyalist army and dem Patriots, as nurses, laundresses, and cooks. But e be as historian Carol Berkin talk say, "African American loyalty na for dia own future, no be for Congress or king." Enslaved women dey camp and dey follow army. Dem dey help build roads, construct fortifications, and wash uniforms, "but dem still be slaves, no be refugees. Masters dey usually hire dem out to military, sometimes dem go even hire dem pikin too." Enslaved women dey work for shops, homes, fields, and plantations for all American colonies. Estimate show by 1770, over 47,000 enslaved blacks dey for di northern colonies, almost 20,000 for New York alone. Over 320,000 slaves dey work for di Chesapeake colonies, making 37 percent of di population African or African American. Over 187,000 of dem slaves dey for Virginia. For Lower South, over 92,000 slaves dey. South Carolina alone get over 75,000 slaves, and by 1770, planters dey import 4,000 Africans yearly. For plenty counties for Lower South, di slave population dey pass di white people. When war cause palaver, both men and women dey run away. Men dey more likely to escape, as pregnant women, mothers, and women wey dey nurse dia old parents or friends no dey quick leave dem wey depend on dem. Plenty slaves run away from dia plantations for South Carolina so much that no enough field hands dey to plant or harvest crops. As food dey scarce, dem wey remain suffer from hunger or enemy attack. Di Crown don give certificates of manumission to over 914 women as reward for serving with Loyalist forces. But plenty women wey don get their freedom go lose am back through wahala and trickery and the bad mind of di men wey suppose take care of dem. Some others wey fit hold dem freedom still dey face racial wahala, discrimination, and poverty. When loyalist plantations fall, dem go carry enslaved women go sell am for soldiers' pockets. Di Crown dey promise manumission slaves, dey move dem along with troops for di last days of di war, and settle over 3,000 Black Loyalists for Nova Scotia, plus others for di Caribbean and England. In 1792, dem create Freetown for Sierra Leone as one place for Poor Blacks from London and Black Loyalists from Canada wey wan shift. One popular voice for freedom during di Revolutionary time na Phillis Wheatley from Massachusetts. She be slave for most of her life but her master free her. She sabi Latin, Greek, and English, and she write plenty poems wey talk say Africans, as God children just like Europeans, deserve respect and freedom. In 1777, Vermont draft one constitution wey no allow slavery. In 1780, one Massachusetts judge talk say slavery no dey proper according to di new bill of rights wey talk say 'all men ... free and equal.' Slavery come finish for Massachusetts with dis ruling after Quock Walker sue for him freedom. Dis one make plenty enslaved men and women dey sue for dem freedom in New England. Again in 1780 for Pennsylvania, di legislature pass one law wey dey gradually free enslaved people, connect di Revolution ideals with di rights of African Americans to freedom. For di South, di immediate impact of di Revolution na say slaveholders dey free plenty slaves for di first two decades after di war. == Female slavery in the United States == 6k2elhufrc5bjcgxod337fugkjr8rq1 69204 69202 2025-07-06T01:14:38Z Abdul-Rauf Moshie 1580 /* Female slavery in the United States */ 69204 wikitext text/x-wiki Di way wey dem dey live for plenty different situations plus di fact sey dem be black women, enslaved women from Africa get beta different experiences for slavery. Historian Deborah Gray White talk sey, "di African-American woman dey stand for di crossroads of two strong ideologies for America, one for women and di other for Negro people.<ref name="White2">{{cite book|last=White|first=Deborah Gray|url=https://archive.org/details/arntiwomanfemal00whit|title=Ar'n't I a Woman?: female slaves in the plantation South|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|year=1999|isbn=0393314812|edition=Revised|location=New York|access-date=December 17, 2019|url-access=registration|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200818014828/https://archive.org/details/arntiwomanfemal00whit|archive-date=August 18, 2020|url-status=live}}</ref>" From di time dem start slave journey for Middle Passage, di treatment wey enslaved women dey receive dey different because dem be women. When e come to hard work and suffer, dem dey face di same level wahala like di men, but dem still dey go through sexual abuse from dem slave masters wey dey use stereotype sey black women too dey too sexual as excuse.<ref>{{cite book|last=White|first=Deborah Gray|title=Ar'n't I a Woman? Female Slaves in the Plantation South|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|year=1999|edition=Revised|chapter=The Nature of Female Slavery}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Bell|first=Karen Cook|date=2022-11-07|title=On War and U.S. Slavery: Enslaved Black Women’s Experiences - AAIHS|url=https://www.aaihs.org/on-war-and-u-s-slavery-enslaved-black-womens-experiences/|access-date=2025-06-08|website=www.aaihs.org|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Marshall |first=Lydia Wilson |date=2022-05-04 |title=Women, Slavery, and Labor in the United States |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/21619441.2022.2102835 |journal=Journal of African Diaspora Archaeology and Heritage |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=93–96 |doi=10.1080/21619441.2022.2102835 |issn=2161-9441 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> {{Women in society sidebar}} Stereotypes and story wey dey follow am Di way wey enslavers dey treat enslaved women, dem fit talk say na Jezebel and Mammy stereotypes dey support am. Dem dey see black women as dem get high libido, di Jezebel character start when Englishmen come Africa come buy slaves. Wetin women dey wear (wey dem need for di hot weather) and di African tradition wey dey allow plenty wives, all dis one dey show say na dem African people get uncontrollable lust. White enslavers dey use Jezebel character to paint African women as bad, so dem fit downplay all di wahala wey dem dey go through. Di Mammy stereotype na different matter, e come from story wey dem write after civil war. E show Mammy as top house help wey sabi domestic work. White people dey talk say Mammy care pass for her enslaver’s children than her own pikin. Just like di Jezebel matter, dis Mammy stereotype no correct, but e still get small truth wey fit make am believable, and e fit really affect black women well-well. Di Mammy stereotype dey try soft di harsh reality of slavery, as if house servants dey live good for dem domestic life, but dem dey work all di time... Dem get less privacy pass di field workers. Dem always dey under di eye of white family, and dem dey feel di mood of di madam pass di other slaves.” Motherhood experience for enslaved women dey different o. Dem black mothers weh dem hold as slaves no easy at all. Dem dey see dem as way to increase enslaved pipo. As slave masters sabi say female slaves fit give dem profit, dem turn wet-nursing into serious matter, wey female slaves go dey suckle white pipo children. Wet-nursing na wah, dem force enslaved mothers make dem dey give breast milk for white children while dem dey work far from dem own babies or sell dem away. E even fit make their own children suffer, no fit chop well if dem wean dem too early. European travelers even talk say African women dey good for suckling because dem breast long reach. Dem dey use di images of wet nurses to justify how dem dey exploit enslaved women and also how dem dey care for white children. Because of how slavery dey demand, dem female slaves dey rely on shared mothering, like how dem dey do for Africa, where women dey help each other raise pikin, no go talk say men dey help.” E be sure say dis one help keep di African culture wey dey value motherhood, and di African mama fit don pass am give her daughters. Sexual exploitation of enslaved women dey happen plenty. Lewis C. Robards run house wey be full of rape, from Lincoln and Bluegrass: slavery and civil war for Kentucky by William H. Townsend (1955). White men wey get slaves dey use dem women for sexual abuse gree gree. Dem dey think say enslaved women get high sexual desire, so dem no believe say dem fit carry go assault dem. Dem dey talk say 'Black men and women dey get sexual hunger wey no fit quench, so dem dey waka go look for satisfaction for other race.' Na black women dey lure men wey dey feel say dem dey higher class.[1] Dis matter fit lead to pregnancy wey go born mixed-race pikin, sexual abuse of dem women dey cause serious wahala: 'Half-white pikin dey tell story of white man wey cheat, slave woman wey dey helpless (but true, plenty white people no dey care), and white woman wey no fit fight social and legal wahala wey dey hold am for her husband no matter wetin e do.'[1] White women wey no fit punish their husbands for bad behavior dey turn anger for enslaved women: 'To punish Black women...mistresses fit use anything wey dey available – fork, butcher knife, knitting needle, boiling water. Some of di wickedest punishment wey dey cause dey mutilate and scar female servants na white mistresses go create when dem dey vex.'[2] Sexual abuse dey always dey as wahala on plantation, black and white men fit do am. Mothers dey often teach their daughters how to avoid those men wey dey make sexual advances.[3] But as e be, 'mama fit do small pass just dey pray make her daughter pass through teenage and young woman life without any sexual abuse.' Colonial America Main talk: Slavery for di colonial United States More info: Redemptioner Virginia Main talk: Story of slavery for Virginia Di Old Plantation, about 1790. Enslaved Africans for one South Carolinian plantation. From 1700 to 1740, dem estimate say about 43,000 slaves enter Virginia, and almost all but 4,000 come straight from Africa. Recent research show say di number of women and men wey enter dis period dey almost equal and plenty children too. As most of dem come from West Africa, di culture dey reign for di mid to late eighteenth-century slave life for Virginia. African values dey shine and West African women culture dey strong. Some common cultural signs be di deep bond wey dey between mama and pikin, and among women for di larger female community. Among di Igbo ethnic group wey come from present-day Nigeria, dem dey make up between one-third and one-half of di slaves wey enter early eighteenth century, di female power (di omu) dey 'rule' plenty important matters wey concern women and di whole community. Di Igbo be one group wey dem carry go Chesapeake, but generally, Africans come from plenty different backgrounds. All of dem come from worlds wey women community dey strong, and dem introduce into one patriarchal and violent racist society; white men dey usually paint all black women as sexually wild to justify dem abuse and mix blood. Girls wey be from Africa for Virginia dey often no sabi read or write. Dem African and African American female slaves dey fit for many jobs. The southern colonies be mostly farm places and dem enslaved women dey work for fields, dey plant and dey do chores, but plenty for house, dey nurse, take care of pikin, cook, wash cloth, etc. New England Jersey Negro (1748), John Greenwood. Dis portrait of Ann Arnold na di first portrait of black woman for North America. Ann Arnold be wet nurse for pikin wey di parents na from Jersey. Historian Ira Berlin talk say make we fit separate "slave societies" and "societies with slaves". Based on dis, New England be society with slaves, wey depend on sea trade and variety farm work, compared to di slave societies of di south wey dey depend plenty on slave labor, get many enslaved people, and masters dey get plenty power over dem slaves wey law no fit check. For New England, e get small slave population and di enslavers dey see demself as fathers wey get duty to protect, guide, and care for di slaves. Enslaved women for New England get better chance to find freedom than other areas because of di New England legal system, how owners dey free dem often, and di chance to hire dem out, especially men wey fit earn enough money to buy wife and children. Enslaved women dey do traditional domestic work, many times dem dey hire am by day. Dem dey work as maids, for kitchen, barn, and garden. Dem dey do small-small work: shine family silver, help with clothes and hair, draw bath, barber men, and dey do chores like sweep, empty chamber pots, carry water, wash dishes, brew, look after pikin and old people, cook and bake, milk cow, feed chicken, spin, knit, card, sew, and wash clothes. Their daily work no be too hard like other enslaved women for other places. But still, enslaved women for New England dey work well, even when dem dey suffer bad living conditions and no food. "Because of heavy work, bad house, and no enough food, average black woman no dey live pass forty." Enslaved women dey give white women as gifts from their husbands, and for wedding and Christmas gift too. The thing wey people talk say New England masters dey treat their slaves better pass southern masters na lie. Dem no get much freedom, movement, or chance to learn. "The record wey show slaves wey dem brand, nail them ears, run away, commit suicide, suffer family wahala, or wey dem sell secretly for Barbados before dem turn useless fit clear the lie of kind masters. Dem dey lash dem when dem vex, full of anger, or when dem fit use horsewhip. " Sometimes, slaveholders dey force female slaves enter sexual relationship with male slaves for breeding. E no rare say dem go rape and make enslaved women pregnant too. Southern colonies No matter where dem dey, slaves dey suffer serious life wey no easy, but for southern colonies, e dey worst pass. Southern colonies be slave societies; dem dey depend on slave labor for everything: socially, economically, and politically, and plenty slaves dey wey masters get plenty power over dem. Plantations be di main power for South, and slave labor na di backbone. Early days, slaves for di South dey do farming, planting indigo, rice, and tobacco; cotton come be major crop after 1790s. Di women wey be slaves dey do plenty work, dem dey expected to work for field and also born pikin to boost di slave population. Before di American Revolution, di number of female slaves grow more because dem dey born, no be importation. Once slaveholders sabi say female slaves fit make dem money by dey born pikin, na so di exploitation of female slaves turn serious. Plenty enslaved women dey raise their pikin without much help from men. Dem no just do house and farm work, but dem dey carry belle, feed, and train their children. As house slaves, women be domestic workers: dem dey cook, sew, clean, and dey take care of di planter’s children. Revolutionary era Main article: African Americans for Revolutionary War During di Revolutionary War (1775–1783), enslaved women dey serve for both sides, dem Loyalist army and dem Patriots, as nurses, laundresses, and cooks. But e be as historian Carol Berkin talk say, "African American loyalty na for dia own future, no be for Congress or king." Enslaved women dey camp and dey follow army. Dem dey help build roads, construct fortifications, and wash uniforms, "but dem still be slaves, no be refugees. Masters dey usually hire dem out to military, sometimes dem go even hire dem pikin too." Enslaved women dey work for shops, homes, fields, and plantations for all American colonies. Estimate show by 1770, over 47,000 enslaved blacks dey for di northern colonies, almost 20,000 for New York alone. Over 320,000 slaves dey work for di Chesapeake colonies, making 37 percent of di population African or African American. Over 187,000 of dem slaves dey for Virginia. For Lower South, over 92,000 slaves dey. South Carolina alone get over 75,000 slaves, and by 1770, planters dey import 4,000 Africans yearly. For plenty counties for Lower South, di slave population dey pass di white people. When war cause palaver, both men and women dey run away. Men dey more likely to escape, as pregnant women, mothers, and women wey dey nurse dia old parents or friends no dey quick leave dem wey depend on dem. Plenty slaves run away from dia plantations for South Carolina so much that no enough field hands dey to plant or harvest crops. As food dey scarce, dem wey remain suffer from hunger or enemy attack. Di Crown don give certificates of manumission to over 914 women as reward for serving with Loyalist forces. But plenty women wey don get their freedom go lose am back through wahala and trickery and the bad mind of di men wey suppose take care of dem. Some others wey fit hold dem freedom still dey face racial wahala, discrimination, and poverty. When loyalist plantations fall, dem go carry enslaved women go sell am for soldiers' pockets. Di Crown dey promise manumission slaves, dey move dem along with troops for di last days of di war, and settle over 3,000 Black Loyalists for Nova Scotia, plus others for di Caribbean and England. In 1792, dem create Freetown for Sierra Leone as one place for Poor Blacks from London and Black Loyalists from Canada wey wan shift. One popular voice for freedom during di Revolutionary time na Phillis Wheatley from Massachusetts. She be slave for most of her life but her master free her. She sabi Latin, Greek, and English, and she write plenty poems wey talk say Africans, as God children just like Europeans, deserve respect and freedom. In 1777, Vermont draft one constitution wey no allow slavery. In 1780, one Massachusetts judge talk say slavery no dey proper according to di new bill of rights wey talk say 'all men ... free and equal.' Slavery come finish for Massachusetts with dis ruling after Quock Walker sue for him freedom. Dis one make plenty enslaved men and women dey sue for dem freedom in New England. Again in 1780 for Pennsylvania, di legislature pass one law wey dey gradually free enslaved people, connect di Revolution ideals with di rights of African Americans to freedom. For di South, di immediate impact of di Revolution na say slaveholders dey free plenty slaves for di first two decades after di war. But di invention of di cotton gin make plenty people fit grow short-staple cotton wella, and as dem open southwestern land for cotton and sugar production, demand for slaves just increase. Di lawmakers no make am easy to free slaves, and dem pass sharper laws wey dey control African-American lives. Antebellum period See also: Fancy girls "Slaves Waiting for Sale." Women and pikin slaves, wey dey wear new clothes, dey wait make dem sell dem for Richmond, Virginia, for 19th century. As historian Deborah Gray White talk, "Black for white society, slave for free society, woman for society wey men dey rule, female slaves get di least power and dem dey vulnerable pass any group for America." Di mother-daughter bond dey strong and cherished for African American families. No too plenty women dey run away, but when dem dey run, sometimes dem carry their children come. Historian Martha Saxton write about di lives of enslaved mothers for St. Louis during di antebellum period: "For Marion County, north of St. Louis, one slave trader buy three small children from owner, but di children's mama kill dem all and herself instead make dem carry dem go. One St. Louis trader take one crying baby from him mama, both dey go sell, and give di baby to one white woman wey dey stand near because di noise dey disturb am." Another way we fit see dis generational connection na through song. Songs wey dey talk about slavery and women experience during dia enslavement dey pass from generation to generation. African-American women work songs na historical snapshots of di lives dem live and how dem survive. Songs dey talk about families wey dey scatter and di emotional wahala wey enslaved women go through by slavery. Songs don add di legacy of oral tradition wey dey help pass generational knowledge about historical times. == Female slavery in the United States == 8ekf1doobn6q8fko0fyyw0wa5bc8lcd 69205 69204 2025-07-06T01:16:37Z Abdul-Rauf Moshie 1580 /* Female slavery in the United States */ 69205 wikitext text/x-wiki Di way wey dem dey live for plenty different situations plus di fact sey dem be black women, enslaved women from Africa get beta different experiences for slavery. Historian Deborah Gray White talk sey, "di African-American woman dey stand for di crossroads of two strong ideologies for America, one for women and di other for Negro people.<ref name="White2">{{cite book|last=White|first=Deborah Gray|url=https://archive.org/details/arntiwomanfemal00whit|title=Ar'n't I a Woman?: female slaves in the plantation South|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|year=1999|isbn=0393314812|edition=Revised|location=New York|access-date=December 17, 2019|url-access=registration|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200818014828/https://archive.org/details/arntiwomanfemal00whit|archive-date=August 18, 2020|url-status=live}}</ref>" From di time dem start slave journey for Middle Passage, di treatment wey enslaved women dey receive dey different because dem be women. When e come to hard work and suffer, dem dey face di same level wahala like di men, but dem still dey go through sexual abuse from dem slave masters wey dey use stereotype sey black women too dey too sexual as excuse.<ref>{{cite book|last=White|first=Deborah Gray|title=Ar'n't I a Woman? Female Slaves in the Plantation South|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|year=1999|edition=Revised|chapter=The Nature of Female Slavery}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Bell|first=Karen Cook|date=2022-11-07|title=On War and U.S. Slavery: Enslaved Black Women’s Experiences - AAIHS|url=https://www.aaihs.org/on-war-and-u-s-slavery-enslaved-black-womens-experiences/|access-date=2025-06-08|website=www.aaihs.org|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Marshall |first=Lydia Wilson |date=2022-05-04 |title=Women, Slavery, and Labor in the United States |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/21619441.2022.2102835 |journal=Journal of African Diaspora Archaeology and Heritage |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=93–96 |doi=10.1080/21619441.2022.2102835 |issn=2161-9441 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> {{Women in society sidebar}} Stereotypes and story wey dey follow am Di way wey enslavers dey treat enslaved women, dem fit talk say na Jezebel and Mammy stereotypes dey support am. Dem dey see black women as dem get high libido, di Jezebel character start when Englishmen come Africa come buy slaves. Wetin women dey wear (wey dem need for di hot weather) and di African tradition wey dey allow plenty wives, all dis one dey show say na dem African people get uncontrollable lust. White enslavers dey use Jezebel character to paint African women as bad, so dem fit downplay all di wahala wey dem dey go through. Di Mammy stereotype na different matter, e come from story wey dem write after civil war. E show Mammy as top house help wey sabi domestic work. White people dey talk say Mammy care pass for her enslaver’s children than her own pikin. Just like di Jezebel matter, dis Mammy stereotype no correct, but e still get small truth wey fit make am believable, and e fit really affect black women well-well. Di Mammy stereotype dey try soft di harsh reality of slavery, as if house servants dey live good for dem domestic life, but dem dey work all di time... Dem get less privacy pass di field workers. Dem always dey under di eye of white family, and dem dey feel di mood of di madam pass di other slaves.” Motherhood experience for enslaved women dey different o. Dem black mothers weh dem hold as slaves no easy at all. Dem dey see dem as way to increase enslaved pipo. As slave masters sabi say female slaves fit give dem profit, dem turn wet-nursing into serious matter, wey female slaves go dey suckle white pipo children. Wet-nursing na wah, dem force enslaved mothers make dem dey give breast milk for white children while dem dey work far from dem own babies or sell dem away. E even fit make their own children suffer, no fit chop well if dem wean dem too early. European travelers even talk say African women dey good for suckling because dem breast long reach. Dem dey use di images of wet nurses to justify how dem dey exploit enslaved women and also how dem dey care for white children. Because of how slavery dey demand, dem female slaves dey rely on shared mothering, like how dem dey do for Africa, where women dey help each other raise pikin, no go talk say men dey help.” E be sure say dis one help keep di African culture wey dey value motherhood, and di African mama fit don pass am give her daughters. Sexual exploitation of enslaved women dey happen plenty. Lewis C. Robards run house wey be full of rape, from Lincoln and Bluegrass: slavery and civil war for Kentucky by William H. Townsend (1955). White men wey get slaves dey use dem women for sexual abuse gree gree. Dem dey think say enslaved women get high sexual desire, so dem no believe say dem fit carry go assault dem. Dem dey talk say 'Black men and women dey get sexual hunger wey no fit quench, so dem dey waka go look for satisfaction for other race.' Na black women dey lure men wey dey feel say dem dey higher class.[1] Dis matter fit lead to pregnancy wey go born mixed-race pikin, sexual abuse of dem women dey cause serious wahala: 'Half-white pikin dey tell story of white man wey cheat, slave woman wey dey helpless (but true, plenty white people no dey care), and white woman wey no fit fight social and legal wahala wey dey hold am for her husband no matter wetin e do.'[1] White women wey no fit punish their husbands for bad behavior dey turn anger for enslaved women: 'To punish Black women...mistresses fit use anything wey dey available – fork, butcher knife, knitting needle, boiling water. Some of di wickedest punishment wey dey cause dey mutilate and scar female servants na white mistresses go create when dem dey vex.'[2] Sexual abuse dey always dey as wahala on plantation, black and white men fit do am. Mothers dey often teach their daughters how to avoid those men wey dey make sexual advances.[3] But as e be, 'mama fit do small pass just dey pray make her daughter pass through teenage and young woman life without any sexual abuse.' Colonial America Main talk: Slavery for di colonial United States More info: Redemptioner Virginia Main talk: Story of slavery for Virginia Di Old Plantation, about 1790. Enslaved Africans for one South Carolinian plantation. From 1700 to 1740, dem estimate say about 43,000 slaves enter Virginia, and almost all but 4,000 come straight from Africa. Recent research show say di number of women and men wey enter dis period dey almost equal and plenty children too. As most of dem come from West Africa, di culture dey reign for di mid to late eighteenth-century slave life for Virginia. African values dey shine and West African women culture dey strong. Some common cultural signs be di deep bond wey dey between mama and pikin, and among women for di larger female community. Among di Igbo ethnic group wey come from present-day Nigeria, dem dey make up between one-third and one-half of di slaves wey enter early eighteenth century, di female power (di omu) dey 'rule' plenty important matters wey concern women and di whole community. Di Igbo be one group wey dem carry go Chesapeake, but generally, Africans come from plenty different backgrounds. All of dem come from worlds wey women community dey strong, and dem introduce into one patriarchal and violent racist society; white men dey usually paint all black women as sexually wild to justify dem abuse and mix blood. Girls wey be from Africa for Virginia dey often no sabi read or write. Dem African and African American female slaves dey fit for many jobs. The southern colonies be mostly farm places and dem enslaved women dey work for fields, dey plant and dey do chores, but plenty for house, dey nurse, take care of pikin, cook, wash cloth, etc. New England Jersey Negro (1748), John Greenwood. Dis portrait of Ann Arnold na di first portrait of black woman for North America. Ann Arnold be wet nurse for pikin wey di parents na from Jersey. Historian Ira Berlin talk say make we fit separate "slave societies" and "societies with slaves". Based on dis, New England be society with slaves, wey depend on sea trade and variety farm work, compared to di slave societies of di south wey dey depend plenty on slave labor, get many enslaved people, and masters dey get plenty power over dem slaves wey law no fit check. For New England, e get small slave population and di enslavers dey see demself as fathers wey get duty to protect, guide, and care for di slaves. Enslaved women for New England get better chance to find freedom than other areas because of di New England legal system, how owners dey free dem often, and di chance to hire dem out, especially men wey fit earn enough money to buy wife and children. Enslaved women dey do traditional domestic work, many times dem dey hire am by day. Dem dey work as maids, for kitchen, barn, and garden. Dem dey do small-small work: shine family silver, help with clothes and hair, draw bath, barber men, and dey do chores like sweep, empty chamber pots, carry water, wash dishes, brew, look after pikin and old people, cook and bake, milk cow, feed chicken, spin, knit, card, sew, and wash clothes. Their daily work no be too hard like other enslaved women for other places. But still, enslaved women for New England dey work well, even when dem dey suffer bad living conditions and no food. "Because of heavy work, bad house, and no enough food, average black woman no dey live pass forty." Enslaved women dey give white women as gifts from their husbands, and for wedding and Christmas gift too. The thing wey people talk say New England masters dey treat their slaves better pass southern masters na lie. Dem no get much freedom, movement, or chance to learn. "The record wey show slaves wey dem brand, nail them ears, run away, commit suicide, suffer family wahala, or wey dem sell secretly for Barbados before dem turn useless fit clear the lie of kind masters. Dem dey lash dem when dem vex, full of anger, or when dem fit use horsewhip. " Sometimes, slaveholders dey force female slaves enter sexual relationship with male slaves for breeding. E no rare say dem go rape and make enslaved women pregnant too. Southern colonies No matter where dem dey, slaves dey suffer serious life wey no easy, but for southern colonies, e dey worst pass. Southern colonies be slave societies; dem dey depend on slave labor for everything: socially, economically, and politically, and plenty slaves dey wey masters get plenty power over dem. Plantations be di main power for South, and slave labor na di backbone. Early days, slaves for di South dey do farming, planting indigo, rice, and tobacco; cotton come be major crop after 1790s. Di women wey be slaves dey do plenty work, dem dey expected to work for field and also born pikin to boost di slave population. Before di American Revolution, di number of female slaves grow more because dem dey born, no be importation. Once slaveholders sabi say female slaves fit make dem money by dey born pikin, na so di exploitation of female slaves turn serious. Plenty enslaved women dey raise their pikin without much help from men. Dem no just do house and farm work, but dem dey carry belle, feed, and train their children. As house slaves, women be domestic workers: dem dey cook, sew, clean, and dey take care of di planter’s children. Revolutionary era Main article: African Americans for Revolutionary War During di Revolutionary War (1775–1783), enslaved women dey serve for both sides, dem Loyalist army and dem Patriots, as nurses, laundresses, and cooks. But e be as historian Carol Berkin talk say, "African American loyalty na for dia own future, no be for Congress or king." Enslaved women dey camp and dey follow army. Dem dey help build roads, construct fortifications, and wash uniforms, "but dem still be slaves, no be refugees. Masters dey usually hire dem out to military, sometimes dem go even hire dem pikin too." Enslaved women dey work for shops, homes, fields, and plantations for all American colonies. Estimate show by 1770, over 47,000 enslaved blacks dey for di northern colonies, almost 20,000 for New York alone. Over 320,000 slaves dey work for di Chesapeake colonies, making 37 percent of di population African or African American. Over 187,000 of dem slaves dey for Virginia. For Lower South, over 92,000 slaves dey. South Carolina alone get over 75,000 slaves, and by 1770, planters dey import 4,000 Africans yearly. For plenty counties for Lower South, di slave population dey pass di white people. When war cause palaver, both men and women dey run away. Men dey more likely to escape, as pregnant women, mothers, and women wey dey nurse dia old parents or friends no dey quick leave dem wey depend on dem. Plenty slaves run away from dia plantations for South Carolina so much that no enough field hands dey to plant or harvest crops. As food dey scarce, dem wey remain suffer from hunger or enemy attack. Di Crown don give certificates of manumission to over 914 women as reward for serving with Loyalist forces. But plenty women wey don get their freedom go lose am back through wahala and trickery and the bad mind of di men wey suppose take care of dem. Some others wey fit hold dem freedom still dey face racial wahala, discrimination, and poverty. When loyalist plantations fall, dem go carry enslaved women go sell am for soldiers' pockets. Di Crown dey promise manumission slaves, dey move dem along with troops for di last days of di war, and settle over 3,000 Black Loyalists for Nova Scotia, plus others for di Caribbean and England. In 1792, dem create Freetown for Sierra Leone as one place for Poor Blacks from London and Black Loyalists from Canada wey wan shift. One popular voice for freedom during di Revolutionary time na Phillis Wheatley from Massachusetts. She be slave for most of her life but her master free her. She sabi Latin, Greek, and English, and she write plenty poems wey talk say Africans, as God children just like Europeans, deserve respect and freedom. In 1777, Vermont draft one constitution wey no allow slavery. In 1780, one Massachusetts judge talk say slavery no dey proper according to di new bill of rights wey talk say 'all men ... free and equal.' Slavery come finish for Massachusetts with dis ruling after Quock Walker sue for him freedom. Dis one make plenty enslaved men and women dey sue for dem freedom in New England. Again in 1780 for Pennsylvania, di legislature pass one law wey dey gradually free enslaved people, connect di Revolution ideals with di rights of African Americans to freedom. For di South, di immediate impact of di Revolution na say slaveholders dey free plenty slaves for di first two decades after di war. But di invention of di cotton gin make plenty people fit grow short-staple cotton wella, and as dem open southwestern land for cotton and sugar production, demand for slaves just increase. Di lawmakers no make am easy to free slaves, and dem pass sharper laws wey dey control African-American lives. Antebellum period See also: Fancy girls "Slaves Waiting for Sale." Women and pikin slaves, wey dey wear new clothes, dey wait make dem sell dem for Richmond, Virginia, for 19th century. As historian Deborah Gray White talk, "Black for white society, slave for free society, woman for society wey men dey rule, female slaves get di least power and dem dey vulnerable pass any group for America." Di mother-daughter bond dey strong and cherished for African American families. No too plenty women dey run away, but when dem dey run, sometimes dem carry their children come. Historian Martha Saxton write about di lives of enslaved mothers for St. Louis during di antebellum period: "For Marion County, north of St. Louis, one slave trader buy three small children from owner, but di children's mama kill dem all and herself instead make dem carry dem go. One St. Louis trader take one crying baby from him mama, both dey go sell, and give di baby to one white woman wey dey stand near because di noise dey disturb am." Another way we fit see dis generational connection na through song. Songs wey dey talk about slavery and women experience during dia enslavement dey pass from generation to generation. African-American women work songs na historical snapshots of di lives dem live and how dem survive. Songs dey talk about families wey dey scatter and di emotional wahala wey enslaved women go through by slavery. Songs don add di legacy of oral tradition wey dey help pass generational knowledge about historical times. Small pikin girls wey dem dey sell since dem dey seven years: "Mary Bell dey work for year to take care of three pikin when she dey seven. John Mullanphy talk say him dey live with one four-year-old mulatto girl, wey him go give Sisters of Charity if him die. George Morton sell him daughter Ellen wey be one mulatto girl, about fourteen years, wey dem call Sally, she be pikin of one Negro woman wey dem name Ann." In 1854, Georgia be the first place wey pass law wey separate mothers and their children. Dem no fit sell pikin wey dey under five from their mama, "except the separation no go fit happen without the division." In 1848, Ellen Craft wey get mixed blood, disguise as white man to run from slavery. Slave girls for North America dey do work for house, helping the family. White families dey find "girl" wey be "all-purpose tool" for their life. Even though dem dey call any working girl without pikin "girl", white families prefer slave girls because e cheap. Dem slave girls dey normally very small, from nine years to mid-teens. Heavy housework dey given to "girl" so dem dey see am as "negroes'" work. "Girl" be important help for white families, rural and city, middle class and dey hustle. She dey give freedom to daughters to focus on themselves and dey help mothers wey dey tire without any money or emotional wahala, "no empathy". == Female slavery in the United States == qriz7aaegxgp965vpmzma2u6zs9gtgn 69206 69205 2025-07-06T01:18:07Z Abdul-Rauf Moshie 1580 /* Female slavery in the United States */ 69206 wikitext text/x-wiki Di way wey dem dey live for plenty different situations plus di fact sey dem be black women, enslaved women from Africa get beta different experiences for slavery. Historian Deborah Gray White talk sey, "di African-American woman dey stand for di crossroads of two strong ideologies for America, one for women and di other for Negro people.<ref name="White2">{{cite book|last=White|first=Deborah Gray|url=https://archive.org/details/arntiwomanfemal00whit|title=Ar'n't I a Woman?: female slaves in the plantation South|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|year=1999|isbn=0393314812|edition=Revised|location=New York|access-date=December 17, 2019|url-access=registration|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200818014828/https://archive.org/details/arntiwomanfemal00whit|archive-date=August 18, 2020|url-status=live}}</ref>" From di time dem start slave journey for Middle Passage, di treatment wey enslaved women dey receive dey different because dem be women. When e come to hard work and suffer, dem dey face di same level wahala like di men, but dem still dey go through sexual abuse from dem slave masters wey dey use stereotype sey black women too dey too sexual as excuse.<ref>{{cite book|last=White|first=Deborah Gray|title=Ar'n't I a Woman? Female Slaves in the Plantation South|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|year=1999|edition=Revised|chapter=The Nature of Female Slavery}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Bell|first=Karen Cook|date=2022-11-07|title=On War and U.S. Slavery: Enslaved Black Women’s Experiences - AAIHS|url=https://www.aaihs.org/on-war-and-u-s-slavery-enslaved-black-womens-experiences/|access-date=2025-06-08|website=www.aaihs.org|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Marshall |first=Lydia Wilson |date=2022-05-04 |title=Women, Slavery, and Labor in the United States |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/21619441.2022.2102835 |journal=Journal of African Diaspora Archaeology and Heritage |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=93–96 |doi=10.1080/21619441.2022.2102835 |issn=2161-9441 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> {{Women in society sidebar}} Stereotypes and story wey dey follow am Di way wey enslavers dey treat enslaved women, dem fit talk say na Jezebel and Mammy stereotypes dey support am. Dem dey see black women as dem get high libido, di Jezebel character start when Englishmen come Africa come buy slaves. Wetin women dey wear (wey dem need for di hot weather) and di African tradition wey dey allow plenty wives, all dis one dey show say na dem African people get uncontrollable lust. White enslavers dey use Jezebel character to paint African women as bad, so dem fit downplay all di wahala wey dem dey go through. Di Mammy stereotype na different matter, e come from story wey dem write after civil war. E show Mammy as top house help wey sabi domestic work. White people dey talk say Mammy care pass for her enslaver’s children than her own pikin. Just like di Jezebel matter, dis Mammy stereotype no correct, but e still get small truth wey fit make am believable, and e fit really affect black women well-well. Di Mammy stereotype dey try soft di harsh reality of slavery, as if house servants dey live good for dem domestic life, but dem dey work all di time... Dem get less privacy pass di field workers. Dem always dey under di eye of white family, and dem dey feel di mood of di madam pass di other slaves.” Motherhood experience for enslaved women dey different o. Dem black mothers weh dem hold as slaves no easy at all. Dem dey see dem as way to increase enslaved pipo. As slave masters sabi say female slaves fit give dem profit, dem turn wet-nursing into serious matter, wey female slaves go dey suckle white pipo children. Wet-nursing na wah, dem force enslaved mothers make dem dey give breast milk for white children while dem dey work far from dem own babies or sell dem away. E even fit make their own children suffer, no fit chop well if dem wean dem too early. European travelers even talk say African women dey good for suckling because dem breast long reach. Dem dey use di images of wet nurses to justify how dem dey exploit enslaved women and also how dem dey care for white children. Because of how slavery dey demand, dem female slaves dey rely on shared mothering, like how dem dey do for Africa, where women dey help each other raise pikin, no go talk say men dey help.” E be sure say dis one help keep di African culture wey dey value motherhood, and di African mama fit don pass am give her daughters. Sexual exploitation of enslaved women dey happen plenty. Lewis C. Robards run house wey be full of rape, from Lincoln and Bluegrass: slavery and civil war for Kentucky by William H. Townsend (1955). White men wey get slaves dey use dem women for sexual abuse gree gree. Dem dey think say enslaved women get high sexual desire, so dem no believe say dem fit carry go assault dem. Dem dey talk say 'Black men and women dey get sexual hunger wey no fit quench, so dem dey waka go look for satisfaction for other race.' Na black women dey lure men wey dey feel say dem dey higher class.[1] Dis matter fit lead to pregnancy wey go born mixed-race pikin, sexual abuse of dem women dey cause serious wahala: 'Half-white pikin dey tell story of white man wey cheat, slave woman wey dey helpless (but true, plenty white people no dey care), and white woman wey no fit fight social and legal wahala wey dey hold am for her husband no matter wetin e do.'[1] White women wey no fit punish their husbands for bad behavior dey turn anger for enslaved women: 'To punish Black women...mistresses fit use anything wey dey available – fork, butcher knife, knitting needle, boiling water. Some of di wickedest punishment wey dey cause dey mutilate and scar female servants na white mistresses go create when dem dey vex.'[2] Sexual abuse dey always dey as wahala on plantation, black and white men fit do am. Mothers dey often teach their daughters how to avoid those men wey dey make sexual advances.[3] But as e be, 'mama fit do small pass just dey pray make her daughter pass through teenage and young woman life without any sexual abuse.' Colonial America Main talk: Slavery for di colonial United States More info: Redemptioner Virginia Main talk: Story of slavery for Virginia Di Old Plantation, about 1790. Enslaved Africans for one South Carolinian plantation. From 1700 to 1740, dem estimate say about 43,000 slaves enter Virginia, and almost all but 4,000 come straight from Africa. Recent research show say di number of women and men wey enter dis period dey almost equal and plenty children too. As most of dem come from West Africa, di culture dey reign for di mid to late eighteenth-century slave life for Virginia. African values dey shine and West African women culture dey strong. Some common cultural signs be di deep bond wey dey between mama and pikin, and among women for di larger female community. Among di Igbo ethnic group wey come from present-day Nigeria, dem dey make up between one-third and one-half of di slaves wey enter early eighteenth century, di female power (di omu) dey 'rule' plenty important matters wey concern women and di whole community. Di Igbo be one group wey dem carry go Chesapeake, but generally, Africans come from plenty different backgrounds. All of dem come from worlds wey women community dey strong, and dem introduce into one patriarchal and violent racist society; white men dey usually paint all black women as sexually wild to justify dem abuse and mix blood. Girls wey be from Africa for Virginia dey often no sabi read or write. Dem African and African American female slaves dey fit for many jobs. The southern colonies be mostly farm places and dem enslaved women dey work for fields, dey plant and dey do chores, but plenty for house, dey nurse, take care of pikin, cook, wash cloth, etc. New England Jersey Negro (1748), John Greenwood. Dis portrait of Ann Arnold na di first portrait of black woman for North America. Ann Arnold be wet nurse for pikin wey di parents na from Jersey. Historian Ira Berlin talk say make we fit separate "slave societies" and "societies with slaves". Based on dis, New England be society with slaves, wey depend on sea trade and variety farm work, compared to di slave societies of di south wey dey depend plenty on slave labor, get many enslaved people, and masters dey get plenty power over dem slaves wey law no fit check. For New England, e get small slave population and di enslavers dey see demself as fathers wey get duty to protect, guide, and care for di slaves. Enslaved women for New England get better chance to find freedom than other areas because of di New England legal system, how owners dey free dem often, and di chance to hire dem out, especially men wey fit earn enough money to buy wife and children. Enslaved women dey do traditional domestic work, many times dem dey hire am by day. Dem dey work as maids, for kitchen, barn, and garden. Dem dey do small-small work: shine family silver, help with clothes and hair, draw bath, barber men, and dey do chores like sweep, empty chamber pots, carry water, wash dishes, brew, look after pikin and old people, cook and bake, milk cow, feed chicken, spin, knit, card, sew, and wash clothes. Their daily work no be too hard like other enslaved women for other places. But still, enslaved women for New England dey work well, even when dem dey suffer bad living conditions and no food. "Because of heavy work, bad house, and no enough food, average black woman no dey live pass forty." Enslaved women dey give white women as gifts from their husbands, and for wedding and Christmas gift too. The thing wey people talk say New England masters dey treat their slaves better pass southern masters na lie. Dem no get much freedom, movement, or chance to learn. "The record wey show slaves wey dem brand, nail them ears, run away, commit suicide, suffer family wahala, or wey dem sell secretly for Barbados before dem turn useless fit clear the lie of kind masters. Dem dey lash dem when dem vex, full of anger, or when dem fit use horsewhip. " Sometimes, slaveholders dey force female slaves enter sexual relationship with male slaves for breeding. E no rare say dem go rape and make enslaved women pregnant too. Southern colonies No matter where dem dey, slaves dey suffer serious life wey no easy, but for southern colonies, e dey worst pass. Southern colonies be slave societies; dem dey depend on slave labor for everything: socially, economically, and politically, and plenty slaves dey wey masters get plenty power over dem. Plantations be di main power for South, and slave labor na di backbone. Early days, slaves for di South dey do farming, planting indigo, rice, and tobacco; cotton come be major crop after 1790s. Di women wey be slaves dey do plenty work, dem dey expected to work for field and also born pikin to boost di slave population. Before di American Revolution, di number of female slaves grow more because dem dey born, no be importation. Once slaveholders sabi say female slaves fit make dem money by dey born pikin, na so di exploitation of female slaves turn serious. Plenty enslaved women dey raise their pikin without much help from men. Dem no just do house and farm work, but dem dey carry belle, feed, and train their children. As house slaves, women be domestic workers: dem dey cook, sew, clean, and dey take care of di planter’s children. Revolutionary era Main article: African Americans for Revolutionary War During di Revolutionary War (1775–1783), enslaved women dey serve for both sides, dem Loyalist army and dem Patriots, as nurses, laundresses, and cooks. But e be as historian Carol Berkin talk say, "African American loyalty na for dia own future, no be for Congress or king." Enslaved women dey camp and dey follow army. Dem dey help build roads, construct fortifications, and wash uniforms, "but dem still be slaves, no be refugees. Masters dey usually hire dem out to military, sometimes dem go even hire dem pikin too." Enslaved women dey work for shops, homes, fields, and plantations for all American colonies. Estimate show by 1770, over 47,000 enslaved blacks dey for di northern colonies, almost 20,000 for New York alone. Over 320,000 slaves dey work for di Chesapeake colonies, making 37 percent of di population African or African American. Over 187,000 of dem slaves dey for Virginia. For Lower South, over 92,000 slaves dey. South Carolina alone get over 75,000 slaves, and by 1770, planters dey import 4,000 Africans yearly. For plenty counties for Lower South, di slave population dey pass di white people. When war cause palaver, both men and women dey run away. Men dey more likely to escape, as pregnant women, mothers, and women wey dey nurse dia old parents or friends no dey quick leave dem wey depend on dem. Plenty slaves run away from dia plantations for South Carolina so much that no enough field hands dey to plant or harvest crops. As food dey scarce, dem wey remain suffer from hunger or enemy attack. Di Crown don give certificates of manumission to over 914 women as reward for serving with Loyalist forces. But plenty women wey don get their freedom go lose am back through wahala and trickery and the bad mind of di men wey suppose take care of dem. Some others wey fit hold dem freedom still dey face racial wahala, discrimination, and poverty. When loyalist plantations fall, dem go carry enslaved women go sell am for soldiers' pockets. Di Crown dey promise manumission slaves, dey move dem along with troops for di last days of di war, and settle over 3,000 Black Loyalists for Nova Scotia, plus others for di Caribbean and England. In 1792, dem create Freetown for Sierra Leone as one place for Poor Blacks from London and Black Loyalists from Canada wey wan shift. One popular voice for freedom during di Revolutionary time na Phillis Wheatley from Massachusetts. She be slave for most of her life but her master free her. She sabi Latin, Greek, and English, and she write plenty poems wey talk say Africans, as God children just like Europeans, deserve respect and freedom. In 1777, Vermont draft one constitution wey no allow slavery. In 1780, one Massachusetts judge talk say slavery no dey proper according to di new bill of rights wey talk say 'all men ... free and equal.' Slavery come finish for Massachusetts with dis ruling after Quock Walker sue for him freedom. Dis one make plenty enslaved men and women dey sue for dem freedom in New England. Again in 1780 for Pennsylvania, di legislature pass one law wey dey gradually free enslaved people, connect di Revolution ideals with di rights of African Americans to freedom. For di South, di immediate impact of di Revolution na say slaveholders dey free plenty slaves for di first two decades after di war. But di invention of di cotton gin make plenty people fit grow short-staple cotton wella, and as dem open southwestern land for cotton and sugar production, demand for slaves just increase. Di lawmakers no make am easy to free slaves, and dem pass sharper laws wey dey control African-American lives. Antebellum period See also: Fancy girls "Slaves Waiting for Sale." Women and pikin slaves, wey dey wear new clothes, dey wait make dem sell dem for Richmond, Virginia, for 19th century. As historian Deborah Gray White talk, "Black for white society, slave for free society, woman for society wey men dey rule, female slaves get di least power and dem dey vulnerable pass any group for America." Di mother-daughter bond dey strong and cherished for African American families. No too plenty women dey run away, but when dem dey run, sometimes dem carry their children come. Historian Martha Saxton write about di lives of enslaved mothers for St. Louis during di antebellum period: "For Marion County, north of St. Louis, one slave trader buy three small children from owner, but di children's mama kill dem all and herself instead make dem carry dem go. One St. Louis trader take one crying baby from him mama, both dey go sell, and give di baby to one white woman wey dey stand near because di noise dey disturb am." Another way we fit see dis generational connection na through song. Songs wey dey talk about slavery and women experience during dia enslavement dey pass from generation to generation. African-American women work songs na historical snapshots of di lives dem live and how dem survive. Songs dey talk about families wey dey scatter and di emotional wahala wey enslaved women go through by slavery. Songs don add di legacy of oral tradition wey dey help pass generational knowledge about historical times. Small pikin girls wey dem dey sell since dem dey seven years: "Mary Bell dey work for year to take care of three pikin when she dey seven. John Mullanphy talk say him dey live with one four-year-old mulatto girl, wey him go give Sisters of Charity if him die. George Morton sell him daughter Ellen wey be one mulatto girl, about fourteen years, wey dem call Sally, she be pikin of one Negro woman wey dem name Ann." In 1854, Georgia be the first place wey pass law wey separate mothers and their children. Dem no fit sell pikin wey dey under five from their mama, "except the separation no go fit happen without the division." In 1848, Ellen Craft wey get mixed blood, disguise as white man to run from slavery. Slave girls for North America dey do work for house, helping the family. White families dey find "girl" wey be "all-purpose tool" for their life. Even though dem dey call any working girl without pikin "girl", white families prefer slave girls because e cheap. Dem slave girls dey normally very small, from nine years to mid-teens. Heavy housework dey given to "girl" so dem dey see am as "negroes'" work. "Girl" be important help for white families, rural and city, middle class and dey hustle. She dey give freedom to daughters to focus on themselves and dey help mothers wey dey tire without any money or emotional wahala, "no empathy". For antebellum America, like how e be from the first time wey African and European meet for North America, dem dey see black women like dem dey control by dem libido, dem dey show dem like 'Jezebel character'... dem dey be counter image of wetin Victorian lady suppose be for mid-nineteenth century. Enslaved women for every state wan taste freedom, but e dey sweet pass for North than most South. Plenty slaves dey find freedom through self-purchase, dem dey use legal system wey people dey call freedom suits, plus runaways wey fit separate pikin from parent. 'Unfinished childhoods and harsh separations dey follow plenty African American girls, and mothers dey dream of freedom wey no go make dem lose more for dem daughters.' Antebellum South Eastman Johnson's 1859 painting 'Negro Life at the South' dey show relationship of white male masters and dem female slaves small. After Revolution, Southern plantation owners bring plenty new slaves from Africa and Caribbean until USA ban dem import for 1808. More important, over one million slaves dey move forcefully through domestic slave trade, from Upper South go Deep South, mostly by slave traders—either by land wey dem go dey hold for days inside chained coffles, or by sea and ships. Most slaves for Deep South, both men and women, dey work for cotton plantations. Cotton na di cash crop for that time, but slaves dey work for rice, corn, sugarcane, and tobacco plantations too, clearing land, digging ditches, cutting and hauling wood, killing livestock, and fixing buildings and tools. Black women dey also take care of their children and dey handle most of the housework and chores. == Female slavery in the United States == cf4zxqmq763oz05y2uh9yu0ubdg15ex 69207 69206 2025-07-06T01:19:18Z Abdul-Rauf Moshie 1580 /* Female slavery in the United States */ 69207 wikitext text/x-wiki Di way wey dem dey live for plenty different situations plus di fact sey dem be black women, enslaved women from Africa get beta different experiences for slavery. Historian Deborah Gray White talk sey, "di African-American woman dey stand for di crossroads of two strong ideologies for America, one for women and di other for Negro people.<ref name="White2">{{cite book|last=White|first=Deborah Gray|url=https://archive.org/details/arntiwomanfemal00whit|title=Ar'n't I a Woman?: female slaves in the plantation South|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|year=1999|isbn=0393314812|edition=Revised|location=New York|access-date=December 17, 2019|url-access=registration|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200818014828/https://archive.org/details/arntiwomanfemal00whit|archive-date=August 18, 2020|url-status=live}}</ref>" From di time dem start slave journey for Middle Passage, di treatment wey enslaved women dey receive dey different because dem be women. When e come to hard work and suffer, dem dey face di same level wahala like di men, but dem still dey go through sexual abuse from dem slave masters wey dey use stereotype sey black women too dey too sexual as excuse.<ref>{{cite book|last=White|first=Deborah Gray|title=Ar'n't I a Woman? Female Slaves in the Plantation South|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|year=1999|edition=Revised|chapter=The Nature of Female Slavery}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Bell|first=Karen Cook|date=2022-11-07|title=On War and U.S. Slavery: Enslaved Black Women’s Experiences - AAIHS|url=https://www.aaihs.org/on-war-and-u-s-slavery-enslaved-black-womens-experiences/|access-date=2025-06-08|website=www.aaihs.org|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Marshall |first=Lydia Wilson |date=2022-05-04 |title=Women, Slavery, and Labor in the United States |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/21619441.2022.2102835 |journal=Journal of African Diaspora Archaeology and Heritage |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=93–96 |doi=10.1080/21619441.2022.2102835 |issn=2161-9441 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> {{Women in society sidebar}} Stereotypes and story wey dey follow am Di way wey enslavers dey treat enslaved women, dem fit talk say na Jezebel and Mammy stereotypes dey support am. Dem dey see black women as dem get high libido, di Jezebel character start when Englishmen come Africa come buy slaves. Wetin women dey wear (wey dem need for di hot weather) and di African tradition wey dey allow plenty wives, all dis one dey show say na dem African people get uncontrollable lust. White enslavers dey use Jezebel character to paint African women as bad, so dem fit downplay all di wahala wey dem dey go through. Di Mammy stereotype na different matter, e come from story wey dem write after civil war. E show Mammy as top house help wey sabi domestic work. White people dey talk say Mammy care pass for her enslaver’s children than her own pikin. Just like di Jezebel matter, dis Mammy stereotype no correct, but e still get small truth wey fit make am believable, and e fit really affect black women well-well. Di Mammy stereotype dey try soft di harsh reality of slavery, as if house servants dey live good for dem domestic life, but dem dey work all di time... Dem get less privacy pass di field workers. Dem always dey under di eye of white family, and dem dey feel di mood of di madam pass di other slaves.” Motherhood experience for enslaved women dey different o. Dem black mothers weh dem hold as slaves no easy at all. Dem dey see dem as way to increase enslaved pipo. As slave masters sabi say female slaves fit give dem profit, dem turn wet-nursing into serious matter, wey female slaves go dey suckle white pipo children. Wet-nursing na wah, dem force enslaved mothers make dem dey give breast milk for white children while dem dey work far from dem own babies or sell dem away. E even fit make their own children suffer, no fit chop well if dem wean dem too early. European travelers even talk say African women dey good for suckling because dem breast long reach. Dem dey use di images of wet nurses to justify how dem dey exploit enslaved women and also how dem dey care for white children. Because of how slavery dey demand, dem female slaves dey rely on shared mothering, like how dem dey do for Africa, where women dey help each other raise pikin, no go talk say men dey help.” E be sure say dis one help keep di African culture wey dey value motherhood, and di African mama fit don pass am give her daughters. Sexual exploitation of enslaved women dey happen plenty. Lewis C. Robards run house wey be full of rape, from Lincoln and Bluegrass: slavery and civil war for Kentucky by William H. Townsend (1955). White men wey get slaves dey use dem women for sexual abuse gree gree. Dem dey think say enslaved women get high sexual desire, so dem no believe say dem fit carry go assault dem. Dem dey talk say 'Black men and women dey get sexual hunger wey no fit quench, so dem dey waka go look for satisfaction for other race.' Na black women dey lure men wey dey feel say dem dey higher class.[1] Dis matter fit lead to pregnancy wey go born mixed-race pikin, sexual abuse of dem women dey cause serious wahala: 'Half-white pikin dey tell story of white man wey cheat, slave woman wey dey helpless (but true, plenty white people no dey care), and white woman wey no fit fight social and legal wahala wey dey hold am for her husband no matter wetin e do.'[1] White women wey no fit punish their husbands for bad behavior dey turn anger for enslaved women: 'To punish Black women...mistresses fit use anything wey dey available – fork, butcher knife, knitting needle, boiling water. Some of di wickedest punishment wey dey cause dey mutilate and scar female servants na white mistresses go create when dem dey vex.'[2] Sexual abuse dey always dey as wahala on plantation, black and white men fit do am. Mothers dey often teach their daughters how to avoid those men wey dey make sexual advances.[3] But as e be, 'mama fit do small pass just dey pray make her daughter pass through teenage and young woman life without any sexual abuse.' Colonial America Main talk: Slavery for di colonial United States More info: Redemptioner Virginia Main talk: Story of slavery for Virginia Di Old Plantation, about 1790. Enslaved Africans for one South Carolinian plantation. From 1700 to 1740, dem estimate say about 43,000 slaves enter Virginia, and almost all but 4,000 come straight from Africa. Recent research show say di number of women and men wey enter dis period dey almost equal and plenty children too. As most of dem come from West Africa, di culture dey reign for di mid to late eighteenth-century slave life for Virginia. African values dey shine and West African women culture dey strong. Some common cultural signs be di deep bond wey dey between mama and pikin, and among women for di larger female community. Among di Igbo ethnic group wey come from present-day Nigeria, dem dey make up between one-third and one-half of di slaves wey enter early eighteenth century, di female power (di omu) dey 'rule' plenty important matters wey concern women and di whole community. Di Igbo be one group wey dem carry go Chesapeake, but generally, Africans come from plenty different backgrounds. All of dem come from worlds wey women community dey strong, and dem introduce into one patriarchal and violent racist society; white men dey usually paint all black women as sexually wild to justify dem abuse and mix blood. Girls wey be from Africa for Virginia dey often no sabi read or write. Dem African and African American female slaves dey fit for many jobs. The southern colonies be mostly farm places and dem enslaved women dey work for fields, dey plant and dey do chores, but plenty for house, dey nurse, take care of pikin, cook, wash cloth, etc. New England Jersey Negro (1748), John Greenwood. Dis portrait of Ann Arnold na di first portrait of black woman for North America. Ann Arnold be wet nurse for pikin wey di parents na from Jersey. Historian Ira Berlin talk say make we fit separate "slave societies" and "societies with slaves". Based on dis, New England be society with slaves, wey depend on sea trade and variety farm work, compared to di slave societies of di south wey dey depend plenty on slave labor, get many enslaved people, and masters dey get plenty power over dem slaves wey law no fit check. For New England, e get small slave population and di enslavers dey see demself as fathers wey get duty to protect, guide, and care for di slaves. Enslaved women for New England get better chance to find freedom than other areas because of di New England legal system, how owners dey free dem often, and di chance to hire dem out, especially men wey fit earn enough money to buy wife and children. Enslaved women dey do traditional domestic work, many times dem dey hire am by day. Dem dey work as maids, for kitchen, barn, and garden. Dem dey do small-small work: shine family silver, help with clothes and hair, draw bath, barber men, and dey do chores like sweep, empty chamber pots, carry water, wash dishes, brew, look after pikin and old people, cook and bake, milk cow, feed chicken, spin, knit, card, sew, and wash clothes. Their daily work no be too hard like other enslaved women for other places. But still, enslaved women for New England dey work well, even when dem dey suffer bad living conditions and no food. "Because of heavy work, bad house, and no enough food, average black woman no dey live pass forty." Enslaved women dey give white women as gifts from their husbands, and for wedding and Christmas gift too. The thing wey people talk say New England masters dey treat their slaves better pass southern masters na lie. Dem no get much freedom, movement, or chance to learn. "The record wey show slaves wey dem brand, nail them ears, run away, commit suicide, suffer family wahala, or wey dem sell secretly for Barbados before dem turn useless fit clear the lie of kind masters. Dem dey lash dem when dem vex, full of anger, or when dem fit use horsewhip. " Sometimes, slaveholders dey force female slaves enter sexual relationship with male slaves for breeding. E no rare say dem go rape and make enslaved women pregnant too. Southern colonies No matter where dem dey, slaves dey suffer serious life wey no easy, but for southern colonies, e dey worst pass. Southern colonies be slave societies; dem dey depend on slave labor for everything: socially, economically, and politically, and plenty slaves dey wey masters get plenty power over dem. Plantations be di main power for South, and slave labor na di backbone. Early days, slaves for di South dey do farming, planting indigo, rice, and tobacco; cotton come be major crop after 1790s. Di women wey be slaves dey do plenty work, dem dey expected to work for field and also born pikin to boost di slave population. Before di American Revolution, di number of female slaves grow more because dem dey born, no be importation. Once slaveholders sabi say female slaves fit make dem money by dey born pikin, na so di exploitation of female slaves turn serious. Plenty enslaved women dey raise their pikin without much help from men. Dem no just do house and farm work, but dem dey carry belle, feed, and train their children. As house slaves, women be domestic workers: dem dey cook, sew, clean, and dey take care of di planter’s children. Revolutionary era Main article: African Americans for Revolutionary War During di Revolutionary War (1775–1783), enslaved women dey serve for both sides, dem Loyalist army and dem Patriots, as nurses, laundresses, and cooks. But e be as historian Carol Berkin talk say, "African American loyalty na for dia own future, no be for Congress or king." Enslaved women dey camp and dey follow army. Dem dey help build roads, construct fortifications, and wash uniforms, "but dem still be slaves, no be refugees. Masters dey usually hire dem out to military, sometimes dem go even hire dem pikin too." Enslaved women dey work for shops, homes, fields, and plantations for all American colonies. Estimate show by 1770, over 47,000 enslaved blacks dey for di northern colonies, almost 20,000 for New York alone. Over 320,000 slaves dey work for di Chesapeake colonies, making 37 percent of di population African or African American. Over 187,000 of dem slaves dey for Virginia. For Lower South, over 92,000 slaves dey. South Carolina alone get over 75,000 slaves, and by 1770, planters dey import 4,000 Africans yearly. For plenty counties for Lower South, di slave population dey pass di white people. When war cause palaver, both men and women dey run away. Men dey more likely to escape, as pregnant women, mothers, and women wey dey nurse dia old parents or friends no dey quick leave dem wey depend on dem. Plenty slaves run away from dia plantations for South Carolina so much that no enough field hands dey to plant or harvest crops. As food dey scarce, dem wey remain suffer from hunger or enemy attack. Di Crown don give certificates of manumission to over 914 women as reward for serving with Loyalist forces. But plenty women wey don get their freedom go lose am back through wahala and trickery and the bad mind of di men wey suppose take care of dem. Some others wey fit hold dem freedom still dey face racial wahala, discrimination, and poverty. When loyalist plantations fall, dem go carry enslaved women go sell am for soldiers' pockets. Di Crown dey promise manumission slaves, dey move dem along with troops for di last days of di war, and settle over 3,000 Black Loyalists for Nova Scotia, plus others for di Caribbean and England. In 1792, dem create Freetown for Sierra Leone as one place for Poor Blacks from London and Black Loyalists from Canada wey wan shift. One popular voice for freedom during di Revolutionary time na Phillis Wheatley from Massachusetts. She be slave for most of her life but her master free her. She sabi Latin, Greek, and English, and she write plenty poems wey talk say Africans, as God children just like Europeans, deserve respect and freedom. In 1777, Vermont draft one constitution wey no allow slavery. In 1780, one Massachusetts judge talk say slavery no dey proper according to di new bill of rights wey talk say 'all men ... free and equal.' Slavery come finish for Massachusetts with dis ruling after Quock Walker sue for him freedom. Dis one make plenty enslaved men and women dey sue for dem freedom in New England. Again in 1780 for Pennsylvania, di legislature pass one law wey dey gradually free enslaved people, connect di Revolution ideals with di rights of African Americans to freedom. For di South, di immediate impact of di Revolution na say slaveholders dey free plenty slaves for di first two decades after di war. But di invention of di cotton gin make plenty people fit grow short-staple cotton wella, and as dem open southwestern land for cotton and sugar production, demand for slaves just increase. Di lawmakers no make am easy to free slaves, and dem pass sharper laws wey dey control African-American lives. Antebellum period See also: Fancy girls "Slaves Waiting for Sale." Women and pikin slaves, wey dey wear new clothes, dey wait make dem sell dem for Richmond, Virginia, for 19th century. As historian Deborah Gray White talk, "Black for white society, slave for free society, woman for society wey men dey rule, female slaves get di least power and dem dey vulnerable pass any group for America." Di mother-daughter bond dey strong and cherished for African American families. No too plenty women dey run away, but when dem dey run, sometimes dem carry their children come. Historian Martha Saxton write about di lives of enslaved mothers for St. Louis during di antebellum period: "For Marion County, north of St. Louis, one slave trader buy three small children from owner, but di children's mama kill dem all and herself instead make dem carry dem go. One St. Louis trader take one crying baby from him mama, both dey go sell, and give di baby to one white woman wey dey stand near because di noise dey disturb am." Another way we fit see dis generational connection na through song. Songs wey dey talk about slavery and women experience during dia enslavement dey pass from generation to generation. African-American women work songs na historical snapshots of di lives dem live and how dem survive. Songs dey talk about families wey dey scatter and di emotional wahala wey enslaved women go through by slavery. Songs don add di legacy of oral tradition wey dey help pass generational knowledge about historical times. Small pikin girls wey dem dey sell since dem dey seven years: "Mary Bell dey work for year to take care of three pikin when she dey seven. John Mullanphy talk say him dey live with one four-year-old mulatto girl, wey him go give Sisters of Charity if him die. George Morton sell him daughter Ellen wey be one mulatto girl, about fourteen years, wey dem call Sally, she be pikin of one Negro woman wey dem name Ann." In 1854, Georgia be the first place wey pass law wey separate mothers and their children. Dem no fit sell pikin wey dey under five from their mama, "except the separation no go fit happen without the division." In 1848, Ellen Craft wey get mixed blood, disguise as white man to run from slavery. Slave girls for North America dey do work for house, helping the family. White families dey find "girl" wey be "all-purpose tool" for their life. Even though dem dey call any working girl without pikin "girl", white families prefer slave girls because e cheap. Dem slave girls dey normally very small, from nine years to mid-teens. Heavy housework dey given to "girl" so dem dey see am as "negroes'" work. "Girl" be important help for white families, rural and city, middle class and dey hustle. She dey give freedom to daughters to focus on themselves and dey help mothers wey dey tire without any money or emotional wahala, "no empathy". For antebellum America, like how e be from the first time wey African and European meet for North America, dem dey see black women like dem dey control by dem libido, dem dey show dem like 'Jezebel character'... dem dey be counter image of wetin Victorian lady suppose be for mid-nineteenth century. Enslaved women for every state wan taste freedom, but e dey sweet pass for North than most South. Plenty slaves dey find freedom through self-purchase, dem dey use legal system wey people dey call freedom suits, plus runaways wey fit separate pikin from parent. 'Unfinished childhoods and harsh separations dey follow plenty African American girls, and mothers dey dream of freedom wey no go make dem lose more for dem daughters.' Antebellum South Eastman Johnson's 1859 painting 'Negro Life at the South' dey show relationship of white male masters and dem female slaves small. After Revolution, Southern plantation owners bring plenty new slaves from Africa and Caribbean until USA ban dem import for 1808. More important, over one million slaves dey move forcefully through domestic slave trade, from Upper South go Deep South, mostly by slave traders—either by land wey dem go dey hold for days inside chained coffles, or by sea and ships. Most slaves for Deep South, both men and women, dey work for cotton plantations. Cotton na di cash crop for that time, but slaves dey work for rice, corn, sugarcane, and tobacco plantations too, clearing land, digging ditches, cutting and hauling wood, killing livestock, and fixing buildings and tools. Black women dey also take care of their children and dey handle most of the housework and chores. Di life of enslaved women for di South no be easy. Dem dey face double wahala, wahala wey be racism and sexism. Dem get role for family and community wey no be like di normal traditional role wey upper-class American women dey play. Young gurls dey start work even before dem reach seven years old, while boys dey chill small. Even though dem say field work na men work, plenty women dey work for di fields, like 63 to 80 percent of dem. Di kind work wey adult women fit do depend on how big di plantation be. For small farms, men and women dey do di same kind work, but for larger plantations, men dey carry di heavy load. Di chores wey women dey do no dey take dem far from di plantation. So, dem dey less mobile pass di men, wey dey help carry crops and materials for their masters and dey even dey do artisan work. Women too dey serve as cooks, seamstresses, and nurses. Di work wey woman dey do for field fit be more important than child-rearing, but childbearing and childcare dey limit how enslaved women go live their life. E make sense say dem dey run away less than di men. Plenty female slaves dey suffer sexual exploitation, dem dey born pikin for dia white masters and overseers. Slaves no fit defend demself if dem experience any abuse, including sexual. If one attempt to defend herself, di master go fit beat am more. Black women, some even be small pikin, dey forced enter sexual relationship for di pleasure of dia owners, wey wan make di slave population grow, rather than import more slaves from Africa. == Female slavery in the United States == m68bj1vl1e9r0s5xtb67xmcxvyq3ztx 69208 69207 2025-07-06T01:20:04Z Abdul-Rauf Moshie 1580 /* Female slavery in the United States */ 69208 wikitext text/x-wiki Di way wey dem dey live for plenty different situations plus di fact sey dem be black women, enslaved women from Africa get beta different experiences for slavery. Historian Deborah Gray White talk sey, "di African-American woman dey stand for di crossroads of two strong ideologies for America, one for women and di other for Negro people.<ref name="White2">{{cite book|last=White|first=Deborah Gray|url=https://archive.org/details/arntiwomanfemal00whit|title=Ar'n't I a Woman?: female slaves in the plantation South|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|year=1999|isbn=0393314812|edition=Revised|location=New York|access-date=December 17, 2019|url-access=registration|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200818014828/https://archive.org/details/arntiwomanfemal00whit|archive-date=August 18, 2020|url-status=live}}</ref>" From di time dem start slave journey for Middle Passage, di treatment wey enslaved women dey receive dey different because dem be women. When e come to hard work and suffer, dem dey face di same level wahala like di men, but dem still dey go through sexual abuse from dem slave masters wey dey use stereotype sey black women too dey too sexual as excuse.<ref>{{cite book|last=White|first=Deborah Gray|title=Ar'n't I a Woman? Female Slaves in the Plantation South|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|year=1999|edition=Revised|chapter=The Nature of Female Slavery}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Bell|first=Karen Cook|date=2022-11-07|title=On War and U.S. Slavery: Enslaved Black Women’s Experiences - AAIHS|url=https://www.aaihs.org/on-war-and-u-s-slavery-enslaved-black-womens-experiences/|access-date=2025-06-08|website=www.aaihs.org|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Marshall |first=Lydia Wilson |date=2022-05-04 |title=Women, Slavery, and Labor in the United States |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/21619441.2022.2102835 |journal=Journal of African Diaspora Archaeology and Heritage |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=93–96 |doi=10.1080/21619441.2022.2102835 |issn=2161-9441 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> {{Women in society sidebar}} Stereotypes and story wey dey follow am Di way wey enslavers dey treat enslaved women, dem fit talk say na Jezebel and Mammy stereotypes dey support am. Dem dey see black women as dem get high libido, di Jezebel character start when Englishmen come Africa come buy slaves. Wetin women dey wear (wey dem need for di hot weather) and di African tradition wey dey allow plenty wives, all dis one dey show say na dem African people get uncontrollable lust. White enslavers dey use Jezebel character to paint African women as bad, so dem fit downplay all di wahala wey dem dey go through. Di Mammy stereotype na different matter, e come from story wey dem write after civil war. E show Mammy as top house help wey sabi domestic work. White people dey talk say Mammy care pass for her enslaver’s children than her own pikin. Just like di Jezebel matter, dis Mammy stereotype no correct, but e still get small truth wey fit make am believable, and e fit really affect black women well-well. Di Mammy stereotype dey try soft di harsh reality of slavery, as if house servants dey live good for dem domestic life, but dem dey work all di time... Dem get less privacy pass di field workers. Dem always dey under di eye of white family, and dem dey feel di mood of di madam pass di other slaves.” Motherhood experience for enslaved women dey different o. Dem black mothers weh dem hold as slaves no easy at all. Dem dey see dem as way to increase enslaved pipo. As slave masters sabi say female slaves fit give dem profit, dem turn wet-nursing into serious matter, wey female slaves go dey suckle white pipo children. Wet-nursing na wah, dem force enslaved mothers make dem dey give breast milk for white children while dem dey work far from dem own babies or sell dem away. E even fit make their own children suffer, no fit chop well if dem wean dem too early. European travelers even talk say African women dey good for suckling because dem breast long reach. Dem dey use di images of wet nurses to justify how dem dey exploit enslaved women and also how dem dey care for white children. Because of how slavery dey demand, dem female slaves dey rely on shared mothering, like how dem dey do for Africa, where women dey help each other raise pikin, no go talk say men dey help.” E be sure say dis one help keep di African culture wey dey value motherhood, and di African mama fit don pass am give her daughters. Sexual exploitation of enslaved women dey happen plenty. Lewis C. Robards run house wey be full of rape, from Lincoln and Bluegrass: slavery and civil war for Kentucky by William H. Townsend (1955). White men wey get slaves dey use dem women for sexual abuse gree gree. Dem dey think say enslaved women get high sexual desire, so dem no believe say dem fit carry go assault dem. Dem dey talk say 'Black men and women dey get sexual hunger wey no fit quench, so dem dey waka go look for satisfaction for other race.' Na black women dey lure men wey dey feel say dem dey higher class.[1] Dis matter fit lead to pregnancy wey go born mixed-race pikin, sexual abuse of dem women dey cause serious wahala: 'Half-white pikin dey tell story of white man wey cheat, slave woman wey dey helpless (but true, plenty white people no dey care), and white woman wey no fit fight social and legal wahala wey dey hold am for her husband no matter wetin e do.'[1] White women wey no fit punish their husbands for bad behavior dey turn anger for enslaved women: 'To punish Black women...mistresses fit use anything wey dey available – fork, butcher knife, knitting needle, boiling water. Some of di wickedest punishment wey dey cause dey mutilate and scar female servants na white mistresses go create when dem dey vex.'[2] Sexual abuse dey always dey as wahala on plantation, black and white men fit do am. Mothers dey often teach their daughters how to avoid those men wey dey make sexual advances.[3] But as e be, 'mama fit do small pass just dey pray make her daughter pass through teenage and young woman life without any sexual abuse.' Colonial America Main talk: Slavery for di colonial United States More info: Redemptioner Virginia Main talk: Story of slavery for Virginia Di Old Plantation, about 1790. Enslaved Africans for one South Carolinian plantation. From 1700 to 1740, dem estimate say about 43,000 slaves enter Virginia, and almost all but 4,000 come straight from Africa. Recent research show say di number of women and men wey enter dis period dey almost equal and plenty children too. As most of dem come from West Africa, di culture dey reign for di mid to late eighteenth-century slave life for Virginia. African values dey shine and West African women culture dey strong. Some common cultural signs be di deep bond wey dey between mama and pikin, and among women for di larger female community. Among di Igbo ethnic group wey come from present-day Nigeria, dem dey make up between one-third and one-half of di slaves wey enter early eighteenth century, di female power (di omu) dey 'rule' plenty important matters wey concern women and di whole community. Di Igbo be one group wey dem carry go Chesapeake, but generally, Africans come from plenty different backgrounds. All of dem come from worlds wey women community dey strong, and dem introduce into one patriarchal and violent racist society; white men dey usually paint all black women as sexually wild to justify dem abuse and mix blood. Girls wey be from Africa for Virginia dey often no sabi read or write. Dem African and African American female slaves dey fit for many jobs. The southern colonies be mostly farm places and dem enslaved women dey work for fields, dey plant and dey do chores, but plenty for house, dey nurse, take care of pikin, cook, wash cloth, etc. New England Jersey Negro (1748), John Greenwood. Dis portrait of Ann Arnold na di first portrait of black woman for North America. Ann Arnold be wet nurse for pikin wey di parents na from Jersey. Historian Ira Berlin talk say make we fit separate "slave societies" and "societies with slaves". Based on dis, New England be society with slaves, wey depend on sea trade and variety farm work, compared to di slave societies of di south wey dey depend plenty on slave labor, get many enslaved people, and masters dey get plenty power over dem slaves wey law no fit check. For New England, e get small slave population and di enslavers dey see demself as fathers wey get duty to protect, guide, and care for di slaves. Enslaved women for New England get better chance to find freedom than other areas because of di New England legal system, how owners dey free dem often, and di chance to hire dem out, especially men wey fit earn enough money to buy wife and children. Enslaved women dey do traditional domestic work, many times dem dey hire am by day. Dem dey work as maids, for kitchen, barn, and garden. Dem dey do small-small work: shine family silver, help with clothes and hair, draw bath, barber men, and dey do chores like sweep, empty chamber pots, carry water, wash dishes, brew, look after pikin and old people, cook and bake, milk cow, feed chicken, spin, knit, card, sew, and wash clothes. Their daily work no be too hard like other enslaved women for other places. But still, enslaved women for New England dey work well, even when dem dey suffer bad living conditions and no food. "Because of heavy work, bad house, and no enough food, average black woman no dey live pass forty." Enslaved women dey give white women as gifts from their husbands, and for wedding and Christmas gift too. The thing wey people talk say New England masters dey treat their slaves better pass southern masters na lie. Dem no get much freedom, movement, or chance to learn. "The record wey show slaves wey dem brand, nail them ears, run away, commit suicide, suffer family wahala, or wey dem sell secretly for Barbados before dem turn useless fit clear the lie of kind masters. Dem dey lash dem when dem vex, full of anger, or when dem fit use horsewhip. " Sometimes, slaveholders dey force female slaves enter sexual relationship with male slaves for breeding. E no rare say dem go rape and make enslaved women pregnant too. Southern colonies No matter where dem dey, slaves dey suffer serious life wey no easy, but for southern colonies, e dey worst pass. Southern colonies be slave societies; dem dey depend on slave labor for everything: socially, economically, and politically, and plenty slaves dey wey masters get plenty power over dem. Plantations be di main power for South, and slave labor na di backbone. Early days, slaves for di South dey do farming, planting indigo, rice, and tobacco; cotton come be major crop after 1790s. Di women wey be slaves dey do plenty work, dem dey expected to work for field and also born pikin to boost di slave population. Before di American Revolution, di number of female slaves grow more because dem dey born, no be importation. Once slaveholders sabi say female slaves fit make dem money by dey born pikin, na so di exploitation of female slaves turn serious. Plenty enslaved women dey raise their pikin without much help from men. Dem no just do house and farm work, but dem dey carry belle, feed, and train their children. As house slaves, women be domestic workers: dem dey cook, sew, clean, and dey take care of di planter’s children. Revolutionary era Main article: African Americans for Revolutionary War During di Revolutionary War (1775–1783), enslaved women dey serve for both sides, dem Loyalist army and dem Patriots, as nurses, laundresses, and cooks. But e be as historian Carol Berkin talk say, "African American loyalty na for dia own future, no be for Congress or king." Enslaved women dey camp and dey follow army. Dem dey help build roads, construct fortifications, and wash uniforms, "but dem still be slaves, no be refugees. Masters dey usually hire dem out to military, sometimes dem go even hire dem pikin too." Enslaved women dey work for shops, homes, fields, and plantations for all American colonies. Estimate show by 1770, over 47,000 enslaved blacks dey for di northern colonies, almost 20,000 for New York alone. Over 320,000 slaves dey work for di Chesapeake colonies, making 37 percent of di population African or African American. Over 187,000 of dem slaves dey for Virginia. For Lower South, over 92,000 slaves dey. South Carolina alone get over 75,000 slaves, and by 1770, planters dey import 4,000 Africans yearly. For plenty counties for Lower South, di slave population dey pass di white people. When war cause palaver, both men and women dey run away. Men dey more likely to escape, as pregnant women, mothers, and women wey dey nurse dia old parents or friends no dey quick leave dem wey depend on dem. Plenty slaves run away from dia plantations for South Carolina so much that no enough field hands dey to plant or harvest crops. As food dey scarce, dem wey remain suffer from hunger or enemy attack. Di Crown don give certificates of manumission to over 914 women as reward for serving with Loyalist forces. But plenty women wey don get their freedom go lose am back through wahala and trickery and the bad mind of di men wey suppose take care of dem. Some others wey fit hold dem freedom still dey face racial wahala, discrimination, and poverty. When loyalist plantations fall, dem go carry enslaved women go sell am for soldiers' pockets. Di Crown dey promise manumission slaves, dey move dem along with troops for di last days of di war, and settle over 3,000 Black Loyalists for Nova Scotia, plus others for di Caribbean and England. In 1792, dem create Freetown for Sierra Leone as one place for Poor Blacks from London and Black Loyalists from Canada wey wan shift. One popular voice for freedom during di Revolutionary time na Phillis Wheatley from Massachusetts. She be slave for most of her life but her master free her. She sabi Latin, Greek, and English, and she write plenty poems wey talk say Africans, as God children just like Europeans, deserve respect and freedom. In 1777, Vermont draft one constitution wey no allow slavery. In 1780, one Massachusetts judge talk say slavery no dey proper according to di new bill of rights wey talk say 'all men ... free and equal.' Slavery come finish for Massachusetts with dis ruling after Quock Walker sue for him freedom. Dis one make plenty enslaved men and women dey sue for dem freedom in New England. Again in 1780 for Pennsylvania, di legislature pass one law wey dey gradually free enslaved people, connect di Revolution ideals with di rights of African Americans to freedom. For di South, di immediate impact of di Revolution na say slaveholders dey free plenty slaves for di first two decades after di war. But di invention of di cotton gin make plenty people fit grow short-staple cotton wella, and as dem open southwestern land for cotton and sugar production, demand for slaves just increase. Di lawmakers no make am easy to free slaves, and dem pass sharper laws wey dey control African-American lives. Antebellum period See also: Fancy girls "Slaves Waiting for Sale." Women and pikin slaves, wey dey wear new clothes, dey wait make dem sell dem for Richmond, Virginia, for 19th century. As historian Deborah Gray White talk, "Black for white society, slave for free society, woman for society wey men dey rule, female slaves get di least power and dem dey vulnerable pass any group for America." Di mother-daughter bond dey strong and cherished for African American families. No too plenty women dey run away, but when dem dey run, sometimes dem carry their children come. Historian Martha Saxton write about di lives of enslaved mothers for St. Louis during di antebellum period: "For Marion County, north of St. Louis, one slave trader buy three small children from owner, but di children's mama kill dem all and herself instead make dem carry dem go. One St. Louis trader take one crying baby from him mama, both dey go sell, and give di baby to one white woman wey dey stand near because di noise dey disturb am." Another way we fit see dis generational connection na through song. Songs wey dey talk about slavery and women experience during dia enslavement dey pass from generation to generation. African-American women work songs na historical snapshots of di lives dem live and how dem survive. Songs dey talk about families wey dey scatter and di emotional wahala wey enslaved women go through by slavery. Songs don add di legacy of oral tradition wey dey help pass generational knowledge about historical times. Small pikin girls wey dem dey sell since dem dey seven years: "Mary Bell dey work for year to take care of three pikin when she dey seven. John Mullanphy talk say him dey live with one four-year-old mulatto girl, wey him go give Sisters of Charity if him die. George Morton sell him daughter Ellen wey be one mulatto girl, about fourteen years, wey dem call Sally, she be pikin of one Negro woman wey dem name Ann." In 1854, Georgia be the first place wey pass law wey separate mothers and their children. Dem no fit sell pikin wey dey under five from their mama, "except the separation no go fit happen without the division." In 1848, Ellen Craft wey get mixed blood, disguise as white man to run from slavery. Slave girls for North America dey do work for house, helping the family. White families dey find "girl" wey be "all-purpose tool" for their life. Even though dem dey call any working girl without pikin "girl", white families prefer slave girls because e cheap. Dem slave girls dey normally very small, from nine years to mid-teens. Heavy housework dey given to "girl" so dem dey see am as "negroes'" work. "Girl" be important help for white families, rural and city, middle class and dey hustle. She dey give freedom to daughters to focus on themselves and dey help mothers wey dey tire without any money or emotional wahala, "no empathy". For antebellum America, like how e be from the first time wey African and European meet for North America, dem dey see black women like dem dey control by dem libido, dem dey show dem like 'Jezebel character'... dem dey be counter image of wetin Victorian lady suppose be for mid-nineteenth century. Enslaved women for every state wan taste freedom, but e dey sweet pass for North than most South. Plenty slaves dey find freedom through self-purchase, dem dey use legal system wey people dey call freedom suits, plus runaways wey fit separate pikin from parent. 'Unfinished childhoods and harsh separations dey follow plenty African American girls, and mothers dey dream of freedom wey no go make dem lose more for dem daughters.' Antebellum South Eastman Johnson's 1859 painting 'Negro Life at the South' dey show relationship of white male masters and dem female slaves small. After Revolution, Southern plantation owners bring plenty new slaves from Africa and Caribbean until USA ban dem import for 1808. More important, over one million slaves dey move forcefully through domestic slave trade, from Upper South go Deep South, mostly by slave traders—either by land wey dem go dey hold for days inside chained coffles, or by sea and ships. Most slaves for Deep South, both men and women, dey work for cotton plantations. Cotton na di cash crop for that time, but slaves dey work for rice, corn, sugarcane, and tobacco plantations too, clearing land, digging ditches, cutting and hauling wood, killing livestock, and fixing buildings and tools. Black women dey also take care of their children and dey handle most of the housework and chores. Di life of enslaved women for di South no be easy. Dem dey face double wahala, wahala wey be racism and sexism. Dem get role for family and community wey no be like di normal traditional role wey upper-class American women dey play. Young gurls dey start work even before dem reach seven years old, while boys dey chill small. Even though dem say field work na men work, plenty women dey work for di fields, like 63 to 80 percent of dem. Di kind work wey adult women fit do depend on how big di plantation be. For small farms, men and women dey do di same kind work, but for larger plantations, men dey carry di heavy load. Di chores wey women dey do no dey take dem far from di plantation. So, dem dey less mobile pass di men, wey dey help carry crops and materials for their masters and dey even dey do artisan work. Women too dey serve as cooks, seamstresses, and nurses. Di work wey woman dey do for field fit be more important than child-rearing, but childbearing and childcare dey limit how enslaved women go live their life. E make sense say dem dey run away less than di men. Plenty female slaves dey suffer sexual exploitation, dem dey born pikin for dia white masters and overseers. Slaves no fit defend demself if dem experience any abuse, including sexual. If one attempt to defend herself, di master go fit beat am more. Black women, some even be small pikin, dey forced enter sexual relationship for di pleasure of dia owners, wey wan make di slave population grow, rather than import more slaves from Africa. Emancipation and how slavery end Main article: Emancipation Proclamation Slavery don end for United States for 1865 when dem ratify 13th Amendment. For 1868, dem pass 14th Amendment so African Americans fit get citizenship rights. Even though emancipation free black women from slavery, e still make dem suffer more as dem dey face inequality with black men. No be slaves to slave owners again, but dem turn contractual servants to their husbands because of how society take dey see women inside marriage. Plus, after emancipation, African women dey experience wahala from white women, especially during women voting movement; dem still dey face discrimination today. Notable enslaved women Sojourner Truth around 1864 Ellen Craft (1826–1897) be slave from Macon, Georgia wey disguised as white man to free herself from slavery. She escape go North for December 1848, travel open with train and boat with her husband wey dey act as her slave servant; dem reach Philadelphia and freedom on Christmas Day. Harriet Jacobs (1813 or 1815 – March 7, 1897), wey write Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, now classic for American literature. Harriet Tubman (born Araminta Harriet Ross; 1820 – March 10, 1913) na African American wey dey fight against slavery, help people and be Union spy during American Civil War. She born as slave, she escape come out and make plenty trips to rescue more than 70 slaves; she dey guide dem along the antislavery network wey dem dey call Underground Railroad. Later, she help John Brown find men for him raid on Harpers Ferry, and after war, she dey fight for women voting. Lucy Terry (c. 1730–1821) na di author of di oldest known literature by an African American. == Female slavery in the United States == 149v9e1umjxt7rymq85an5swkdzsc96 Congolese rumba 0 18360 69203 2025-07-06T01:14:15Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1293178125|Congolese rumba]]" 69203 wikitext text/x-wiki == Characteristics == === Rhythm, tempo, plus instrumental composition === [[File:Likembe.JPG|thumb|227x227px|A member of de Kinshasa-based band Konono Nº1 playing de ''likembe'', a traditional thumb piano.]] === Guitars === [[File:Passi_ya_boloko.tif|thumb|412x412px|From top: lead guitar; rhythm guitar; bass guitar.]] === Musical structure === [[File:Soukous_guitars.tif|center|thumb|450x450px|De sébène instrumental section of a Congolese rumba song typically comprises three guitars. From top: De solo (lead) guitar, mi-solo (third) guitar, PLUS accompaniment (rhythm) guitar.]] == History == === Origins === === Modern Congolese rumba evolution === [[File:Nico_Kasanda_Nico_et_L'African_Fiesta_Sukisa.jpg|thumb|273x273px|Nico Kasanda leading De African Fiesta Sukisa orchestra]] ==== Influence of migrant workers on Congolese rumba ==== ==== Emergence of local musicians ==== [[File:May_Plau,_saxophonist_of_the_oldest_traditional_congolese_rumba_music_group_during_a_rehearsal_In_Kinshasa.jpg|thumb|224x224px|May Plau, saxophonist of De oldest traditional Congolese rumba music group, dem de rehearse insyde Kinshasa]] ==== Impact of radio broadcasting plus international recording companies ==== [[File:Bar_de_rumba_congolaise_à_Léopoldville_de_1955_à_1965.jpg|thumb|242x242px|Congolese rumba bar insyde Léopoldville]] === Odéon Kinois Orchestra plus ''sebène'' === === Emergence of homegrown recording labels den musicians === [[File:Jean_Bosco_Mwenda_wa_Bayeke_au_Congo_belge.jpg|left|thumb|170x170px|Jean-Bosco Mwenda insyde Katanga, Belgian Congo, insyde 1952]] === Schools of Congolese rumba === === Early 1960s, ''mi-solo'', and soukous === <div class="quotebox pullquote floatright " style=" width:397px; ; color: #202122;background-color: #c6dbf7; "> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned " id="858" style=" "> E be true say na wetin you fit do with one song and people—something wey go dey like anthem, something wey you fit dance to, and something wey people still dey remember today, 60 years later, with plenty feeling. </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0; padding-top: 0.5em"><cite class="center-aligned" style="">Bertrand Dicale, a French musicologist, journalist, and writer, reviewing "[[Indépendance Cha Cha]]"</cite></div> </div> === 1970s, de Paris scene, plus cavacha === === 1980s, Paris, den kwassa kwassa === === Ndombolo === === 21st century === == Women in Congolese rumba == == Influence == === Colombian champeta === === Ivorian coupé-décalé === === French hip hop === === East African music === == See also == * Music of the Democratic Republic of the Congo * Musicians from the Democratic Republic of the Congo == References == == Bibliography == * {{Cite book|last=Gary Stewart|title=Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos|publisher=Verso|year=2000|isbn=1-85984-368-9}} * {{Cite journal |last=Wheeler |first=Jesse Samba |date=March 2005 |title=Rumba Lingala as Colonial Resistance |url=http://www.imageandnarrative.be/inarchive/worldmusica/jessesambawheeler.htm |url-status=dead |journal=Image & Narrative |issue=10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160115030503/http://www.imageandnarrative.be/inarchive/worldmusica/jessesambawheeler.htm |archive-date=15 January 2016 |access-date=16 December 2015}} == External links == * [http://www.worldhum.com/dispatches/item/soukous_and_the_sound_of_sunshine_20060701/ The Sound of Sunshine: How soukous saved my life] 3w6u5fjcnek8dipi9915b92sdby2evq André Matsoua 0 18361 69209 2025-07-06T01:36:07Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1295615745|André Matsoua]]" 69209 wikitext text/x-wiki '''André Grenard Matswa''' (Matsoua for French; 17 January 1899 – 13 January 1942) be [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo|Congolese]] Lari wey dey fight colonialism, e born for near Manzakala-Kinkala for dat time wey dem dey call Middle Congo,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Derrick|first=Jonathan|url=https://archive.org/details/africasagitators0000derr/page/241|title=Africa's "agitators" : militant anti-colonialism in Africa and the west, 1918-1939|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2008|isbn=9780231700566|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/africasagitators0000derr/page/241 241]|url-access=registration}}</ref> one rare person wey get power for Congolese politics before dem gain independence for 1960. E inspire one messiah culture, wey dem dey call Matswanism or Matsouanism, wey come from Brazzaville de capital for French Equatorial Africa.<ref name="ClarkDecalo2012">{{Cite book|last=Clark|first=John F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oyMgIlcKuFkC&pg=PR29|title=Historical Dictionary of Republic of the Congo|last2=Decalo|first2=Samuel|date=9 August 2012|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-7989-8|page=29, 274}}<cite class="citation book cs1" data-ve-ignore="true" id="CITEREFClarkDecalo2012">Clark, John F.; Decalo, Samuel (9 August 2012). [https://books.google.com/books?id=oyMgIlcKuFkC&pg=PR29 ''Historical Dictionary of Republic of the Congo'']. Scarecrow Press. p.&nbsp;29, 274. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;[[Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-7989-8|<bdi>978-0-8108-7989-8</bdi>]].</cite></ref> == Ein Life == Matswa or Matsua (for Kikongo) born for 1899 inside small village wey dey Loukoua-Nzoko for French Congo. For 1925, e join Senegalese Tirailleurs plus e take part for de Rif War.<ref name="MATSOUA, le Grand Résistant2013">{{Cite web|date=24 March 2013|title=MATSOUA, le Grand Résistant|url=http://congo-mikale.over-blog.com/article-matsoua-le-grand-resistant-116488528.html|publisher=Blog Spot|language=French}}</ref> Insyde 1926,<ref name="ClarkDecalo2012">{{Cite book|last=Clark|first=John F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oyMgIlcKuFkC&pg=PR29|title=Historical Dictionary of Republic of the Congo|last2=Decalo|first2=Samuel|date=9 August 2012|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-7989-8|page=29, 274}}<cite class="citation book cs1" data-ve-ignore="true" id="CITEREFClarkDecalo2012">Clark, John F.; Decalo, Samuel (9 August 2012). [https://books.google.com/books?id=oyMgIlcKuFkC&pg=PR29 ''Historical Dictionary of Republic of the Congo'']. Scarecrow Press. p.&nbsp;29, 274. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;[[Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-7989-8|<bdi>978-0-8108-7989-8</bdi>]].</cite></ref> Matsoua start Amicale des Originaires de l'A.E.F., na group wey dey help people improve dem self, when e dey live for Paris.<ref name="col">{{Cite book|last=Franz Ansprenger|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NbYOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA103|title=The dissolution of the colonial empires|publisher=Taylor & Francis|year=1989|isbn=978-0-415-03143-1|page=103}}</ref> E dey go events wey French Communist Party sponsor, plus e help build trade unions for black people. Plenty pipo don start to see Matsoua like prophet, wey God send to free the Congolese from de French.<ref name="ClarkDecalo2012" /> As Victor T. Le Vine talk am, Matsoua be like Kimbangu, him be 'martyr for de eyes of him followers' plus e get some kind 'quasi-religious vibe' too.<ref name="Vine2004">{{Cite book|last=Vine|first=Victor T. Le|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZVlzpwjhGqgC&pg=PA188|title=Politics in Francophone Africa|publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers|year=2004|isbn=978-1-58826-249-3|page=188}}</ref> For December 1929, dem arrest am for Paris make dem carry am go trial for Brazzaville, under di false talk say e dey swindle money from di African Indigenous people for French Congo. Di money wey come from free and voluntry contributions to di Indigenous people sef dem collect am from di colonial administration.<ref name="MATSOUA, le Grand Résistant2013">{{Cite web|date=24 March 2013|title=MATSOUA, le Grand Résistant|url=http://congo-mikale.over-blog.com/article-matsoua-le-grand-resistant-116488528.html|publisher=Blog Spot|language=French}}<cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source" data-ve-ignore="true">[http://congo-mikale.over-blog.com/article-matsoua-le-grand-resistant-116488528.html "MATSOUA, le Grand Résistant"] (in French). Blog Spot. 24 March 2013.</cite> [[Category:CS1 French-language sources (fr)]]</ref> When Matsoua come back Africa for 1930, dem carry am go court for Brazzaville because he dey against colonial rule. On 19 March 1930, Matsoua beg Court of Brazzaville make dem try am as French citizen because of how he take become citizen and dem catch am for French land.<ref name="MATSOUA, le Grand Résistant2013">{{Cite web|date=24 March 2013|title=MATSOUA, le Grand Résistant|url=http://congo-mikale.over-blog.com/article-matsoua-le-grand-resistant-116488528.html|publisher=Blog Spot|language=French}}<cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source" data-ve-ignore="true">[http://congo-mikale.over-blog.com/article-matsoua-le-grand-resistant-116488528.html "MATSOUA, le Grand Résistant"] (in French). Blog Spot. 24 March 2013.</cite> [[Category:CS1 French-language sources (fr)]]</ref> Dem Court for Brazzaville jam him with 3 years inside prison, plus dem no go allow am enter French Congo for 10 years.dis matter happen for 2 April 1930 .<ref name="MATSOUA, le Grand Résistant2013" /> One week later, dem give am ten years exile for Chad, where e escape waka comot from Fort Lamy for 1935 run go France. For 1940, during World War II, e take wound for front for Lorraine as dem dey fight Germans. Dem carry am go Beaujon Hospital for Paris for treatment. On 3 April 1940, dem catch am for him hospital bed for Paris as dem dey accuse am say e don attack French state security people.<ref name="MATSOUA, le Grand Résistant2013">{{Cite web|date=24 March 2013|title=MATSOUA, le Grand Résistant|url=http://congo-mikale.over-blog.com/article-matsoua-le-grand-resistant-116488528.html|publisher=Blog Spot|language=French}}<cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source" data-ve-ignore="true">[http://congo-mikale.over-blog.com/article-matsoua-le-grand-resistant-116488528.html "MATSOUA, le Grand Résistant"] (in French). Blog Spot. 24 March 2013.</cite> [[Category:CS1 French-language sources (fr)]]</ref> Den transfer am go French Congo, dem sentence am make e do forced labor for Brazzaville for February 1941. Dem talk say e dey spread pro-German propaganda for the capital.<ref name="Vine2004">{{Cite book|last=Vine|first=Victor T. Le|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZVlzpwjhGqgC&pg=PA188|title=Politics in Francophone Africa|publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers|year=2004|isbn=978-1-58826-249-3|page=188}}<cite class="citation book cs1" data-ve-ignore="true" id="CITEREFVine2004">Vine, Victor T. Le (2004). [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZVlzpwjhGqgC&pg=PA188 ''Politics in Francophone Africa'']. Lynne Rienner Publishers. p.&nbsp;188. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;[[Special:BookSources/978-1-58826-249-3|<bdi>978-1-58826-249-3</bdi>]].</cite></ref> For 20 February 1941, e land for Mayama prison wey e go spent 11 months for insyde, di guy don chop torture and beatings well well.<ref name="MATSOUA, le Grand Résistant2013" /> E die for prison on 13 January 1942.<ref name="ClarkDecalo2012" /> == Legacy == After dem gain independence, some Congolese politicians wey dey get different ideas try chop Matsoua popularity, like President Abbé Fulbert Youlou, Alphonse Massamba-Débat and Denis Sassou-Nguesso, plus insurgent leader Bernard Kolélas. Dem even get statue wey dey honor am for Kinkala.<ref name="ClarkDecalo2012">{{Cite book|last=Clark|first=John F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oyMgIlcKuFkC&pg=PR29|title=Historical Dictionary of Republic of the Congo|last2=Decalo|first2=Samuel|date=9 August 2012|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-7989-8|page=29, 274}}</ref> == See also == * List of messiah claimants === Bibliography === * Bruce Mateso, ''André Grenard Matsoua : Les fondements de l'Amicale'', Paari éditeur, 2020. * Didier Gondola, ''Mastwa vivant: Anticolonialisme et citoyenneté en Afrique-Équatoriale Française'', Paris, Les Éditions de La Sorbonne, 2021. == References == e35ix3nmsqskw4oqoflxgwheyg9uylv 69210 69209 2025-07-06T01:40:21Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 I don translate to Ghanaian pidgin 69210 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''André Grenard Matswa''' (Matsoua for French; 17 January 1899 – 13 January 1942) be [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo|Congolese]] Lari wey dey fight colonialism, e born for near Manzakala-Kinkala for dat time wey dem dey call Middle Congo,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Derrick|first=Jonathan|url=https://archive.org/details/africasagitators0000derr/page/241|title=Africa's "agitators" : militant anti-colonialism in Africa and the west, 1918-1939|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2008|isbn=9780231700566|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/africasagitators0000derr/page/241 241]|url-access=registration}}</ref> one rare person wey get power for Congolese politics before dem gain independence for 1960. E inspire one messiah culture, wey dem dey call Matswanism or Matsouanism, wey come from Brazzaville de capital for French Equatorial Africa.<ref name="ClarkDecalo2012">{{Cite book|last=Clark|first=John F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oyMgIlcKuFkC&pg=PR29|title=Historical Dictionary of Republic of the Congo|last2=Decalo|first2=Samuel|date=9 August 2012|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-7989-8|page=29, 274}}</ref> == Ein Life == Matswa or Matsua (for Kikongo) born for 1899 inside small village wey dey Loukoua-Nzoko for French Congo. For 1925, e join Senegalese Tirailleurs plus e take part for de Rif War.<ref name="MATSOUA, le Grand Résistant2013">{{Cite web|date=24 March 2013|title=MATSOUA, le Grand Résistant|url=http://congo-mikale.over-blog.com/article-matsoua-le-grand-resistant-116488528.html|publisher=Blog Spot|language=French}}</ref> Insyde 1926,<ref name="ClarkDecalo2012">{{Cite book|last=Clark|first=John F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oyMgIlcKuFkC&pg=PR29|title=Historical Dictionary of Republic of the Congo|last2=Decalo|first2=Samuel|date=9 August 2012|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-7989-8|page=29, 274}}<cite class="citation book cs1" data-ve-ignore="true" id="CITEREFClarkDecalo2012">Clark, John F.; Decalo, Samuel (9 August 2012). [https://books.google.com/books?id=oyMgIlcKuFkC&pg=PR29 ''Historical Dictionary of Republic of the Congo'']. Scarecrow Press. p.&nbsp;29, 274. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;[[Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-7989-8|<bdi>978-0-8108-7989-8</bdi>]].</cite></ref> Matsoua start Amicale des Originaires de l'A.E.F., na group wey dey help people improve dem self, when e dey live for Paris.<ref name="col">{{Cite book|last=Franz Ansprenger|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NbYOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA103|title=The dissolution of the colonial empires|publisher=Taylor & Francis|year=1989|isbn=978-0-415-03143-1|page=103}}</ref> E dey go events wey French Communist Party sponsor, plus e help build trade unions for black people. Plenty pipo don start to see Matsoua like prophet, wey God send to free the Congolese from de French.<ref name="ClarkDecalo2012" /> As Victor T. Le Vine talk am, Matsoua be like Kimbangu, him be 'martyr for de eyes of him followers' plus e get some kind 'quasi-religious vibe' too.<ref name="Vine2004">{{Cite book|last=Vine|first=Victor T. Le|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZVlzpwjhGqgC&pg=PA188|title=Politics in Francophone Africa|publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers|year=2004|isbn=978-1-58826-249-3|page=188}}</ref> For December 1929, dem arrest am for Paris make dem carry am go trial for Brazzaville, under di false talk say e dey swindle money from di African Indigenous people for French Congo. Di money wey come from free and voluntry contributions to di Indigenous people sef dem collect am from di colonial administration.<ref name="MATSOUA, le Grand Résistant2013">{{Cite web|date=24 March 2013|title=MATSOUA, le Grand Résistant|url=http://congo-mikale.over-blog.com/article-matsoua-le-grand-resistant-116488528.html|publisher=Blog Spot|language=French}}<cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source" data-ve-ignore="true">[http://congo-mikale.over-blog.com/article-matsoua-le-grand-resistant-116488528.html "MATSOUA, le Grand Résistant"] (in French). Blog Spot. 24 March 2013.</cite> [[Category:CS1 French-language sources (fr)]]</ref> When Matsoua come back Africa for 1930, dem carry am go court for Brazzaville because he dey against colonial rule. On 19 March 1930, Matsoua beg Court of Brazzaville make dem try am as French citizen because of how he take become citizen and dem catch am for French land.<ref name="MATSOUA, le Grand Résistant2013">{{Cite web|date=24 March 2013|title=MATSOUA, le Grand Résistant|url=http://congo-mikale.over-blog.com/article-matsoua-le-grand-resistant-116488528.html|publisher=Blog Spot|language=French}}<cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source" data-ve-ignore="true">[http://congo-mikale.over-blog.com/article-matsoua-le-grand-resistant-116488528.html "MATSOUA, le Grand Résistant"] (in French). Blog Spot. 24 March 2013.</cite> [[Category:CS1 French-language sources (fr)]]</ref> Dem Court for Brazzaville jam him with 3 years inside prison, plus dem no go allow am enter French Congo for 10 years.dis matter happen for 2 April 1930 .<ref name="MATSOUA, le Grand Résistant2013" /> One week later, dem give am ten years exile for Chad, where e escape waka comot from Fort Lamy for 1935 run go France. For 1940, during World War II, e take wound for front for Lorraine as dem dey fight Germans. Dem carry am go Beaujon Hospital for Paris for treatment. On 3 April 1940, dem catch am for him hospital bed for Paris as dem dey accuse am say e don attack French state security people.<ref name="MATSOUA, le Grand Résistant2013">{{Cite web|date=24 March 2013|title=MATSOUA, le Grand Résistant|url=http://congo-mikale.over-blog.com/article-matsoua-le-grand-resistant-116488528.html|publisher=Blog Spot|language=French}}<cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source" data-ve-ignore="true">[http://congo-mikale.over-blog.com/article-matsoua-le-grand-resistant-116488528.html "MATSOUA, le Grand Résistant"] (in French). Blog Spot. 24 March 2013.</cite> [[Category:CS1 French-language sources (fr)]]</ref> Den transfer am go French Congo, dem sentence am make e do forced labor for Brazzaville for February 1941.<ref name="ClarkDecalo2012" /> Dem talk say e dey spread pro-German propaganda for the capital.<ref name="Vine2004">{{Cite book|last=Vine|first=Victor T. Le|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZVlzpwjhGqgC&pg=PA188|title=Politics in Francophone Africa|publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers|year=2004|isbn=978-1-58826-249-3|page=188}}<cite class="citation book cs1" data-ve-ignore="true" id="CITEREFVine2004">Vine, Victor T. Le (2004). [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZVlzpwjhGqgC&pg=PA188 ''Politics in Francophone Africa'']. Lynne Rienner Publishers. p.&nbsp;188. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;[[Special:BookSources/978-1-58826-249-3|<bdi>978-1-58826-249-3</bdi>]].</cite></ref> For 20 February 1941, e land for Mayama prison wey e go spent 11 months for insyde, di guy don chop torture and beatings well well.<ref name="MATSOUA, le Grand Résistant2013" /> E die for prison on 13 January 1942.<ref name="ClarkDecalo2012" /> == Legacy == After dem gain independence, some Congolese politicians wey dey get different ideas try chop Matsoua popularity, like President Abbé Fulbert Youlou, Alphonse Massamba-Débat and Denis Sassou-Nguesso, plus insurgent leader Bernard Kolélas. Dem even get statue wey dey honor am for Kinkala.<ref name="ClarkDecalo2012">{{Cite book|last=Clark|first=John F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oyMgIlcKuFkC&pg=PR29|title=Historical Dictionary of Republic of the Congo|last2=Decalo|first2=Samuel|date=9 August 2012|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-7989-8|page=29, 274}}</ref> == See also == * List of messiah claimants === Bibliography === * Bruce Mateso, ''André Grenard Matsoua : Les fondements de l'Amicale'', Paari éditeur, 2020. * Didier Gondola, ''Mastwa vivant: Anticolonialisme et citoyenneté en Afrique-Équatoriale Française'', Paris, Les Éditions de La Sorbonne, 2021. == References == agdjnkuwisv811477zs5lrm2ntvc042 Joseph Kabila 0 18362 69217 2025-07-06T03:58:07Z KISUMAR123 1270 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1294681155|Joseph Kabila]]" 69217 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Joseph Kabila Kabange''' ( , ; born 4 June 1971) be Congolese politician plus former military officer wey serve as de fourth President of de Democratic Republic of de Congo from 2001 reach 2019. He take over office ten days after dem assassinate ein poppie, President Laurent-Désiré Kabila, wey happen insyd de Second Congo War. He form de People's Party for Reconstruction and Democracy (PPRD) for 2002, plus dem allow am make he stay for power after de 2003 Pretoria Accord end de war, as de president of de country ein new transitional government. He win election as president for 2006, then win again for 2011 for ein second term. Since he step down after de 2018 election, Kabila, as former president, dey serve as senator for life. Kabila be de country ein second-longest serving president. [[Category:Living people]] qbiyl0ay8uw2zf30ud4v7m7g1uq9eg3 69218 69217 2025-07-06T04:01:02Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69218 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Joseph Kabila Kabange''' ( , ; born 4 June 1971) be Congolese politician plus former military officer wey serve as de fourth President of de Democratic Republic of de Congo from 2001 reach 2019. He take over office ten days after dem assassinate ein poppie, President Laurent-Désiré Kabila, wey happen insyd de Second Congo War. He form de People's Party for Reconstruction and Democracy (PPRD) for 2002, plus dem allow am make he stay for power after de 2003 Pretoria Accord end de war, as de president of de country ein new transitional government. He win election as president for 2006, then win again for 2011 for ein second term. Since he step down after de 2018 election, Kabila, as former president, dey serve as senator for life. Kabila be de country ein second-longest serving president. Kabila dey get credit say e end de Second Congo War plus bring small stability come most parts of de country, even though gbeɛ still dey go on for eastern DR Congo wey rebel forces, wey Rwanda plus Uganda dey support, dey cause. He encourage foreign investment for de mining sector plus improve infrastructure. Under ein rule, de country ein economy grow like five times. But as time go on, de economic growth slow down, plus e no spread well — most people for DR Congo still dey live under de international poverty line when he commot for office. He help put electoral institutions in place, plus for 2006, he lead de first multi-party election for de country wey dem do for decades. But both dat election and de one wey he win for 2011 get plenty gbeɛ, like electoral fraud claims plus protests. He rule under authoritarian government style, wey people accuse of embezzlement, corruption plus human rights abuses — like how security forces kill protestors. United States even sanction some of ein people for corruption plus say dem dey undermine democracy. [[Category:Living people]] i4lrhi6zqbobknphzws3itoczxebvxm 69219 69218 2025-07-06T04:03:05Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69219 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Joseph Kabila Kabange''' ( , ; born 4 June 1971) be Congolese politician plus former military officer wey serve as de fourth President of de Democratic Republic of de Congo from 2001 reach 2019. He take over office ten days after dem assassinate ein poppie, President Laurent-Désiré Kabila, wey happen insyd de Second Congo War. He form de People's Party for Reconstruction and Democracy (PPRD) for 2002, plus dem allow am make he stay for power after de 2003 Pretoria Accord end de war, as de president of de country ein new transitional government. He win election as president for 2006, then win again for 2011 for ein second term. Since he step down after de 2018 election, Kabila, as former president, dey serve as senator for life. Kabila be de country ein second-longest serving president. Kabila dey get credit say e end de Second Congo War plus bring small stability come most parts of de country, even though gbeɛ still dey go on for eastern DR Congo wey rebel forces, wey Rwanda plus Uganda dey support, dey cause. He encourage foreign investment for de mining sector plus improve infrastructure. Under ein rule, de country ein economy grow like five times. But as time go on, de economic growth slow down, plus e no spread well — most people for DR Congo still dey live under de international poverty line when he commot for office. He help put electoral institutions in place, plus for 2006, he lead de first multi-party election for de country wey dem do for decades. But both dat election and de one wey he win for 2011 get plenty gbeɛ, like electoral fraud claims plus protests. He rule under authoritarian government style, wey people accuse of embezzlement, corruption plus human rights abuses — like how security forces kill protestors. United States even sanction some of ein people for corruption plus say dem dey undermine democracy. Kabila ein term suppose end 20 December 2016, based on de constitution wey dem adopt for 2006. Officials bin talk say elections go happen for November 2016, but on 29 September 2016, de electoral authority come announce say election no go fit happen until early 2018. Dem talk say dem need do census first before any election fit happen. Kabila popularity begin drop plus international community start dey pressurize am make he give up power. Eventually, dem reach agreement with de Catholic Church hierarchy say make dem appoint new government and prepare for elections. For August 2018, Kabila talk say he no go run again and go step down for de December 2018 general election. Félix Tshisekedi come succeed am, and dis be de first time wey DR Congo do peaceful handover of power since independence. But independent observers believe say Tshisekedi lose badly to Martin Fayulu, and say na Kabila arrange de official results make e favour de person wey go protect ein interest after e leave power. [[Category:Living people]] cm6h4ugb02m0gb4l3pph7exuwklntn2 69220 69219 2025-07-06T04:04:00Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69220 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Joseph Kabila Kabange''' ( , ; born 4 June 1971) be Congolese politician plus former military officer wey serve as de fourth President of de Democratic Republic of de Congo from 2001 reach 2019. He take over office ten days after dem assassinate ein poppie, President Laurent-Désiré Kabila, wey happen insyd de Second Congo War. He form de People's Party for Reconstruction and Democracy (PPRD) for 2002, plus dem allow am make he stay for power after de 2003 Pretoria Accord end de war, as de president of de country ein new transitional government. He win election as president for 2006, then win again for 2011 for ein second term. Since he step down after de 2018 election, Kabila, as former president, dey serve as senator for life. Kabila be de country ein second-longest serving president. Kabila dey get credit say e end de Second Congo War plus bring small stability come most parts of de country, even though gbeɛ still dey go on for eastern DR Congo wey rebel forces, wey Rwanda plus Uganda dey support, dey cause. He encourage foreign investment for de mining sector plus improve infrastructure. Under ein rule, de country ein economy grow like five times. But as time go on, de economic growth slow down, plus e no spread well — most people for DR Congo still dey live under de international poverty line when he commot for office. He help put electoral institutions in place, plus for 2006, he lead de first multi-party election for de country wey dem do for decades. But both dat election and de one wey he win for 2011 get plenty gbeɛ, like electoral fraud claims plus protests. He rule under authoritarian government style, wey people accuse of embezzlement, corruption plus human rights abuses — like how security forces kill protestors. United States even sanction some of ein people for corruption plus say dem dey undermine democracy. Kabila ein term suppose end 20 December 2016, based on de constitution wey dem adopt for 2006. Officials bin talk say elections go happen for November 2016, but on 29 September 2016, de electoral authority come announce say election no go fit happen until early 2018. Dem talk say dem need do census first before any election fit happen. Kabila popularity begin drop plus international community start dey pressurize am make he give up power. Eventually, dem reach agreement with de Catholic Church hierarchy say make dem appoint new government and prepare for elections. For August 2018, Kabila talk say he no go run again and go step down for de December 2018 general election. Félix Tshisekedi come succeed am, and dis be de first time wey DR Congo do peaceful handover of power since independence. But independent observers believe say Tshisekedi lose badly to Martin Fayulu, and say na Kabila arrange de official results make e favour de person wey go protect ein interest after e leave power. == Early life den education (1971–1996) == [[Category:Living people]] 0h0kwygcp304p66etylmtzhglzcqaqc 69221 69220 2025-07-06T04:05:48Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Early life den education (1971–1996) */ Improve article 69221 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Joseph Kabila Kabange''' ( , ; born 4 June 1971) be Congolese politician plus former military officer wey serve as de fourth President of de Democratic Republic of de Congo from 2001 reach 2019. He take over office ten days after dem assassinate ein poppie, President Laurent-Désiré Kabila, wey happen insyd de Second Congo War. He form de People's Party for Reconstruction and Democracy (PPRD) for 2002, plus dem allow am make he stay for power after de 2003 Pretoria Accord end de war, as de president of de country ein new transitional government. He win election as president for 2006, then win again for 2011 for ein second term. Since he step down after de 2018 election, Kabila, as former president, dey serve as senator for life. Kabila be de country ein second-longest serving president. Kabila dey get credit say e end de Second Congo War plus bring small stability come most parts of de country, even though gbeɛ still dey go on for eastern DR Congo wey rebel forces, wey Rwanda plus Uganda dey support, dey cause. He encourage foreign investment for de mining sector plus improve infrastructure. Under ein rule, de country ein economy grow like five times. But as time go on, de economic growth slow down, plus e no spread well — most people for DR Congo still dey live under de international poverty line when he commot for office. He help put electoral institutions in place, plus for 2006, he lead de first multi-party election for de country wey dem do for decades. But both dat election and de one wey he win for 2011 get plenty gbeɛ, like electoral fraud claims plus protests. He rule under authoritarian government style, wey people accuse of embezzlement, corruption plus human rights abuses — like how security forces kill protestors. United States even sanction some of ein people for corruption plus say dem dey undermine democracy. Kabila ein term suppose end 20 December 2016, based on de constitution wey dem adopt for 2006. Officials bin talk say elections go happen for November 2016, but on 29 September 2016, de electoral authority come announce say election no go fit happen until early 2018. Dem talk say dem need do census first before any election fit happen. Kabila popularity begin drop plus international community start dey pressurize am make he give up power. Eventually, dem reach agreement with de Catholic Church hierarchy say make dem appoint new government and prepare for elections. For August 2018, Kabila talk say he no go run again and go step down for de December 2018 general election. Félix Tshisekedi come succeed am, and dis be de first time wey DR Congo do peaceful handover of power since independence. But independent observers believe say Tshisekedi lose badly to Martin Fayulu, and say na Kabila arrange de official results make e favour de person wey go protect ein interest after e leave power. == Early life den education (1971–1996) == Joseph Kabila Kabange plus ein twin sister Jaynet Kabila dem born dem on 4 June 1971. Dem born de twins for Hewa Bora, one small village insyd de secessionist state dem dey call Maquis of Fizi, wey dey de present-day South Kivu Province, for eastern DRC. Some people dey spread rumor say Kabila actually born for Tanzania, wey go mean say he be citizen for dat country. He be pikin of long-time rebel, former AFDL leader and DRC president Laurent-Désiré Kabila plus Sifa Mahanya. [[Category:Living people]] 92cd80ztfx462w4tnp84az08gpzomn0 69222 69221 2025-07-06T04:06:42Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Early life den education (1971–1996) */ Improve article 69222 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Joseph Kabila Kabange''' ( , ; born 4 June 1971) be Congolese politician plus former military officer wey serve as de fourth President of de Democratic Republic of de Congo from 2001 reach 2019. He take over office ten days after dem assassinate ein poppie, President Laurent-Désiré Kabila, wey happen insyd de Second Congo War. He form de People's Party for Reconstruction and Democracy (PPRD) for 2002, plus dem allow am make he stay for power after de 2003 Pretoria Accord end de war, as de president of de country ein new transitional government. He win election as president for 2006, then win again for 2011 for ein second term. Since he step down after de 2018 election, Kabila, as former president, dey serve as senator for life. Kabila be de country ein second-longest serving president. Kabila dey get credit say e end de Second Congo War plus bring small stability come most parts of de country, even though gbeɛ still dey go on for eastern DR Congo wey rebel forces, wey Rwanda plus Uganda dey support, dey cause. He encourage foreign investment for de mining sector plus improve infrastructure. Under ein rule, de country ein economy grow like five times. But as time go on, de economic growth slow down, plus e no spread well — most people for DR Congo still dey live under de international poverty line when he commot for office. He help put electoral institutions in place, plus for 2006, he lead de first multi-party election for de country wey dem do for decades. But both dat election and de one wey he win for 2011 get plenty gbeɛ, like electoral fraud claims plus protests. He rule under authoritarian government style, wey people accuse of embezzlement, corruption plus human rights abuses — like how security forces kill protestors. United States even sanction some of ein people for corruption plus say dem dey undermine democracy. Kabila ein term suppose end 20 December 2016, based on de constitution wey dem adopt for 2006. Officials bin talk say elections go happen for November 2016, but on 29 September 2016, de electoral authority come announce say election no go fit happen until early 2018. Dem talk say dem need do census first before any election fit happen. Kabila popularity begin drop plus international community start dey pressurize am make he give up power. Eventually, dem reach agreement with de Catholic Church hierarchy say make dem appoint new government and prepare for elections. For August 2018, Kabila talk say he no go run again and go step down for de December 2018 general election. Félix Tshisekedi come succeed am, and dis be de first time wey DR Congo do peaceful handover of power since independence. But independent observers believe say Tshisekedi lose badly to Martin Fayulu, and say na Kabila arrange de official results make e favour de person wey go protect ein interest after e leave power. == Early life den education (1971–1996) == Joseph Kabila Kabange plus ein twin sister Jaynet Kabila dem born dem on 4 June 1971. Dem born de twins for Hewa Bora, one small village insyd de secessionist state dem dey call Maquis of Fizi, wey dey de present-day South Kivu Province, for eastern DRC. Some people dey spread rumor say Kabila actually born for Tanzania, wey go mean say he be citizen for dat country. He be pikin of long-time rebel, former AFDL leader and DRC president Laurent-Désiré Kabila plus Sifa Mahanya. == Guerrilla and army years (1996–2001) == [[Category:Living people]] 1qdxsyfjhcl3ka8h8t3q853k2o4kbpo 69223 69222 2025-07-06T04:07:29Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Early life den education (1971–1996) */ Improve article 69223 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Joseph Kabila Kabange''' ( , ; born 4 June 1971) be Congolese politician plus former military officer wey serve as de fourth President of de Democratic Republic of de Congo from 2001 reach 2019. He take over office ten days after dem assassinate ein poppie, President Laurent-Désiré Kabila, wey happen insyd de Second Congo War. He form de People's Party for Reconstruction and Democracy (PPRD) for 2002, plus dem allow am make he stay for power after de 2003 Pretoria Accord end de war, as de president of de country ein new transitional government. He win election as president for 2006, then win again for 2011 for ein second term. Since he step down after de 2018 election, Kabila, as former president, dey serve as senator for life. Kabila be de country ein second-longest serving president. Kabila dey get credit say e end de Second Congo War plus bring small stability come most parts of de country, even though gbeɛ still dey go on for eastern DR Congo wey rebel forces, wey Rwanda plus Uganda dey support, dey cause. He encourage foreign investment for de mining sector plus improve infrastructure. Under ein rule, de country ein economy grow like five times. But as time go on, de economic growth slow down, plus e no spread well — most people for DR Congo still dey live under de international poverty line when he commot for office. He help put electoral institutions in place, plus for 2006, he lead de first multi-party election for de country wey dem do for decades. But both dat election and de one wey he win for 2011 get plenty gbeɛ, like electoral fraud claims plus protests. He rule under authoritarian government style, wey people accuse of embezzlement, corruption plus human rights abuses — like how security forces kill protestors. United States even sanction some of ein people for corruption plus say dem dey undermine democracy. Kabila ein term suppose end 20 December 2016, based on de constitution wey dem adopt for 2006. Officials bin talk say elections go happen for November 2016, but on 29 September 2016, de electoral authority come announce say election no go fit happen until early 2018. Dem talk say dem need do census first before any election fit happen. Kabila popularity begin drop plus international community start dey pressurize am make he give up power. Eventually, dem reach agreement with de Catholic Church hierarchy say make dem appoint new government and prepare for elections. For August 2018, Kabila talk say he no go run again and go step down for de December 2018 general election. Félix Tshisekedi come succeed am, and dis be de first time wey DR Congo do peaceful handover of power since independence. But independent observers believe say Tshisekedi lose badly to Martin Fayulu, and say na Kabila arrange de official results make e favour de person wey go protect ein interest after e leave power. == Early life den education (1971–1996) == Joseph Kabila Kabange plus ein twin sister Jaynet Kabila dem born dem on 4 June 1971. Dem born de twins for Hewa Bora, one small village insyd de secessionist state dem dey call Maquis of Fizi, wey dey de present-day South Kivu Province, for eastern DRC. Some people dey spread rumor say Kabila actually born for Tanzania, wey go mean say he be citizen for dat country. He be pikin of long-time rebel, former AFDL leader and DRC president Laurent-Désiré Kabila plus Sifa Mahanya. Kabila ein childhood fall for de time wey ein poppie ein political plus military career dey down low. Dem raise am for one kind remote area, wey no too get plenty record about ein early life. Kabila go primary school wey ein poppie ein rebel forces organise, before dem move go Tanzania wey he take finish ein primary plus secondary school. Sake of say ein poppie be enemy to Zaireein strongman Mobutu Sese Seko, Kabila act like Tanzanian during school time make Zaireein spy people no sabi am. == Guerrilla and army years (1996–2001) == [[Category:Living people]] lw4i5m2dob9ninbd5uu9jvnigzppmkw 69224 69223 2025-07-06T04:09:39Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Guerrilla and army years (1996–2001) */ Improve article 69224 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Joseph Kabila Kabange''' ( , ; born 4 June 1971) be Congolese politician plus former military officer wey serve as de fourth President of de Democratic Republic of de Congo from 2001 reach 2019. He take over office ten days after dem assassinate ein poppie, President Laurent-Désiré Kabila, wey happen insyd de Second Congo War. He form de People's Party for Reconstruction and Democracy (PPRD) for 2002, plus dem allow am make he stay for power after de 2003 Pretoria Accord end de war, as de president of de country ein new transitional government. He win election as president for 2006, then win again for 2011 for ein second term. Since he step down after de 2018 election, Kabila, as former president, dey serve as senator for life. Kabila be de country ein second-longest serving president. Kabila dey get credit say e end de Second Congo War plus bring small stability come most parts of de country, even though gbeɛ still dey go on for eastern DR Congo wey rebel forces, wey Rwanda plus Uganda dey support, dey cause. He encourage foreign investment for de mining sector plus improve infrastructure. Under ein rule, de country ein economy grow like five times. But as time go on, de economic growth slow down, plus e no spread well — most people for DR Congo still dey live under de international poverty line when he commot for office. He help put electoral institutions in place, plus for 2006, he lead de first multi-party election for de country wey dem do for decades. But both dat election and de one wey he win for 2011 get plenty gbeɛ, like electoral fraud claims plus protests. He rule under authoritarian government style, wey people accuse of embezzlement, corruption plus human rights abuses — like how security forces kill protestors. United States even sanction some of ein people for corruption plus say dem dey undermine democracy. Kabila ein term suppose end 20 December 2016, based on de constitution wey dem adopt for 2006. Officials bin talk say elections go happen for November 2016, but on 29 September 2016, de electoral authority come announce say election no go fit happen until early 2018. Dem talk say dem need do census first before any election fit happen. Kabila popularity begin drop plus international community start dey pressurize am make he give up power. Eventually, dem reach agreement with de Catholic Church hierarchy say make dem appoint new government and prepare for elections. For August 2018, Kabila talk say he no go run again and go step down for de December 2018 general election. Félix Tshisekedi come succeed am, and dis be de first time wey DR Congo do peaceful handover of power since independence. But independent observers believe say Tshisekedi lose badly to Martin Fayulu, and say na Kabila arrange de official results make e favour de person wey go protect ein interest after e leave power. == Early life den education (1971–1996) == Joseph Kabila Kabange plus ein twin sister Jaynet Kabila dem born dem on 4 June 1971. Dem born de twins for Hewa Bora, one small village insyd de secessionist state dem dey call Maquis of Fizi, wey dey de present-day South Kivu Province, for eastern DRC. Some people dey spread rumor say Kabila actually born for Tanzania, wey go mean say he be citizen for dat country. He be pikin of long-time rebel, former AFDL leader and DRC president Laurent-Désiré Kabila plus Sifa Mahanya. Kabila ein childhood fall for de time wey ein poppie ein political plus military career dey down low. Dem raise am for one kind remote area, wey no too get plenty record about ein early life. Kabila go primary school wey ein poppie ein rebel forces organise, before dem move go Tanzania wey he take finish ein primary plus secondary school. Sake of say ein poppie be enemy to Zaireein strongman Mobutu Sese Seko, Kabila act like Tanzanian during school time make Zaireein spy people no sabi am. == Guerrilla and army years (1996–2001) == Afta high school, Kabila follow military training for Tanzania, den later for Makerere University inside Uganda. For October 1996, Laurent-Désiré Kabila start campaign for Zaire to chase Mobutu ein regime comot, plus ein new army dem call Alliance of Democratic Forces for de Liberation of Congo-Zaire (AFDL). Joseph Kabila turn commander for one AFDL unit wey get "kadogos" (child soldiers) plus e likely play big role for de heavy battles wey lead dem go Kinshasa, but nobody clear where exactly he dey during de war. E like say Kabila dey around when dem free Kisangani, sake of say media reports show say na him lead de rebel force wey capture de city afta four days of serious fight. Weytin follow be say, afta AFDL win and ein poppie become president, Joseph Kabila go get more training for China under de PLA National Defense University. When he come back from China, dem promote am to major-general, plus dem make am Deputy Chief of Staff for Congolese Armed Forces (FAC) for 1998. Then for 2000, dem make am Chief of Staff for de Land Forces, wey he hold till ein poppie die for January 2001. As Chief of Staff, he be one of de main military leaders wey dey control government soldiers during de Second Congo War (1998–2003). [[Category:Living people]] lttgtbgxk142ti84xbturktaqluevk3 69225 69224 2025-07-06T04:10:06Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69225 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Joseph Kabila Kabange''' ( , ; born 4 June 1971) be Congolese politician plus former military officer wey serve as de fourth President of de Democratic Republic of de Congo from 2001 reach 2019. He take over office ten days after dem assassinate ein poppie, President Laurent-Désiré Kabila, wey happen insyd de Second Congo War. He form de People's Party for Reconstruction and Democracy (PPRD) for 2002, plus dem allow am make he stay for power after de 2003 Pretoria Accord end de war, as de president of de country ein new transitional government. He win election as president for 2006, then win again for 2011 for ein second term. Since he step down after de 2018 election, Kabila, as former president, dey serve as senator for life. Kabila be de country ein second-longest serving president. Kabila dey get credit say e end de Second Congo War plus bring small stability come most parts of de country, even though gbeɛ still dey go on for eastern DR Congo wey rebel forces, wey Rwanda plus Uganda dey support, dey cause. He encourage foreign investment for de mining sector plus improve infrastructure. Under ein rule, de country ein economy grow like five times. But as time go on, de economic growth slow down, plus e no spread well — most people for DR Congo still dey live under de international poverty line when he commot for office. He help put electoral institutions in place, plus for 2006, he lead de first multi-party election for de country wey dem do for decades. But both dat election and de one wey he win for 2011 get plenty gbeɛ, like electoral fraud claims plus protests. He rule under authoritarian government style, wey people accuse of embezzlement, corruption plus human rights abuses — like how security forces kill protestors. United States even sanction some of ein people for corruption plus say dem dey undermine democracy. Kabila ein term suppose end 20 December 2016, based on de constitution wey dem adopt for 2006. Officials bin talk say elections go happen for November 2016, but on 29 September 2016, de electoral authority come announce say election no go fit happen until early 2018. Dem talk say dem need do census first before any election fit happen. Kabila popularity begin drop plus international community start dey pressurize am make he give up power. Eventually, dem reach agreement with de Catholic Church hierarchy say make dem appoint new government and prepare for elections. For August 2018, Kabila talk say he no go run again and go step down for de December 2018 general election. Félix Tshisekedi come succeed am, and dis be de first time wey DR Congo do peaceful handover of power since independence. But independent observers believe say Tshisekedi lose badly to Martin Fayulu, and say na Kabila arrange de official results make e favour de person wey go protect ein interest after e leave power. == Early life den education (1971–1996) == Joseph Kabila Kabange plus ein twin sister Jaynet Kabila dem born dem on 4 June 1971. Dem born de twins for Hewa Bora, one small village insyd de secessionist state dem dey call Maquis of Fizi, wey dey de present-day South Kivu Province, for eastern DRC. Some people dey spread rumor say Kabila actually born for Tanzania, wey go mean say he be citizen for dat country. He be pikin of long-time rebel, former AFDL leader and DRC president Laurent-Désiré Kabila plus Sifa Mahanya. Kabila ein childhood fall for de time wey ein poppie ein political plus military career dey down low. Dem raise am for one kind remote area, wey no too get plenty record about ein early life. Kabila go primary school wey ein poppie ein rebel forces organise, before dem move go Tanzania wey he take finish ein primary plus secondary school. Sake of say ein poppie be enemy to Zaireein strongman Mobutu Sese Seko, Kabila act like Tanzanian during school time make Zaireein spy people no sabi am. == Guerrilla and army years (1996–2001) == Afta high school, Kabila follow military training for Tanzania, den later for Makerere University inside Uganda. For October 1996, Laurent-Désiré Kabila start campaign for Zaire to chase Mobutu ein regime comot, plus ein new army dem call Alliance of Democratic Forces for de Liberation of Congo-Zaire (AFDL). Joseph Kabila turn commander for one AFDL unit wey get "kadogos" (child soldiers) plus e likely play big role for de heavy battles wey lead dem go Kinshasa, but nobody clear where exactly he dey during de war. E like say Kabila dey around when dem free Kisangani, sake of say media reports show say na him lead de rebel force wey capture de city afta four days of serious fight. Weytin follow be say, afta AFDL win and ein poppie become president, Joseph Kabila go get more training for China under de PLA National Defense University. When he come back from China, dem promote am to major-general, plus dem make am Deputy Chief of Staff for Congolese Armed Forces (FAC) for 1998. Then for 2000, dem make am Chief of Staff for de Land Forces, wey he hold till ein poppie die for January 2001. As Chief of Staff, he be one of de main military leaders wey dey control government soldiers during de Second Congo War (1998–2003). == Peace talks and transitional government (2001–2006) == [[Category:Living people]] k9m23qmf0tpc2sezigzgyuq5kikefw3 69226 69225 2025-07-06T04:11:53Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69226 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Joseph Kabila Kabange''' ( , ; born 4 June 1971) be Congolese politician plus former military officer wey serve as de fourth President of de Democratic Republic of de Congo from 2001 reach 2019. He take over office ten days after dem assassinate ein poppie, President Laurent-Désiré Kabila, wey happen insyd de Second Congo War. He form de People's Party for Reconstruction and Democracy (PPRD) for 2002, plus dem allow am make he stay for power after de 2003 Pretoria Accord end de war, as de president of de country ein new transitional government. He win election as president for 2006, then win again for 2011 for ein second term. Since he step down after de 2018 election, Kabila, as former president, dey serve as senator for life. Kabila be de country ein second-longest serving president. Kabila dey get credit say e end de Second Congo War plus bring small stability come most parts of de country, even though gbeɛ still dey go on for eastern DR Congo wey rebel forces, wey Rwanda plus Uganda dey support, dey cause. He encourage foreign investment for de mining sector plus improve infrastructure. Under ein rule, de country ein economy grow like five times. But as time go on, de economic growth slow down, plus e no spread well — most people for DR Congo still dey live under de international poverty line when he commot for office. He help put electoral institutions in place, plus for 2006, he lead de first multi-party election for de country wey dem do for decades. But both dat election and de one wey he win for 2011 get plenty gbeɛ, like electoral fraud claims plus protests. He rule under authoritarian government style, wey people accuse of embezzlement, corruption plus human rights abuses — like how security forces kill protestors. United States even sanction some of ein people for corruption plus say dem dey undermine democracy. Kabila ein term suppose end 20 December 2016, based on de constitution wey dem adopt for 2006. Officials bin talk say elections go happen for November 2016, but on 29 September 2016, de electoral authority come announce say election no go fit happen until early 2018. Dem talk say dem need do census first before any election fit happen. Kabila popularity begin drop plus international community start dey pressurize am make he give up power. Eventually, dem reach agreement with de Catholic Church hierarchy say make dem appoint new government and prepare for elections. For August 2018, Kabila talk say he no go run again and go step down for de December 2018 general election. Félix Tshisekedi come succeed am, and dis be de first time wey DR Congo do peaceful handover of power since independence. But independent observers believe say Tshisekedi lose badly to Martin Fayulu, and say na Kabila arrange de official results make e favour de person wey go protect ein interest after e leave power. == Early life den education (1971–1996) == Joseph Kabila Kabange plus ein twin sister Jaynet Kabila dem born dem on 4 June 1971. Dem born de twins for Hewa Bora, one small village insyd de secessionist state dem dey call Maquis of Fizi, wey dey de present-day South Kivu Province, for eastern DRC. Some people dey spread rumor say Kabila actually born for Tanzania, wey go mean say he be citizen for dat country. He be pikin of long-time rebel, former AFDL leader and DRC president Laurent-Désiré Kabila plus Sifa Mahanya. Kabila ein childhood fall for de time wey ein poppie ein political plus military career dey down low. Dem raise am for one kind remote area, wey no too get plenty record about ein early life. Kabila go primary school wey ein poppie ein rebel forces organise, before dem move go Tanzania wey he take finish ein primary plus secondary school. Sake of say ein poppie be enemy to Zaireein strongman Mobutu Sese Seko, Kabila act like Tanzanian during school time make Zaireein spy people no sabi am. == Guerrilla and army years (1996–2001) == Afta high school, Kabila follow military training for Tanzania, den later for Makerere University inside Uganda. For October 1996, Laurent-Désiré Kabila start campaign for Zaire to chase Mobutu ein regime comot, plus ein new army dem call Alliance of Democratic Forces for de Liberation of Congo-Zaire (AFDL). Joseph Kabila turn commander for one AFDL unit wey get "kadogos" (child soldiers) plus e likely play big role for de heavy battles wey lead dem go Kinshasa, but nobody clear where exactly he dey during de war. E like say Kabila dey around when dem free Kisangani, sake of say media reports show say na him lead de rebel force wey capture de city afta four days of serious fight. Weytin follow be say, afta AFDL win and ein poppie become president, Joseph Kabila go get more training for China under de PLA National Defense University. When he come back from China, dem promote am to major-general, plus dem make am Deputy Chief of Staff for Congolese Armed Forces (FAC) for 1998. Then for 2000, dem make am Chief of Staff for de Land Forces, wey he hold till ein poppie die for January 2001. As Chief of Staff, he be one of de main military leaders wey dey control government soldiers during de Second Congo War (1998–2003). == Peace talks and transitional government (2001–2006) == Joseph Kabila take over de presidency on 26 January 2001 afta dem kill ein poppie Laurent-Désiré Kabila, so he turn de first head of government for de world wey dem born for de 1970s. He be just 29 years old dat time, and people see am say he too young plus e no get experience. Some reports even talk say he no really wan be president, but na only him de advisers fit agree on. For ein swearing-in speech, Joseph Kabila talk say e dey aim to "bring back peace plus national unity," continue de peace talks wey stop under ein poppie, bring back democracy, plus make de economy open and free. [[Category:Living people]] go5j3bldwemfykefm670mcex7gi0loy 69227 69226 2025-07-06T04:15:17Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69227 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Joseph Kabila Kabange''' ( , ; born 4 June 1971) be Congolese politician plus former military officer wey serve as de fourth President of de Democratic Republic of de Congo from 2001 reach 2019. He take over office ten days after dem assassinate ein poppie, President Laurent-Désiré Kabila, wey happen insyd de Second Congo War. He form de People's Party for Reconstruction and Democracy (PPRD) for 2002, plus dem allow am make he stay for power after de 2003 Pretoria Accord end de war, as de president of de country ein new transitional government. He win election as president for 2006, then win again for 2011 for ein second term. Since he step down after de 2018 election, Kabila, as former president, dey serve as senator for life. Kabila be de country ein second-longest serving president. Kabila dey get credit say e end de Second Congo War plus bring small stability come most parts of de country, even though gbeɛ still dey go on for eastern DR Congo wey rebel forces, wey Rwanda plus Uganda dey support, dey cause. He encourage foreign investment for de mining sector plus improve infrastructure. Under ein rule, de country ein economy grow like five times. But as time go on, de economic growth slow down, plus e no spread well — most people for DR Congo still dey live under de international poverty line when he commot for office. He help put electoral institutions in place, plus for 2006, he lead de first multi-party election for de country wey dem do for decades. But both dat election and de one wey he win for 2011 get plenty gbeɛ, like electoral fraud claims plus protests. He rule under authoritarian government style, wey people accuse of embezzlement, corruption plus human rights abuses — like how security forces kill protestors. United States even sanction some of ein people for corruption plus say dem dey undermine democracy. Kabila ein term suppose end 20 December 2016, based on de constitution wey dem adopt for 2006. Officials bin talk say elections go happen for November 2016, but on 29 September 2016, de electoral authority come announce say election no go fit happen until early 2018. Dem talk say dem need do census first before any election fit happen. Kabila popularity begin drop plus international community start dey pressurize am make he give up power. Eventually, dem reach agreement with de Catholic Church hierarchy say make dem appoint new government and prepare for elections. For August 2018, Kabila talk say he no go run again and go step down for de December 2018 general election. Félix Tshisekedi come succeed am, and dis be de first time wey DR Congo do peaceful handover of power since independence. But independent observers believe say Tshisekedi lose badly to Martin Fayulu, and say na Kabila arrange de official results make e favour de person wey go protect ein interest after e leave power. == Early life den education (1971–1996) == Joseph Kabila Kabange plus ein twin sister Jaynet Kabila dem born dem on 4 June 1971. Dem born de twins for Hewa Bora, one small village insyd de secessionist state dem dey call Maquis of Fizi, wey dey de present-day South Kivu Province, for eastern DRC. Some people dey spread rumor say Kabila actually born for Tanzania, wey go mean say he be citizen for dat country. He be pikin of long-time rebel, former AFDL leader and DRC president Laurent-Désiré Kabila plus Sifa Mahanya. Kabila ein childhood fall for de time wey ein poppie ein political plus military career dey down low. Dem raise am for one kind remote area, wey no too get plenty record about ein early life. Kabila go primary school wey ein poppie ein rebel forces organise, before dem move go Tanzania wey he take finish ein primary plus secondary school. Sake of say ein poppie be enemy to Zaireein strongman Mobutu Sese Seko, Kabila act like Tanzanian during school time make Zaireein spy people no sabi am. == Guerrilla and army years (1996–2001) == Afta high school, Kabila follow military training for Tanzania, den later for Makerere University inside Uganda. For October 1996, Laurent-Désiré Kabila start campaign for Zaire to chase Mobutu ein regime comot, plus ein new army dem call Alliance of Democratic Forces for de Liberation of Congo-Zaire (AFDL). Joseph Kabila turn commander for one AFDL unit wey get "kadogos" (child soldiers) plus e likely play big role for de heavy battles wey lead dem go Kinshasa, but nobody clear where exactly he dey during de war. E like say Kabila dey around when dem free Kisangani, sake of say media reports show say na him lead de rebel force wey capture de city afta four days of serious fight. Weytin follow be say, afta AFDL win and ein poppie become president, Joseph Kabila go get more training for China under de PLA National Defense University. When he come back from China, dem promote am to major-general, plus dem make am Deputy Chief of Staff for Congolese Armed Forces (FAC) for 1998. Then for 2000, dem make am Chief of Staff for de Land Forces, wey he hold till ein poppie die for January 2001. As Chief of Staff, he be one of de main military leaders wey dey control government soldiers during de Second Congo War (1998–2003). == Peace talks and transitional government (2001–2006) == Joseph Kabila take over de presidency on 26 January 2001 afta dem kill ein poppie Laurent-Désiré Kabila, so he turn de first head of government for de world wey dem born for de 1970s. He be just 29 years old dat time, and people see am say he too young plus e no get experience. Some reports even talk say he no really wan be president, but na only him de advisers fit agree on. For ein swearing-in speech, Joseph Kabila talk say e dey aim to "bring back peace plus national unity," continue de peace talks wey stop under ein poppie, bring back democracy, plus make de economy open and free. E later try settle de civil war wey dey go on by negotiating peace deal dem plus rebel groups wey Rwanda and Uganda dey support—de same two countries wey support ein poppie, Laurent-Désiré Kabila ein rebel group take enter power three years earlier. Dis negotiation start insyd 2001 and even though yawa happen some times like say de fight go start again, dem still push de process. Na South African Presido Thabo Mbeki plus UN special envoy Moustapha Niasse take put pressure top make dem settle. De final peace deal base on de 2002 agreement wey dem sign for Inter-Congolese Dialogue wey happen for Sun City, South Africa. Dis agreement dey like say e end de Second Congo War. Under de agreement, Joseph Kabila remain as presido and head of state of DRC. Dem set transitional government under am, wey include leaders of de two main rebel groups—MLC and RCD-Goma—as vice-presidos. De oda two vice-presidos be one from civilian opposition and one from de government. Dis agreement also set foundation for legislature and military reforms, plus dem plan say elections go happen within two years, but e fit extend by extra six months. [[Category:Living people]] b53ztox4j8n68y3yo896me1dg1inomo 69228 69227 2025-07-06T04:17:39Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69228 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Joseph Kabila Kabange''' ( , ; born 4 June 1971) be Congolese politician plus former military officer wey serve as de fourth President of de Democratic Republic of de Congo from 2001 reach 2019. He take over office ten days after dem assassinate ein poppie, President Laurent-Désiré Kabila, wey happen insyd de Second Congo War. He form de People's Party for Reconstruction and Democracy (PPRD) for 2002, plus dem allow am make he stay for power after de 2003 Pretoria Accord end de war, as de president of de country ein new transitional government. He win election as president for 2006, then win again for 2011 for ein second term. Since he step down after de 2018 election, Kabila, as former president, dey serve as senator for life. Kabila be de country ein second-longest serving president. Kabila dey get credit say e end de Second Congo War plus bring small stability come most parts of de country, even though gbeɛ still dey go on for eastern DR Congo wey rebel forces, wey Rwanda plus Uganda dey support, dey cause. He encourage foreign investment for de mining sector plus improve infrastructure. Under ein rule, de country ein economy grow like five times. But as time go on, de economic growth slow down, plus e no spread well — most people for DR Congo still dey live under de international poverty line when he commot for office. He help put electoral institutions in place, plus for 2006, he lead de first multi-party election for de country wey dem do for decades. But both dat election and de one wey he win for 2011 get plenty gbeɛ, like electoral fraud claims plus protests. He rule under authoritarian government style, wey people accuse of embezzlement, corruption plus human rights abuses — like how security forces kill protestors. United States even sanction some of ein people for corruption plus say dem dey undermine democracy. Kabila ein term suppose end 20 December 2016, based on de constitution wey dem adopt for 2006. Officials bin talk say elections go happen for November 2016, but on 29 September 2016, de electoral authority come announce say election no go fit happen until early 2018. Dem talk say dem need do census first before any election fit happen. Kabila popularity begin drop plus international community start dey pressurize am make he give up power. Eventually, dem reach agreement with de Catholic Church hierarchy say make dem appoint new government and prepare for elections. For August 2018, Kabila talk say he no go run again and go step down for de December 2018 general election. Félix Tshisekedi come succeed am, and dis be de first time wey DR Congo do peaceful handover of power since independence. But independent observers believe say Tshisekedi lose badly to Martin Fayulu, and say na Kabila arrange de official results make e favour de person wey go protect ein interest after e leave power. == Early life den education (1971–1996) == Joseph Kabila Kabange plus ein twin sister Jaynet Kabila dem born dem on 4 June 1971. Dem born de twins for Hewa Bora, one small village insyd de secessionist state dem dey call Maquis of Fizi, wey dey de present-day South Kivu Province, for eastern DRC. Some people dey spread rumor say Kabila actually born for Tanzania, wey go mean say he be citizen for dat country. He be pikin of long-time rebel, former AFDL leader and DRC president Laurent-Désiré Kabila plus Sifa Mahanya. Kabila ein childhood fall for de time wey ein poppie ein political plus military career dey down low. Dem raise am for one kind remote area, wey no too get plenty record about ein early life. Kabila go primary school wey ein poppie ein rebel forces organise, before dem move go Tanzania wey he take finish ein primary plus secondary school. Sake of say ein poppie be enemy to Zaireein strongman Mobutu Sese Seko, Kabila act like Tanzanian during school time make Zaireein spy people no sabi am. == Guerrilla and army years (1996–2001) == Afta high school, Kabila follow military training for Tanzania, den later for Makerere University inside Uganda. For October 1996, Laurent-Désiré Kabila start campaign for Zaire to chase Mobutu ein regime comot, plus ein new army dem call Alliance of Democratic Forces for de Liberation of Congo-Zaire (AFDL). Joseph Kabila turn commander for one AFDL unit wey get "kadogos" (child soldiers) plus e likely play big role for de heavy battles wey lead dem go Kinshasa, but nobody clear where exactly he dey during de war. E like say Kabila dey around when dem free Kisangani, sake of say media reports show say na him lead de rebel force wey capture de city afta four days of serious fight. Weytin follow be say, afta AFDL win and ein poppie become president, Joseph Kabila go get more training for China under de PLA National Defense University. When he come back from China, dem promote am to major-general, plus dem make am Deputy Chief of Staff for Congolese Armed Forces (FAC) for 1998. Then for 2000, dem make am Chief of Staff for de Land Forces, wey he hold till ein poppie die for January 2001. As Chief of Staff, he be one of de main military leaders wey dey control government soldiers during de Second Congo War (1998–2003). == Peace talks and transitional government (2001–2006) == Joseph Kabila take over de presidency on 26 January 2001 afta dem kill ein poppie Laurent-Désiré Kabila, so he turn de first head of government for de world wey dem born for de 1970s. He be just 29 years old dat time, and people see am say he too young plus e no get experience. Some reports even talk say he no really wan be president, but na only him de advisers fit agree on. For ein swearing-in speech, Joseph Kabila talk say e dey aim to "bring back peace plus national unity," continue de peace talks wey stop under ein poppie, bring back democracy, plus make de economy open and free. E later try settle de civil war wey dey go on by negotiating peace deal dem plus rebel groups wey Rwanda and Uganda dey support—de same two countries wey support ein poppie, Laurent-Désiré Kabila ein rebel group take enter power three years earlier. Dis negotiation start insyd 2001 and even though yawa happen some times like say de fight go start again, dem still push de process. Na South African Presido Thabo Mbeki plus UN special envoy Moustapha Niasse take put pressure top make dem settle. De final peace deal base on de 2002 agreement wey dem sign for Inter-Congolese Dialogue wey happen for Sun City, South Africa. Dis agreement dey like say e end de Second Congo War. Under de agreement, Joseph Kabila remain as presido and head of state of DRC. Dem set transitional government under am, wey include leaders of de two main rebel groups—MLC and RCD-Goma—as vice-presidos. De oda two vice-presidos be one from civilian opposition and one from de government. Dis agreement also set foundation for legislature and military reforms, plus dem plan say elections go happen within two years, but e fit extend by extra six months. Dem start implement de peace agreement under eye of international monitoring teams, plus United Nations wey bring dem biggest peacekeeping mission ever come de country. Dem form de first cabinet for June 2003, den de National Assembly and de Senate follow for de next month. For 2004, dem set up de Independent Electoral Commission (CEI) and pass de Nationality Act to solve de kasala wey dey over who truly be Congolese. Parliament begin work on new constitution for February 2005, and by May 2005 dem pass de draft version, Kabila and South African Presido Thabo Mbeki sef dey de session. De new constitution bring independent judiciary and set semi-presidential system wey mean say presido go appoint prime minister, but de prime minister for get support from de majority for parliament before e fit hold position. [[Category:Living people]] lyvt96cm1d38op8f6nxzgb6kgsa6en9 69229 69228 2025-07-06T04:20:59Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69229 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Joseph Kabila Kabange''' ( , ; born 4 June 1971) be Congolese politician plus former military officer wey serve as de fourth President of de Democratic Republic of de Congo from 2001 reach 2019. He take over office ten days after dem assassinate ein poppie, President Laurent-Désiré Kabila, wey happen insyd de Second Congo War. He form de People's Party for Reconstruction and Democracy (PPRD) for 2002, plus dem allow am make he stay for power after de 2003 Pretoria Accord end de war, as de president of de country ein new transitional government. He win election as president for 2006, then win again for 2011 for ein second term. Since he step down after de 2018 election, Kabila, as former president, dey serve as senator for life. Kabila be de country ein second-longest serving president. Kabila dey get credit say e end de Second Congo War plus bring small stability come most parts of de country, even though gbeɛ still dey go on for eastern DR Congo wey rebel forces, wey Rwanda plus Uganda dey support, dey cause. He encourage foreign investment for de mining sector plus improve infrastructure. Under ein rule, de country ein economy grow like five times. But as time go on, de economic growth slow down, plus e no spread well — most people for DR Congo still dey live under de international poverty line when he commot for office. He help put electoral institutions in place, plus for 2006, he lead de first multi-party election for de country wey dem do for decades. But both dat election and de one wey he win for 2011 get plenty gbeɛ, like electoral fraud claims plus protests. He rule under authoritarian government style, wey people accuse of embezzlement, corruption plus human rights abuses — like how security forces kill protestors. United States even sanction some of ein people for corruption plus say dem dey undermine democracy. Kabila ein term suppose end 20 December 2016, based on de constitution wey dem adopt for 2006. Officials bin talk say elections go happen for November 2016, but on 29 September 2016, de electoral authority come announce say election no go fit happen until early 2018. Dem talk say dem need do census first before any election fit happen. Kabila popularity begin drop plus international community start dey pressurize am make he give up power. Eventually, dem reach agreement with de Catholic Church hierarchy say make dem appoint new government and prepare for elections. For August 2018, Kabila talk say he no go run again and go step down for de December 2018 general election. Félix Tshisekedi come succeed am, and dis be de first time wey DR Congo do peaceful handover of power since independence. But independent observers believe say Tshisekedi lose badly to Martin Fayulu, and say na Kabila arrange de official results make e favour de person wey go protect ein interest after e leave power. == Early life den education (1971–1996) == Joseph Kabila Kabange plus ein twin sister Jaynet Kabila dem born dem on 4 June 1971. Dem born de twins for Hewa Bora, one small village insyd de secessionist state dem dey call Maquis of Fizi, wey dey de present-day South Kivu Province, for eastern DRC. Some people dey spread rumor say Kabila actually born for Tanzania, wey go mean say he be citizen for dat country. He be pikin of long-time rebel, former AFDL leader and DRC president Laurent-Désiré Kabila plus Sifa Mahanya. Kabila ein childhood fall for de time wey ein poppie ein political plus military career dey down low. Dem raise am for one kind remote area, wey no too get plenty record about ein early life. Kabila go primary school wey ein poppie ein rebel forces organise, before dem move go Tanzania wey he take finish ein primary plus secondary school. Sake of say ein poppie be enemy to Zaireein strongman Mobutu Sese Seko, Kabila act like Tanzanian during school time make Zaireein spy people no sabi am. == Guerrilla and army years (1996–2001) == Afta high school, Kabila follow military training for Tanzania, den later for Makerere University inside Uganda. For October 1996, Laurent-Désiré Kabila start campaign for Zaire to chase Mobutu ein regime comot, plus ein new army dem call Alliance of Democratic Forces for de Liberation of Congo-Zaire (AFDL). Joseph Kabila turn commander for one AFDL unit wey get "kadogos" (child soldiers) plus e likely play big role for de heavy battles wey lead dem go Kinshasa, but nobody clear where exactly he dey during de war. E like say Kabila dey around when dem free Kisangani, sake of say media reports show say na him lead de rebel force wey capture de city afta four days of serious fight. Weytin follow be say, afta AFDL win and ein poppie become president, Joseph Kabila go get more training for China under de PLA National Defense University. When he come back from China, dem promote am to major-general, plus dem make am Deputy Chief of Staff for Congolese Armed Forces (FAC) for 1998. Then for 2000, dem make am Chief of Staff for de Land Forces, wey he hold till ein poppie die for January 2001. As Chief of Staff, he be one of de main military leaders wey dey control government soldiers during de Second Congo War (1998–2003). == Peace talks and transitional government (2001–2006) == Joseph Kabila take over de presidency on 26 January 2001 afta dem kill ein poppie Laurent-Désiré Kabila, so he turn de first head of government for de world wey dem born for de 1970s. He be just 29 years old dat time, and people see am say he too young plus e no get experience. Some reports even talk say he no really wan be president, but na only him de advisers fit agree on. For ein swearing-in speech, Joseph Kabila talk say e dey aim to "bring back peace plus national unity," continue de peace talks wey stop under ein poppie, bring back democracy, plus make de economy open and free. E later try settle de civil war wey dey go on by negotiating peace deal dem plus rebel groups wey Rwanda and Uganda dey support—de same two countries wey support ein poppie, Laurent-Désiré Kabila ein rebel group take enter power three years earlier. Dis negotiation start insyd 2001 and even though yawa happen some times like say de fight go start again, dem still push de process. Na South African Presido Thabo Mbeki plus UN special envoy Moustapha Niasse take put pressure top make dem settle. De final peace deal base on de 2002 agreement wey dem sign for Inter-Congolese Dialogue wey happen for Sun City, South Africa. Dis agreement dey like say e end de Second Congo War. Under de agreement, Joseph Kabila remain as presido and head of state of DRC. Dem set transitional government under am, wey include leaders of de two main rebel groups—MLC and RCD-Goma—as vice-presidos. De oda two vice-presidos be one from civilian opposition and one from de government. Dis agreement also set foundation for legislature and military reforms, plus dem plan say elections go happen within two years, but e fit extend by extra six months. Dem start implement de peace agreement under eye of international monitoring teams, plus United Nations wey bring dem biggest peacekeeping mission ever come de country. Dem form de first cabinet for June 2003, den de National Assembly and de Senate follow for de next month. For 2004, dem set up de Independent Electoral Commission (CEI) and pass de Nationality Act to solve de kasala wey dey over who truly be Congolese. Parliament begin work on new constitution for February 2005, and by May 2005 dem pass de draft version, Kabila and South African Presido Thabo Mbeki sef dey de session. De new constitution bring independent judiciary and set semi-presidential system wey mean say presido go appoint prime minister, but de prime minister for get support from de majority for parliament before e fit hold position. Wen de electoral law process slow for early 2005, dem start dey talk say election fit delay six months. Dis cause small gbege insyd government, especially wit MLC, wey make dem delay some government appointments. But di mata calm down after Kabila yarn wit Vice President Jean-Pierre Bemba. At de same time, de old opposition party UPDS start dey call for protest, and Kinshasa newspapers begin dey shout say "Ukrainian scenario" dey come. But de police block all de protest plans wey UPDS wan do. From June go reach December 2005, de electoral commission register 25 million people for de whole DRC, even tho de infrastructure bad. Dis registration na to prepare for de first free vote since 1965 — de constitutional referendum wey dem do for end of dat year. De new constitution pass wit 84 percent of de vote, and 62 percent of voters show up. De biggest support come from eastern DRC. Even tho over 40 political parties boycott de vote, Kabila still sign de constitution into law for February 2006. [[Category:Living people]] dx2sdw3fkwqsk7ukjuihrsxwxro71vb 69230 69229 2025-07-06T04:30:13Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69230 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Joseph Kabila Kabange''' ( , ; born 4 June 1971) be Congolese politician plus former military officer wey serve as de fourth President of de Democratic Republic of de Congo from 2001 reach 2019. He take over office ten days after dem assassinate ein poppie, President Laurent-Désiré Kabila, wey happen insyd de Second Congo War. He form de People's Party for Reconstruction and Democracy (PPRD) for 2002, plus dem allow am make he stay for power after de 2003 Pretoria Accord end de war, as de president of de country ein new transitional government. He win election as president for 2006, then win again for 2011 for ein second term. Since he step down after de 2018 election, Kabila, as former president, dey serve as senator for life. Kabila be de country ein second-longest serving president. Kabila dey get credit say e end de Second Congo War plus bring small stability come most parts of de country, even though gbeɛ still dey go on for eastern DR Congo wey rebel forces, wey Rwanda plus Uganda dey support, dey cause. He encourage foreign investment for de mining sector plus improve infrastructure. Under ein rule, de country ein economy grow like five times. But as time go on, de economic growth slow down, plus e no spread well — most people for DR Congo still dey live under de international poverty line when he commot for office. He help put electoral institutions in place, plus for 2006, he lead de first multi-party election for de country wey dem do for decades. But both dat election and de one wey he win for 2011 get plenty gbeɛ, like electoral fraud claims plus protests. He rule under authoritarian government style, wey people accuse of embezzlement, corruption plus human rights abuses — like how security forces kill protestors. United States even sanction some of ein people for corruption plus say dem dey undermine democracy. Kabila ein term suppose end 20 December 2016, based on de constitution wey dem adopt for 2006. Officials bin talk say elections go happen for November 2016, but on 29 September 2016, de electoral authority come announce say election no go fit happen until early 2018. Dem talk say dem need do census first before any election fit happen. Kabila popularity begin drop plus international community start dey pressurize am make he give up power. Eventually, dem reach agreement with de Catholic Church hierarchy say make dem appoint new government and prepare for elections. For August 2018, Kabila talk say he no go run again and go step down for de December 2018 general election. Félix Tshisekedi come succeed am, and dis be de first time wey DR Congo do peaceful handover of power since independence. But independent observers believe say Tshisekedi lose badly to Martin Fayulu, and say na Kabila arrange de official results make e favour de person wey go protect ein interest after e leave power. == Early life den education (1971–1996) == Joseph Kabila Kabange plus ein twin sister Jaynet Kabila dem born dem on 4 June 1971. Dem born de twins for Hewa Bora, one small village insyd de secessionist state dem dey call Maquis of Fizi, wey dey de present-day South Kivu Province, for eastern DRC. Some people dey spread rumor say Kabila actually born for Tanzania, wey go mean say he be citizen for dat country. He be pikin of long-time rebel, former AFDL leader and DRC president Laurent-Désiré Kabila plus Sifa Mahanya. Kabila ein childhood fall for de time wey ein poppie ein political plus military career dey down low. Dem raise am for one kind remote area, wey no too get plenty record about ein early life. Kabila go primary school wey ein poppie ein rebel forces organise, before dem move go Tanzania wey he take finish ein primary plus secondary school. Sake of say ein poppie be enemy to Zaireein strongman Mobutu Sese Seko, Kabila act like Tanzanian during school time make Zaireein spy people no sabi am. == Guerrilla and army years (1996–2001) == Afta high school, Kabila follow military training for Tanzania, den later for Makerere University inside Uganda. For October 1996, Laurent-Désiré Kabila start campaign for Zaire to chase Mobutu ein regime comot, plus ein new army dem call Alliance of Democratic Forces for de Liberation of Congo-Zaire (AFDL). Joseph Kabila turn commander for one AFDL unit wey get "kadogos" (child soldiers) plus e likely play big role for de heavy battles wey lead dem go Kinshasa, but nobody clear where exactly he dey during de war. E like say Kabila dey around when dem free Kisangani, sake of say media reports show say na him lead de rebel force wey capture de city afta four days of serious fight. Weytin follow be say, afta AFDL win and ein poppie become president, Joseph Kabila go get more training for China under de PLA National Defense University. When he come back from China, dem promote am to major-general, plus dem make am Deputy Chief of Staff for Congolese Armed Forces (FAC) for 1998. Then for 2000, dem make am Chief of Staff for de Land Forces, wey he hold till ein poppie die for January 2001. As Chief of Staff, he be one of de main military leaders wey dey control government soldiers during de Second Congo War (1998–2003). == Peace talks and transitional government (2001–2006) == Joseph Kabila take over de presidency on 26 January 2001 afta dem kill ein poppie Laurent-Désiré Kabila, so he turn de first head of government for de world wey dem born for de 1970s. He be just 29 years old dat time, and people see am say he too young plus e no get experience. Some reports even talk say he no really wan be president, but na only him de advisers fit agree on. For ein swearing-in speech, Joseph Kabila talk say e dey aim to "bring back peace plus national unity," continue de peace talks wey stop under ein poppie, bring back democracy, plus make de economy open and free. E later try settle de civil war wey dey go on by negotiating peace deal dem plus rebel groups wey Rwanda and Uganda dey support—de same two countries wey support ein poppie, Laurent-Désiré Kabila ein rebel group take enter power three years earlier. Dis negotiation start insyd 2001 and even though yawa happen some times like say de fight go start again, dem still push de process. Na South African Presido Thabo Mbeki plus UN special envoy Moustapha Niasse take put pressure top make dem settle. De final peace deal base on de 2002 agreement wey dem sign for Inter-Congolese Dialogue wey happen for Sun City, South Africa. Dis agreement dey like say e end de Second Congo War. Under de agreement, Joseph Kabila remain as presido and head of state of DRC. Dem set transitional government under am, wey include leaders of de two main rebel groups—MLC and RCD-Goma—as vice-presidos. De oda two vice-presidos be one from civilian opposition and one from de government. Dis agreement also set foundation for legislature and military reforms, plus dem plan say elections go happen within two years, but e fit extend by extra six months. Dem start implement de peace agreement under eye of international monitoring teams, plus United Nations wey bring dem biggest peacekeeping mission ever come de country. Dem form de first cabinet for June 2003, den de National Assembly and de Senate follow for de next month. For 2004, dem set up de Independent Electoral Commission (CEI) and pass de Nationality Act to solve de kasala wey dey over who truly be Congolese. Parliament begin work on new constitution for February 2005, and by May 2005 dem pass de draft version, Kabila and South African Presido Thabo Mbeki sef dey de session. De new constitution bring independent judiciary and set semi-presidential system wey mean say presido go appoint prime minister, but de prime minister for get support from de majority for parliament before e fit hold position. Wen de electoral law process slow for early 2005, dem start dey talk say election fit delay six months. Dis cause small gbege insyd government, especially wit MLC, wey make dem delay some government appointments. But di mata calm down after Kabila yarn wit Vice President Jean-Pierre Bemba. At de same time, de old opposition party UPDS start dey call for protest, and Kinshasa newspapers begin dey shout say "Ukrainian scenario" dey come. But de police block all de protest plans wey UPDS wan do. From June go reach December 2005, de electoral commission register 25 million people for de whole DRC, even tho de infrastructure bad. Dis registration na to prepare for de first free vote since 1965 — de constitutional referendum wey dem do for end of dat year. De new constitution pass wit 84 percent of de vote, and 62 percent of voters show up. De biggest support come from eastern DRC. Even tho over 40 political parties boycott de vote, Kabila still sign de constitution into law for February 2006. De formation of de Armed Forces of de Democratic Republic of de Congo (FARDC), wey dem try do by join government soldiers plus rebel groups, no move fast. Kabila set up ein own "military household" wey no be part of de main FARDC command wey dem start for 2003, plus he get ein own presidential guard wey dey chop beta pay and beta equipment pass de normal army. De rebel leaders too still dey control their own fighters outside de FARDC command line, and dem still dey rule de same area wey dem dey before. For May 2005, dem come do plan say make dem disarm, retrain, and mix de rebel fighters into new brigades, but dem no finish dat plan before 2006, so de army still dey jam and no dey work fine. For 28 March 2004, dem try do coup or mutiny near de capital Kinshasa—dem say na former guard members of Mobutu Sese Seko (wey Kabila ein poppie overthrow for 1997 before Mobutu die) dey behind am, but de thing no work. Then again for 11 June 2004, coup people led by Major Eric Lenge try take power and announce for state radio say dem suspend de transitional government, but loyal soldiers come scatter dem plan. [[Category:Living people]] 90rlxlhrjxsk0fi0vm0wluioukyq0f9 69231 69230 2025-07-06T04:33:10Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69231 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Joseph Kabila Kabange''' ( , ; born 4 June 1971) be Congolese politician plus former military officer wey serve as de fourth President of de Democratic Republic of de Congo from 2001 reach 2019. He take over office ten days after dem assassinate ein poppie, President Laurent-Désiré Kabila, wey happen insyd de Second Congo War. He form de People's Party for Reconstruction and Democracy (PPRD) for 2002, plus dem allow am make he stay for power after de 2003 Pretoria Accord end de war, as de president of de country ein new transitional government. He win election as president for 2006, then win again for 2011 for ein second term. Since he step down after de 2018 election, Kabila, as former president, dey serve as senator for life. Kabila be de country ein second-longest serving president. Kabila dey get credit say e end de Second Congo War plus bring small stability come most parts of de country, even though gbeɛ still dey go on for eastern DR Congo wey rebel forces, wey Rwanda plus Uganda dey support, dey cause. He encourage foreign investment for de mining sector plus improve infrastructure. Under ein rule, de country ein economy grow like five times. But as time go on, de economic growth slow down, plus e no spread well — most people for DR Congo still dey live under de international poverty line when he commot for office. He help put electoral institutions in place, plus for 2006, he lead de first multi-party election for de country wey dem do for decades. But both dat election and de one wey he win for 2011 get plenty gbeɛ, like electoral fraud claims plus protests. He rule under authoritarian government style, wey people accuse of embezzlement, corruption plus human rights abuses — like how security forces kill protestors. United States even sanction some of ein people for corruption plus say dem dey undermine democracy. Kabila ein term suppose end 20 December 2016, based on de constitution wey dem adopt for 2006. Officials bin talk say elections go happen for November 2016, but on 29 September 2016, de electoral authority come announce say election no go fit happen until early 2018. Dem talk say dem need do census first before any election fit happen. Kabila popularity begin drop plus international community start dey pressurize am make he give up power. Eventually, dem reach agreement with de Catholic Church hierarchy say make dem appoint new government and prepare for elections. For August 2018, Kabila talk say he no go run again and go step down for de December 2018 general election. Félix Tshisekedi come succeed am, and dis be de first time wey DR Congo do peaceful handover of power since independence. But independent observers believe say Tshisekedi lose badly to Martin Fayulu, and say na Kabila arrange de official results make e favour de person wey go protect ein interest after e leave power. == Early life den education (1971–1996) == Joseph Kabila Kabange plus ein twin sister Jaynet Kabila dem born dem on 4 June 1971. Dem born de twins for Hewa Bora, one small village insyd de secessionist state dem dey call Maquis of Fizi, wey dey de present-day South Kivu Province, for eastern DRC. Some people dey spread rumor say Kabila actually born for Tanzania, wey go mean say he be citizen for dat country. He be pikin of long-time rebel, former AFDL leader and DRC president Laurent-Désiré Kabila plus Sifa Mahanya. Kabila ein childhood fall for de time wey ein poppie ein political plus military career dey down low. Dem raise am for one kind remote area, wey no too get plenty record about ein early life. Kabila go primary school wey ein poppie ein rebel forces organise, before dem move go Tanzania wey he take finish ein primary plus secondary school. Sake of say ein poppie be enemy to Zaireein strongman Mobutu Sese Seko, Kabila act like Tanzanian during school time make Zaireein spy people no sabi am. == Guerrilla and army years (1996–2001) == Afta high school, Kabila follow military training for Tanzania, den later for Makerere University inside Uganda. For October 1996, Laurent-Désiré Kabila start campaign for Zaire to chase Mobutu ein regime comot, plus ein new army dem call Alliance of Democratic Forces for de Liberation of Congo-Zaire (AFDL). Joseph Kabila turn commander for one AFDL unit wey get "kadogos" (child soldiers) plus e likely play big role for de heavy battles wey lead dem go Kinshasa, but nobody clear where exactly he dey during de war. E like say Kabila dey around when dem free Kisangani, sake of say media reports show say na him lead de rebel force wey capture de city afta four days of serious fight. Weytin follow be say, afta AFDL win and ein poppie become president, Joseph Kabila go get more training for China under de PLA National Defense University. When he come back from China, dem promote am to major-general, plus dem make am Deputy Chief of Staff for Congolese Armed Forces (FAC) for 1998. Then for 2000, dem make am Chief of Staff for de Land Forces, wey he hold till ein poppie die for January 2001. As Chief of Staff, he be one of de main military leaders wey dey control government soldiers during de Second Congo War (1998–2003). == Peace talks and transitional government (2001–2006) == Joseph Kabila take over de presidency on 26 January 2001 afta dem kill ein poppie Laurent-Désiré Kabila, so he turn de first head of government for de world wey dem born for de 1970s. He be just 29 years old dat time, and people see am say he too young plus e no get experience. Some reports even talk say he no really wan be president, but na only him de advisers fit agree on. For ein swearing-in speech, Joseph Kabila talk say e dey aim to "bring back peace plus national unity," continue de peace talks wey stop under ein poppie, bring back democracy, plus make de economy open and free. E later try settle de civil war wey dey go on by negotiating peace deal dem plus rebel groups wey Rwanda and Uganda dey support—de same two countries wey support ein poppie, Laurent-Désiré Kabila ein rebel group take enter power three years earlier. Dis negotiation start insyd 2001 and even though yawa happen some times like say de fight go start again, dem still push de process. Na South African Presido Thabo Mbeki plus UN special envoy Moustapha Niasse take put pressure top make dem settle. De final peace deal base on de 2002 agreement wey dem sign for Inter-Congolese Dialogue wey happen for Sun City, South Africa. Dis agreement dey like say e end de Second Congo War. Under de agreement, Joseph Kabila remain as presido and head of state of DRC. Dem set transitional government under am, wey include leaders of de two main rebel groups—MLC and RCD-Goma—as vice-presidos. De oda two vice-presidos be one from civilian opposition and one from de government. Dis agreement also set foundation for legislature and military reforms, plus dem plan say elections go happen within two years, but e fit extend by extra six months. Dem start implement de peace agreement under eye of international monitoring teams, plus United Nations wey bring dem biggest peacekeeping mission ever come de country. Dem form de first cabinet for June 2003, den de National Assembly and de Senate follow for de next month. For 2004, dem set up de Independent Electoral Commission (CEI) and pass de Nationality Act to solve de kasala wey dey over who truly be Congolese. Parliament begin work on new constitution for February 2005, and by May 2005 dem pass de draft version, Kabila and South African Presido Thabo Mbeki sef dey de session. De new constitution bring independent judiciary and set semi-presidential system wey mean say presido go appoint prime minister, but de prime minister for get support from de majority for parliament before e fit hold position. Wen de electoral law process slow for early 2005, dem start dey talk say election fit delay six months. Dis cause small gbege insyd government, especially wit MLC, wey make dem delay some government appointments. But di mata calm down after Kabila yarn wit Vice President Jean-Pierre Bemba. At de same time, de old opposition party UPDS start dey call for protest, and Kinshasa newspapers begin dey shout say "Ukrainian scenario" dey come. But de police block all de protest plans wey UPDS wan do. From June go reach December 2005, de electoral commission register 25 million people for de whole DRC, even tho de infrastructure bad. Dis registration na to prepare for de first free vote since 1965 — de constitutional referendum wey dem do for end of dat year. De new constitution pass wit 84 percent of de vote, and 62 percent of voters show up. De biggest support come from eastern DRC. Even tho over 40 political parties boycott de vote, Kabila still sign de constitution into law for February 2006. De formation of de Armed Forces of de Democratic Republic of de Congo (FARDC), wey dem try do by join government soldiers plus rebel groups, no move fast. Kabila set up ein own "military household" wey no be part of de main FARDC command wey dem start for 2003, plus he get ein own presidential guard wey dey chop beta pay and beta equipment pass de normal army. De rebel leaders too still dey control their own fighters outside de FARDC command line, and dem still dey rule de same area wey dem dey before. For May 2005, dem come do plan say make dem disarm, retrain, and mix de rebel fighters into new brigades, but dem no finish dat plan before 2006, so de army still dey jam and no dey work fine. For 28 March 2004, dem try do coup or mutiny near de capital Kinshasa—dem say na former guard members of Mobutu Sese Seko (wey Kabila ein poppie overthrow for 1997 before Mobutu die) dey behind am, but de thing no work. Then again for 11 June 2004, coup people led by Major Eric Lenge try take power and announce for state radio say dem suspend de transitional government, but loyal soldiers come scatter dem plan. For October 2004, Kabila visit de eastern part of DRC for de first time since war end. When he reach Kisangani — one town wey rebels plus foreign soldiers been occupy — dem show de visit as sign say peace and unity don come back to de country. But de presidential guard come disarm de former rebels wey dey wait make dem join FARDC, and carry dem go camp wey dey outside de town. Some Western observers see de visit as sign say Kabila don start ein election campaign. Kabila ein campaign message carry one development plan wey dem call ''Cinq Chantiers'' (Five Construction Sites). E include: road and infrastructure, job creation, education, water plus electricity, and health. [[Category:Living people]] r4x5arkinssx8vaqh47a4ngrmzmtnv0 69232 69231 2025-07-06T04:34:57Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69232 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Joseph Kabila Kabange''' ( , ; born 4 June 1971) be Congolese politician plus former military officer wey serve as de fourth President of de Democratic Republic of de Congo from 2001 reach 2019. He take over office ten days after dem assassinate ein poppie, President Laurent-Désiré Kabila, wey happen insyd de Second Congo War. He form de People's Party for Reconstruction and Democracy (PPRD) for 2002, plus dem allow am make he stay for power after de 2003 Pretoria Accord end de war, as de president of de country ein new transitional government. He win election as president for 2006, then win again for 2011 for ein second term. Since he step down after de 2018 election, Kabila, as former president, dey serve as senator for life. Kabila be de country ein second-longest serving president. Kabila dey get credit say e end de Second Congo War plus bring small stability come most parts of de country, even though gbeɛ still dey go on for eastern DR Congo wey rebel forces, wey Rwanda plus Uganda dey support, dey cause. He encourage foreign investment for de mining sector plus improve infrastructure. Under ein rule, de country ein economy grow like five times. But as time go on, de economic growth slow down, plus e no spread well — most people for DR Congo still dey live under de international poverty line when he commot for office. He help put electoral institutions in place, plus for 2006, he lead de first multi-party election for de country wey dem do for decades. But both dat election and de one wey he win for 2011 get plenty gbeɛ, like electoral fraud claims plus protests. He rule under authoritarian government style, wey people accuse of embezzlement, corruption plus human rights abuses — like how security forces kill protestors. United States even sanction some of ein people for corruption plus say dem dey undermine democracy. Kabila ein term suppose end 20 December 2016, based on de constitution wey dem adopt for 2006. Officials bin talk say elections go happen for November 2016, but on 29 September 2016, de electoral authority come announce say election no go fit happen until early 2018. Dem talk say dem need do census first before any election fit happen. Kabila popularity begin drop plus international community start dey pressurize am make he give up power. Eventually, dem reach agreement with de Catholic Church hierarchy say make dem appoint new government and prepare for elections. For August 2018, Kabila talk say he no go run again and go step down for de December 2018 general election. Félix Tshisekedi come succeed am, and dis be de first time wey DR Congo do peaceful handover of power since independence. But independent observers believe say Tshisekedi lose badly to Martin Fayulu, and say na Kabila arrange de official results make e favour de person wey go protect ein interest after e leave power. == Early life den education (1971–1996) == Joseph Kabila Kabange plus ein twin sister Jaynet Kabila dem born dem on 4 June 1971. Dem born de twins for Hewa Bora, one small village insyd de secessionist state dem dey call Maquis of Fizi, wey dey de present-day South Kivu Province, for eastern DRC. Some people dey spread rumor say Kabila actually born for Tanzania, wey go mean say he be citizen for dat country. He be pikin of long-time rebel, former AFDL leader and DRC president Laurent-Désiré Kabila plus Sifa Mahanya. Kabila ein childhood fall for de time wey ein poppie ein political plus military career dey down low. Dem raise am for one kind remote area, wey no too get plenty record about ein early life. Kabila go primary school wey ein poppie ein rebel forces organise, before dem move go Tanzania wey he take finish ein primary plus secondary school. Sake of say ein poppie be enemy to Zaireein strongman Mobutu Sese Seko, Kabila act like Tanzanian during school time make Zaireein spy people no sabi am. == Guerrilla and army years (1996–2001) == Afta high school, Kabila follow military training for Tanzania, den later for Makerere University inside Uganda. For October 1996, Laurent-Désiré Kabila start campaign for Zaire to chase Mobutu ein regime comot, plus ein new army dem call Alliance of Democratic Forces for de Liberation of Congo-Zaire (AFDL). Joseph Kabila turn commander for one AFDL unit wey get "kadogos" (child soldiers) plus e likely play big role for de heavy battles wey lead dem go Kinshasa, but nobody clear where exactly he dey during de war. E like say Kabila dey around when dem free Kisangani, sake of say media reports show say na him lead de rebel force wey capture de city afta four days of serious fight. Weytin follow be say, afta AFDL win and ein poppie become president, Joseph Kabila go get more training for China under de PLA National Defense University. When he come back from China, dem promote am to major-general, plus dem make am Deputy Chief of Staff for Congolese Armed Forces (FAC) for 1998. Then for 2000, dem make am Chief of Staff for de Land Forces, wey he hold till ein poppie die for January 2001. As Chief of Staff, he be one of de main military leaders wey dey control government soldiers during de Second Congo War (1998–2003). == Peace talks and transitional government (2001–2006) == Joseph Kabila take over de presidency on 26 January 2001 afta dem kill ein poppie Laurent-Désiré Kabila, so he turn de first head of government for de world wey dem born for de 1970s. He be just 29 years old dat time, and people see am say he too young plus e no get experience. Some reports even talk say he no really wan be president, but na only him de advisers fit agree on. For ein swearing-in speech, Joseph Kabila talk say e dey aim to "bring back peace plus national unity," continue de peace talks wey stop under ein poppie, bring back democracy, plus make de economy open and free. E later try settle de civil war wey dey go on by negotiating peace deal dem plus rebel groups wey Rwanda and Uganda dey support—de same two countries wey support ein poppie, Laurent-Désiré Kabila ein rebel group take enter power three years earlier. Dis negotiation start insyd 2001 and even though yawa happen some times like say de fight go start again, dem still push de process. Na South African Presido Thabo Mbeki plus UN special envoy Moustapha Niasse take put pressure top make dem settle. De final peace deal base on de 2002 agreement wey dem sign for Inter-Congolese Dialogue wey happen for Sun City, South Africa. Dis agreement dey like say e end de Second Congo War. Under de agreement, Joseph Kabila remain as presido and head of state of DRC. Dem set transitional government under am, wey include leaders of de two main rebel groups—MLC and RCD-Goma—as vice-presidos. De oda two vice-presidos be one from civilian opposition and one from de government. Dis agreement also set foundation for legislature and military reforms, plus dem plan say elections go happen within two years, but e fit extend by extra six months. Dem start implement de peace agreement under eye of international monitoring teams, plus United Nations wey bring dem biggest peacekeeping mission ever come de country. Dem form de first cabinet for June 2003, den de National Assembly and de Senate follow for de next month. For 2004, dem set up de Independent Electoral Commission (CEI) and pass de Nationality Act to solve de kasala wey dey over who truly be Congolese. Parliament begin work on new constitution for February 2005, and by May 2005 dem pass de draft version, Kabila and South African Presido Thabo Mbeki sef dey de session. De new constitution bring independent judiciary and set semi-presidential system wey mean say presido go appoint prime minister, but de prime minister for get support from de majority for parliament before e fit hold position. Wen de electoral law process slow for early 2005, dem start dey talk say election fit delay six months. Dis cause small gbege insyd government, especially wit MLC, wey make dem delay some government appointments. But di mata calm down after Kabila yarn wit Vice President Jean-Pierre Bemba. At de same time, de old opposition party UPDS start dey call for protest, and Kinshasa newspapers begin dey shout say "Ukrainian scenario" dey come. But de police block all de protest plans wey UPDS wan do. From June go reach December 2005, de electoral commission register 25 million people for de whole DRC, even tho de infrastructure bad. Dis registration na to prepare for de first free vote since 1965 — de constitutional referendum wey dem do for end of dat year. De new constitution pass wit 84 percent of de vote, and 62 percent of voters show up. De biggest support come from eastern DRC. Even tho over 40 political parties boycott de vote, Kabila still sign de constitution into law for February 2006. De formation of de Armed Forces of de Democratic Republic of de Congo (FARDC), wey dem try do by join government soldiers plus rebel groups, no move fast. Kabila set up ein own "military household" wey no be part of de main FARDC command wey dem start for 2003, plus he get ein own presidential guard wey dey chop beta pay and beta equipment pass de normal army. De rebel leaders too still dey control their own fighters outside de FARDC command line, and dem still dey rule de same area wey dem dey before. For May 2005, dem come do plan say make dem disarm, retrain, and mix de rebel fighters into new brigades, but dem no finish dat plan before 2006, so de army still dey jam and no dey work fine. For 28 March 2004, dem try do coup or mutiny near de capital Kinshasa—dem say na former guard members of Mobutu Sese Seko (wey Kabila ein poppie overthrow for 1997 before Mobutu die) dey behind am, but de thing no work. Then again for 11 June 2004, coup people led by Major Eric Lenge try take power and announce for state radio say dem suspend de transitional government, but loyal soldiers come scatter dem plan. For October 2004, Kabila visit de eastern part of DRC for de first time since war end. When he reach Kisangani — one town wey rebels plus foreign soldiers been occupy — dem show de visit as sign say peace and unity don come back to de country. But de presidential guard come disarm de former rebels wey dey wait make dem join FARDC, and carry dem go camp wey dey outside de town. Some Western observers see de visit as sign say Kabila don start ein election campaign. Kabila ein campaign message carry one development plan wey dem call ''Cinq Chantiers'' (Five Construction Sites). E include: road and infrastructure, job creation, education, water plus electricity, and health. == First presidential term (2006–2011) == [[Category:Living people]] 3cfzky4lbc6e9mdi276unv2v20vzq7e 69233 69232 2025-07-06T04:36:51Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69233 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Joseph Kabila Kabange''' ( , ; born 4 June 1971) be Congolese politician plus former military officer wey serve as de fourth President of de Democratic Republic of de Congo from 2001 reach 2019. He take over office ten days after dem assassinate ein poppie, President Laurent-Désiré Kabila, wey happen insyd de Second Congo War. He form de People's Party for Reconstruction and Democracy (PPRD) for 2002, plus dem allow am make he stay for power after de 2003 Pretoria Accord end de war, as de president of de country ein new transitional government. He win election as president for 2006, then win again for 2011 for ein second term. Since he step down after de 2018 election, Kabila, as former president, dey serve as senator for life. Kabila be de country ein second-longest serving president. Kabila dey get credit say e end de Second Congo War plus bring small stability come most parts of de country, even though gbeɛ still dey go on for eastern DR Congo wey rebel forces, wey Rwanda plus Uganda dey support, dey cause. He encourage foreign investment for de mining sector plus improve infrastructure. Under ein rule, de country ein economy grow like five times. But as time go on, de economic growth slow down, plus e no spread well — most people for DR Congo still dey live under de international poverty line when he commot for office. He help put electoral institutions in place, plus for 2006, he lead de first multi-party election for de country wey dem do for decades. But both dat election and de one wey he win for 2011 get plenty gbeɛ, like electoral fraud claims plus protests. He rule under authoritarian government style, wey people accuse of embezzlement, corruption plus human rights abuses — like how security forces kill protestors. United States even sanction some of ein people for corruption plus say dem dey undermine democracy. Kabila ein term suppose end 20 December 2016, based on de constitution wey dem adopt for 2006. Officials bin talk say elections go happen for November 2016, but on 29 September 2016, de electoral authority come announce say election no go fit happen until early 2018. Dem talk say dem need do census first before any election fit happen. Kabila popularity begin drop plus international community start dey pressurize am make he give up power. Eventually, dem reach agreement with de Catholic Church hierarchy say make dem appoint new government and prepare for elections. For August 2018, Kabila talk say he no go run again and go step down for de December 2018 general election. Félix Tshisekedi come succeed am, and dis be de first time wey DR Congo do peaceful handover of power since independence. But independent observers believe say Tshisekedi lose badly to Martin Fayulu, and say na Kabila arrange de official results make e favour de person wey go protect ein interest after e leave power. == Early life den education (1971–1996) == Joseph Kabila Kabange plus ein twin sister Jaynet Kabila dem born dem on 4 June 1971. Dem born de twins for Hewa Bora, one small village insyd de secessionist state dem dey call Maquis of Fizi, wey dey de present-day South Kivu Province, for eastern DRC. Some people dey spread rumor say Kabila actually born for Tanzania, wey go mean say he be citizen for dat country. He be pikin of long-time rebel, former AFDL leader and DRC president Laurent-Désiré Kabila plus Sifa Mahanya. Kabila ein childhood fall for de time wey ein poppie ein political plus military career dey down low. Dem raise am for one kind remote area, wey no too get plenty record about ein early life. Kabila go primary school wey ein poppie ein rebel forces organise, before dem move go Tanzania wey he take finish ein primary plus secondary school. Sake of say ein poppie be enemy to Zaireein strongman Mobutu Sese Seko, Kabila act like Tanzanian during school time make Zaireein spy people no sabi am. == Guerrilla and army years (1996–2001) == Afta high school, Kabila follow military training for Tanzania, den later for Makerere University inside Uganda. For October 1996, Laurent-Désiré Kabila start campaign for Zaire to chase Mobutu ein regime comot, plus ein new army dem call Alliance of Democratic Forces for de Liberation of Congo-Zaire (AFDL). Joseph Kabila turn commander for one AFDL unit wey get "kadogos" (child soldiers) plus e likely play big role for de heavy battles wey lead dem go Kinshasa, but nobody clear where exactly he dey during de war. E like say Kabila dey around when dem free Kisangani, sake of say media reports show say na him lead de rebel force wey capture de city afta four days of serious fight. Weytin follow be say, afta AFDL win and ein poppie become president, Joseph Kabila go get more training for China under de PLA National Defense University. When he come back from China, dem promote am to major-general, plus dem make am Deputy Chief of Staff for Congolese Armed Forces (FAC) for 1998. Then for 2000, dem make am Chief of Staff for de Land Forces, wey he hold till ein poppie die for January 2001. As Chief of Staff, he be one of de main military leaders wey dey control government soldiers during de Second Congo War (1998–2003). == Peace talks and transitional government (2001–2006) == Joseph Kabila take over de presidency on 26 January 2001 afta dem kill ein poppie Laurent-Désiré Kabila, so he turn de first head of government for de world wey dem born for de 1970s. He be just 29 years old dat time, and people see am say he too young plus e no get experience. Some reports even talk say he no really wan be president, but na only him de advisers fit agree on. For ein swearing-in speech, Joseph Kabila talk say e dey aim to "bring back peace plus national unity," continue de peace talks wey stop under ein poppie, bring back democracy, plus make de economy open and free. E later try settle de civil war wey dey go on by negotiating peace deal dem plus rebel groups wey Rwanda and Uganda dey support—de same two countries wey support ein poppie, Laurent-Désiré Kabila ein rebel group take enter power three years earlier. Dis negotiation start insyd 2001 and even though yawa happen some times like say de fight go start again, dem still push de process. Na South African Presido Thabo Mbeki plus UN special envoy Moustapha Niasse take put pressure top make dem settle. De final peace deal base on de 2002 agreement wey dem sign for Inter-Congolese Dialogue wey happen for Sun City, South Africa. Dis agreement dey like say e end de Second Congo War. Under de agreement, Joseph Kabila remain as presido and head of state of DRC. Dem set transitional government under am, wey include leaders of de two main rebel groups—MLC and RCD-Goma—as vice-presidos. De oda two vice-presidos be one from civilian opposition and one from de government. Dis agreement also set foundation for legislature and military reforms, plus dem plan say elections go happen within two years, but e fit extend by extra six months. Dem start implement de peace agreement under eye of international monitoring teams, plus United Nations wey bring dem biggest peacekeeping mission ever come de country. Dem form de first cabinet for June 2003, den de National Assembly and de Senate follow for de next month. For 2004, dem set up de Independent Electoral Commission (CEI) and pass de Nationality Act to solve de kasala wey dey over who truly be Congolese. Parliament begin work on new constitution for February 2005, and by May 2005 dem pass de draft version, Kabila and South African Presido Thabo Mbeki sef dey de session. De new constitution bring independent judiciary and set semi-presidential system wey mean say presido go appoint prime minister, but de prime minister for get support from de majority for parliament before e fit hold position. Wen de electoral law process slow for early 2005, dem start dey talk say election fit delay six months. Dis cause small gbege insyd government, especially wit MLC, wey make dem delay some government appointments. But di mata calm down after Kabila yarn wit Vice President Jean-Pierre Bemba. At de same time, de old opposition party UPDS start dey call for protest, and Kinshasa newspapers begin dey shout say "Ukrainian scenario" dey come. But de police block all de protest plans wey UPDS wan do. From June go reach December 2005, de electoral commission register 25 million people for de whole DRC, even tho de infrastructure bad. Dis registration na to prepare for de first free vote since 1965 — de constitutional referendum wey dem do for end of dat year. De new constitution pass wit 84 percent of de vote, and 62 percent of voters show up. De biggest support come from eastern DRC. Even tho over 40 political parties boycott de vote, Kabila still sign de constitution into law for February 2006. De formation of de Armed Forces of de Democratic Republic of de Congo (FARDC), wey dem try do by join government soldiers plus rebel groups, no move fast. Kabila set up ein own "military household" wey no be part of de main FARDC command wey dem start for 2003, plus he get ein own presidential guard wey dey chop beta pay and beta equipment pass de normal army. De rebel leaders too still dey control their own fighters outside de FARDC command line, and dem still dey rule de same area wey dem dey before. For May 2005, dem come do plan say make dem disarm, retrain, and mix de rebel fighters into new brigades, but dem no finish dat plan before 2006, so de army still dey jam and no dey work fine. For 28 March 2004, dem try do coup or mutiny near de capital Kinshasa—dem say na former guard members of Mobutu Sese Seko (wey Kabila ein poppie overthrow for 1997 before Mobutu die) dey behind am, but de thing no work. Then again for 11 June 2004, coup people led by Major Eric Lenge try take power and announce for state radio say dem suspend de transitional government, but loyal soldiers come scatter dem plan. For October 2004, Kabila visit de eastern part of DRC for de first time since war end. When he reach Kisangani — one town wey rebels plus foreign soldiers been occupy — dem show de visit as sign say peace and unity don come back to de country. But de presidential guard come disarm de former rebels wey dey wait make dem join FARDC, and carry dem go camp wey dey outside de town. Some Western observers see de visit as sign say Kabila don start ein election campaign. Kabila ein campaign message carry one development plan wey dem call ''Cinq Chantiers'' (Five Construction Sites). E include: road and infrastructure, job creation, education, water plus electricity, and health. == First presidential term (2006–2011) == Kabila run for president as independent, but Alliance of de Presidential Majority come join body support am. Dis alliance carry ein party — People’s Party for Reconstruction and Democracy (PPRD) — plus like 30 other parties. During de campaign, opposition people attack am say e no be true Congolese, say e be Rwandan. For DRC, plenty people get bad eye for Rwanda, so dem try use dat against am, call am "candidate wey dey work for foreign powers." But Western observers still see am as de main guy wey go fit win, because opposition dem no get unity or enough money, and many people for Congo still hate de old rebel leaders. [[Category:Living people]] czja98g6dcnkn0btmkqzuegxrasowc9 69234 69233 2025-07-06T04:38:40Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69234 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Joseph Kabila Kabange''' ( , ; born 4 June 1971) be Congolese politician plus former military officer wey serve as de fourth President of de Democratic Republic of de Congo from 2001 reach 2019. He take over office ten days after dem assassinate ein poppie, President Laurent-Désiré Kabila, wey happen insyd de Second Congo War. He form de People's Party for Reconstruction and Democracy (PPRD) for 2002, plus dem allow am make he stay for power after de 2003 Pretoria Accord end de war, as de president of de country ein new transitional government. He win election as president for 2006, then win again for 2011 for ein second term. Since he step down after de 2018 election, Kabila, as former president, dey serve as senator for life. Kabila be de country ein second-longest serving president. Kabila dey get credit say e end de Second Congo War plus bring small stability come most parts of de country, even though gbeɛ still dey go on for eastern DR Congo wey rebel forces, wey Rwanda plus Uganda dey support, dey cause. He encourage foreign investment for de mining sector plus improve infrastructure. Under ein rule, de country ein economy grow like five times. But as time go on, de economic growth slow down, plus e no spread well — most people for DR Congo still dey live under de international poverty line when he commot for office. He help put electoral institutions in place, plus for 2006, he lead de first multi-party election for de country wey dem do for decades. But both dat election and de one wey he win for 2011 get plenty gbeɛ, like electoral fraud claims plus protests. He rule under authoritarian government style, wey people accuse of embezzlement, corruption plus human rights abuses — like how security forces kill protestors. United States even sanction some of ein people for corruption plus say dem dey undermine democracy. Kabila ein term suppose end 20 December 2016, based on de constitution wey dem adopt for 2006. Officials bin talk say elections go happen for November 2016, but on 29 September 2016, de electoral authority come announce say election no go fit happen until early 2018. Dem talk say dem need do census first before any election fit happen. Kabila popularity begin drop plus international community start dey pressurize am make he give up power. Eventually, dem reach agreement with de Catholic Church hierarchy say make dem appoint new government and prepare for elections. For August 2018, Kabila talk say he no go run again and go step down for de December 2018 general election. Félix Tshisekedi come succeed am, and dis be de first time wey DR Congo do peaceful handover of power since independence. But independent observers believe say Tshisekedi lose badly to Martin Fayulu, and say na Kabila arrange de official results make e favour de person wey go protect ein interest after e leave power. == Early life den education (1971–1996) == Joseph Kabila Kabange plus ein twin sister Jaynet Kabila dem born dem on 4 June 1971. Dem born de twins for Hewa Bora, one small village insyd de secessionist state dem dey call Maquis of Fizi, wey dey de present-day South Kivu Province, for eastern DRC. Some people dey spread rumor say Kabila actually born for Tanzania, wey go mean say he be citizen for dat country. He be pikin of long-time rebel, former AFDL leader and DRC president Laurent-Désiré Kabila plus Sifa Mahanya. Kabila ein childhood fall for de time wey ein poppie ein political plus military career dey down low. Dem raise am for one kind remote area, wey no too get plenty record about ein early life. Kabila go primary school wey ein poppie ein rebel forces organise, before dem move go Tanzania wey he take finish ein primary plus secondary school. Sake of say ein poppie be enemy to Zaireein strongman Mobutu Sese Seko, Kabila act like Tanzanian during school time make Zaireein spy people no sabi am. == Guerrilla and army years (1996–2001) == Afta high school, Kabila follow military training for Tanzania, den later for Makerere University inside Uganda. For October 1996, Laurent-Désiré Kabila start campaign for Zaire to chase Mobutu ein regime comot, plus ein new army dem call Alliance of Democratic Forces for de Liberation of Congo-Zaire (AFDL). Joseph Kabila turn commander for one AFDL unit wey get "kadogos" (child soldiers) plus e likely play big role for de heavy battles wey lead dem go Kinshasa, but nobody clear where exactly he dey during de war. E like say Kabila dey around when dem free Kisangani, sake of say media reports show say na him lead de rebel force wey capture de city afta four days of serious fight. Weytin follow be say, afta AFDL win and ein poppie become president, Joseph Kabila go get more training for China under de PLA National Defense University. When he come back from China, dem promote am to major-general, plus dem make am Deputy Chief of Staff for Congolese Armed Forces (FAC) for 1998. Then for 2000, dem make am Chief of Staff for de Land Forces, wey he hold till ein poppie die for January 2001. As Chief of Staff, he be one of de main military leaders wey dey control government soldiers during de Second Congo War (1998–2003). == Peace talks and transitional government (2001–2006) == Joseph Kabila take over de presidency on 26 January 2001 afta dem kill ein poppie Laurent-Désiré Kabila, so he turn de first head of government for de world wey dem born for de 1970s. He be just 29 years old dat time, and people see am say he too young plus e no get experience. Some reports even talk say he no really wan be president, but na only him de advisers fit agree on. For ein swearing-in speech, Joseph Kabila talk say e dey aim to "bring back peace plus national unity," continue de peace talks wey stop under ein poppie, bring back democracy, plus make de economy open and free. E later try settle de civil war wey dey go on by negotiating peace deal dem plus rebel groups wey Rwanda and Uganda dey support—de same two countries wey support ein poppie, Laurent-Désiré Kabila ein rebel group take enter power three years earlier. Dis negotiation start insyd 2001 and even though yawa happen some times like say de fight go start again, dem still push de process. Na South African Presido Thabo Mbeki plus UN special envoy Moustapha Niasse take put pressure top make dem settle. De final peace deal base on de 2002 agreement wey dem sign for Inter-Congolese Dialogue wey happen for Sun City, South Africa. Dis agreement dey like say e end de Second Congo War. Under de agreement, Joseph Kabila remain as presido and head of state of DRC. Dem set transitional government under am, wey include leaders of de two main rebel groups—MLC and RCD-Goma—as vice-presidos. De oda two vice-presidos be one from civilian opposition and one from de government. Dis agreement also set foundation for legislature and military reforms, plus dem plan say elections go happen within two years, but e fit extend by extra six months. Dem start implement de peace agreement under eye of international monitoring teams, plus United Nations wey bring dem biggest peacekeeping mission ever come de country. Dem form de first cabinet for June 2003, den de National Assembly and de Senate follow for de next month. For 2004, dem set up de Independent Electoral Commission (CEI) and pass de Nationality Act to solve de kasala wey dey over who truly be Congolese. Parliament begin work on new constitution for February 2005, and by May 2005 dem pass de draft version, Kabila and South African Presido Thabo Mbeki sef dey de session. De new constitution bring independent judiciary and set semi-presidential system wey mean say presido go appoint prime minister, but de prime minister for get support from de majority for parliament before e fit hold position. Wen de electoral law process slow for early 2005, dem start dey talk say election fit delay six months. Dis cause small gbege insyd government, especially wit MLC, wey make dem delay some government appointments. But di mata calm down after Kabila yarn wit Vice President Jean-Pierre Bemba. At de same time, de old opposition party UPDS start dey call for protest, and Kinshasa newspapers begin dey shout say "Ukrainian scenario" dey come. But de police block all de protest plans wey UPDS wan do. From June go reach December 2005, de electoral commission register 25 million people for de whole DRC, even tho de infrastructure bad. Dis registration na to prepare for de first free vote since 1965 — de constitutional referendum wey dem do for end of dat year. De new constitution pass wit 84 percent of de vote, and 62 percent of voters show up. De biggest support come from eastern DRC. Even tho over 40 political parties boycott de vote, Kabila still sign de constitution into law for February 2006. De formation of de Armed Forces of de Democratic Republic of de Congo (FARDC), wey dem try do by join government soldiers plus rebel groups, no move fast. Kabila set up ein own "military household" wey no be part of de main FARDC command wey dem start for 2003, plus he get ein own presidential guard wey dey chop beta pay and beta equipment pass de normal army. De rebel leaders too still dey control their own fighters outside de FARDC command line, and dem still dey rule de same area wey dem dey before. For May 2005, dem come do plan say make dem disarm, retrain, and mix de rebel fighters into new brigades, but dem no finish dat plan before 2006, so de army still dey jam and no dey work fine. For 28 March 2004, dem try do coup or mutiny near de capital Kinshasa—dem say na former guard members of Mobutu Sese Seko (wey Kabila ein poppie overthrow for 1997 before Mobutu die) dey behind am, but de thing no work. Then again for 11 June 2004, coup people led by Major Eric Lenge try take power and announce for state radio say dem suspend de transitional government, but loyal soldiers come scatter dem plan. For October 2004, Kabila visit de eastern part of DRC for de first time since war end. When he reach Kisangani — one town wey rebels plus foreign soldiers been occupy — dem show de visit as sign say peace and unity don come back to de country. But de presidential guard come disarm de former rebels wey dey wait make dem join FARDC, and carry dem go camp wey dey outside de town. Some Western observers see de visit as sign say Kabila don start ein election campaign. Kabila ein campaign message carry one development plan wey dem call ''Cinq Chantiers'' (Five Construction Sites). E include: road and infrastructure, job creation, education, water plus electricity, and health. == First presidential term (2006–2011) == Kabila run for president as independent, but Alliance of de Presidential Majority come join body support am. Dis alliance carry ein party — People’s Party for Reconstruction and Democracy (PPRD) — plus like 30 other parties. During de campaign, opposition people attack am say e no be true Congolese, say e be Rwandan. For DRC, plenty people get bad eye for Rwanda, so dem try use dat against am, call am "candidate wey dey work for foreign powers." But Western observers still see am as de main guy wey go fit win, because opposition dem no get unity or enough money, and many people for Congo still hate de old rebel leaders. Dem do presidential election for 30 July 2006, after dem don postpone am from June. De new constitution reduce de age wey person fit take contest for president from 35 to 30 years; Kabila turn 35 just small time before de election. For March 2006, he register as one of de candidates. Even tho de new constitution talk say dem suppose do debate between de last two candidates wey remain for de presidential race, no debate happen at all. Plenty people talk say dis thing no follow constitution. [[Category:Living people]] ep99525iekhenorjo4q5v6x38033o8x 69235 69234 2025-07-06T04:40:57Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69235 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Joseph Kabila Kabange''' ( , ; born 4 June 1971) be Congolese politician plus former military officer wey serve as de fourth President of de Democratic Republic of de Congo from 2001 reach 2019. He take over office ten days after dem assassinate ein poppie, President Laurent-Désiré Kabila, wey happen insyd de Second Congo War. He form de People's Party for Reconstruction and Democracy (PPRD) for 2002, plus dem allow am make he stay for power after de 2003 Pretoria Accord end de war, as de president of de country ein new transitional government. He win election as president for 2006, then win again for 2011 for ein second term. Since he step down after de 2018 election, Kabila, as former president, dey serve as senator for life. Kabila be de country ein second-longest serving president. Kabila dey get credit say e end de Second Congo War plus bring small stability come most parts of de country, even though gbeɛ still dey go on for eastern DR Congo wey rebel forces, wey Rwanda plus Uganda dey support, dey cause. He encourage foreign investment for de mining sector plus improve infrastructure. Under ein rule, de country ein economy grow like five times. But as time go on, de economic growth slow down, plus e no spread well — most people for DR Congo still dey live under de international poverty line when he commot for office. He help put electoral institutions in place, plus for 2006, he lead de first multi-party election for de country wey dem do for decades. But both dat election and de one wey he win for 2011 get plenty gbeɛ, like electoral fraud claims plus protests. He rule under authoritarian government style, wey people accuse of embezzlement, corruption plus human rights abuses — like how security forces kill protestors. United States even sanction some of ein people for corruption plus say dem dey undermine democracy. Kabila ein term suppose end 20 December 2016, based on de constitution wey dem adopt for 2006. Officials bin talk say elections go happen for November 2016, but on 29 September 2016, de electoral authority come announce say election no go fit happen until early 2018. Dem talk say dem need do census first before any election fit happen. Kabila popularity begin drop plus international community start dey pressurize am make he give up power. Eventually, dem reach agreement with de Catholic Church hierarchy say make dem appoint new government and prepare for elections. For August 2018, Kabila talk say he no go run again and go step down for de December 2018 general election. Félix Tshisekedi come succeed am, and dis be de first time wey DR Congo do peaceful handover of power since independence. But independent observers believe say Tshisekedi lose badly to Martin Fayulu, and say na Kabila arrange de official results make e favour de person wey go protect ein interest after e leave power. == Early life den education (1971–1996) == Joseph Kabila Kabange plus ein twin sister Jaynet Kabila dem born dem on 4 June 1971. Dem born de twins for Hewa Bora, one small village insyd de secessionist state dem dey call Maquis of Fizi, wey dey de present-day South Kivu Province, for eastern DRC. Some people dey spread rumor say Kabila actually born for Tanzania, wey go mean say he be citizen for dat country. He be pikin of long-time rebel, former AFDL leader and DRC president Laurent-Désiré Kabila plus Sifa Mahanya. Kabila ein childhood fall for de time wey ein poppie ein political plus military career dey down low. Dem raise am for one kind remote area, wey no too get plenty record about ein early life. Kabila go primary school wey ein poppie ein rebel forces organise, before dem move go Tanzania wey he take finish ein primary plus secondary school. Sake of say ein poppie be enemy to Zaireein strongman Mobutu Sese Seko, Kabila act like Tanzanian during school time make Zaireein spy people no sabi am. == Guerrilla and army years (1996–2001) == Afta high school, Kabila follow military training for Tanzania, den later for Makerere University inside Uganda. For October 1996, Laurent-Désiré Kabila start campaign for Zaire to chase Mobutu ein regime comot, plus ein new army dem call Alliance of Democratic Forces for de Liberation of Congo-Zaire (AFDL). Joseph Kabila turn commander for one AFDL unit wey get "kadogos" (child soldiers) plus e likely play big role for de heavy battles wey lead dem go Kinshasa, but nobody clear where exactly he dey during de war. E like say Kabila dey around when dem free Kisangani, sake of say media reports show say na him lead de rebel force wey capture de city afta four days of serious fight. Weytin follow be say, afta AFDL win and ein poppie become president, Joseph Kabila go get more training for China under de PLA National Defense University. When he come back from China, dem promote am to major-general, plus dem make am Deputy Chief of Staff for Congolese Armed Forces (FAC) for 1998. Then for 2000, dem make am Chief of Staff for de Land Forces, wey he hold till ein poppie die for January 2001. As Chief of Staff, he be one of de main military leaders wey dey control government soldiers during de Second Congo War (1998–2003). == Peace talks and transitional government (2001–2006) == Joseph Kabila take over de presidency on 26 January 2001 afta dem kill ein poppie Laurent-Désiré Kabila, so he turn de first head of government for de world wey dem born for de 1970s. He be just 29 years old dat time, and people see am say he too young plus e no get experience. Some reports even talk say he no really wan be president, but na only him de advisers fit agree on. For ein swearing-in speech, Joseph Kabila talk say e dey aim to "bring back peace plus national unity," continue de peace talks wey stop under ein poppie, bring back democracy, plus make de economy open and free. E later try settle de civil war wey dey go on by negotiating peace deal dem plus rebel groups wey Rwanda and Uganda dey support—de same two countries wey support ein poppie, Laurent-Désiré Kabila ein rebel group take enter power three years earlier. Dis negotiation start insyd 2001 and even though yawa happen some times like say de fight go start again, dem still push de process. Na South African Presido Thabo Mbeki plus UN special envoy Moustapha Niasse take put pressure top make dem settle. De final peace deal base on de 2002 agreement wey dem sign for Inter-Congolese Dialogue wey happen for Sun City, South Africa. Dis agreement dey like say e end de Second Congo War. Under de agreement, Joseph Kabila remain as presido and head of state of DRC. Dem set transitional government under am, wey include leaders of de two main rebel groups—MLC and RCD-Goma—as vice-presidos. De oda two vice-presidos be one from civilian opposition and one from de government. Dis agreement also set foundation for legislature and military reforms, plus dem plan say elections go happen within two years, but e fit extend by extra six months. Dem start implement de peace agreement under eye of international monitoring teams, plus United Nations wey bring dem biggest peacekeeping mission ever come de country. Dem form de first cabinet for June 2003, den de National Assembly and de Senate follow for de next month. For 2004, dem set up de Independent Electoral Commission (CEI) and pass de Nationality Act to solve de kasala wey dey over who truly be Congolese. Parliament begin work on new constitution for February 2005, and by May 2005 dem pass de draft version, Kabila and South African Presido Thabo Mbeki sef dey de session. De new constitution bring independent judiciary and set semi-presidential system wey mean say presido go appoint prime minister, but de prime minister for get support from de majority for parliament before e fit hold position. Wen de electoral law process slow for early 2005, dem start dey talk say election fit delay six months. Dis cause small gbege insyd government, especially wit MLC, wey make dem delay some government appointments. But di mata calm down after Kabila yarn wit Vice President Jean-Pierre Bemba. At de same time, de old opposition party UPDS start dey call for protest, and Kinshasa newspapers begin dey shout say "Ukrainian scenario" dey come. But de police block all de protest plans wey UPDS wan do. From June go reach December 2005, de electoral commission register 25 million people for de whole DRC, even tho de infrastructure bad. Dis registration na to prepare for de first free vote since 1965 — de constitutional referendum wey dem do for end of dat year. De new constitution pass wit 84 percent of de vote, and 62 percent of voters show up. De biggest support come from eastern DRC. Even tho over 40 political parties boycott de vote, Kabila still sign de constitution into law for February 2006. De formation of de Armed Forces of de Democratic Republic of de Congo (FARDC), wey dem try do by join government soldiers plus rebel groups, no move fast. Kabila set up ein own "military household" wey no be part of de main FARDC command wey dem start for 2003, plus he get ein own presidential guard wey dey chop beta pay and beta equipment pass de normal army. De rebel leaders too still dey control their own fighters outside de FARDC command line, and dem still dey rule de same area wey dem dey before. For May 2005, dem come do plan say make dem disarm, retrain, and mix de rebel fighters into new brigades, but dem no finish dat plan before 2006, so de army still dey jam and no dey work fine. For 28 March 2004, dem try do coup or mutiny near de capital Kinshasa—dem say na former guard members of Mobutu Sese Seko (wey Kabila ein poppie overthrow for 1997 before Mobutu die) dey behind am, but de thing no work. Then again for 11 June 2004, coup people led by Major Eric Lenge try take power and announce for state radio say dem suspend de transitional government, but loyal soldiers come scatter dem plan. For October 2004, Kabila visit de eastern part of DRC for de first time since war end. When he reach Kisangani — one town wey rebels plus foreign soldiers been occupy — dem show de visit as sign say peace and unity don come back to de country. But de presidential guard come disarm de former rebels wey dey wait make dem join FARDC, and carry dem go camp wey dey outside de town. Some Western observers see de visit as sign say Kabila don start ein election campaign. Kabila ein campaign message carry one development plan wey dem call ''Cinq Chantiers'' (Five Construction Sites). E include: road and infrastructure, job creation, education, water plus electricity, and health. == First presidential term (2006–2011) == Kabila run for president as independent, but Alliance of de Presidential Majority come join body support am. Dis alliance carry ein party — People’s Party for Reconstruction and Democracy (PPRD) — plus like 30 other parties. During de campaign, opposition people attack am say e no be true Congolese, say e be Rwandan. For DRC, plenty people get bad eye for Rwanda, so dem try use dat against am, call am "candidate wey dey work for foreign powers." But Western observers still see am as de main guy wey go fit win, because opposition dem no get unity or enough money, and many people for Congo still hate de old rebel leaders. Dem do presidential election for 30 July 2006, after dem don postpone am from June. De new constitution reduce de age wey person fit take contest for president from 35 to 30 years; Kabila turn 35 just small time before de election. For March 2006, he register as one of de candidates. Even tho de new constitution talk say dem suppose do debate between de last two candidates wey remain for de presidential race, no debate happen at all. Plenty people talk say dis thing no follow constitution. According to some results wey cause yawa, wey dem announce for 20 August, Kabila win 45% of de vote, and im main challenger — vice-president and former rebel leader Jean-Pierre Bemba — get 20%. Because kasala dey around how de results take happen, dem come do second round vote between Kabila and Bemba on 29 October. On 15 November, de electoral commission release official results and talk say Kabila win, with 58.05% of de vote. Supreme Court confirm de results on 27 November 2006, and Kabila do swearing-in on 6 December 2006 as de new president of de country. Both local and international observers talk say de election be generally free and fair, even tho dem notice small irregularities. On 30 December, Kabila appoint Antoine Gizenga — wey come third for first round and later support am — as prime minister. [[Category:Living people]] jswkhenhdbozrluz2re9mc94qhsnubr 69236 69235 2025-07-06T05:11:08Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69236 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Joseph Kabila Kabange''' ( , ; born 4 June 1971) be Congolese politician plus former military officer wey serve as de fourth President of de Democratic Republic of de Congo from 2001 reach 2019. He take over office ten days after dem assassinate ein poppie, President Laurent-Désiré Kabila, wey happen insyd de Second Congo War. He form de People's Party for Reconstruction and Democracy (PPRD) for 2002, plus dem allow am make he stay for power after de 2003 Pretoria Accord end de war, as de president of de country ein new transitional government. He win election as president for 2006, then win again for 2011 for ein second term. Since he step down after de 2018 election, Kabila, as former president, dey serve as senator for life. Kabila be de country ein second-longest serving president. Kabila dey get credit say e end de Second Congo War plus bring small stability come most parts of de country, even though gbeɛ still dey go on for eastern DR Congo wey rebel forces, wey Rwanda plus Uganda dey support, dey cause. He encourage foreign investment for de mining sector plus improve infrastructure. Under ein rule, de country ein economy grow like five times. But as time go on, de economic growth slow down, plus e no spread well — most people for DR Congo still dey live under de international poverty line when he commot for office. He help put electoral institutions in place, plus for 2006, he lead de first multi-party election for de country wey dem do for decades. But both dat election and de one wey he win for 2011 get plenty gbeɛ, like electoral fraud claims plus protests. He rule under authoritarian government style, wey people accuse of embezzlement, corruption plus human rights abuses — like how security forces kill protestors. United States even sanction some of ein people for corruption plus say dem dey undermine democracy. Kabila ein term suppose end 20 December 2016, based on de constitution wey dem adopt for 2006. Officials bin talk say elections go happen for November 2016, but on 29 September 2016, de electoral authority come announce say election no go fit happen until early 2018. Dem talk say dem need do census first before any election fit happen. Kabila popularity begin drop plus international community start dey pressurize am make he give up power. Eventually, dem reach agreement with de Catholic Church hierarchy say make dem appoint new government and prepare for elections. For August 2018, Kabila talk say he no go run again and go step down for de December 2018 general election. Félix Tshisekedi come succeed am, and dis be de first time wey DR Congo do peaceful handover of power since independence. But independent observers believe say Tshisekedi lose badly to Martin Fayulu, and say na Kabila arrange de official results make e favour de person wey go protect ein interest after e leave power. == Early life den education (1971–1996) == Joseph Kabila Kabange plus ein twin sister Jaynet Kabila dem born dem on 4 June 1971. Dem born de twins for Hewa Bora, one small village insyd de secessionist state dem dey call Maquis of Fizi, wey dey de present-day South Kivu Province, for eastern DRC. Some people dey spread rumor say Kabila actually born for Tanzania, wey go mean say he be citizen for dat country. He be pikin of long-time rebel, former AFDL leader and DRC president Laurent-Désiré Kabila plus Sifa Mahanya. Kabila ein childhood fall for de time wey ein poppie ein political plus military career dey down low. Dem raise am for one kind remote area, wey no too get plenty record about ein early life. Kabila go primary school wey ein poppie ein rebel forces organise, before dem move go Tanzania wey he take finish ein primary plus secondary school. Sake of say ein poppie be enemy to Zaireein strongman Mobutu Sese Seko, Kabila act like Tanzanian during school time make Zaireein spy people no sabi am. == Guerrilla and army years (1996–2001) == Afta high school, Kabila follow military training for Tanzania, den later for Makerere University inside Uganda. For October 1996, Laurent-Désiré Kabila start campaign for Zaire to chase Mobutu ein regime comot, plus ein new army dem call Alliance of Democratic Forces for de Liberation of Congo-Zaire (AFDL). Joseph Kabila turn commander for one AFDL unit wey get "kadogos" (child soldiers) plus e likely play big role for de heavy battles wey lead dem go Kinshasa, but nobody clear where exactly he dey during de war. E like say Kabila dey around when dem free Kisangani, sake of say media reports show say na him lead de rebel force wey capture de city afta four days of serious fight. Weytin follow be say, afta AFDL win and ein poppie become president, Joseph Kabila go get more training for China under de PLA National Defense University. When he come back from China, dem promote am to major-general, plus dem make am Deputy Chief of Staff for Congolese Armed Forces (FAC) for 1998. Then for 2000, dem make am Chief of Staff for de Land Forces, wey he hold till ein poppie die for January 2001. As Chief of Staff, he be one of de main military leaders wey dey control government soldiers during de Second Congo War (1998–2003). == Peace talks and transitional government (2001–2006) == Joseph Kabila take over de presidency on 26 January 2001 afta dem kill ein poppie Laurent-Désiré Kabila, so he turn de first head of government for de world wey dem born for de 1970s. He be just 29 years old dat time, and people see am say he too young plus e no get experience. Some reports even talk say he no really wan be president, but na only him de advisers fit agree on. For ein swearing-in speech, Joseph Kabila talk say e dey aim to "bring back peace plus national unity," continue de peace talks wey stop under ein poppie, bring back democracy, plus make de economy open and free. E later try settle de civil war wey dey go on by negotiating peace deal dem plus rebel groups wey Rwanda and Uganda dey support—de same two countries wey support ein poppie, Laurent-Désiré Kabila ein rebel group take enter power three years earlier. Dis negotiation start insyd 2001 and even though yawa happen some times like say de fight go start again, dem still push de process. Na South African Presido Thabo Mbeki plus UN special envoy Moustapha Niasse take put pressure top make dem settle. De final peace deal base on de 2002 agreement wey dem sign for Inter-Congolese Dialogue wey happen for Sun City, South Africa. Dis agreement dey like say e end de Second Congo War. Under de agreement, Joseph Kabila remain as presido and head of state of DRC. Dem set transitional government under am, wey include leaders of de two main rebel groups—MLC and RCD-Goma—as vice-presidos. De oda two vice-presidos be one from civilian opposition and one from de government. Dis agreement also set foundation for legislature and military reforms, plus dem plan say elections go happen within two years, but e fit extend by extra six months. Dem start implement de peace agreement under eye of international monitoring teams, plus United Nations wey bring dem biggest peacekeeping mission ever come de country. Dem form de first cabinet for June 2003, den de National Assembly and de Senate follow for de next month. For 2004, dem set up de Independent Electoral Commission (CEI) and pass de Nationality Act to solve de kasala wey dey over who truly be Congolese. Parliament begin work on new constitution for February 2005, and by May 2005 dem pass de draft version, Kabila and South African Presido Thabo Mbeki sef dey de session. De new constitution bring independent judiciary and set semi-presidential system wey mean say presido go appoint prime minister, but de prime minister for get support from de majority for parliament before e fit hold position. Wen de electoral law process slow for early 2005, dem start dey talk say election fit delay six months. Dis cause small gbege insyd government, especially wit MLC, wey make dem delay some government appointments. But di mata calm down after Kabila yarn wit Vice President Jean-Pierre Bemba. At de same time, de old opposition party UPDS start dey call for protest, and Kinshasa newspapers begin dey shout say "Ukrainian scenario" dey come. But de police block all de protest plans wey UPDS wan do. From June go reach December 2005, de electoral commission register 25 million people for de whole DRC, even tho de infrastructure bad. Dis registration na to prepare for de first free vote since 1965 — de constitutional referendum wey dem do for end of dat year. De new constitution pass wit 84 percent of de vote, and 62 percent of voters show up. De biggest support come from eastern DRC. Even tho over 40 political parties boycott de vote, Kabila still sign de constitution into law for February 2006. De formation of de Armed Forces of de Democratic Republic of de Congo (FARDC), wey dem try do by join government soldiers plus rebel groups, no move fast. Kabila set up ein own "military household" wey no be part of de main FARDC command wey dem start for 2003, plus he get ein own presidential guard wey dey chop beta pay and beta equipment pass de normal army. De rebel leaders too still dey control their own fighters outside de FARDC command line, and dem still dey rule de same area wey dem dey before. For May 2005, dem come do plan say make dem disarm, retrain, and mix de rebel fighters into new brigades, but dem no finish dat plan before 2006, so de army still dey jam and no dey work fine. For 28 March 2004, dem try do coup or mutiny near de capital Kinshasa—dem say na former guard members of Mobutu Sese Seko (wey Kabila ein poppie overthrow for 1997 before Mobutu die) dey behind am, but de thing no work. Then again for 11 June 2004, coup people led by Major Eric Lenge try take power and announce for state radio say dem suspend de transitional government, but loyal soldiers come scatter dem plan. For October 2004, Kabila visit de eastern part of DRC for de first time since war end. When he reach Kisangani — one town wey rebels plus foreign soldiers been occupy — dem show de visit as sign say peace and unity don come back to de country. But de presidential guard come disarm de former rebels wey dey wait make dem join FARDC, and carry dem go camp wey dey outside de town. Some Western observers see de visit as sign say Kabila don start ein election campaign. Kabila ein campaign message carry one development plan wey dem call ''Cinq Chantiers'' (Five Construction Sites). E include: road and infrastructure, job creation, education, water plus electricity, and health. == First presidential term (2006–2011) == Kabila run for president as independent, but Alliance of de Presidential Majority come join body support am. Dis alliance carry ein party — People’s Party for Reconstruction and Democracy (PPRD) — plus like 30 other parties. During de campaign, opposition people attack am say e no be true Congolese, say e be Rwandan. For DRC, plenty people get bad eye for Rwanda, so dem try use dat against am, call am "candidate wey dey work for foreign powers." But Western observers still see am as de main guy wey go fit win, because opposition dem no get unity or enough money, and many people for Congo still hate de old rebel leaders. Dem do presidential election for 30 July 2006, after dem don postpone am from June. De new constitution reduce de age wey person fit take contest for president from 35 to 30 years; Kabila turn 35 just small time before de election. For March 2006, he register as one of de candidates. Even tho de new constitution talk say dem suppose do debate between de last two candidates wey remain for de presidential race, no debate happen at all. Plenty people talk say dis thing no follow constitution. According to some results wey cause yawa, wey dem announce for 20 August, Kabila win 45% of de vote, and im main challenger — vice-president and former rebel leader Jean-Pierre Bemba — get 20%. Because kasala dey around how de results take happen, dem come do second round vote between Kabila and Bemba on 29 October. On 15 November, de electoral commission release official results and talk say Kabila win, with 58.05% of de vote. Supreme Court confirm de results on 27 November 2006, and Kabila do swearing-in on 6 December 2006 as de new president of de country. Both local and international observers talk say de election be generally free and fair, even tho dem notice small irregularities. On 30 December, Kabila appoint Antoine Gizenga — wey come third for first round and later support am — as prime minister. For 2006, Kabila react to di evidence say Congolese army dey do plenty sex crimes, and e talk say de kain acts be “simply unforgivable.” E talk say dem don convict 300 soldiers for dis kain crimes, but e still add say e no reach at all. One big economic move wey e start for e first term and continue enter e second term be di Sicomines (Sino-Congolais des Mines) “resources-for-infrastructure” deal wey e do plus China. Dem say Kabila dem try beg Western countries make dem fund e "Cinq Chantiers" program but dem no gree, so e go turn face China. DRC sign one agreement for September 2007 wey give majority shares of one joint company (Sicomines) to one Chinese group wey China Railway Engineering Corporation get. DRC own mining company, Gécamines, get di rest. Di plan be say Sicomines go fit mine for Katanga Province, and di Chinese company go build roads, bridges and other things take cover am. China banks gree bring US$6.5 billion make dem take do am. Dis deal na di first big one wey DRC do plus China and e be di biggest of e kind for Congo history Dis deal cause plenty gbege because na di DRC government guarantee di loans, so na dem carry di risk, no be di Chinese wey sign di deal. Wen IMF plus civil society groups begin worry say Congo no go fit pay back di loan, dem start new talks. By 2009, dem finally sign di real deal. For di new deal, dem comot DRC hand for di mining risk side, but dem still leave di loan guarantee for di infrastructure projects, wey dem reduce to US$3 billion. Plus dat one, Sicomines no need pay tax for Congo until dem finish pay di loans. Plenty opposition people and civil society groups vex for Kabila over dis deal. Dem talk say di negotiations no dey clear and na just one of Kabila ein advisors do most of di talks. Dem say China benefit pass Congo. But people for Kabila ein government talk say even tho Congo no get strong hand for di bargaining, di infrastructure investment still help small. Dem add say di government dey under pressure to show quick results for di development promises wey dem make. People wey support di Sicomines deal talk say na "win-win" for both China and Congo. [[Category:Living people]] cfzhvzaxm5w7wequal71f34mru87j7w 69239 69236 2025-07-06T06:05:39Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69239 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Joseph Kabila Kabange''' ( , ; born 4 June 1971) be Congolese politician plus former military officer wey serve as de fourth President of de Democratic Republic of de Congo from 2001 reach 2019. He take over office ten days after dem assassinate ein poppie, President Laurent-Désiré Kabila, wey happen insyd de Second Congo War. He form de People's Party for Reconstruction and Democracy (PPRD) for 2002, plus dem allow am make he stay for power after de 2003 Pretoria Accord end de war, as de president of de country ein new transitional government. He win election as president for 2006, then win again for 2011 for ein second term. Since he step down after de 2018 election, Kabila, as former president, dey serve as senator for life. Kabila be de country ein second-longest serving president. Kabila dey get credit say e end de Second Congo War plus bring small stability come most parts of de country, even though gbeɛ still dey go on for eastern DR Congo wey rebel forces, wey Rwanda plus Uganda dey support, dey cause. He encourage foreign investment for de mining sector plus improve infrastructure. Under ein rule, de country ein economy grow like five times. But as time go on, de economic growth slow down, plus e no spread well — most people for DR Congo still dey live under de international poverty line when he commot for office. He help put electoral institutions in place, plus for 2006, he lead de first multi-party election for de country wey dem do for decades. But both dat election and de one wey he win for 2011 get plenty gbeɛ, like electoral fraud claims plus protests. He rule under authoritarian government style, wey people accuse of embezzlement, corruption plus human rights abuses — like how security forces kill protestors. United States even sanction some of ein people for corruption plus say dem dey undermine democracy. Kabila ein term suppose end 20 December 2016, based on de constitution wey dem adopt for 2006. Officials bin talk say elections go happen for November 2016, but on 29 September 2016, de electoral authority come announce say election no go fit happen until early 2018. Dem talk say dem need do census first before any election fit happen. Kabila popularity begin drop plus international community start dey pressurize am make he give up power. Eventually, dem reach agreement with de Catholic Church hierarchy say make dem appoint new government and prepare for elections. For August 2018, Kabila talk say he no go run again and go step down for de December 2018 general election. Félix Tshisekedi come succeed am, and dis be de first time wey DR Congo do peaceful handover of power since independence. But independent observers believe say Tshisekedi lose badly to Martin Fayulu, and say na Kabila arrange de official results make e favour de person wey go protect ein interest after e leave power. == Early life den education (1971–1996) == Joseph Kabila Kabange plus ein twin sister Jaynet Kabila dem born dem on 4 June 1971. Dem born de twins for Hewa Bora, one small village insyd de secessionist state dem dey call Maquis of Fizi, wey dey de present-day South Kivu Province, for eastern DRC. Some people dey spread rumor say Kabila actually born for Tanzania, wey go mean say he be citizen for dat country. He be pikin of long-time rebel, former AFDL leader and DRC president Laurent-Désiré Kabila plus Sifa Mahanya. Kabila ein childhood fall for de time wey ein poppie ein political plus military career dey down low. Dem raise am for one kind remote area, wey no too get plenty record about ein early life. Kabila go primary school wey ein poppie ein rebel forces organise, before dem move go Tanzania wey he take finish ein primary plus secondary school. Sake of say ein poppie be enemy to Zaireein strongman Mobutu Sese Seko, Kabila act like Tanzanian during school time make Zaireein spy people no sabi am. == Guerrilla and army years (1996–2001) == Afta high school, Kabila follow military training for Tanzania, den later for Makerere University inside Uganda. For October 1996, Laurent-Désiré Kabila start campaign for Zaire to chase Mobutu ein regime comot, plus ein new army dem call Alliance of Democratic Forces for de Liberation of Congo-Zaire (AFDL). Joseph Kabila turn commander for one AFDL unit wey get "kadogos" (child soldiers) plus e likely play big role for de heavy battles wey lead dem go Kinshasa, but nobody clear where exactly he dey during de war. E like say Kabila dey around when dem free Kisangani, sake of say media reports show say na him lead de rebel force wey capture de city afta four days of serious fight. Weytin follow be say, afta AFDL win and ein poppie become president, Joseph Kabila go get more training for China under de PLA National Defense University. When he come back from China, dem promote am to major-general, plus dem make am Deputy Chief of Staff for Congolese Armed Forces (FAC) for 1998. Then for 2000, dem make am Chief of Staff for de Land Forces, wey he hold till ein poppie die for January 2001. As Chief of Staff, he be one of de main military leaders wey dey control government soldiers during de Second Congo War (1998–2003). == Peace talks and transitional government (2001–2006) == Joseph Kabila take over de presidency on 26 January 2001 afta dem kill ein poppie Laurent-Désiré Kabila, so he turn de first head of government for de world wey dem born for de 1970s. He be just 29 years old dat time, and people see am say he too young plus e no get experience. Some reports even talk say he no really wan be president, but na only him de advisers fit agree on. For ein swearing-in speech, Joseph Kabila talk say e dey aim to "bring back peace plus national unity," continue de peace talks wey stop under ein poppie, bring back democracy, plus make de economy open and free. E later try settle de civil war wey dey go on by negotiating peace deal dem plus rebel groups wey Rwanda and Uganda dey support—de same two countries wey support ein poppie, Laurent-Désiré Kabila ein rebel group take enter power three years earlier. Dis negotiation start insyd 2001 and even though yawa happen some times like say de fight go start again, dem still push de process. Na South African Presido Thabo Mbeki plus UN special envoy Moustapha Niasse take put pressure top make dem settle. De final peace deal base on de 2002 agreement wey dem sign for Inter-Congolese Dialogue wey happen for Sun City, South Africa. Dis agreement dey like say e end de Second Congo War. Under de agreement, Joseph Kabila remain as presido and head of state of DRC. Dem set transitional government under am, wey include leaders of de two main rebel groups—MLC and RCD-Goma—as vice-presidos. De oda two vice-presidos be one from civilian opposition and one from de government. Dis agreement also set foundation for legislature and military reforms, plus dem plan say elections go happen within two years, but e fit extend by extra six months. Dem start implement de peace agreement under eye of international monitoring teams, plus United Nations wey bring dem biggest peacekeeping mission ever come de country. Dem form de first cabinet for June 2003, den de National Assembly and de Senate follow for de next month. For 2004, dem set up de Independent Electoral Commission (CEI) and pass de Nationality Act to solve de kasala wey dey over who truly be Congolese. Parliament begin work on new constitution for February 2005, and by May 2005 dem pass de draft version, Kabila and South African Presido Thabo Mbeki sef dey de session. De new constitution bring independent judiciary and set semi-presidential system wey mean say presido go appoint prime minister, but de prime minister for get support from de majority for parliament before e fit hold position. Wen de electoral law process slow for early 2005, dem start dey talk say election fit delay six months. Dis cause small gbege insyd government, especially wit MLC, wey make dem delay some government appointments. But di mata calm down after Kabila yarn wit Vice President Jean-Pierre Bemba. At de same time, de old opposition party UPDS start dey call for protest, and Kinshasa newspapers begin dey shout say "Ukrainian scenario" dey come. But de police block all de protest plans wey UPDS wan do. From June go reach December 2005, de electoral commission register 25 million people for de whole DRC, even tho de infrastructure bad. Dis registration na to prepare for de first free vote since 1965 — de constitutional referendum wey dem do for end of dat year. De new constitution pass wit 84 percent of de vote, and 62 percent of voters show up. De biggest support come from eastern DRC. Even tho over 40 political parties boycott de vote, Kabila still sign de constitution into law for February 2006. De formation of de Armed Forces of de Democratic Republic of de Congo (FARDC), wey dem try do by join government soldiers plus rebel groups, no move fast. Kabila set up ein own "military household" wey no be part of de main FARDC command wey dem start for 2003, plus he get ein own presidential guard wey dey chop beta pay and beta equipment pass de normal army. De rebel leaders too still dey control their own fighters outside de FARDC command line, and dem still dey rule de same area wey dem dey before. For May 2005, dem come do plan say make dem disarm, retrain, and mix de rebel fighters into new brigades, but dem no finish dat plan before 2006, so de army still dey jam and no dey work fine. For 28 March 2004, dem try do coup or mutiny near de capital Kinshasa—dem say na former guard members of Mobutu Sese Seko (wey Kabila ein poppie overthrow for 1997 before Mobutu die) dey behind am, but de thing no work. Then again for 11 June 2004, coup people led by Major Eric Lenge try take power and announce for state radio say dem suspend de transitional government, but loyal soldiers come scatter dem plan. For October 2004, Kabila visit de eastern part of DRC for de first time since war end. When he reach Kisangani — one town wey rebels plus foreign soldiers been occupy — dem show de visit as sign say peace and unity don come back to de country. But de presidential guard come disarm de former rebels wey dey wait make dem join FARDC, and carry dem go camp wey dey outside de town. Some Western observers see de visit as sign say Kabila don start ein election campaign. Kabila ein campaign message carry one development plan wey dem call ''Cinq Chantiers'' (Five Construction Sites). E include: road and infrastructure, job creation, education, water plus electricity, and health. == First presidential term (2006–2011) == Kabila run for president as independent, but Alliance of de Presidential Majority come join body support am. Dis alliance carry ein party — People’s Party for Reconstruction and Democracy (PPRD) — plus like 30 other parties. During de campaign, opposition people attack am say e no be true Congolese, say e be Rwandan. For DRC, plenty people get bad eye for Rwanda, so dem try use dat against am, call am "candidate wey dey work for foreign powers." But Western observers still see am as de main guy wey go fit win, because opposition dem no get unity or enough money, and many people for Congo still hate de old rebel leaders. Dem do presidential election for 30 July 2006, after dem don postpone am from June. De new constitution reduce de age wey person fit take contest for president from 35 to 30 years; Kabila turn 35 just small time before de election. For March 2006, he register as one of de candidates. Even tho de new constitution talk say dem suppose do debate between de last two candidates wey remain for de presidential race, no debate happen at all. Plenty people talk say dis thing no follow constitution. According to some results wey cause yawa, wey dem announce for 20 August, Kabila win 45% of de vote, and im main challenger — vice-president and former rebel leader Jean-Pierre Bemba — get 20%. Because kasala dey around how de results take happen, dem come do second round vote between Kabila and Bemba on 29 October. On 15 November, de electoral commission release official results and talk say Kabila win, with 58.05% of de vote. Supreme Court confirm de results on 27 November 2006, and Kabila do swearing-in on 6 December 2006 as de new president of de country. Both local and international observers talk say de election be generally free and fair, even tho dem notice small irregularities. On 30 December, Kabila appoint Antoine Gizenga — wey come third for first round and later support am — as prime minister. For 2006, Kabila react to di evidence say Congolese army dey do plenty sex crimes, and e talk say de kain acts be “simply unforgivable.” E talk say dem don convict 300 soldiers for dis kain crimes, but e still add say e no reach at all. One big economic move wey e start for e first term and continue enter e second term be di Sicomines (Sino-Congolais des Mines) “resources-for-infrastructure” deal wey e do plus China. Dem say Kabila dem try beg Western countries make dem fund e "Cinq Chantiers" program but dem no gree, so e go turn face China. DRC sign one agreement for September 2007 wey give majority shares of one joint company (Sicomines) to one Chinese group wey China Railway Engineering Corporation get. DRC own mining company, Gécamines, get di rest. Di plan be say Sicomines go fit mine for Katanga Province, and di Chinese company go build roads, bridges and other things take cover am. China banks gree bring US$6.5 billion make dem take do am. Dis deal na di first big one wey DRC do plus China and e be di biggest of e kind for Congo history Dis deal cause plenty gbege because na di DRC government guarantee di loans, so na dem carry di risk, no be di Chinese wey sign di deal. Wen IMF plus civil society groups begin worry say Congo no go fit pay back di loan, dem start new talks. By 2009, dem finally sign di real deal. For di new deal, dem comot DRC hand for di mining risk side, but dem still leave di loan guarantee for di infrastructure projects, wey dem reduce to US$3 billion. Plus dat one, Sicomines no need pay tax for Congo until dem finish pay di loans. Plenty opposition people and civil society groups vex for Kabila over dis deal. Dem talk say di negotiations no dey clear and na just one of Kabila ein advisors do most of di talks. Dem say China benefit pass Congo. But people for Kabila ein government talk say even tho Congo no get strong hand for di bargaining, di infrastructure investment still help small. Dem add say di government dey under pressure to show quick results for di development promises wey dem make. People wey support di Sicomines deal talk say na "win-win" for both China and Congo. == Second presidential term (2011–2016) == [[Category:Living people]] nygieo6uejhfv2mdyha3cpfunn1nds7 69240 69239 2025-07-06T06:14:57Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 69240 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Joseph Kabila Kabange''' ( , ; born 4 June 1971) be Congolese politician plus former military officer wey serve as de fourth President of de Democratic Republic of de Congo from 2001 reach 2019. He take over office ten days after dem assassinate ein poppie, President Laurent-Désiré Kabila, wey happen insyd de Second Congo War. He form de People's Party for Reconstruction and Democracy (PPRD) for 2002, plus dem allow am make he stay for power after de 2003 Pretoria Accord end de war, as de president of de country ein new transitional government. He win election as president for 2006, then win again for 2011 for ein second term. Since he step down after de 2018 election, Kabila, as former president, dey serve as senator for life. Kabila be de country ein second-longest serving president. Kabila dey get credit say e end de Second Congo War plus bring small stability come most parts of de country, even though gbeɛ still dey go on for eastern DR Congo wey rebel forces, wey Rwanda plus Uganda dey support, dey cause. He encourage foreign investment for de mining sector plus improve infrastructure. Under ein rule, de country ein economy grow like five times. But as time go on, de economic growth slow down, plus e no spread well — most people for DR Congo still dey live under de international poverty line when he commot for office. He help put electoral institutions in place, plus for 2006, he lead de first multi-party election for de country wey dem do for decades. But both dat election and de one wey he win for 2011 get plenty gbeɛ, like electoral fraud claims plus protests. He rule under authoritarian government style, wey people accuse of embezzlement, corruption plus human rights abuses — like how security forces kill protestors. United States even sanction some of ein people for corruption plus say dem dey undermine democracy. Kabila ein term suppose end 20 December 2016, based on de constitution wey dem adopt for 2006. Officials bin talk say elections go happen for November 2016, but on 29 September 2016, de electoral authority come announce say election no go fit happen until early 2018. Dem talk say dem need do census first before any election fit happen. Kabila popularity begin drop plus international community start dey pressurize am make he give up power. Eventually, dem reach agreement with de Catholic Church hierarchy say make dem appoint new government and prepare for elections. For August 2018, Kabila talk say he no go run again and go step down for de December 2018 general election. Félix Tshisekedi come succeed am, and dis be de first time wey DR Congo do peaceful handover of power since independence. But independent observers believe say Tshisekedi lose badly to Martin Fayulu, and say na Kabila arrange de official results make e favour de person wey go protect ein interest after e leave power. == Early life den education (1971–1996) == Joseph Kabila Kabange plus ein twin sister Jaynet Kabila dem born dem on 4 June 1971. Dem born de twins for Hewa Bora, one small village insyd de secessionist state dem dey call Maquis of Fizi, wey dey de present-day South Kivu Province, for eastern DRC. Some people dey spread rumor say Kabila actually born for Tanzania, wey go mean say he be citizen for dat country. He be pikin of long-time rebel, former AFDL leader and DRC president Laurent-Désiré Kabila plus Sifa Mahanya. Kabila ein childhood fall for de time wey ein poppie ein political plus military career dey down low. Dem raise am for one kind remote area, wey no too get plenty record about ein early life. Kabila go primary school wey ein poppie ein rebel forces organise, before dem move go Tanzania wey he take finish ein primary plus secondary school. Sake of say ein poppie be enemy to Zaireein strongman Mobutu Sese Seko, Kabila act like Tanzanian during school time make Zaireein spy people no sabi am. == Guerrilla and army years (1996–2001) == Afta high school, Kabila follow military training for Tanzania, den later for Makerere University inside Uganda. For October 1996, Laurent-Désiré Kabila start campaign for Zaire to chase Mobutu ein regime comot, plus ein new army dem call Alliance of Democratic Forces for de Liberation of Congo-Zaire (AFDL). Joseph Kabila turn commander for one AFDL unit wey get "kadogos" (child soldiers) plus e likely play big role for de heavy battles wey lead dem go Kinshasa, but nobody clear where exactly he dey during de war. E like say Kabila dey around when dem free Kisangani, sake of say media reports show say na him lead de rebel force wey capture de city afta four days of serious fight. Weytin follow be say, afta AFDL win and ein poppie become president, Joseph Kabila go get more training for China under de PLA National Defense University. When he come back from China, dem promote am to major-general, plus dem make am Deputy Chief of Staff for Congolese Armed Forces (FAC) for 1998. Then for 2000, dem make am Chief of Staff for de Land Forces, wey he hold till ein poppie die for January 2001. As Chief of Staff, he be one of de main military leaders wey dey control government soldiers during de Second Congo War (1998–2003). == Peace talks and transitional government (2001–2006) == Joseph Kabila take over de presidency on 26 January 2001 afta dem kill ein poppie Laurent-Désiré Kabila, so he turn de first head of government for de world wey dem born for de 1970s. He be just 29 years old dat time, and people see am say he too young plus e no get experience. Some reports even talk say he no really wan be president, but na only him de advisers fit agree on. For ein swearing-in speech, Joseph Kabila talk say e dey aim to "bring back peace plus national unity," continue de peace talks wey stop under ein poppie, bring back democracy, plus make de economy open and free. E later try settle de civil war wey dey go on by negotiating peace deal dem plus rebel groups wey Rwanda and Uganda dey support—de same two countries wey support ein poppie, Laurent-Désiré Kabila ein rebel group take enter power three years earlier. Dis negotiation start insyd 2001 and even though yawa happen some times like say de fight go start again, dem still push de process. Na South African Presido Thabo Mbeki plus UN special envoy Moustapha Niasse take put pressure top make dem settle. De final peace deal base on de 2002 agreement wey dem sign for Inter-Congolese Dialogue wey happen for Sun City, South Africa. Dis agreement dey like say e end de Second Congo War. Under de agreement, Joseph Kabila remain as presido and head of state of DRC. Dem set transitional government under am, wey include leaders of de two main rebel groups—MLC and RCD-Goma—as vice-presidos. De oda two vice-presidos be one from civilian opposition and one from de government. Dis agreement also set foundation for legislature and military reforms, plus dem plan say elections go happen within two years, but e fit extend by extra six months. Dem start implement de peace agreement under eye of international monitoring teams, plus United Nations wey bring dem biggest peacekeeping mission ever come de country. Dem form de first cabinet for June 2003, den de National Assembly and de Senate follow for de next month. For 2004, dem set up de Independent Electoral Commission (CEI) and pass de Nationality Act to solve de kasala wey dey over who truly be Congolese. Parliament begin work on new constitution for February 2005, and by May 2005 dem pass de draft version, Kabila and South African Presido Thabo Mbeki sef dey de session. De new constitution bring independent judiciary and set semi-presidential system wey mean say presido go appoint prime minister, but de prime minister for get support from de majority for parliament before e fit hold position. Wen de electoral law process slow for early 2005, dem start dey talk say election fit delay six months. Dis cause small gbege insyd government, especially wit MLC, wey make dem delay some government appointments. But di mata calm down after Kabila yarn wit Vice President Jean-Pierre Bemba. At de same time, de old opposition party UPDS start dey call for protest, and Kinshasa newspapers begin dey shout say "Ukrainian scenario" dey come. But de police block all de protest plans wey UPDS wan do. From June go reach December 2005, de electoral commission register 25 million people for de whole DRC, even tho de infrastructure bad. Dis registration na to prepare for de first free vote since 1965 — de constitutional referendum wey dem do for end of dat year. De new constitution pass wit 84 percent of de vote, and 62 percent of voters show up. De biggest support come from eastern DRC. Even tho over 40 political parties boycott de vote, Kabila still sign de constitution into law for February 2006. De formation of de Armed Forces of de Democratic Republic of de Congo (FARDC), wey dem try do by join government soldiers plus rebel groups, no move fast. Kabila set up ein own "military household" wey no be part of de main FARDC command wey dem start for 2003, plus he get ein own presidential guard wey dey chop beta pay and beta equipment pass de normal army. De rebel leaders too still dey control their own fighters outside de FARDC command line, and dem still dey rule de same area wey dem dey before. For May 2005, dem come do plan say make dem disarm, retrain, and mix de rebel fighters into new brigades, but dem no finish dat plan before 2006, so de army still dey jam and no dey work fine. For 28 March 2004, dem try do coup or mutiny near de capital Kinshasa—dem say na former guard members of Mobutu Sese Seko (wey Kabila ein poppie overthrow for 1997 before Mobutu die) dey behind am, but de thing no work. Then again for 11 June 2004, coup people led by Major Eric Lenge try take power and announce for state radio say dem suspend de transitional government, but loyal soldiers come scatter dem plan. For October 2004, Kabila visit de eastern part of DRC for de first time since war end. When he reach Kisangani — one town wey rebels plus foreign soldiers been occupy — dem show de visit as sign say peace and unity don come back to de country. But de presidential guard come disarm de former rebels wey dey wait make dem join FARDC, and carry dem go camp wey dey outside de town. Some Western observers see de visit as sign say Kabila don start ein election campaign. Kabila ein campaign message carry one development plan wey dem call ''Cinq Chantiers'' (Five Construction Sites). E include: road and infrastructure, job creation, education, water plus electricity, and health. == First presidential term (2006–2011) == Kabila run for president as independent, but Alliance of de Presidential Majority come join body support am. Dis alliance carry ein party — People’s Party for Reconstruction and Democracy (PPRD) — plus like 30 other parties. During de campaign, opposition people attack am say e no be true Congolese, say e be Rwandan. For DRC, plenty people get bad eye for Rwanda, so dem try use dat against am, call am "candidate wey dey work for foreign powers." But Western observers still see am as de main guy wey go fit win, because opposition dem no get unity or enough money, and many people for Congo still hate de old rebel leaders. Dem do presidential election for 30 July 2006, after dem don postpone am from June. De new constitution reduce de age wey person fit take contest for president from 35 to 30 years; Kabila turn 35 just small time before de election. For March 2006, he register as one of de candidates. Even tho de new constitution talk say dem suppose do debate between de last two candidates wey remain for de presidential race, no debate happen at all. Plenty people talk say dis thing no follow constitution. According to some results wey cause yawa, wey dem announce for 20 August, Kabila win 45% of de vote, and im main challenger — vice-president and former rebel leader Jean-Pierre Bemba — get 20%. Because kasala dey around how de results take happen, dem come do second round vote between Kabila and Bemba on 29 October. On 15 November, de electoral commission release official results and talk say Kabila win, with 58.05% of de vote. Supreme Court confirm de results on 27 November 2006, and Kabila do swearing-in on 6 December 2006 as de new president of de country. Both local and international observers talk say de election be generally free and fair, even tho dem notice small irregularities. On 30 December, Kabila appoint Antoine Gizenga — wey come third for first round and later support am — as prime minister. For 2006, Kabila react to di evidence say Congolese army dey do plenty sex crimes, and e talk say de kain acts be “simply unforgivable.” E talk say dem don convict 300 soldiers for dis kain crimes, but e still add say e no reach at all. One big economic move wey e start for e first term and continue enter e second term be di Sicomines (Sino-Congolais des Mines) “resources-for-infrastructure” deal wey e do plus China. Dem say Kabila dem try beg Western countries make dem fund e "Cinq Chantiers" program but dem no gree, so e go turn face China. DRC sign one agreement for September 2007 wey give majority shares of one joint company (Sicomines) to one Chinese group wey China Railway Engineering Corporation get. DRC own mining company, Gécamines, get di rest. Di plan be say Sicomines go fit mine for Katanga Province, and di Chinese company go build roads, bridges and other things take cover am. China banks gree bring US$6.5 billion make dem take do am. Dis deal na di first big one wey DRC do plus China and e be di biggest of e kind for Congo history Dis deal cause plenty gbege because na di DRC government guarantee di loans, so na dem carry di risk, no be di Chinese wey sign di deal. Wen IMF plus civil society groups begin worry say Congo no go fit pay back di loan, dem start new talks. By 2009, dem finally sign di real deal. For di new deal, dem comot DRC hand for di mining risk side, but dem still leave di loan guarantee for di infrastructure projects, wey dem reduce to US$3 billion. Plus dat one, Sicomines no need pay tax for Congo until dem finish pay di loans. Plenty opposition people and civil society groups vex for Kabila over dis deal. Dem talk say di negotiations no dey clear and na just one of Kabila ein advisors do most of di talks. Dem say China benefit pass Congo. But people for Kabila ein government talk say even tho Congo no get strong hand for di bargaining, di infrastructure investment still help small. Dem add say di government dey under pressure to show quick results for di development promises wey dem make. People wey support di Sicomines deal talk say na "win-win" for both China and Congo. == Second presidential term (2011–2016) == For December 2011, Kabila win second term as president. But after dem announce di results on 9 December, gbege burst for Kinshasa plus Mbuji-Mayi, because di official results show say opposition candidate Étienne Tshisekedi lose—even tho many people for dat side vote for am. Observers from di Carter Center talk say dem no see results from almost 2,000 polling stations wey dey for areas wey support Tshisekedi strong. Dem talk say dem results loss and dem no add am to di final count. Di Carter Center conclude say di election no get credibility. On 20 December, Kabila still do swearing-in for ein second term, and e promise say e go invest for infrastructure plus public services. But Tshisekedi no gree—e talk say di election no be legit and e go still "swear himself in" as president. [[Category:Living people]] m35xubya6nlfvfkriw5rp9913k175a8 Talk:David Woodard 1 18363 69237 2025-07-06T05:55:17Z Orland 3350 /* Spam */ new section 69237 wikitext text/x-wiki == Spam == Hello, please take a look at [[:en:User:Grnrchst/David Woodard report]] and consider if this article should be deleted. As you can see on [[metawiki:Steward_requests/Miscellaneous#Cross-wiki_self-promotion_campaign|meta: Steward_requests/Miscellaneous#Cross-wiki_self-promotion_campaign]] and [[metawiki:Talk:Wikiproject:Antispam#Cross-wiki_self-promotion_campaign_(David_Woodard)|meta:Talk:Wikiproject:Antispam#Cross-wiki_self-promotion_campaign_(David_Woodard)]] 235 of the spam pages were deleted from smaller wikis by global stewards in one day, and many of the sockpuppets have been globally blocked. Of the remaining 99 articles from larger Wiki editions, 36 have been deleted this week, and "only" 63 remains. I think it is safe to say that Woordard's future reputation will not be as a composer and conductor, but as the man that used a decade of his life trying to scam Wikipedia for vanity reasons. Bw [[User:Orland|Orland]] ([[User talk:Orland|talk]]) 05:55, 6 July 2025 (GMT) qxpl7n474ey14iofwfwxj05gcprpmni Jennifer Lufau 0 18364 69244 2025-07-06T11:26:32Z Yaw tuba 7 created new article #AWA-DYF 69244 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Female gamer}}{{Infobox person|name=Jennifer Lufau|birth_date={{Birth year and age|1993}}|birth_place=[[Togo]]|occupation=Digital marketer; consultant of [[diversity, equity, and inclusion]], [[sensitivity reader]]|employer=Independent; [[Ubisoft]] (former)|known_for=Anti-[[misogynoir]] activist in the video game community|website={{URL|jenniferlufau.com}}}} '''Jennifer Lufau''' (dem born am insyd [[Togo]]) be gamer, den expert insyd digital marketing, who is based in Paris, France. She be de founder den president of de Afrogameuses, sam association wey dey fight against racism den sexism (see: misogynoir) insyd de field of video games wey dey try say ego promote better representation of black women. Active den involved insyd de field of video games, she sana be de author of de blog "Call me Jane Bond".<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Lufau|first=Jennifer|title=À propos de Jane Bond de l'auteur|trans-title=About Jane Bond from the author|url=https://www.callmejanebond.com/fr/a-propos-jane-bond/|access-date=2023-02-13|website=CallMeJaneBond|language=fr-FR}}</ref> Insyd November 2020, ''Vanity Fair'' elect Jennifer Lufau as one of de "fifty French women who made 2020".<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-11-30|title=Les 50 Françaises les plus influentes en 2020|trans-title=Society: 50 French women who made 2020|url=https://www.vanityfair.fr/pouvoir/business/diaporama/50-francaises-qui-ont-fait-2020/61218|access-date=2023-02-13|website=[[Vanity Fair (magazine)|Vanity Fair]]|language=fr-FR}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=Dor|first=Fabiola|date=December 13, 2020|title=Jennifer Lufau, une afrogameuse qui vuet changer le game|trans-title=Jennifer Lufau, an afrogamer who wants to change the game|url=https://nanasbenz.com/magazine/jennifer-lufau-une-afrogameuse-qui-veut-changer-le-game|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230213161157/https://nanasbenz.com/magazine/jennifer-lufau-une-afrogameuse-qui-veut-changer-le-game|archive-date=2023-02-13|access-date=2023-02-13|website=Nanas Benz|language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-12-01|title=Ces 50 femmes qui ont marqué 2020 selon Vanity Fair : Despentes, Marine Serre, Assa Traoré...|trans-title=These 50 women who marked 2020 according to Vanity Fair: Despentes, Marine Serre, Assa Traoré...|url=https://www.rtbf.be/article/ces-50-femmes-qui-ont-marque-2020-selon-vanity-fair-despentes-marine-serre-assa-traore-10642900|access-date=2023-02-13|website=RTBF.be - [[Radio-télévision belge de la Communauté française]]|language=fr-be|publication-place=Brussels}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-12-02|title=Les Françaises de moins de 35 ans qui ont fait l'année 2020|trans-title=French women under 35 who made the year 2020|url=https://start.lesechos.fr/societe/culture-tendances/les-francaises-de-moins-de-35-ans-qui-ont-fait-lannee-2020-1270254|access-date=2023-02-13|website=[[Les Echos Start]]|language=fr}}</ref> == References == {{reflist}} ds3slj0wyi2r2j6dhjk96iu2dqjg0uf 69245 69244 2025-07-06T11:34:52Z Yaw tuba 7 improved article #AWA-DYF 69245 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Female gamer}}{{Infobox person|name=Jennifer Lufau|birth_date={{Birth year and age|1993}}|birth_place=[[Togo]]|occupation=Digital marketer; consultant of [[diversity, equity, and inclusion]], [[sensitivity reader]]|employer=Independent; [[Ubisoft]] (former)|known_for=Anti-[[misogynoir]] activist in the video game community|website={{URL|jenniferlufau.com}}}} '''Jennifer Lufau''' (dem born am insyd [[Togo]]) be gamer, den expert insyd digital marketing, who is based in Paris, France. She be de founder den president of de Afrogameuses, sam association wey dey fight against racism den sexism (see: misogynoir) insyd de field of video games wey dey try say ego promote better representation of black women. Active den involved insyd de field of video games, she sana be de author of de blog "Call me Jane Bond".<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Lufau|first=Jennifer|title=À propos de Jane Bond de l'auteur|trans-title=About Jane Bond from the author|url=https://www.callmejanebond.com/fr/a-propos-jane-bond/|access-date=2023-02-13|website=CallMeJaneBond|language=fr-FR}}</ref> Insyd November 2020, ''Vanity Fair'' elect Jennifer Lufau as one of de "fifty French women who made 2020".<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-11-30|title=Les 50 Françaises les plus influentes en 2020|trans-title=Society: 50 French women who made 2020|url=https://www.vanityfair.fr/pouvoir/business/diaporama/50-francaises-qui-ont-fait-2020/61218|access-date=2023-02-13|website=[[Vanity Fair (magazine)|Vanity Fair]]|language=fr-FR}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=Dor|first=Fabiola|date=December 13, 2020|title=Jennifer Lufau, une afrogameuse qui vuet changer le game|trans-title=Jennifer Lufau, an afrogamer who wants to change the game|url=https://nanasbenz.com/magazine/jennifer-lufau-une-afrogameuse-qui-veut-changer-le-game|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230213161157/https://nanasbenz.com/magazine/jennifer-lufau-une-afrogameuse-qui-veut-changer-le-game|archive-date=2023-02-13|access-date=2023-02-13|website=Nanas Benz|language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-12-01|title=Ces 50 femmes qui ont marqué 2020 selon Vanity Fair : Despentes, Marine Serre, Assa Traoré...|trans-title=These 50 women who marked 2020 according to Vanity Fair: Despentes, Marine Serre, Assa Traoré...|url=https://www.rtbf.be/article/ces-50-femmes-qui-ont-marque-2020-selon-vanity-fair-despentes-marine-serre-assa-traore-10642900|access-date=2023-02-13|website=RTBF.be - [[Radio-télévision belge de la Communauté française]]|language=fr-be|publication-place=Brussels}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-12-02|title=Les Françaises de moins de 35 ans qui ont fait l'année 2020|trans-title=French women under 35 who made the year 2020|url=https://start.lesechos.fr/societe/culture-tendances/les-francaises-de-moins-de-35-ans-qui-ont-fait-lannee-2020-1270254|access-date=2023-02-13|website=[[Les Echos Start]]|language=fr}}</ref> == Life == Dem born Jennifer Lufau insyd Togo insyd 1993. She grow up insyd [[Benin]], wey she move go [[France]] around de age of seven.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Viala|first=Océane|date=2020-08-19|title=Dans le jeu vidéo, une photo d'une fille noire, c'est un motif de harcèlement|trans-title=In the video game, a photo of a black girl is a reason for harassment|url=https://www.madmoizelle.com/afrogameuses-racisme-sexisme-jeux-videos-1061368|access-date=2023-02-13|website=Madmoizelle|language=fr-FR}}</ref> She play chao of video games for ein childhood tym.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2022-03-08|title=" Afrogameuses ", l'asso qui combat sexisme et racisme dans le jeu vidéo|trans-title=" Afrogameuses ", the association that fights sexism and racism in video games|url=https://www.20minutes.fr/societe/3247555-20220308-journee-droits-femmes-jennifer-lufau-afrogameuse-combat-sexisme-racisme-jeu-video|access-date=2023-02-13|website=[[20 minutes (France)|20 minutes]]|language=fr}}</ref> == References == {{reflist}} 3fk6x8p6f946yeo78pzya4g2fewhki4 69246 69245 2025-07-06T11:40:36Z Yaw tuba 7 improved article #AWA-DYF 69246 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Female gamer}}{{Infobox person|name=Jennifer Lufau|birth_date={{Birth year and age|1993}}|birth_place=[[Togo]]|occupation=Digital marketer; consultant of [[diversity, equity, and inclusion]], [[sensitivity reader]]|employer=Independent; [[Ubisoft]] (former)|known_for=Anti-[[misogynoir]] activist in the video game community|website={{URL|jenniferlufau.com}}}} '''Jennifer Lufau''' (dem born am insyd [[Togo]]) be gamer, den expert insyd digital marketing, who is based in Paris, France. She be de founder den president of de Afrogameuses, sam association wey dey fight against racism den sexism (see: misogynoir) insyd de field of video games wey dey try say ego promote better representation of black women. Active den involved insyd de field of video games, she sana be de author of de blog "Call me Jane Bond".<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Lufau|first=Jennifer|title=À propos de Jane Bond de l'auteur|trans-title=About Jane Bond from the author|url=https://www.callmejanebond.com/fr/a-propos-jane-bond/|access-date=2023-02-13|website=CallMeJaneBond|language=fr-FR}}</ref> Insyd November 2020, ''Vanity Fair'' elect Jennifer Lufau as one of de "fifty French women who made 2020".<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-11-30|title=Les 50 Françaises les plus influentes en 2020|trans-title=Society: 50 French women who made 2020|url=https://www.vanityfair.fr/pouvoir/business/diaporama/50-francaises-qui-ont-fait-2020/61218|access-date=2023-02-13|website=[[Vanity Fair (magazine)|Vanity Fair]]|language=fr-FR}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=Dor|first=Fabiola|date=December 13, 2020|title=Jennifer Lufau, une afrogameuse qui vuet changer le game|trans-title=Jennifer Lufau, an afrogamer who wants to change the game|url=https://nanasbenz.com/magazine/jennifer-lufau-une-afrogameuse-qui-veut-changer-le-game|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230213161157/https://nanasbenz.com/magazine/jennifer-lufau-une-afrogameuse-qui-veut-changer-le-game|archive-date=2023-02-13|access-date=2023-02-13|website=Nanas Benz|language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-12-01|title=Ces 50 femmes qui ont marqué 2020 selon Vanity Fair : Despentes, Marine Serre, Assa Traoré...|trans-title=These 50 women who marked 2020 according to Vanity Fair: Despentes, Marine Serre, Assa Traoré...|url=https://www.rtbf.be/article/ces-50-femmes-qui-ont-marque-2020-selon-vanity-fair-despentes-marine-serre-assa-traore-10642900|access-date=2023-02-13|website=RTBF.be - [[Radio-télévision belge de la Communauté française]]|language=fr-be|publication-place=Brussels}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-12-02|title=Les Françaises de moins de 35 ans qui ont fait l'année 2020|trans-title=French women under 35 who made the year 2020|url=https://start.lesechos.fr/societe/culture-tendances/les-francaises-de-moins-de-35-ans-qui-ont-fait-lannee-2020-1270254|access-date=2023-02-13|website=[[Les Echos Start]]|language=fr}}</ref> == Life == Dem born Jennifer Lufau insyd Togo insyd 1993. She grow up insyd [[Benin]], wey she move go [[France]] around de age of seven.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Viala|first=Océane|date=2020-08-19|title=Dans le jeu vidéo, une photo d'une fille noire, c'est un motif de harcèlement|trans-title=In the video game, a photo of a black girl is a reason for harassment|url=https://www.madmoizelle.com/afrogameuses-racisme-sexisme-jeux-videos-1061368|access-date=2023-02-13|website=Madmoizelle|language=fr-FR}}</ref> She play chao of video games for ein childhood tym.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2022-03-08|title=" Afrogameuses ", l'asso qui combat sexisme et racisme dans le jeu vidéo|trans-title=" Afrogameuses ", the association that fights sexism and racism in video games|url=https://www.20minutes.fr/societe/3247555-20220308-journee-droits-femmes-jennifer-lufau-afrogameuse-combat-sexisme-racisme-jeu-video|access-date=2023-02-13|website=[[20 minutes (France)|20 minutes]]|language=fr}}</ref> She work as Social Media den Content Manager for Ubisoft for two years.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Lufau|first=Jennifer|title=Jennifer "Invincible Jane" Lufau|url=https://invinciblejane700058867.wordpress.com/}}</ref> She be expert insyd digital marketing,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Dadrit|first=LF|date=2020-11-29|title=Jennifer Lufau, Afrogameuses : "Les discriminations n'épargnent pas le monde du gaming"|trans-title=Jennifer Lufau, Afrogameuses : "Discrimination does not spare the world of gaming"|url=https://jeu.video/interview/jennifer-lufau-afrogameuses-discriminations-nepargnent-monde-gaming/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129094402/https://jeu.video/interview/jennifer-lufau-afrogameuses-discriminations-nepargnent-monde-gaming/|archive-date=2020-11-29|access-date=2023-02-13|website=JEU.VIDEO|language=fr}}</ref> and now dey work as consultant insyd [[Diversity, equity, and inclusion|diversity and inclusion]] (D&I) den [[sensitivity reader]] insyd de field of video games. In 2016, she defend ein thesis on video games at Sorbonne for ein master's insyd international project management.<ref name=":22" /> She sana be de author of professional thesis entitled “How Big Data is already transforming marketing? », wey dem publish insyd July 2017.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lufau |first=Jennifer |date=2018-02-08 |title=En quoi le Big Data transforme déjà le marketing ? |trans-title=How Big Data is already transforming marketing? |url=https://fr.slideshare.net/JenniferLUFAU/thse-professionnelle-jennifer-lufau |journal=INSTITUT LÉONARD DE VINCI; Responsable e-Business / Responsable e-Marketing}}</ref> == References == {{reflist}} 42ibdwen52onnoci2p8jyswnpp7gd1c