Wikipedia gpewiki https://gpe.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.6 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikipedia Wikipedia talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 0 1597 102866 40018 2026-06-14T22:08:03Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 102866 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox|item=Q18352390}} '''Israella Kafui Mansu''' be Ghanaian young female entrepreneur,<ref>Quist, Ebenezer (2022-04-22). [https://yen.com.gh/195814-israella-kafui-mansu-ghanaian-woman-turns-small-palm-oil-business-huge-venture-2021.html "Ghanaian lady turns small business under shed in 2009 into huge venture in 2022"]. ''Yen.com.gh - Ghana news''. Retrieved 2023-06-02.</ref> actress,<ref>Entsie, Berlinda M. (3 October 2018). [https://www.graphic.com.gh/entertainment/showbiz-news/ghana-outstanding-women-awards-reveals-nominees-for-its-maiden-edition.html "Ghana Outstanding Women Awards unveils nominees"]. ''Graphic Online''. Retrieved 2 June 2023.</ref> Founder den CEO of Mansuki Ghana Ltd.<ref>Kplorfia, Juliana Ama (22 April 2017). [https://www.modernghana.com/news/770448/from-the-womanwideawake-series-spotlight-on-israella-kafui-m.html "From the WomanWideAwake Series Spotlight on Israella Kafui Mansu"]. ''Modern Ghana''. Retrieved 2 June 2023.</ref><ref>[[Emmanuel K. Dogbevi|Dogbevi, Emmanuel]] (2016-12-21). [https://www.ghanabusinessnews.com/2016/12/21/company-develops-20-cosmetic-products-from-shea-butter/ "Company develops 20 cosmetic products from Shea butter"]. ''Ghana Business News''. Retrieved 2023-06-02.</ref> == Ein early life == Dem born Israella Kafui Mansu for 26 October 1985 for [[Sogakope]] insyd for Ghana wey she move plus ein family go [[Liberia]] whiles she dey young. Unfortunately ebe during dat period wey de war break for Liberia so de family move back cam Ghana. For age 6 she enroll for Sogasco Primary wey dey Sogakope, she move go Dabala Primary and JHS wey later St. Francis Demonstration JHS for [[Hohoe]] insyd, wer she take ein BECE secof de transfers ein mommie for go thru as school matron. After she pass ein exams successfully, she gain admission go Anfoega Senior High School for de [[Kpando Municipal District|Kpando District]] insyd make she study Home Economics wey she plete ein tertiary education for de [[University of Ghana]], Legon plus Bachelor of Arts degree insyd Consumer Science den Psychology.<ref>[https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/features/The-Journey-So-Far-With-Israella-Kafui-Mansu-332183 "The Journey So Far With Israella Kafui Mansu"]. ''GhanaWeb''. 2014-10-27. Retrieved 2023-06-02.</ref> == Recognition == For 2012 insyd, Israella participate for Enablis Ghana's Business Launch Pad competition den Ghana Startup Cup insyd wer she place second den first runner-up respectively. For 2013 insyd de deputy minister of Trade award am for sam ceremony for [[South Africa]] insyd den de European Women Inventors and Innovation Association for Sweden insyd. For 2014 insyd she participate for de launch of de YES initiative by de Ghana government wer she tap for de Presido ein right hand side. She feature for television shows for Ghana insyd as well as documentaries for Young Entrepreneurs for Ghana den [[Africa]] insyd. She sanso participate for de US Embassy Ghana programs wey she share ein story for chaw speaking platforms.<ref>[https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/artikel.php?ID=314846 "A Day Spent at Barclays Bank Unlocking Youth Opportunities"]. ''www.ghanaweb.com''. Retrieved 2017-12-19.</ref> For 2016 insyd, dem shortlist ein company, Mansuki Ghana Limited for de 2016 Ghana Startup Awards insyd.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20230602190436/https://www.pulse.com.gh/news/business/ghana-startups-shortlist-announced-for-2016-ghana-startup-awards/10fq3zq "Shortlist announced for 2016 Ghana Startup Awards"]. ''Pulse Ghana''. 2016-04-11. Retrieved 2023-06-02.</ref> For October 2018 insyd, de organizers for de Ghana Outstanding Women Awards nominate am.<ref>Dzido, Justice (2018-10-04). [https://www.thepublisheronline.com/ghana-outstanding-women-awards-unveils-nominees/ "Ghana Outstanding Women Awards Unveils Nominees"]. ''The Publisher Online''. Retrieved 2023-06-02.</ref><ref>[https://www.myjoyonline.com/3-multimedia-group-journalists-up-for-topmost-gowa-awards/ "3 Multimedia Group journalists up for topmost GOWA awards - MyJoyOnline.com"]. ''www.myjoyonline.com''. 2018-10-02. Retrieved 2023-06-02.</ref> For 2021 insyd, dem nominate am for de 2021 Forty under40 Awards insyd.<ref>admin (2021-09-11). [https://web.archive.org/web/20230602172537/https://www.thespectatoronline.com/summary-profile-of-forty-under40-award-nominees/ "Summary profile of 'Forty under40' award nominees"]. ''The Spectator''. Retrieved 2023-06-02.</ref> For 2022 insyd, dem award am for de Outstanding Young Female Entrepreneur of de Year for de 12th edition of de annual Ghana Entrepreneur and Corporate Executive Awards.<ref>Segbefia, Sedem (2022-03-31). [https://thebftonline.com/2022/03/31/togbe-afede-xiv-named-ghanas-greatest-entrepreneur-of-all-time/ "Togbe Afede XIV named 'Ghana's Greatest Entrepreneur of All Time'"]. ''The Business & Financial Times''. Retrieved 2023-06-02.</ref> == References == [[Category:Human]] [[Category:Ghanaians]] [[Category:People wey komot Volta Region]] [[Category:1985 births]] [[Category:Ghanaian businesspeople]] [[Category:Women business executives]] [[Category:University of Ghana alumni]] [[Category:Ghanaian women business executives]] [[Category:20th-century Ghanaian businesspeople]] [[Category:20th-century Ghanaian women]] [[Category:21st-century Ghanaian women]] [[Category:21st-century Ghanaian businesspeople]] [[Category:21st-century Ghanaian businesswomen]] <references /> == External links == '''Israella Kafui Mansu''' at Wikipedia ein sister projects * [[wikiquote:Israella_Kafui_Mansu|Quotations]] from Wikiquote * [[wikidata:Q18352390|Data]] from Wikidata oc7xxhr9e0s031v4z4zp0id0im2r4hp 0 6754 102832 57671 2026-06-14T17:45:15Z Yaw tuba 7 improved article #AWC2026 102832 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''water supply and sanitation''' sector insyd [[Ghana]] be a sector wey be in charge of de supply of healthy water den sanso dey improve de sanitation of water bodies insyd de country. Insyd Ghana, de drinking water supply den sanitation sectors dey face a number of issues, wey dey include relatively limited sanitation access, intermittent supply, significant water losses, poor water pressure, den pollution. Since 1994, na dem gradually reform de sector thru de creation of an autonomous regulatory agency, introduction of private sector participation, decentralization of de rural supply to 138 [[Districts of Ghana|districts]] wey dem increase community participation insyd de management of rural water systems.<ref name="WaterAid">{{cite web|last=WaterAid|title=National Water Sector Assessment, Ghana|url=http://www.wateraid.org/other/startdownload.asp?DocumentID=28&mode=plugin|format=PDF|access-date=26 March 2008}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Scaling up Water and Sanitation in Ghana |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2020/11/18/scaling-up-water-and-sanitation-in-ghana |access-date=13 September 2023 |website=World Bank}}</ref> == References == <references /> ==External links== {{Commons}} ===Policy setting=== * [https://web.archive.org/web/20190926043318/http://www.ghana.gov.gh/index.php/2012-02-08-08-18-09/ministries/274-ministry-of-water-resources-works-housing Ghanaian Ministry of Water Resources, Works and Housing] ===Economic regulation=== * [http://www.purc.com.gh/ Ghanaian Public Utilities and Regulatory Commission (PURC)] ===Service provision=== * [http://www.cwsagh.org/ Community Water and Sanitation Agency] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110727204856/http://www.ghanawater.com.gh/ Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL)] * [http://waterinafrica.org/ Water In Africa Through Everyday Responsiveness, a nonprofit which installs boreholes throughout Ghana] ==Ein Access== De water supply den sanitation [[infrastructure]] be insufficient, especially insyd [[rural area]]s. Substantial discrepancies between access data from various sources dey, partially secof different definitions wey different institutions dey use wey dey provide access data. According to de Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation of [[UNICEF]] and [[WHO]], access plus [[Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa|water den sanitation]] be as follows: {| class="wikitable" |- ! colspan=2| ! Urban<br />(51% of the population) ! Rural<br />(49% of the population) ! Total |- | rowspan=2|Water<ref name="JMP"/> | [[At least basic water source|'At least basic' definition]] | 88% | 66% | 78% |- | House connections | 33% | 3% | 18% |- | rowspan=2|Sanitation<ref name="JMP"/> | [['At least basic' sanitation|'At least basic' definition]] | 19% | 9% | 14% |- |Sewerage | ? | ? | ? |} According to de [[United Nations]] 2015 [[Millennium Development Goal|MDG]] report, Ghana don achieve de target of reducing by half de number of people wey no get access to safe drinking water.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gh.undp.org/content/ghana/en/home/library/poverty/2015-ghana-millennium-development-goals-report.html|title=2015 Ghana Millennium Development Goals Report|website=UNDP in Ghana|access-date=6 May 2016|archive-date=2 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160602042020/http://www.gh.undp.org/content/ghana/en/home/library/poverty/2015-ghana-millennium-development-goals-report.html}}</ref> Dem estimate say almost one-third of de water supply systems for Ghana no dey function properly, while many others dey operate far below de capacity wey dem design dem for. On top of dat, domestic water supply dey compete plus increasing demand for water from de growing industry den agriculture sectors.<ref name="Ghana Safe Water Network">{{cite web|title=Ghana|url=http://www.safewaternetwork.org/countries-regions/ghana|website=Safe Water Network|access-date=29 April 2016}}</ref> [[File:A picture of a boy drinking polluted water.jpg|thumb|Water pollution insyd Ghana]]About 88% of de urban population for Ghana get access to at least [[Improved water source|basic drinking water]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.unicef.org/ghana/Ghana_MICS_Final.pdf|title=Ghana Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey 2011}}</ref> However, differences still dey between urban den rural access to safe drinking water. According to de Ghana Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey of 2011, people wey dey live for urban areas get more chance to access safe drinking water than people for rural areas, with rates of 91% den 69% respectively.<ref name=":0" /> Because of dis, dependence on unsafe water sources higher for rural areas.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://water.org/country/ghana/|title=Ghana – Water Crisis {{!}} Water.org|website=Water.org|access-date=6 May 2016|archive-date=22 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422112638/http://water.org/country/ghana/}}</ref> De turbidity levels of most local surface waters for rural communities pass 200 NTUs (nephelometric turbidity units) den dem contain high microbial den fecal contamination, wey dey put children den de rest of de population for high risk of water-related diseases.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Mintz |first1=Eric |last2=Bartram |first2=Jamie |last3=Lochery |first3=Peter |last4=Wegelin |first4=Martin |date=1 October 2001 |title=Not Just a Drop in the Bucket: Expanding Access to Point-of-Use Water Treatment Systems |journal=American Journal of Public Health |volume=91 |issue=10 |pages=1565–1570 |issn=0090-0036 |pmc=1446826 |pmid=11574307 |doi=10.2105/ajph.91.10.1565}}</ref> Compared plus de rest of Ghana, de three northern regions of Ghana suffer more from lack of clean drinking water, with one out of every ten children dying before dem reach five years because of some water-related illnesses.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.wateraid.org/us/where-we-work/page/ghana |title=Ghana – Where We Work – WaterAid America |website=www.wateraid.org |access-date=6 May 2016}}</ref> For de main Northern Region alone, 32% of de 2.5 million residents no get access to improved water sources den often dem dey depend on contaminated drinking water.<ref name=":0" /> As for sanitation, only 14% of de total population of Ghana dey use improved sanitation facilities as of 2010.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://data.unicef.org/corecode/uploads/document6/uploaded_pdfs/corecode/Pneumonia_Diarrhoea_2012_35.pdf |title=UNICEF. 2012. Pneumonia and Diarrhoea – Tackling the deadliest diseases for the world's poorest children. }}</ref> {| class="wikitable" !Improved Drinking Water Source !Unimproved Drinking Water Source |- |Household connection |Rivers or ponds |- |Borehole |Bucket |- |Protected dug well |Unprotected well |- |Protected spring |Unprotected spring |- |Public Standpipe |Vendor-provided water |- | |Tanker truck water |- | |Bottled (den sachet) water |} Dis table dey present de classifications of improved den unimproved water sources insyd Ghana since de end of de [[Millennium Development Goals]], according to de [[WHO]] den UNICEF.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1251454622-A_Snapshot_of_Drinking_Water_in_Africa_Eng.pdf|title=WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (2008). A Snapshot of Drinking Water and Sanitation in Africa.|access-date=6 May 2016|archive-date=1 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161001154210/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1251454622-A_Snapshot_of_Drinking_Water_in_Africa_Eng.pdf}}</ref> As of de end of 2015, na improved water sources dey include household water pipes, [[borehole]]s, protected dug wells den [[Spring (hydrology)|springs]], den public standpipes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gh.undp.org/content/dam/ghana/docs/Doc/Inclgro/UNDP_GH_2015%20Ghana%20MDGs%20Report.pdf|title=United Nations. 2015. Ghana Millennium Development Goals Report.|access-date=6 May 2016|archive-date=17 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517051924/http://www.gh.undp.org/content/dam/ghana/docs/Doc/Inclgro/UNDP_GH_2015%20Ghana%20MDGs%20Report.pdf}}</ref> ==Ein Service quality== ===Continuity of supply=== According to sam estimate, one quarter of de people wey dey live for [[Accra]] dey receive continuous water supply. About 30% dey get water for 12 hours each day, five days for week. Another 35% dey receive water for two days every week. De remaining 10% wey mostly dey live for de outskirts of de capital no get access to piped water at all.<ref name="wateraid 2" /> According to another source, de situation even worse: for February 2008, some communities insyd de Accra-Tema metropolis dey get water only once for week, or once for two weeks, or even once for month.<ref name=":2">[http://www.water-mwrwh.com/sub.htm#top AVRL: The Dodowa intervention]{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The continuity of water supply in rural areas and the Northern Region of Ghana are less frequent. Particularly in rural areas, locals are forced to fetch their own water from a variety of water sources depending on location:<ref name=":1" /> De regularity of water supply for rural areas den de Northern Region of Ghana dey even less frequent. Especially for rural areas, people dey forced to fetch their own water from different sources depending on where dem dey live:<ref name=":1" /> * Tube wells or boreholes – deep hole wey dem drill or dig reach underground water. Dem dey bring de water come up through pipe plus pump wey human power dey operate, den de well get protection platform to stop dirty water run-off or bird droppings enter de water. * Protected dug well – well wey dem protect from surface runoff water by lining or casing wey dey raised above ground level. * Rainwater collection – rain wey dem collect from surfaces den store inside container for use. * Water tank truck – water wey truck carry come community den dem dey sell am from de truck. * Unprotected dug wells or springs – well wey no get protection from runoff or bird droppings. * Cart plus small tank/drum – water seller dey carry water enter community, den dem dey sell am. Dem dey use donkey cart or motoking for transport. * Surface water sources – rivers, dams, lakes, ponds, etc. All of dem dey very likely to be polluted, wey fit be dangerous for people wey dey drink from there. Dis ones be de most dangerous water sources for Ghana population, because dem fit contain plenty bacteria den toxic substances wey fit cause infections den diseases, some wey even fit kill people.<ref name=":2" /> ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==External links== {{Commons}} ===Policy setting=== * [http://www.ghana.gov.gh/index.php/2012-02-08-08-18-09/ministries/274-ministry-of-water-resources-works-housing Ghanaian Ministry of Water Resources, Works and Housing] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190926043318/http://www.ghana.gov.gh/index.php/2012-02-08-08-18-09/ministries/274-ministry-of-water-resources-works-housing |date=26 September 2019 }} ===Economic regulation=== * [http://www.purc.com.gh/ Ghanaian Public Utilities and Regulatory Commission (PURC)] ===Service provision=== * [http://www.cwsagh.org/ Community Water and Sanitation Agency] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110727204856/http://www.ghanawater.com.gh/ Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL)] * [http://waterinafrica.org/ Water In Africa Through Everyday Responsiveness, a nonprofit which installs boreholes throughout Ghana] {{Health in Ghana|state=uncollapsed}} {{Ghana topics}} {{Water supply and sanitation by country}} [[Category:Water supply den sanitation insyd Ghana| ]] [[Category:Environment of Ghana]] [[Category:Environmental issues insyd Ghana]] [[Category:Volta River Authority]] [[Category:1994 establishments insyd Ghana]] 7bf5tl2ayiuxwypyeo5earrnneexwwt 102833 102832 2026-06-14T18:45:53Z Yaw tuba 7 improved article #AWC2026 102833 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''water supply and sanitation''' sector insyd [[Ghana]] be a sector wey be in charge of de supply of healthy water den sanso dey improve de sanitation of water bodies insyd de country. Insyd Ghana, de drinking water supply den sanitation sectors dey face a number of issues, wey dey include relatively limited sanitation access, intermittent supply, significant water losses, poor water pressure, den pollution. Since 1994, na dem gradually reform de sector thru de creation of an autonomous regulatory agency, introduction of private sector participation, decentralization of de rural supply to 138 [[Districts of Ghana|districts]] wey dem increase community participation insyd de management of rural water systems.<ref name="WaterAid">{{cite web|last=WaterAid|title=National Water Sector Assessment, Ghana|url=http://www.wateraid.org/other/startdownload.asp?DocumentID=28&mode=plugin|format=PDF|access-date=26 March 2008}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Scaling up Water and Sanitation in Ghana |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2020/11/18/scaling-up-water-and-sanitation-in-ghana |access-date=13 September 2023 |website=World Bank}}</ref> == References == <references /> ==External links== {{Commons}} ===Policy setting=== * [https://web.archive.org/web/20190926043318/http://www.ghana.gov.gh/index.php/2012-02-08-08-18-09/ministries/274-ministry-of-water-resources-works-housing Ghanaian Ministry of Water Resources, Works and Housing] ===Economic regulation=== * [http://www.purc.com.gh/ Ghanaian Public Utilities and Regulatory Commission (PURC)] ===Service provision=== * [http://www.cwsagh.org/ Community Water and Sanitation Agency] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110727204856/http://www.ghanawater.com.gh/ Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL)] * [http://waterinafrica.org/ Water In Africa Through Everyday Responsiveness, a nonprofit which installs boreholes throughout Ghana] ==Ein Access== De water supply den sanitation [[infrastructure]] be insufficient, especially insyd [[rural area]]s. Substantial discrepancies between access data from various sources dey, partially secof different definitions wey different institutions dey use wey dey provide access data. According to de Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation of [[UNICEF]] and [[WHO]], access plus [[Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa|water den sanitation]] be as follows: {| class="wikitable" |- ! colspan=2| ! Urban<br />(51% of the population) ! Rural<br />(49% of the population) ! Total |- | rowspan=2|Water<ref name="JMP"/> | [[At least basic water source|'At least basic' definition]] | 88% | 66% | 78% |- | House connections | 33% | 3% | 18% |- | rowspan=2|Sanitation<ref name="JMP"/> | [['At least basic' sanitation|'At least basic' definition]] | 19% | 9% | 14% |- |Sewerage | ? | ? | ? |} According to de [[United Nations]] 2015 [[Millennium Development Goal|MDG]] report, Ghana don achieve de target of reducing by half de number of people wey no get access to safe drinking water.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gh.undp.org/content/ghana/en/home/library/poverty/2015-ghana-millennium-development-goals-report.html|title=2015 Ghana Millennium Development Goals Report|website=UNDP in Ghana|access-date=6 May 2016|archive-date=2 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160602042020/http://www.gh.undp.org/content/ghana/en/home/library/poverty/2015-ghana-millennium-development-goals-report.html}}</ref> Dem estimate say almost one-third of de water supply systems for Ghana no dey function properly, while many others dey operate far below de capacity wey dem design dem for. On top of dat, domestic water supply dey compete plus increasing demand for water from de growing industry den agriculture sectors.<ref name="Ghana Safe Water Network">{{cite web|title=Ghana|url=http://www.safewaternetwork.org/countries-regions/ghana|website=Safe Water Network|access-date=29 April 2016}}</ref> [[File:A picture of a boy drinking polluted water.jpg|thumb|Water pollution insyd Ghana]]About 88% of de urban population for Ghana get access to at least [[Improved water source|basic drinking water]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.unicef.org/ghana/Ghana_MICS_Final.pdf|title=Ghana Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey 2011}}</ref> However, differences still dey between urban den rural access to safe drinking water. According to de Ghana Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey of 2011, people wey dey live for urban areas get more chance to access safe drinking water than people for rural areas, with rates of 91% den 69% respectively.<ref name=":0" /> Because of dis, dependence on unsafe water sources higher for rural areas.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://water.org/country/ghana/|title=Ghana – Water Crisis {{!}} Water.org|website=Water.org|access-date=6 May 2016|archive-date=22 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422112638/http://water.org/country/ghana/}}</ref> De turbidity levels of most local surface waters for rural communities pass 200 NTUs (nephelometric turbidity units) den dem contain high microbial den fecal contamination, wey dey put children den de rest of de population for high risk of water-related diseases.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Mintz |first1=Eric |last2=Bartram |first2=Jamie |last3=Lochery |first3=Peter |last4=Wegelin |first4=Martin |date=1 October 2001 |title=Not Just a Drop in the Bucket: Expanding Access to Point-of-Use Water Treatment Systems |journal=American Journal of Public Health |volume=91 |issue=10 |pages=1565–1570 |issn=0090-0036 |pmc=1446826 |pmid=11574307 |doi=10.2105/ajph.91.10.1565}}</ref> Compared plus de rest of Ghana, de three northern regions of Ghana suffer more from lack of clean drinking water, with one out of every ten children dying before dem reach five years because of some water-related illnesses.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.wateraid.org/us/where-we-work/page/ghana |title=Ghana – Where We Work – WaterAid America |website=www.wateraid.org |access-date=6 May 2016}}</ref> For de main Northern Region alone, 32% of de 2.5 million residents no get access to improved water sources den often dem dey depend on contaminated drinking water.<ref name=":0" /> As for sanitation, only 14% of de total population of Ghana dey use improved sanitation facilities as of 2010.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://data.unicef.org/corecode/uploads/document6/uploaded_pdfs/corecode/Pneumonia_Diarrhoea_2012_35.pdf |title=UNICEF. 2012. Pneumonia and Diarrhoea – Tackling the deadliest diseases for the world's poorest children. }}</ref> {| class="wikitable" !Improved Drinking Water Source !Unimproved Drinking Water Source |- |Household connection |Rivers or ponds |- |Borehole |Bucket |- |Protected dug well |Unprotected well |- |Protected spring |Unprotected spring |- |Public Standpipe |Vendor-provided water |- | |Tanker truck water |- | |Bottled (den sachet) water |} Dis table dey present de classifications of improved den unimproved water sources insyd Ghana since de end of de [[Millennium Development Goals]], according to de [[WHO]] den UNICEF.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1251454622-A_Snapshot_of_Drinking_Water_in_Africa_Eng.pdf|title=WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (2008). A Snapshot of Drinking Water and Sanitation in Africa.|access-date=6 May 2016|archive-date=1 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161001154210/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1251454622-A_Snapshot_of_Drinking_Water_in_Africa_Eng.pdf}}</ref> As of de end of 2015, na improved water sources dey include household water pipes, [[borehole]]s, protected dug wells den [[Spring (hydrology)|springs]], den public standpipes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gh.undp.org/content/dam/ghana/docs/Doc/Inclgro/UNDP_GH_2015%20Ghana%20MDGs%20Report.pdf|title=United Nations. 2015. Ghana Millennium Development Goals Report.|access-date=6 May 2016|archive-date=17 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517051924/http://www.gh.undp.org/content/dam/ghana/docs/Doc/Inclgro/UNDP_GH_2015%20Ghana%20MDGs%20Report.pdf}}</ref> ==Ein Service quality== ===Continuity of supply=== According to sam estimate, one quarter of de people wey dey live for [[Accra]] dey receive continuous water supply. About 30% dey get water for 12 hours each day, five days for week. Another 35% dey receive water for two days every week. De remaining 10% wey mostly dey live for de outskirts of de capital no get access to piped water at all.<ref name="wateraid 2" /> According to another source, de situation even worse: for February 2008, some communities insyd de Accra-Tema metropolis dey get water only once for week, or once for two weeks, or even once for month.<ref name=":2">[http://www.water-mwrwh.com/sub.htm#top AVRL: The Dodowa intervention]{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The continuity of water supply in rural areas and the Northern Region of Ghana are less frequent. Particularly in rural areas, locals are forced to fetch their own water from a variety of water sources depending on location:<ref name=":1" /> De regularity of water supply for rural areas den de Northern Region of Ghana dey even less frequent. Especially for rural areas, people dey forced to fetch their own water from different sources depending on where dem dey live:<ref name=":1" /> * Tube wells or boreholes – deep hole wey dem drill or dig reach underground water. Dem dey bring de water come up through pipe plus pump wey human power dey operate, den de well get protection platform to stop dirty water run-off or bird droppings enter de water. * Protected dug well – well wey dem protect from surface runoff water by lining or casing wey dey raised above ground level. * Rainwater collection – rain wey dem collect from surfaces den store inside container for use. * Water tank truck – water wey truck carry come community den dem dey sell am from de truck. * Unprotected dug wells or springs – well wey no get protection from runoff or bird droppings. * Cart plus small tank/drum – water seller dey carry water enter community, den dem dey sell am. Dem dey use donkey cart or motoking for transport. * Surface water sources – rivers, dams, lakes, ponds, etc. All of dem dey very likely to be polluted, wey fit be dangerous for people wey dey drink from there. Dis ones be de most dangerous water sources for Ghana population, because dem fit contain plenty bacteria den toxic substances wey fit cause infections den diseases, some wey even fit kill people.<ref name=":2" /> == Water contamination == === Drinking water quality === [[File:F-diagram-01.jpg|thumb|450x450px|De Fecal-oral disease route transmission]] De lack of clean drinking [[Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa|water]] [[Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa|den sanitation]] systems be serious public health problem for Ghana, den e dey cause about 70% of diseases for de country. Even though government den e development partners dey try plenty, about 76% of households still dey risk drinking water wey get contamination from animal den human waste.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Water, Sanitation and Hygiene {{!}} UNICEF Ghana |url=https://www.unicef.org/ghana/water-sanitation-and-hygiene |access-date=28 September 2023 |website=www.unicef.org |language=en}}</ref> Chao dey use of plastic sachet water secof clean tap water no dey enough aN sey cause big [[plastic pollution]], wey dey block water bodies, clog storm-water drains den even cause death of livestock.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adam |first1=Issahaku |last2=Walker |first2=Tony R. |last3=Bezerra |first3=Joana Carlos |last4=Clayton |first4=Andrea |date=1 June 2020 |title=Policies to reduce single-use plastic marine pollution in West Africa |journal=Marine Policy |volume=116 |bibcode=2020MarPo.11603928A |doi=10.1016/j.marpol.2020.103928 |s2cid=216397079 |article-number=103928}}</ref> Ghana ein gold mining industry sana dey pollute about 60% of de country water sources.<ref name="illegal_gold_mines_2021_08_11_bbc">{{Cite news|title=The illegal gold mines killing rivers and livelihoods in Ghana|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-africa-58119653|access-date=16 October 2024|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=13 October 2024 |title=CONIWAS expresses worry over increasing effects of Galamsey |url=https://www.modernghana.com/news/1348449/coniwas-expresses-worry-over-increasing-effects.html |access-date=16 October 2024 |website=Modern Ghana}}</ref> Secof dirty water den bad sanitation, about 1,000 children under five years dey die every year from diarrhea wey come from polluted water.<ref>{{cite web |title=Water Aid- Where we work: Ghana |url=https://www.wateraid.org/uk/where-we-work/ghana |access-date=10 May 2018 |website=Water Aid UK}}</ref> De water wey dem dey take from [[Pond|ponds]], [[Lake|lakes]] abaa rivers no dey good at all. So households wey no get access to clean water dey forced to use unsafe sources, den dem even dey pay more money.<ref name="oecd 294">{{cite journal |author=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) |author-link=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development |title=African Economic Outlook 2007 – Ghana Country Note |url=http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/26/51/38562673.pdf |journal=African Economic Outlook 2007 |access-date=25 March 2008}}, p. 294</ref> Contaminated drinking water, plus poor sanitation, dey linked to diseases like cholera, diarrhoea, dysentery, hepatitis A, typhoid den polio wey dem dey transmit through water.<ref name=":22">{{Cite web |title=Drinking-water |url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs391/en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808013616/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs391/en/ |archive-date=8 August 2014 |access-date=6 May 2016 |website=World Health Organization |language=en-GB}}</ref> Because people dey drink dirty water, diarrheal disease be the third most common sickness wey dem dey report for health centers across Ghana. 25% of all deaths for children under five years dey come from diarrhea.<ref name=":22" /> Apart from lack of sanitation infrastructure, some cultural beliefs den attitudes dey encourage [[open defecation]]. From de total population for Ghana, 23% dey practice open defecation as their sanitation method.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |title=Ghana Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey 2011 |url=http://www.unicef.org/ghana/Ghana_MICS_Final.pdf}}</ref> As many as 72% of people for de [[Northern Region (Ghana)|Northern Region]] dey do open defecation, wey make am de region wey get de highest rate for Ghana.<ref name=":02" /> Most of de waterborne diseases be enteric diseases (meaning intestinal diseases) wey dem dey spread through fecal-oral route.<ref>{{Cite web |title=WHO. 2006. Preventing disease through healthy environments. |url=https://www.who.int/quantifying_ehimpacts/publications/preventingdisease.pdf}}</ref> For de way disease dey spread through water contamination, human feces from public defecation dey enter sewage systems den non-recycling latrines, den rain carry am go local surface waters, den menners later drink anaa contact am directly, wey cause infection through exposure, absorption den ingestion. Surface water be de main drinking water source for communities for Northern Region of Ghana.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last1=Mintz |first1=Eric |last2=Bartram |first2=Jamie |last3=Lochery |first3=Peter |last4=Wegelin |first4=Martin |date=1 October 2001 |title=Not Just a Drop in the Bucket: Expanding Access to Point-of-Use Water Treatment Systems |journal=American Journal of Public Health |volume=91 |issue=10 |pages=1565–1570 |doi=10.2105/ajph.91.10.1565 |issn=0090-0036 |pmc=1446826 |pmid=11574307}}</ref> For 2024, for one stakeholder conference, Ing. Harold Esseku, Senior Water den Sanitation Specialist for World Bank talk say Ghana dey on track to improve water quality by 2030.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ghana to upscale efforts to improve water quality by 2030 - Esseku |url=https://www.modernghana.com/news/1348313/ghana-to-upscale-efforts-to-improve-water-quality.html |access-date=16 October 2024 |website=Modern Ghana}}</ref> === Effects on education === De main traditional water sources for many parts of rural Ghana be small ponds den unprotected wells, den both of dem dey very easy make dem get polluted, wey dey cause diseases for people wey dey drink am (Oxfam). More than 50% of de rural population for Ghana also dey depend on unsafe water resources from vendors (Ghana Clean Water Project). Dis thing dey bring plenty sicknesses. De water get parasites den high microbial content, plus dangerous minerals. Many people, mostly children, dey suffer plenty diseases from dis water, den some of dem even fit die from am.<ref name="Water.org: Ghana">{{cite web |title=Ghana |url=http://water.org/country/ghana/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422112638/http://water.org/country/ghana/ |archive-date=22 April 2016 |access-date=27 April 2016 |website=Water.org}}</ref> No be only health de water dey affect; e dey also affect education. For example, for some places for Ghana, children—mostly girls—dey deny their right to go school because their schools no get proper private toilet facilities. Instead, dem expect dem make dem spend whole day dey fetch water. Dis dey affect their education den e dey make am hard make de country develop fast. If people get more clean water den proper sanitation, girls no go dey deny school, den dem go get education wey go increase number of educated people for Ghana.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Delali|first=Sika|title=Ghana Marks Global Hand-washing Day with renewed call for improved hygiene|url=https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/general-news/ghana-news-ghana-marks-global-handwashing-day-with-renewed-call-for-improved-hygiene.html|location=Accra, Ghana|access-date=16 October 2024|newspaper=[[Daily Graphic (Ghana)|Daily Graphic]]|date=16 October 2024}}</ref> All things considered, de water problems wey Ghana dey face no be only about sickness for de population, but e dey also affect education. Dis one no dey happen every time, but e dey happen for some parts of Ghana, especially rural areas.<ref name="Water.org: Ghana" /> === Wastewater treatment === {{further|wastewater treatment}} Dem estimate say for year 2000, urban areas for Ghana dey generate about 763,698 m³ of wastewater every day, wey go amount to around 280 million m³ for the whole year. Regional capitals also add another 180 million m³.<ref>{{cite conference|first=SK|last=Agodzo|author2=Huibers, FP|author3=Chenini, F.|author4=van Lier, JB|author5=Duran A.|title=Use of wastewater in irrgigated agriculture. Country studies from Bolivia, Ghana and Tunisia. Volume 2: Ghana|publisher=WUR|location=Wageningen|url=http://www.iwe.wur.nl/NR/rdonlyres/B87C7F6A-BACA-43CF-BC29-B223B0102B21/9226/fh030624GHANAfinal.PDF|isbn=90-6754-704-2|access-date=28 March 2008}}, p. 16-17</ref> Only small part of de wastewater wey urban areas dey produce dey collected, den even smaller part dey treated. Bad management of urban, industrial den agricultural wastewater often mean say drinking water for millions of people dey either dangerously contaminated or chemically polluted.<ref name=":22" /> For Accra, de capital city, only about 10% of wastewater dey collected. More than that, less than 25% of de 46 industrial den municipal treatment plants for Ghana dey function properly according to inventory wey Ghana Environmental Protection Agency do for 2001. Most of de treatment plants for municipal wastewater dey run by local governments, den most of dem be stabilization ponds.<ref>{{Cite web |title=RUAF Ghana sanitation report |url=http://www.ruaf.org/system/files?file=Chap6-Sanitation.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725133727/http://www.ruaf.org/system/files?file=Chap6-Sanitation.pdf |archive-date=25 July 2011 |access-date=13 April 2008}}</ref> One biological treatment plant dem build am for late 1990s for [[Korle Lagoon]] for Accra, but e only dey handle about 8% of Accra ein wastewater. == Water resources == Ghana get chao water resources. De Volta River system basin, wey dey include [[Oti River|Oti]], [[Daka River|Daka]], [[Pru River|Pru]], [[Sene River|Sene]] den [[Afram River|Afram]] rivers plus de [[White Volta|white]] den [[Black Volta]] rivers, cover about 70% of de country land area. Another 22% of Ghana land dey covered by de southwestern river system watershed wey include [[Bia River|Bia]], [[Tano River|Tano]], [[Ankobra River|Ankobra]] den [[Pra River (Ghana)|Pra]] rivers. De coastal river system watershed, wey include Ochi-Nawuka, Ochi Amissah, [[Ayensu River|Ayensu]], [[Densu River|Densu]] den Tordzie rivers, cover de remaining 8% of Ghana. Plus dat, groundwater dey available for mesozoic den cenozoic sedimentary rocks den inside sedimentary formations wey dey under de Volta basin. De [[Volta Lake]], wey get surface area of 8,500 km², be one of de biggest artificial lakes for di world. Overall, total renewable water resources for Ghana dem estimate say be about 53.2 billion m³ per year.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |author-link=Food and Agriculture Organization |title=Ghana Country Overview |url=http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/ghana/ghana_cp.pdf |access-date=25 March 2008}}, p. 3–4</ref> == Water use == For year 2000, total water wey dem withdraw be 982 million m³, den about two-thirds of am go for agricultural use. Another 10% dem take go industry, wey leave 24% or 235 million m³ for domestic use. Plus dat, 37,843 km³ dey use for hydroelectric power generation for [[Akosombo Dam]] each year.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |author-link=Food and Agriculture Organization |title=Ghana Country Overview |url=http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/ghana/ghana_cp.pdf |access-date=25 March 2008}}, p. 4–5</ref> ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==External links== {{Commons}} ===Policy setting=== * [http://www.ghana.gov.gh/index.php/2012-02-08-08-18-09/ministries/274-ministry-of-water-resources-works-housing Ghanaian Ministry of Water Resources, Works and Housing] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190926043318/http://www.ghana.gov.gh/index.php/2012-02-08-08-18-09/ministries/274-ministry-of-water-resources-works-housing |date=26 September 2019 }} ===Economic regulation=== * [http://www.purc.com.gh/ Ghanaian Public Utilities and Regulatory Commission (PURC)] ===Service provision=== * [http://www.cwsagh.org/ Community Water and Sanitation Agency] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110727204856/http://www.ghanawater.com.gh/ Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL)] * [http://waterinafrica.org/ Water In Africa Through Everyday Responsiveness, a nonprofit which installs boreholes throughout Ghana] {{Health in Ghana|state=uncollapsed}} {{Ghana topics}} {{Water supply and sanitation by country}} [[Category:Water supply den sanitation insyd Ghana| ]] [[Category:Environment of Ghana]] [[Category:Environmental issues insyd Ghana]] [[Category:Volta River Authority]] [[Category:1994 establishments insyd Ghana]] df1upuv4qe3tvtlmpu1jlj0zzzrt87u 102915 102833 2026-06-15T06:10:01Z Yaw tuba 7 improved article #AWC2026 102915 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''water supply and sanitation''' sector insyd [[Ghana]] be a sector wey be in charge of de supply of healthy water den sanso dey improve de sanitation of water bodies insyd de country. Insyd Ghana, de drinking water supply den sanitation sectors dey face a number of issues, wey dey include relatively limited sanitation access, intermittent supply, significant water losses, poor water pressure, den pollution. Since 1994, na dem gradually reform de sector thru de creation of an autonomous regulatory agency, introduction of private sector participation, decentralization of de rural supply to 138 [[Districts of Ghana|districts]] wey dem increase community participation insyd de management of rural water systems.<ref name="WaterAid">{{cite web|last=WaterAid|title=National Water Sector Assessment, Ghana|url=http://www.wateraid.org/other/startdownload.asp?DocumentID=28&mode=plugin|format=PDF|access-date=26 March 2008}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Scaling up Water and Sanitation in Ghana |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2020/11/18/scaling-up-water-and-sanitation-in-ghana |access-date=13 September 2023 |website=World Bank}}</ref> == References == <references /> ==External links== {{Commons}} ===Policy setting=== * [https://web.archive.org/web/20190926043318/http://www.ghana.gov.gh/index.php/2012-02-08-08-18-09/ministries/274-ministry-of-water-resources-works-housing Ghanaian Ministry of Water Resources, Works and Housing] ===Economic regulation=== * [http://www.purc.com.gh/ Ghanaian Public Utilities and Regulatory Commission (PURC)] ===Service provision=== * [http://www.cwsagh.org/ Community Water and Sanitation Agency] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110727204856/http://www.ghanawater.com.gh/ Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL)] * [http://waterinafrica.org/ Water In Africa Through Everyday Responsiveness, a nonprofit which installs boreholes throughout Ghana] ==Ein Access== De water supply den sanitation [[infrastructure]] be insufficient, especially insyd [[rural area]]s. Substantial discrepancies between access data from various sources dey, partially secof different definitions wey different institutions dey use wey dey provide access data. According to de Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation of [[UNICEF]] and [[WHO]], access plus [[Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa|water den sanitation]] be as follows: {| class="wikitable" |- ! colspan=2| ! Urban<br />(51% of the population) ! Rural<br />(49% of the population) ! Total |- | rowspan=2|Water<ref name="JMP"/> | [[At least basic water source|'At least basic' definition]] | 88% | 66% | 78% |- | House connections | 33% | 3% | 18% |- | rowspan=2|Sanitation<ref name="JMP"/> | [['At least basic' sanitation|'At least basic' definition]] | 19% | 9% | 14% |- |Sewerage | ? | ? | ? |} According to de [[United Nations]] 2015 [[Millennium Development Goal|MDG]] report, Ghana don achieve de target of reducing by half de number of people wey no get access to safe drinking water.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gh.undp.org/content/ghana/en/home/library/poverty/2015-ghana-millennium-development-goals-report.html|title=2015 Ghana Millennium Development Goals Report|website=UNDP in Ghana|access-date=6 May 2016|archive-date=2 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160602042020/http://www.gh.undp.org/content/ghana/en/home/library/poverty/2015-ghana-millennium-development-goals-report.html}}</ref> Dem estimate say almost one-third of de water supply systems for Ghana no dey function properly, while many others dey operate far below de capacity wey dem design dem for. On top of dat, domestic water supply dey compete plus increasing demand for water from de growing industry den agriculture sectors.<ref name="Ghana Safe Water Network">{{cite web|title=Ghana|url=http://www.safewaternetwork.org/countries-regions/ghana|website=Safe Water Network|access-date=29 April 2016}}</ref> [[File:A picture of a boy drinking polluted water.jpg|thumb|Water pollution insyd Ghana]]About 88% of de urban population for Ghana get access to at least [[Improved water source|basic drinking water]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.unicef.org/ghana/Ghana_MICS_Final.pdf|title=Ghana Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey 2011}}</ref> However, differences still dey between urban den rural access to safe drinking water. According to de Ghana Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey of 2011, people wey dey live for urban areas get more chance to access safe drinking water than people for rural areas, with rates of 91% den 69% respectively.<ref name=":0" /> Because of dis, dependence on unsafe water sources higher for rural areas.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://water.org/country/ghana/|title=Ghana – Water Crisis {{!}} Water.org|website=Water.org|access-date=6 May 2016|archive-date=22 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422112638/http://water.org/country/ghana/}}</ref> De turbidity levels of most local surface waters for rural communities pass 200 NTUs (nephelometric turbidity units) den dem contain high microbial den fecal contamination, wey dey put children den de rest of de population for high risk of water-related diseases.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Mintz |first1=Eric |last2=Bartram |first2=Jamie |last3=Lochery |first3=Peter |last4=Wegelin |first4=Martin |date=1 October 2001 |title=Not Just a Drop in the Bucket: Expanding Access to Point-of-Use Water Treatment Systems |journal=American Journal of Public Health |volume=91 |issue=10 |pages=1565–1570 |issn=0090-0036 |pmc=1446826 |pmid=11574307 |doi=10.2105/ajph.91.10.1565}}</ref> Compared plus de rest of Ghana, de three northern regions of Ghana suffer more from lack of clean drinking water, with one out of every ten children dying before dem reach five years because of some water-related illnesses.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.wateraid.org/us/where-we-work/page/ghana |title=Ghana – Where We Work – WaterAid America |website=www.wateraid.org |access-date=6 May 2016}}</ref> For de main Northern Region alone, 32% of de 2.5 million residents no get access to improved water sources den often dem dey depend on contaminated drinking water.<ref name=":0" /> As for sanitation, only 14% of de total population of Ghana dey use improved sanitation facilities as of 2010.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://data.unicef.org/corecode/uploads/document6/uploaded_pdfs/corecode/Pneumonia_Diarrhoea_2012_35.pdf |title=UNICEF. 2012. Pneumonia and Diarrhoea – Tackling the deadliest diseases for the world's poorest children. }}</ref> {| class="wikitable" !Improved Drinking Water Source !Unimproved Drinking Water Source |- |Household connection |Rivers or ponds |- |Borehole |Bucket |- |Protected dug well |Unprotected well |- |Protected spring |Unprotected spring |- |Public Standpipe |Vendor-provided water |- | |Tanker truck water |- | |Bottled (den sachet) water |} Dis table dey present de classifications of improved den unimproved water sources insyd Ghana since de end of de [[Millennium Development Goals]], according to de [[WHO]] den UNICEF.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1251454622-A_Snapshot_of_Drinking_Water_in_Africa_Eng.pdf|title=WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (2008). A Snapshot of Drinking Water and Sanitation in Africa.|access-date=6 May 2016|archive-date=1 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161001154210/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1251454622-A_Snapshot_of_Drinking_Water_in_Africa_Eng.pdf}}</ref> As of de end of 2015, na improved water sources dey include household water pipes, [[borehole]]s, protected dug wells den [[Spring (hydrology)|springs]], den public standpipes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gh.undp.org/content/dam/ghana/docs/Doc/Inclgro/UNDP_GH_2015%20Ghana%20MDGs%20Report.pdf|title=United Nations. 2015. Ghana Millennium Development Goals Report.|access-date=6 May 2016|archive-date=17 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517051924/http://www.gh.undp.org/content/dam/ghana/docs/Doc/Inclgro/UNDP_GH_2015%20Ghana%20MDGs%20Report.pdf}}</ref> ==Ein Service quality== ===Continuity of supply=== According to sam estimate, one quarter of de people wey dey live for [[Accra]] dey receive continuous water supply. About 30% dey get water for 12 hours each day, five days for week. Another 35% dey receive water for two days every week. De remaining 10% wey mostly dey live for de outskirts of de capital no get access to piped water at all.<ref name="wateraid 2" /> According to another source, de situation even worse: for February 2008, some communities insyd de Accra-Tema metropolis dey get water only once for week, or once for two weeks, or even once for month.<ref name=":2">[http://www.water-mwrwh.com/sub.htm#top AVRL: The Dodowa intervention]{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The continuity of water supply in rural areas and the Northern Region of Ghana are less frequent. Particularly in rural areas, locals are forced to fetch their own water from a variety of water sources depending on location:<ref name=":1" /> De regularity of water supply for rural areas den de Northern Region of Ghana dey even less frequent. Especially for rural areas, people dey forced to fetch their own water from different sources depending on where dem dey live:<ref name=":1" /> * Tube wells or boreholes – deep hole wey dem drill or dig reach underground water. Dem dey bring de water come up through pipe plus pump wey human power dey operate, den de well get protection platform to stop dirty water run-off or bird droppings enter de water. * Protected dug well – well wey dem protect from surface runoff water by lining or casing wey dey raised above ground level. * Rainwater collection – rain wey dem collect from surfaces den store inside container for use. * Water tank truck – water wey truck carry come community den dem dey sell am from de truck. * Unprotected dug wells or springs – well wey no get protection from runoff or bird droppings. * Cart plus small tank/drum – water seller dey carry water enter community, den dem dey sell am. Dem dey use donkey cart or motoking for transport. * Surface water sources – rivers, dams, lakes, ponds, etc. All of dem dey very likely to be polluted, wey fit be dangerous for people wey dey drink from there. Dis ones be de most dangerous water sources for Ghana population, because dem fit contain plenty bacteria den toxic substances wey fit cause infections den diseases, some wey even fit kill people.<ref name=":2" /> == Water contamination == === Drinking water quality === [[File:F-diagram-01.jpg|thumb|450x450px|De Fecal-oral disease route transmission]] De lack of clean drinking [[Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa|water]] [[Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa|den sanitation]] systems be serious public health problem for Ghana, den e dey cause about 70% of diseases for de country. Even though government den e development partners dey try plenty, about 76% of households still dey risk drinking water wey get contamination from animal den human waste.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Water, Sanitation and Hygiene {{!}} UNICEF Ghana |url=https://www.unicef.org/ghana/water-sanitation-and-hygiene |access-date=28 September 2023 |website=www.unicef.org |language=en}}</ref> Chao dey use of plastic sachet water secof clean tap water no dey enough aN sey cause big [[plastic pollution]], wey dey block water bodies, clog storm-water drains den even cause death of livestock.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adam |first1=Issahaku |last2=Walker |first2=Tony R. |last3=Bezerra |first3=Joana Carlos |last4=Clayton |first4=Andrea |date=1 June 2020 |title=Policies to reduce single-use plastic marine pollution in West Africa |journal=Marine Policy |volume=116 |bibcode=2020MarPo.11603928A |doi=10.1016/j.marpol.2020.103928 |s2cid=216397079 |article-number=103928}}</ref> Ghana ein gold mining industry sana dey pollute about 60% of de country water sources.<ref name="illegal_gold_mines_2021_08_11_bbc">{{Cite news|title=The illegal gold mines killing rivers and livelihoods in Ghana|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-africa-58119653|access-date=16 October 2024|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=13 October 2024 |title=CONIWAS expresses worry over increasing effects of Galamsey |url=https://www.modernghana.com/news/1348449/coniwas-expresses-worry-over-increasing-effects.html |access-date=16 October 2024 |website=Modern Ghana}}</ref> Secof dirty water den bad sanitation, about 1,000 children under five years dey die every year from diarrhea wey come from polluted water.<ref>{{cite web |title=Water Aid- Where we work: Ghana |url=https://www.wateraid.org/uk/where-we-work/ghana |access-date=10 May 2018 |website=Water Aid UK}}</ref> De water wey dem dey take from [[Pond|ponds]], [[Lake|lakes]] abaa rivers no dey good at all. So households wey no get access to clean water dey forced to use unsafe sources, den dem even dey pay more money.<ref name="oecd 294">{{cite journal |author=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) |author-link=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development |title=African Economic Outlook 2007 – Ghana Country Note |url=http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/26/51/38562673.pdf |journal=African Economic Outlook 2007 |access-date=25 March 2008}}, p. 294</ref> Contaminated drinking water, plus poor sanitation, dey linked to diseases like cholera, diarrhoea, dysentery, hepatitis A, typhoid den polio wey dem dey transmit through water.<ref name=":22">{{Cite web |title=Drinking-water |url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs391/en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808013616/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs391/en/ |archive-date=8 August 2014 |access-date=6 May 2016 |website=World Health Organization |language=en-GB}}</ref> Because people dey drink dirty water, diarrheal disease be the third most common sickness wey dem dey report for health centers across Ghana. 25% of all deaths for children under five years dey come from diarrhea.<ref name=":22" /> Apart from lack of sanitation infrastructure, some cultural beliefs den attitudes dey encourage [[open defecation]]. From de total population for Ghana, 23% dey practice open defecation as their sanitation method.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |title=Ghana Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey 2011 |url=http://www.unicef.org/ghana/Ghana_MICS_Final.pdf}}</ref> As many as 72% of people for de [[Northern Region (Ghana)|Northern Region]] dey do open defecation, wey make am de region wey get de highest rate for Ghana.<ref name=":02" /> Most of de waterborne diseases be enteric diseases (meaning intestinal diseases) wey dem dey spread through fecal-oral route.<ref>{{Cite web |title=WHO. 2006. Preventing disease through healthy environments. |url=https://www.who.int/quantifying_ehimpacts/publications/preventingdisease.pdf}}</ref> For de way disease dey spread through water contamination, human feces from public defecation dey enter sewage systems den non-recycling latrines, den rain carry am go local surface waters, den menners later drink anaa contact am directly, wey cause infection through exposure, absorption den ingestion. Surface water be de main drinking water source for communities for Northern Region of Ghana.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last1=Mintz |first1=Eric |last2=Bartram |first2=Jamie |last3=Lochery |first3=Peter |last4=Wegelin |first4=Martin |date=1 October 2001 |title=Not Just a Drop in the Bucket: Expanding Access to Point-of-Use Water Treatment Systems |journal=American Journal of Public Health |volume=91 |issue=10 |pages=1565–1570 |doi=10.2105/ajph.91.10.1565 |issn=0090-0036 |pmc=1446826 |pmid=11574307}}</ref> For 2024, for one stakeholder conference, Ing. Harold Esseku, Senior Water den Sanitation Specialist for World Bank talk say Ghana dey on track to improve water quality by 2030.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ghana to upscale efforts to improve water quality by 2030 - Esseku |url=https://www.modernghana.com/news/1348313/ghana-to-upscale-efforts-to-improve-water-quality.html |access-date=16 October 2024 |website=Modern Ghana}}</ref> === Effects on education === De main traditional water sources for many parts of rural Ghana be small ponds den unprotected wells, den both of dem dey very easy make dem get polluted, wey dey cause diseases for people wey dey drink am (Oxfam). More than 50% of de rural population for Ghana also dey depend on unsafe water resources from vendors (Ghana Clean Water Project). Dis thing dey bring plenty sicknesses. De water get parasites den high microbial content, plus dangerous minerals. Many people, mostly children, dey suffer plenty diseases from dis water, den some of dem even fit die from am.<ref name="Water.org: Ghana">{{cite web |title=Ghana |url=http://water.org/country/ghana/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422112638/http://water.org/country/ghana/ |archive-date=22 April 2016 |access-date=27 April 2016 |website=Water.org}}</ref> No be only health de water dey affect; e dey also affect education. For example, for some places for Ghana, children—mostly girls—dey deny their right to go school because their schools no get proper private toilet facilities. Instead, dem expect dem make dem spend whole day dey fetch water. Dis dey affect their education den e dey make am hard make de country develop fast. If people get more clean water den proper sanitation, girls no go dey deny school, den dem go get education wey go increase number of educated people for Ghana.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Delali|first=Sika|title=Ghana Marks Global Hand-washing Day with renewed call for improved hygiene|url=https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/general-news/ghana-news-ghana-marks-global-handwashing-day-with-renewed-call-for-improved-hygiene.html|location=Accra, Ghana|access-date=16 October 2024|newspaper=[[Daily Graphic (Ghana)|Daily Graphic]]|date=16 October 2024}}</ref> All things considered, de water problems wey Ghana dey face no be only about sickness for de population, but e dey also affect education. Dis one no dey happen every time, but e dey happen for some parts of Ghana, especially rural areas.<ref name="Water.org: Ghana" /> === Wastewater treatment === {{further|wastewater treatment}} Dem estimate say for year 2000, urban areas for Ghana dey generate about 763,698 m³ of wastewater every day, wey go amount to around 280 million m³ for the whole year. Regional capitals also add another 180 million m³.<ref>{{cite conference|first=SK|last=Agodzo|author2=Huibers, FP|author3=Chenini, F.|author4=van Lier, JB|author5=Duran A.|title=Use of wastewater in irrgigated agriculture. Country studies from Bolivia, Ghana and Tunisia. Volume 2: Ghana|publisher=WUR|location=Wageningen|url=http://www.iwe.wur.nl/NR/rdonlyres/B87C7F6A-BACA-43CF-BC29-B223B0102B21/9226/fh030624GHANAfinal.PDF|isbn=90-6754-704-2|access-date=28 March 2008}}, p. 16-17</ref> Only small part of de wastewater wey urban areas dey produce dey collected, den even smaller part dey treated. Bad management of urban, industrial den agricultural wastewater often mean say drinking water for millions of people dey either dangerously contaminated or chemically polluted.<ref name=":22" /> For Accra, de capital city, only about 10% of wastewater dey collected. More than that, less than 25% of de 46 industrial den municipal treatment plants for Ghana dey function properly according to inventory wey Ghana Environmental Protection Agency do for 2001. Most of de treatment plants for municipal wastewater dey run by local governments, den most of dem be stabilization ponds.<ref>{{Cite web |title=RUAF Ghana sanitation report |url=http://www.ruaf.org/system/files?file=Chap6-Sanitation.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725133727/http://www.ruaf.org/system/files?file=Chap6-Sanitation.pdf |archive-date=25 July 2011 |access-date=13 April 2008}}</ref> One biological treatment plant dem build am for late 1990s for [[Korle Lagoon]] for Accra, but e only dey handle about 8% of Accra ein wastewater. == Water resources == Ghana get chao water resources. De Volta River system basin, wey dey include [[Oti River|Oti]], [[Daka River|Daka]], [[Pru River|Pru]], [[Sene River|Sene]] den [[Afram River|Afram]] rivers plus de [[White Volta|white]] den [[Black Volta]] rivers, cover about 70% of de country land area. Another 22% of Ghana land dey covered by de southwestern river system watershed wey include [[Bia River|Bia]], [[Tano River|Tano]], [[Ankobra River|Ankobra]] den [[Pra River (Ghana)|Pra]] rivers. De coastal river system watershed, wey include Ochi-Nawuka, Ochi Amissah, [[Ayensu River|Ayensu]], [[Densu River|Densu]] den Tordzie rivers, cover de remaining 8% of Ghana. Plus dat, groundwater dey available for mesozoic den cenozoic sedimentary rocks den inside sedimentary formations wey dey under de Volta basin. De [[Volta Lake]], wey get surface area of 8,500 km², be one of de biggest artificial lakes for di world. Overall, total renewable water resources for Ghana dem estimate say be about 53.2 billion m³ per year.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |author-link=Food and Agriculture Organization |title=Ghana Country Overview |url=http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/ghana/ghana_cp.pdf |access-date=25 March 2008}}, p. 3–4</ref> == Water use == For year 2000, total water wey dem withdraw be 982 million m³, den about two-thirds of am go for agricultural use. Another 10% dem take go industry, wey leave 24% or 235 million m³ for domestic use. Plus dat, 37,843 km³ dey use for hydroelectric power generation for [[Akosombo Dam]] each year.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |author-link=Food and Agriculture Organization |title=Ghana Country Overview |url=http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/ghana/ghana_cp.pdf |access-date=25 March 2008}}, p. 4–5</ref> == History den recent developments == Archaeological work for de house ruins of Begho (12th–19th century) don show say cisterns exist, den on average dem be about two meters deep.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Posnansky |first=Merrick |date=2015 |title=Begho: Life and Times |journal=Journal of West African History |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=95–118 |doi=10.14321/jwestafrihist.1.2.0095 |issn=2327-1868 |jstor=10.14321/jwestafrihist.1.2.0095 |s2cid=193121437}}</ref> For 1817, Thomas Edward Bowdich document de sanitation methods for de Ashanti Empire, including how latrines dey common for most houses for [[Kumasi]].<blockquote>Wetin surprise me pass… be say dem discover say every house get ein own cloacae (latrine), apart from de common ones wey dey outside town for lower class people. Dem usually dey place dem under small archway for de most hidden corner of de building, but sometimes dem dey even upstairs, inside separate room like small closet where big hollow pillar still dey help support de upper floor. De holes small for size, but dem dig dem reach very deep, den dem dey pour boiling water inside every day, wey dey make sure say no bad smell dey at all.</blockquote>— Bowdich, 1817.<ref name=":3">{{cite journal |last=United Nations |author-link=United Nations |year=2004 |title=Freshwater Country Profile: Ghana |url=https://www.un.org/esa/agenda21/natlinfo/countr/ghana/waterghana04f.pdf |access-date=7 April 2008}}, p. 2</ref> For 1821, William Hutton confirm wetin Bowdich observe.<blockquote>Mr. Bowdich ein observation about say houses get cloacae den de general cleanliness of de Ashantees be correct; den e no get doubt say for how dem dey arrange their houses, dem pass plenty of their neighbours for cleanliness.</blockquote>— Hutton, 1821.<ref name=":3" /> Bowdich record am for early 19th century say rubbish den waste from all houses dem dey burn am every morning behind de streets. According to scholar Donna Maier, Public Works Department dey exist for de Ashanti Empire under de stool wey dem call Akwammofo Akonnwa. Dis department be responsible for cleaning de streets of Kumasi every day, den e make sure say people dey keep their compounds clean den dem dey weed am well well.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Feierman |first=Steven |year=1985 |title=Struggles for Control: The Social Roots of Health and Healing in Modern Africa |journal=African Studies Review |volume=28 |issue=2/3 |pages=73–147 |doi=10.2307/524604 |jstor=524604}}</ref> For 1928, dem build de first piped water supply system for [[Cape Coast]]. De Water Supply Division of de Public Works Department dey handle water service provision for both rural den urban areas for Ghana. After Ghana gain independence for 1957, dem separate de division from Public Works Department den put am under Ministry of Works den Housing. For 1965, dem turn am into Ghana Water den Sewerage Corporation (GWSC), one legal public utility wey dey responsible for providing water for urban den rural areas for public, domestic den industrial use, as well as setting up, running den controlling sewerage systems. ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==External links== {{Commons}} ===Policy setting=== * [http://www.ghana.gov.gh/index.php/2012-02-08-08-18-09/ministries/274-ministry-of-water-resources-works-housing Ghanaian Ministry of Water Resources, Works and Housing] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190926043318/http://www.ghana.gov.gh/index.php/2012-02-08-08-18-09/ministries/274-ministry-of-water-resources-works-housing |date=26 September 2019 }} ===Economic regulation=== * [http://www.purc.com.gh/ Ghanaian Public Utilities and Regulatory Commission (PURC)] ===Service provision=== * [http://www.cwsagh.org/ Community Water and Sanitation Agency] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110727204856/http://www.ghanawater.com.gh/ Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL)] * [http://waterinafrica.org/ Water In Africa Through Everyday Responsiveness, a nonprofit which installs boreholes throughout Ghana] {{Health in Ghana|state=uncollapsed}} {{Ghana topics}} {{Water supply and sanitation by country}} [[Category:Water supply den sanitation insyd Ghana| ]] [[Category:Environment of Ghana]] [[Category:Environmental issues insyd Ghana]] [[Category:Volta River Authority]] [[Category:1994 establishments insyd Ghana]] c68jjxr6tangmw6f4jc3n19ixns85xg 102920 102915 2026-06-15T06:34:35Z Yaw tuba 7 improved article #AWC2026 102920 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''water supply and sanitation''' sector insyd [[Ghana]] be a sector wey be in charge of de supply of healthy water den sanso dey improve de sanitation of water bodies insyd de country. Insyd Ghana, de drinking water supply den sanitation sectors dey face a number of issues, wey dey include relatively limited sanitation access, intermittent supply, significant water losses, poor water pressure, den pollution. Since 1994, na dem gradually reform de sector thru de creation of an autonomous regulatory agency, introduction of private sector participation, decentralization of de rural supply to 138 [[Districts of Ghana|districts]] wey dem increase community participation insyd de management of rural water systems.<ref name="WaterAid">{{cite web|last=WaterAid|title=National Water Sector Assessment, Ghana|url=http://www.wateraid.org/other/startdownload.asp?DocumentID=28&mode=plugin|format=PDF|access-date=26 March 2008}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Scaling up Water and Sanitation in Ghana |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2020/11/18/scaling-up-water-and-sanitation-in-ghana |access-date=13 September 2023 |website=World Bank}}</ref> == References == <references /> ==External links== {{Commons}} ===Policy setting=== * [https://web.archive.org/web/20190926043318/http://www.ghana.gov.gh/index.php/2012-02-08-08-18-09/ministries/274-ministry-of-water-resources-works-housing Ghanaian Ministry of Water Resources, Works and Housing] ===Economic regulation=== * [http://www.purc.com.gh/ Ghanaian Public Utilities and Regulatory Commission (PURC)] ===Service provision=== * [http://www.cwsagh.org/ Community Water and Sanitation Agency] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110727204856/http://www.ghanawater.com.gh/ Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL)] * [http://waterinafrica.org/ Water In Africa Through Everyday Responsiveness, a nonprofit which installs boreholes throughout Ghana] ==Ein Access== De water supply den sanitation [[infrastructure]] be insufficient, especially insyd [[rural area]]s. Substantial discrepancies between access data from various sources dey, partially secof different definitions wey different institutions dey use wey dey provide access data. According to de Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation of [[UNICEF]] and [[WHO]], access plus [[Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa|water den sanitation]] be as follows: {| class="wikitable" |- ! colspan=2| ! Urban<br />(51% of the population) ! Rural<br />(49% of the population) ! Total |- | rowspan=2|Water<ref name="JMP"/> | [[At least basic water source|'At least basic' definition]] | 88% | 66% | 78% |- | House connections | 33% | 3% | 18% |- | rowspan=2|Sanitation<ref name="JMP"/> | [['At least basic' sanitation|'At least basic' definition]] | 19% | 9% | 14% |- |Sewerage | ? | ? | ? |} According to de [[United Nations]] 2015 [[Millennium Development Goal|MDG]] report, Ghana don achieve de target of reducing by half de number of people wey no get access to safe drinking water.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gh.undp.org/content/ghana/en/home/library/poverty/2015-ghana-millennium-development-goals-report.html|title=2015 Ghana Millennium Development Goals Report|website=UNDP in Ghana|access-date=6 May 2016|archive-date=2 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160602042020/http://www.gh.undp.org/content/ghana/en/home/library/poverty/2015-ghana-millennium-development-goals-report.html}}</ref> Dem estimate say almost one-third of de water supply systems for Ghana no dey function properly, while many others dey operate far below de capacity wey dem design dem for. On top of dat, domestic water supply dey compete plus increasing demand for water from de growing industry den agriculture sectors.<ref name="Ghana Safe Water Network">{{cite web|title=Ghana|url=http://www.safewaternetwork.org/countries-regions/ghana|website=Safe Water Network|access-date=29 April 2016}}</ref> [[File:A picture of a boy drinking polluted water.jpg|thumb|Water pollution insyd Ghana]]About 88% of de urban population for Ghana get access to at least [[Improved water source|basic drinking water]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.unicef.org/ghana/Ghana_MICS_Final.pdf|title=Ghana Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey 2011}}</ref> However, differences still dey between urban den rural access to safe drinking water. According to de Ghana Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey of 2011, people wey dey live for urban areas get more chance to access safe drinking water than people for rural areas, with rates of 91% den 69% respectively.<ref name=":0" /> Because of dis, dependence on unsafe water sources higher for rural areas.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://water.org/country/ghana/|title=Ghana – Water Crisis {{!}} Water.org|website=Water.org|access-date=6 May 2016|archive-date=22 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422112638/http://water.org/country/ghana/}}</ref> De turbidity levels of most local surface waters for rural communities pass 200 NTUs (nephelometric turbidity units) den dem contain high microbial den fecal contamination, wey dey put children den de rest of de population for high risk of water-related diseases.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Mintz |first1=Eric |last2=Bartram |first2=Jamie |last3=Lochery |first3=Peter |last4=Wegelin |first4=Martin |date=1 October 2001 |title=Not Just a Drop in the Bucket: Expanding Access to Point-of-Use Water Treatment Systems |journal=American Journal of Public Health |volume=91 |issue=10 |pages=1565–1570 |issn=0090-0036 |pmc=1446826 |pmid=11574307 |doi=10.2105/ajph.91.10.1565}}</ref> Compared plus de rest of Ghana, de three northern regions of Ghana suffer more from lack of clean drinking water, with one out of every ten children dying before dem reach five years because of some water-related illnesses.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.wateraid.org/us/where-we-work/page/ghana |title=Ghana – Where We Work – WaterAid America |website=www.wateraid.org |access-date=6 May 2016}}</ref> For de main Northern Region alone, 32% of de 2.5 million residents no get access to improved water sources den often dem dey depend on contaminated drinking water.<ref name=":0" /> As for sanitation, only 14% of de total population of Ghana dey use improved sanitation facilities as of 2010.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://data.unicef.org/corecode/uploads/document6/uploaded_pdfs/corecode/Pneumonia_Diarrhoea_2012_35.pdf |title=UNICEF. 2012. Pneumonia and Diarrhoea – Tackling the deadliest diseases for the world's poorest children. }}</ref> {| class="wikitable" !Improved Drinking Water Source !Unimproved Drinking Water Source |- |Household connection |Rivers or ponds |- |Borehole |Bucket |- |Protected dug well |Unprotected well |- |Protected spring |Unprotected spring |- |Public Standpipe |Vendor-provided water |- | |Tanker truck water |- | |Bottled (den sachet) water |} Dis table dey present de classifications of improved den unimproved water sources insyd Ghana since de end of de [[Millennium Development Goals]], according to de [[WHO]] den UNICEF.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1251454622-A_Snapshot_of_Drinking_Water_in_Africa_Eng.pdf|title=WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (2008). A Snapshot of Drinking Water and Sanitation in Africa.|access-date=6 May 2016|archive-date=1 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161001154210/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1251454622-A_Snapshot_of_Drinking_Water_in_Africa_Eng.pdf}}</ref> As of de end of 2015, na improved water sources dey include household water pipes, [[borehole]]s, protected dug wells den [[Spring (hydrology)|springs]], den public standpipes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gh.undp.org/content/dam/ghana/docs/Doc/Inclgro/UNDP_GH_2015%20Ghana%20MDGs%20Report.pdf|title=United Nations. 2015. Ghana Millennium Development Goals Report.|access-date=6 May 2016|archive-date=17 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517051924/http://www.gh.undp.org/content/dam/ghana/docs/Doc/Inclgro/UNDP_GH_2015%20Ghana%20MDGs%20Report.pdf}}</ref> ==Ein Service quality== ===Continuity of supply=== According to sam estimate, one quarter of de people wey dey live for [[Accra]] dey receive continuous water supply. About 30% dey get water for 12 hours each day, five days for week. Another 35% dey receive water for two days every week. De remaining 10% wey mostly dey live for de outskirts of de capital no get access to piped water at all.<ref name="wateraid 2" /> According to another source, de situation even worse: for February 2008, some communities insyd de Accra-Tema metropolis dey get water only once for week, or once for two weeks, or even once for month.<ref name=":2">[http://www.water-mwrwh.com/sub.htm#top AVRL: The Dodowa intervention]{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The continuity of water supply in rural areas and the Northern Region of Ghana are less frequent. Particularly in rural areas, locals are forced to fetch their own water from a variety of water sources depending on location:<ref name=":1" /> De regularity of water supply for rural areas den de Northern Region of Ghana dey even less frequent. Especially for rural areas, people dey forced to fetch their own water from different sources depending on where dem dey live:<ref name=":1" /> * Tube wells or boreholes – deep hole wey dem drill or dig reach underground water. Dem dey bring de water come up through pipe plus pump wey human power dey operate, den de well get protection platform to stop dirty water run-off or bird droppings enter de water. * Protected dug well – well wey dem protect from surface runoff water by lining or casing wey dey raised above ground level. * Rainwater collection – rain wey dem collect from surfaces den store inside container for use. * Water tank truck – water wey truck carry come community den dem dey sell am from de truck. * Unprotected dug wells or springs – well wey no get protection from runoff or bird droppings. * Cart plus small tank/drum – water seller dey carry water enter community, den dem dey sell am. Dem dey use donkey cart or motoking for transport. * Surface water sources – rivers, dams, lakes, ponds, etc. All of dem dey very likely to be polluted, wey fit be dangerous for people wey dey drink from there. Dis ones be de most dangerous water sources for Ghana population, because dem fit contain plenty bacteria den toxic substances wey fit cause infections den diseases, some wey even fit kill people.<ref name=":2" /> == Water contamination == === Drinking water quality === [[File:F-diagram-01.jpg|thumb|450x450px|De Fecal-oral disease route transmission]] De lack of clean drinking [[Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa|water]] [[Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa|den sanitation]] systems be serious public health problem for Ghana, den e dey cause about 70% of diseases for de country. Even though government den e development partners dey try plenty, about 76% of households still dey risk drinking water wey get contamination from animal den human waste.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Water, Sanitation and Hygiene {{!}} UNICEF Ghana |url=https://www.unicef.org/ghana/water-sanitation-and-hygiene |access-date=28 September 2023 |website=www.unicef.org |language=en}}</ref> Chao dey use of plastic sachet water secof clean tap water no dey enough aN sey cause big [[plastic pollution]], wey dey block water bodies, clog storm-water drains den even cause death of livestock.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adam |first1=Issahaku |last2=Walker |first2=Tony R. |last3=Bezerra |first3=Joana Carlos |last4=Clayton |first4=Andrea |date=1 June 2020 |title=Policies to reduce single-use plastic marine pollution in West Africa |journal=Marine Policy |volume=116 |bibcode=2020MarPo.11603928A |doi=10.1016/j.marpol.2020.103928 |s2cid=216397079 |article-number=103928}}</ref> Ghana ein gold mining industry sana dey pollute about 60% of de country water sources.<ref name="illegal_gold_mines_2021_08_11_bbc">{{Cite news|title=The illegal gold mines killing rivers and livelihoods in Ghana|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-africa-58119653|access-date=16 October 2024|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=13 October 2024 |title=CONIWAS expresses worry over increasing effects of Galamsey |url=https://www.modernghana.com/news/1348449/coniwas-expresses-worry-over-increasing-effects.html |access-date=16 October 2024 |website=Modern Ghana}}</ref> Secof dirty water den bad sanitation, about 1,000 children under five years dey die every year from diarrhea wey come from polluted water.<ref>{{cite web |title=Water Aid- Where we work: Ghana |url=https://www.wateraid.org/uk/where-we-work/ghana |access-date=10 May 2018 |website=Water Aid UK}}</ref> De water wey dem dey take from [[Pond|ponds]], [[Lake|lakes]] abaa rivers no dey good at all. So households wey no get access to clean water dey forced to use unsafe sources, den dem even dey pay more money.<ref name="oecd 294">{{cite journal |author=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) |author-link=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development |title=African Economic Outlook 2007 – Ghana Country Note |url=http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/26/51/38562673.pdf |journal=African Economic Outlook 2007 |access-date=25 March 2008}}, p. 294</ref> Contaminated drinking water, plus poor sanitation, dey linked to diseases like cholera, diarrhoea, dysentery, hepatitis A, typhoid den polio wey dem dey transmit through water.<ref name=":22">{{Cite web |title=Drinking-water |url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs391/en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808013616/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs391/en/ |archive-date=8 August 2014 |access-date=6 May 2016 |website=World Health Organization |language=en-GB}}</ref> Because people dey drink dirty water, diarrheal disease be the third most common sickness wey dem dey report for health centers across Ghana. 25% of all deaths for children under five years dey come from diarrhea.<ref name=":22" /> Apart from lack of sanitation infrastructure, some cultural beliefs den attitudes dey encourage [[open defecation]]. From de total population for Ghana, 23% dey practice open defecation as their sanitation method.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |title=Ghana Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey 2011 |url=http://www.unicef.org/ghana/Ghana_MICS_Final.pdf}}</ref> As many as 72% of people for de [[Northern Region (Ghana)|Northern Region]] dey do open defecation, wey make am de region wey get de highest rate for Ghana.<ref name=":02" /> Most of de waterborne diseases be enteric diseases (meaning intestinal diseases) wey dem dey spread through fecal-oral route.<ref>{{Cite web |title=WHO. 2006. Preventing disease through healthy environments. |url=https://www.who.int/quantifying_ehimpacts/publications/preventingdisease.pdf}}</ref> For de way disease dey spread through water contamination, human feces from public defecation dey enter sewage systems den non-recycling latrines, den rain carry am go local surface waters, den menners later drink anaa contact am directly, wey cause infection through exposure, absorption den ingestion. Surface water be de main drinking water source for communities for Northern Region of Ghana.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last1=Mintz |first1=Eric |last2=Bartram |first2=Jamie |last3=Lochery |first3=Peter |last4=Wegelin |first4=Martin |date=1 October 2001 |title=Not Just a Drop in the Bucket: Expanding Access to Point-of-Use Water Treatment Systems |journal=American Journal of Public Health |volume=91 |issue=10 |pages=1565–1570 |doi=10.2105/ajph.91.10.1565 |issn=0090-0036 |pmc=1446826 |pmid=11574307}}</ref> For 2024, for one stakeholder conference, Ing. Harold Esseku, Senior Water den Sanitation Specialist for World Bank talk say Ghana dey on track to improve water quality by 2030.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ghana to upscale efforts to improve water quality by 2030 - Esseku |url=https://www.modernghana.com/news/1348313/ghana-to-upscale-efforts-to-improve-water-quality.html |access-date=16 October 2024 |website=Modern Ghana}}</ref> === Effects on education === De main traditional water sources for many parts of rural Ghana be small ponds den unprotected wells, den both of dem dey very easy make dem get polluted, wey dey cause diseases for people wey dey drink am (Oxfam). More than 50% of de rural population for Ghana also dey depend on unsafe water resources from vendors (Ghana Clean Water Project). Dis thing dey bring plenty sicknesses. De water get parasites den high microbial content, plus dangerous minerals. Many people, mostly children, dey suffer plenty diseases from dis water, den some of dem even fit die from am.<ref name="Water.org: Ghana">{{cite web |title=Ghana |url=http://water.org/country/ghana/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422112638/http://water.org/country/ghana/ |archive-date=22 April 2016 |access-date=27 April 2016 |website=Water.org}}</ref> No be only health de water dey affect; e dey also affect education. For example, for some places for Ghana, children—mostly girls—dey deny their right to go school because their schools no get proper private toilet facilities. Instead, dem expect dem make dem spend whole day dey fetch water. Dis dey affect their education den e dey make am hard make de country develop fast. If people get more clean water den proper sanitation, girls no go dey deny school, den dem go get education wey go increase number of educated people for Ghana.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Delali|first=Sika|title=Ghana Marks Global Hand-washing Day with renewed call for improved hygiene|url=https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/general-news/ghana-news-ghana-marks-global-handwashing-day-with-renewed-call-for-improved-hygiene.html|location=Accra, Ghana|access-date=16 October 2024|newspaper=[[Daily Graphic (Ghana)|Daily Graphic]]|date=16 October 2024}}</ref> All things considered, de water problems wey Ghana dey face no be only about sickness for de population, but e dey also affect education. Dis one no dey happen every time, but e dey happen for some parts of Ghana, especially rural areas.<ref name="Water.org: Ghana" /> === Wastewater treatment === {{further|wastewater treatment}} Dem estimate say for year 2000, urban areas for Ghana dey generate about 763,698 m³ of wastewater every day, wey go amount to around 280 million m³ for the whole year. Regional capitals also add another 180 million m³.<ref>{{cite conference|first=SK|last=Agodzo|author2=Huibers, FP|author3=Chenini, F.|author4=van Lier, JB|author5=Duran A.|title=Use of wastewater in irrgigated agriculture. Country studies from Bolivia, Ghana and Tunisia. Volume 2: Ghana|publisher=WUR|location=Wageningen|url=http://www.iwe.wur.nl/NR/rdonlyres/B87C7F6A-BACA-43CF-BC29-B223B0102B21/9226/fh030624GHANAfinal.PDF|isbn=90-6754-704-2|access-date=28 March 2008}}, p. 16-17</ref> Only small part of de wastewater wey urban areas dey produce dey collected, den even smaller part dey treated. Bad management of urban, industrial den agricultural wastewater often mean say drinking water for millions of people dey either dangerously contaminated or chemically polluted.<ref name=":22" /> For Accra, de capital city, only about 10% of wastewater dey collected. More than that, less than 25% of de 46 industrial den municipal treatment plants for Ghana dey function properly according to inventory wey Ghana Environmental Protection Agency do for 2001. Most of de treatment plants for municipal wastewater dey run by local governments, den most of dem be stabilization ponds.<ref>{{Cite web |title=RUAF Ghana sanitation report |url=http://www.ruaf.org/system/files?file=Chap6-Sanitation.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725133727/http://www.ruaf.org/system/files?file=Chap6-Sanitation.pdf |archive-date=25 July 2011 |access-date=13 April 2008}}</ref> One biological treatment plant dem build am for late 1990s for [[Korle Lagoon]] for Accra, but e only dey handle about 8% of Accra ein wastewater. == Water resources == Ghana get chao water resources. De Volta River system basin, wey dey include [[Oti River|Oti]], [[Daka River|Daka]], [[Pru River|Pru]], [[Sene River|Sene]] den [[Afram River|Afram]] rivers plus de [[White Volta|white]] den [[Black Volta]] rivers, cover about 70% of de country land area. Another 22% of Ghana land dey covered by de southwestern river system watershed wey include [[Bia River|Bia]], [[Tano River|Tano]], [[Ankobra River|Ankobra]] den [[Pra River (Ghana)|Pra]] rivers. De coastal river system watershed, wey include Ochi-Nawuka, Ochi Amissah, [[Ayensu River|Ayensu]], [[Densu River|Densu]] den Tordzie rivers, cover de remaining 8% of Ghana. Plus dat, groundwater dey available for mesozoic den cenozoic sedimentary rocks den inside sedimentary formations wey dey under de Volta basin. De [[Volta Lake]], wey get surface area of 8,500 km², be one of de biggest artificial lakes for di world. Overall, total renewable water resources for Ghana dem estimate say be about 53.2 billion m³ per year.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |author-link=Food and Agriculture Organization |title=Ghana Country Overview |url=http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/ghana/ghana_cp.pdf |access-date=25 March 2008}}, p. 3–4</ref> == Water use == For year 2000, total water wey dem withdraw be 982 million m³, den about two-thirds of am go for agricultural use. Another 10% dem take go industry, wey leave 24% or 235 million m³ for domestic use. Plus dat, 37,843 km³ dey use for hydroelectric power generation for [[Akosombo Dam]] each year.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |author-link=Food and Agriculture Organization |title=Ghana Country Overview |url=http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/ghana/ghana_cp.pdf |access-date=25 March 2008}}, p. 4–5</ref> == History den recent developments == Archaeological work for de house ruins of Begho (12th–19th century) don show say cisterns exist, den on average dem be about two meters deep.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Posnansky |first=Merrick |date=2015 |title=Begho: Life and Times |journal=Journal of West African History |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=95–118 |doi=10.14321/jwestafrihist.1.2.0095 |issn=2327-1868 |jstor=10.14321/jwestafrihist.1.2.0095 |s2cid=193121437}}</ref> For 1817, Thomas Edward Bowdich document de sanitation methods for de Ashanti Empire, including how latrines dey common for most houses for [[Kumasi]].<blockquote>Wetin surprise me pass… be say dem discover say every house get ein own cloacae (latrine), apart from de common ones wey dey outside town for lower class people. Dem usually dey place dem under small archway for de most hidden corner of de building, but sometimes dem dey even upstairs, inside separate room like small closet where big hollow pillar still dey help support de upper floor. De holes small for size, but dem dig dem reach very deep, den dem dey pour boiling water inside every day, wey dey make sure say no bad smell dey at all.</blockquote>— Bowdich, 1817.<ref name=":3">{{cite journal |last=United Nations |author-link=United Nations |year=2004 |title=Freshwater Country Profile: Ghana |url=https://www.un.org/esa/agenda21/natlinfo/countr/ghana/waterghana04f.pdf |access-date=7 April 2008}}, p. 2</ref> For 1821, William Hutton confirm wetin Bowdich observe.<blockquote>Mr. Bowdich ein observation about say houses get cloacae den de general cleanliness of de Ashantees be correct; den e no get doubt say for how dem dey arrange their houses, dem pass plenty of their neighbours for cleanliness.</blockquote>— Hutton, 1821.<ref name=":3" /> Bowdich record am for early 19th century say rubbish den waste from all houses dem dey burn am every morning behind de streets. According to scholar Donna Maier, Public Works Department dey exist for de Ashanti Empire under de stool wey dem call Akwammofo Akonnwa. Dis department be responsible for cleaning de streets of Kumasi every day, den e make sure say people dey keep their compounds clean den dem dey weed am well well.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Feierman |first=Steven |year=1985 |title=Struggles for Control: The Social Roots of Health and Healing in Modern Africa |journal=African Studies Review |volume=28 |issue=2/3 |pages=73–147 |doi=10.2307/524604 |jstor=524604}}</ref> For 1928, dem build de first piped water supply system for [[Cape Coast]]. De Water Supply Division of de Public Works Department dey handle water service provision for both rural den urban areas for Ghana. After Ghana gain independence for 1957, dem separate de division from Public Works Department den put am under Ministry of Works den Housing. For 1965, dem turn am into Ghana Water den Sewerage Corporation (GWSC), one legal public utility wey dey responsible for providing water for urban den rural areas for public, domestic den industrial use, as well as setting up, running den controlling sewerage systems. === Decentralization, focus on rural areas, den independent regulation (1994–1999) === For mid-1990s, under Presidency of [[Jerry Rawlings]] den after Ghana pass new democratic Constitution for 1992, government of Ghana bring five key laws wey affect how responsibility for water supply den sanitation dey run: * De Local Government Act No. 462 of 1993 explain say District Assemblies be de highest political authority for each district, den dem dey head am by District Chief Executive (like mayor). But neither de constitution nor de Local Government Act clearly define wetin District Assemblies suppose do, den at first dem no get role for water supply den sanitation until 1999 wey dem partially transfer am give dem. * De Water Resources Commission Act No. 552 of 1996 create Water Resources Commission (WRC) wey dem give responsibility for integrated water resources management, wey dey include permits for water abstraction.<ref name="wateraid 5">{{cite web |last=WaterAid |author-link=WaterAid |title=National Water Sector Assessment, Ghana |url=http://www.wateraid.org/other/startdownload.asp?DocumentID=28&mode=plugin |access-date=26 March 2008 |format=[[PDF]]}}{{Dead link|date=July 2018|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}, p. 5</ref> * De Public Utilities den Regulatory Commission Act No. 538 of 1997 create Public Utilities and Regulatory Commission (PURC) wey dem put insyd charge of regulating electricity sector den urban water supply, including checking tariff increase requests, monitoring service quality den protecting consumers.<ref name="oecd 2942">{{cite journal |author=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) |author-link=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development |title=African Economic Outlook 2007 – Ghana Country Note |url=http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/26/51/38562673.pdf |journal=African Economic Outlook 2007 |access-date=25 March 2008}}, p. 294</ref> * De Community Water and Sanitation Agency Act No. 564 of 1998 create Community Water den Sanitation Agency (CWSA) wey cam turn responsible for supporting local communities den District Assemblies for rural water supply den sanitation. CWSA come from Community Water den Sanitation Division wey dem create as semi-autonomous part of GWSC for 1994.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ghanaian Water Resources and Environmental Sanitation Project |author-link=macmeshack |title=Water Supply & Sanitation in Ghana |url=http://www.wresp.org/wsesingh.php#history |access-date=26 March 2008}}</ref> * Under Statutory Corporations (Conversion to Companies) Act 461 of 1993 den government policy wey aim turn state corporations go commercial companies, GWSC transform cam turn company wey dem call GWCL. GWCL remain responsible only for urban water supply, while responsibility for sewer systems move go District Assemblies.<ref>{{cite journal |last=United Nations |author-link=United Nations |year=2004 |title=Freshwater Country Profile: Ghana |url=https://www.un.org/esa/agenda21/natlinfo/countr/ghana/waterghana04f.pdf |access-date=7 April 2008}}, p. 2</ref> For 1999, responsibility say dem go take support communities for provision of water supply den sanitation for more than 110 small towns den rural areas transfer go District Assemblies. Sanitation sana cam turn responsibility of District Assemblies for both urban den rural areas. Plus dat, government try bring private sector go urban water supply plus help from World Bank through preparatory studies den workshops, but dem no fully bring private companies insyd yet. === Private sector participation in urban areas (2000–2011) === To carry out de private sector participation of GWCL, dem originally plan say make dem use 10-year lease contract. For 2000, lease contract between GWCL den de US company Azurix fail because of public opposition den accusations of corruption, wey later lead to de formation of de Coalition against Water Privatization.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rahaman |first=Abu Shiraz |author2=Everett, Jeff |author3=Neu, Dean |year=2007 |title=Accounting and the move to privatize water services in Africa |journal=Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal |publisher=Emerald Group Publishing Limited |volume=20 |issue=5 |pages=637–670 |doi=10.1108/09513570710778992}}, p. 648–651</ref> For October 2006 insyd, under Presidency of [[John Kufuor]] den plus support from de World Bank-funded Urban Water Project (see below), dem sign five-year management contract between GWCL den Aqua Vitens Rand Limited (AVRL), wey be consortium of de Dutch public water company Vitens den de South African public company Rand Water. De main objectives of de five-year management contract be: * Improve de reliability (pressure den flow rate) den quality of potable water; * Ensure de company ein financial sustainability; * Improve customer service; den * Provide access to potable water at affordable prices for low-income consumers.<ref name="Vitens Evides">{{cite web |last=Vitens Evides International |title=Management Contract 2006–2011 for urban water supply in Ghana A Partnership – in and for – development |url=http://www.vitensevidesinternational.com/projects/ghana/case-study-book-ghana-5.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130616221305/http://www.vitensevidesinternational.com/projects/ghana/case-study-book-ghana-5.pdf |archive-date=16 June 2013 |access-date=14 August 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Doe |first=Henry Wonder |year=2007 |title=Assessing the Challenges of Water Supply in. Urban Ghana: The case of North Teshie. (EESI Master Thesis) |url=http://www.lwr.kth.se/Publikationer/PDF_Files/LWR_EX_07_06.PDF |publisher=Department of Land and Water Resources Engineering, Royal Institute of Technology (KTH) |access-date=27 March 2008 |place=Stockholm}}{{Dead link|date=January 2020|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}, p. 35-36</ref> For 2008, dem report serious water shortages for Accra because power outages affect two water treatment plants.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news|last=Benson|first=Ivy|title=Government maintains Aqua Vitens deal...to manage water supply in the country|newspaper=The Ghanaian Chronicle|date=12 March 2008|access-date=27 March 2008|url=http://db.ghanaian-chronicle.com/thestory.asp?id=5993}}{{Dead link|date=January 2020|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}.</ref> De management contract expire for June 2011 den dem no renew am, after e achieve only part of ein objectives. For rural areas, de powers den resources of District Assemblies become stronger through de Local Government Service Act 656 of 2003. De Act transfer de power to appoint, promote den discipline civil servants from de national government give de District Assemblies. For 2006, dem create Districts Development Fund to channel central government den donor funds to District Assemblies in transparent den effective way. For 2009, dem create Environmental, Health den Sanitation Directorate insyd de Ministry of Local Government den Rural Development to put more focus on sanitation. As part of dis effort, dem launch programme to eliminate open defecation through community-led total sanitation.<ref name=":4" /> ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==External links== {{Commons}} ===Policy setting=== * [http://www.ghana.gov.gh/index.php/2012-02-08-08-18-09/ministries/274-ministry-of-water-resources-works-housing Ghanaian Ministry of Water Resources, Works and Housing] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190926043318/http://www.ghana.gov.gh/index.php/2012-02-08-08-18-09/ministries/274-ministry-of-water-resources-works-housing |date=26 September 2019 }} ===Economic regulation=== * [http://www.purc.com.gh/ Ghanaian Public Utilities and Regulatory Commission (PURC)] ===Service provision=== * [http://www.cwsagh.org/ Community Water and Sanitation Agency] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110727204856/http://www.ghanawater.com.gh/ Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL)] * [http://waterinafrica.org/ Water In Africa Through Everyday Responsiveness, a nonprofit which installs boreholes throughout Ghana] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation insyd Ghana| ]] [[Category:Environment of Ghana]] [[Category:Environmental issues insyd Ghana]] [[Category:Volta River Authority]] [[Category:1994 establishments insyd Ghana]] j8m9iz00w9mjbdchdk5o9jp8fy9si2i 102923 102920 2026-06-15T06:48:23Z Yaw tuba 7 improved article #AWC2026 102923 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''water supply and sanitation''' sector insyd [[Ghana]] be a sector wey be in charge of de supply of healthy water den sanso dey improve de sanitation of water bodies insyd de country. Insyd Ghana, de drinking water supply den sanitation sectors dey face a number of issues, wey dey include relatively limited sanitation access, intermittent supply, significant water losses, poor water pressure, den pollution. Since 1994, na dem gradually reform de sector thru de creation of an autonomous regulatory agency, introduction of private sector participation, decentralization of de rural supply to 138 [[Districts of Ghana|districts]] wey dem increase community participation insyd de management of rural water systems.<ref name="WaterAid">{{cite web|last=WaterAid|title=National Water Sector Assessment, Ghana|url=http://www.wateraid.org/other/startdownload.asp?DocumentID=28&mode=plugin|format=PDF|access-date=26 March 2008}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Scaling up Water and Sanitation in Ghana |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2020/11/18/scaling-up-water-and-sanitation-in-ghana |access-date=13 September 2023 |website=World Bank}}</ref> == References == <references /> ==External links== {{Commons}} ===Policy setting=== * [https://web.archive.org/web/20190926043318/http://www.ghana.gov.gh/index.php/2012-02-08-08-18-09/ministries/274-ministry-of-water-resources-works-housing Ghanaian Ministry of Water Resources, Works and Housing] ===Economic regulation=== * [http://www.purc.com.gh/ Ghanaian Public Utilities and Regulatory Commission (PURC)] ===Service provision=== * [http://www.cwsagh.org/ Community Water and Sanitation Agency] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110727204856/http://www.ghanawater.com.gh/ Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL)] * [http://waterinafrica.org/ Water In Africa Through Everyday Responsiveness, a nonprofit which installs boreholes throughout Ghana] ==Ein Access== De water supply den sanitation [[infrastructure]] be insufficient, especially insyd [[rural area]]s. Substantial discrepancies between access data from various sources dey, partially secof different definitions wey different institutions dey use wey dey provide access data. According to de Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation of [[UNICEF]] and [[WHO]], access plus [[Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa|water den sanitation]] be as follows: {| class="wikitable" |- ! colspan=2| ! Urban<br />(51% of the population) ! Rural<br />(49% of the population) ! Total |- | rowspan=2|Water<ref name="JMP"/> | [[At least basic water source|'At least basic' definition]] | 88% | 66% | 78% |- | House connections | 33% | 3% | 18% |- | rowspan=2|Sanitation<ref name="JMP"/> | [['At least basic' sanitation|'At least basic' definition]] | 19% | 9% | 14% |- |Sewerage | ? | ? | ? |} According to de [[United Nations]] 2015 [[Millennium Development Goal|MDG]] report, Ghana don achieve de target of reducing by half de number of people wey no get access to safe drinking water.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gh.undp.org/content/ghana/en/home/library/poverty/2015-ghana-millennium-development-goals-report.html|title=2015 Ghana Millennium Development Goals Report|website=UNDP in Ghana|access-date=6 May 2016|archive-date=2 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160602042020/http://www.gh.undp.org/content/ghana/en/home/library/poverty/2015-ghana-millennium-development-goals-report.html}}</ref> Dem estimate say almost one-third of de water supply systems for Ghana no dey function properly, while many others dey operate far below de capacity wey dem design dem for. On top of dat, domestic water supply dey compete plus increasing demand for water from de growing industry den agriculture sectors.<ref name="Ghana Safe Water Network">{{cite web|title=Ghana|url=http://www.safewaternetwork.org/countries-regions/ghana|website=Safe Water Network|access-date=29 April 2016}}</ref> [[File:A picture of a boy drinking polluted water.jpg|thumb|Water pollution insyd Ghana]]About 88% of de urban population for Ghana get access to at least [[Improved water source|basic drinking water]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.unicef.org/ghana/Ghana_MICS_Final.pdf|title=Ghana Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey 2011}}</ref> However, differences still dey between urban den rural access to safe drinking water. According to de Ghana Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey of 2011, people wey dey live for urban areas get more chance to access safe drinking water than people for rural areas, with rates of 91% den 69% respectively.<ref name=":0" /> Because of dis, dependence on unsafe water sources higher for rural areas.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://water.org/country/ghana/|title=Ghana – Water Crisis {{!}} Water.org|website=Water.org|access-date=6 May 2016|archive-date=22 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422112638/http://water.org/country/ghana/}}</ref> De turbidity levels of most local surface waters for rural communities pass 200 NTUs (nephelometric turbidity units) den dem contain high microbial den fecal contamination, wey dey put children den de rest of de population for high risk of water-related diseases.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Mintz |first1=Eric |last2=Bartram |first2=Jamie |last3=Lochery |first3=Peter |last4=Wegelin |first4=Martin |date=1 October 2001 |title=Not Just a Drop in the Bucket: Expanding Access to Point-of-Use Water Treatment Systems |journal=American Journal of Public Health |volume=91 |issue=10 |pages=1565–1570 |issn=0090-0036 |pmc=1446826 |pmid=11574307 |doi=10.2105/ajph.91.10.1565}}</ref> Compared plus de rest of Ghana, de three northern regions of Ghana suffer more from lack of clean drinking water, with one out of every ten children dying before dem reach five years because of some water-related illnesses.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.wateraid.org/us/where-we-work/page/ghana |title=Ghana – Where We Work – WaterAid America |website=www.wateraid.org |access-date=6 May 2016}}</ref> For de main Northern Region alone, 32% of de 2.5 million residents no get access to improved water sources den often dem dey depend on contaminated drinking water.<ref name=":0" /> As for sanitation, only 14% of de total population of Ghana dey use improved sanitation facilities as of 2010.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://data.unicef.org/corecode/uploads/document6/uploaded_pdfs/corecode/Pneumonia_Diarrhoea_2012_35.pdf |title=UNICEF. 2012. Pneumonia and Diarrhoea – Tackling the deadliest diseases for the world's poorest children. }}</ref> {| class="wikitable" !Improved Drinking Water Source !Unimproved Drinking Water Source |- |Household connection |Rivers or ponds |- |Borehole |Bucket |- |Protected dug well |Unprotected well |- |Protected spring |Unprotected spring |- |Public Standpipe |Vendor-provided water |- | |Tanker truck water |- | |Bottled (den sachet) water |} Dis table dey present de classifications of improved den unimproved water sources insyd Ghana since de end of de [[Millennium Development Goals]], according to de [[WHO]] den UNICEF.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1251454622-A_Snapshot_of_Drinking_Water_in_Africa_Eng.pdf|title=WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (2008). A Snapshot of Drinking Water and Sanitation in Africa.|access-date=6 May 2016|archive-date=1 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161001154210/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1251454622-A_Snapshot_of_Drinking_Water_in_Africa_Eng.pdf}}</ref> As of de end of 2015, na improved water sources dey include household water pipes, [[borehole]]s, protected dug wells den [[Spring (hydrology)|springs]], den public standpipes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gh.undp.org/content/dam/ghana/docs/Doc/Inclgro/UNDP_GH_2015%20Ghana%20MDGs%20Report.pdf|title=United Nations. 2015. Ghana Millennium Development Goals Report.|access-date=6 May 2016|archive-date=17 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517051924/http://www.gh.undp.org/content/dam/ghana/docs/Doc/Inclgro/UNDP_GH_2015%20Ghana%20MDGs%20Report.pdf}}</ref> ==Ein Service quality== ===Continuity of supply=== According to sam estimate, one quarter of de people wey dey live for [[Accra]] dey receive continuous water supply. About 30% dey get water for 12 hours each day, five days for week. Another 35% dey receive water for two days every week. De remaining 10% wey mostly dey live for de outskirts of de capital no get access to piped water at all.<ref name="wateraid 2" /> According to another source, de situation even worse: for February 2008, some communities insyd de Accra-Tema metropolis dey get water only once for week, or once for two weeks, or even once for month.<ref name=":2">[http://www.water-mwrwh.com/sub.htm#top AVRL: The Dodowa intervention]{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The continuity of water supply in rural areas and the Northern Region of Ghana are less frequent. Particularly in rural areas, locals are forced to fetch their own water from a variety of water sources depending on location:<ref name=":1" /> De regularity of water supply for rural areas den de Northern Region of Ghana dey even less frequent. Especially for rural areas, people dey forced to fetch their own water from different sources depending on where dem dey live:<ref name=":1" /> * Tube wells or boreholes – deep hole wey dem drill or dig reach underground water. Dem dey bring de water come up through pipe plus pump wey human power dey operate, den de well get protection platform to stop dirty water run-off or bird droppings enter de water. * Protected dug well – well wey dem protect from surface runoff water by lining or casing wey dey raised above ground level. * Rainwater collection – rain wey dem collect from surfaces den store inside container for use. * Water tank truck – water wey truck carry come community den dem dey sell am from de truck. * Unprotected dug wells or springs – well wey no get protection from runoff or bird droppings. * Cart plus small tank/drum – water seller dey carry water enter community, den dem dey sell am. Dem dey use donkey cart or motoking for transport. * Surface water sources – rivers, dams, lakes, ponds, etc. All of dem dey very likely to be polluted, wey fit be dangerous for people wey dey drink from there. Dis ones be de most dangerous water sources for Ghana population, because dem fit contain plenty bacteria den toxic substances wey fit cause infections den diseases, some wey even fit kill people.<ref name=":2" /> == Water contamination == === Drinking water quality === [[File:F-diagram-01.jpg|thumb|450x450px|De Fecal-oral disease route transmission]] De lack of clean drinking [[Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa|water]] [[Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa|den sanitation]] systems be serious public health problem for Ghana, den e dey cause about 70% of diseases for de country. Even though government den e development partners dey try plenty, about 76% of households still dey risk drinking water wey get contamination from animal den human waste.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Water, Sanitation and Hygiene {{!}} UNICEF Ghana |url=https://www.unicef.org/ghana/water-sanitation-and-hygiene |access-date=28 September 2023 |website=www.unicef.org |language=en}}</ref> Chao dey use of plastic sachet water secof clean tap water no dey enough aN sey cause big [[plastic pollution]], wey dey block water bodies, clog storm-water drains den even cause death of livestock.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adam |first1=Issahaku |last2=Walker |first2=Tony R. |last3=Bezerra |first3=Joana Carlos |last4=Clayton |first4=Andrea |date=1 June 2020 |title=Policies to reduce single-use plastic marine pollution in West Africa |journal=Marine Policy |volume=116 |bibcode=2020MarPo.11603928A |doi=10.1016/j.marpol.2020.103928 |s2cid=216397079 |article-number=103928}}</ref> Ghana ein gold mining industry sana dey pollute about 60% of de country water sources.<ref name="illegal_gold_mines_2021_08_11_bbc">{{Cite news|title=The illegal gold mines killing rivers and livelihoods in Ghana|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-africa-58119653|access-date=16 October 2024|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=13 October 2024 |title=CONIWAS expresses worry over increasing effects of Galamsey |url=https://www.modernghana.com/news/1348449/coniwas-expresses-worry-over-increasing-effects.html |access-date=16 October 2024 |website=Modern Ghana}}</ref> Secof dirty water den bad sanitation, about 1,000 children under five years dey die every year from diarrhea wey come from polluted water.<ref>{{cite web |title=Water Aid- Where we work: Ghana |url=https://www.wateraid.org/uk/where-we-work/ghana |access-date=10 May 2018 |website=Water Aid UK}}</ref> De water wey dem dey take from [[Pond|ponds]], [[Lake|lakes]] abaa rivers no dey good at all. So households wey no get access to clean water dey forced to use unsafe sources, den dem even dey pay more money.<ref name="oecd 294">{{cite journal |author=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) |author-link=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development |title=African Economic Outlook 2007 – Ghana Country Note |url=http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/26/51/38562673.pdf |journal=African Economic Outlook 2007 |access-date=25 March 2008}}, p. 294</ref> Contaminated drinking water, plus poor sanitation, dey linked to diseases like cholera, diarrhoea, dysentery, hepatitis A, typhoid den polio wey dem dey transmit through water.<ref name=":22">{{Cite web |title=Drinking-water |url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs391/en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808013616/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs391/en/ |archive-date=8 August 2014 |access-date=6 May 2016 |website=World Health Organization |language=en-GB}}</ref> Because people dey drink dirty water, diarrheal disease be the third most common sickness wey dem dey report for health centers across Ghana. 25% of all deaths for children under five years dey come from diarrhea.<ref name=":22" /> Apart from lack of sanitation infrastructure, some cultural beliefs den attitudes dey encourage [[open defecation]]. From de total population for Ghana, 23% dey practice open defecation as their sanitation method.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |title=Ghana Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey 2011 |url=http://www.unicef.org/ghana/Ghana_MICS_Final.pdf}}</ref> As many as 72% of people for de [[Northern Region (Ghana)|Northern Region]] dey do open defecation, wey make am de region wey get de highest rate for Ghana.<ref name=":02" /> Most of de waterborne diseases be enteric diseases (meaning intestinal diseases) wey dem dey spread through fecal-oral route.<ref>{{Cite web |title=WHO. 2006. Preventing disease through healthy environments. |url=https://www.who.int/quantifying_ehimpacts/publications/preventingdisease.pdf}}</ref> For de way disease dey spread through water contamination, human feces from public defecation dey enter sewage systems den non-recycling latrines, den rain carry am go local surface waters, den menners later drink anaa contact am directly, wey cause infection through exposure, absorption den ingestion. Surface water be de main drinking water source for communities for Northern Region of Ghana.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last1=Mintz |first1=Eric |last2=Bartram |first2=Jamie |last3=Lochery |first3=Peter |last4=Wegelin |first4=Martin |date=1 October 2001 |title=Not Just a Drop in the Bucket: Expanding Access to Point-of-Use Water Treatment Systems |journal=American Journal of Public Health |volume=91 |issue=10 |pages=1565–1570 |doi=10.2105/ajph.91.10.1565 |issn=0090-0036 |pmc=1446826 |pmid=11574307}}</ref> For 2024, for one stakeholder conference, Ing. Harold Esseku, Senior Water den Sanitation Specialist for World Bank talk say Ghana dey on track to improve water quality by 2030.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ghana to upscale efforts to improve water quality by 2030 - Esseku |url=https://www.modernghana.com/news/1348313/ghana-to-upscale-efforts-to-improve-water-quality.html |access-date=16 October 2024 |website=Modern Ghana}}</ref> === Effects for education top === De main traditional water sources for many parts of rural Ghana be small ponds den unprotected wells, den both of dem dey very easy make dem get polluted, wey dey cause diseases for people wey dey drink am (Oxfam). More than 50% of de rural population for Ghana also dey depend on unsafe water resources from vendors (Ghana Clean Water Project). Dis thing dey bring plenty sicknesses. De water get parasites den high microbial content, plus dangerous minerals. Many people, mostly children, dey suffer plenty diseases from dis water, den some of dem even fit die from am.<ref name="Water.org: Ghana">{{cite web |title=Ghana |url=http://water.org/country/ghana/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422112638/http://water.org/country/ghana/ |archive-date=22 April 2016 |access-date=27 April 2016 |website=Water.org}}</ref> No be only health de water dey affect; e dey also affect education. For example, for some places for Ghana, children—mostly girls—dey deny their right to go school because their schools no get proper private toilet facilities. Instead, dem expect dem make dem spend whole day dey fetch water. Dis dey affect their education den e dey make am hard make de country develop fast. If people get more clean water den proper sanitation, girls no go dey deny school, den dem go get education wey go increase number of educated people for Ghana.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Delali|first=Sika|title=Ghana Marks Global Hand-washing Day with renewed call for improved hygiene|url=https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/general-news/ghana-news-ghana-marks-global-handwashing-day-with-renewed-call-for-improved-hygiene.html|location=Accra, Ghana|access-date=16 October 2024|newspaper=[[Daily Graphic (Ghana)|Daily Graphic]]|date=16 October 2024}}</ref> All things considered, de water problems wey Ghana dey face no be only about sickness for de population, but e dey also affect education. Dis one no dey happen every time, but e dey happen for some parts of Ghana, especially rural areas.<ref name="Water.org: Ghana" /> === Wastewater treatment === {{further|wastewater treatment}} Dem estimate say for year 2000, urban areas for Ghana dey generate about 763,698 m³ of wastewater every day, wey go amount to around 280 million m³ for the whole year. Regional capitals also add another 180 million m³.<ref>{{cite conference|first=SK|last=Agodzo|author2=Huibers, FP|author3=Chenini, F.|author4=van Lier, JB|author5=Duran A.|title=Use of wastewater in irrgigated agriculture. Country studies from Bolivia, Ghana and Tunisia. Volume 2: Ghana|publisher=WUR|location=Wageningen|url=http://www.iwe.wur.nl/NR/rdonlyres/B87C7F6A-BACA-43CF-BC29-B223B0102B21/9226/fh030624GHANAfinal.PDF|isbn=90-6754-704-2|access-date=28 March 2008}}, p. 16-17</ref> Only small part of de wastewater wey urban areas dey produce dey collected, den even smaller part dey treated. Bad management of urban, industrial den agricultural wastewater often mean say drinking water for millions of people dey either dangerously contaminated or chemically polluted.<ref name=":22" /> For Accra, de capital city, only about 10% of wastewater dey collected. More than that, less than 25% of de 46 industrial den municipal treatment plants for Ghana dey function properly according to inventory wey Ghana Environmental Protection Agency do for 2001. Most of de treatment plants for municipal wastewater dey run by local governments, den most of dem be stabilization ponds.<ref>{{Cite web |title=RUAF Ghana sanitation report |url=http://www.ruaf.org/system/files?file=Chap6-Sanitation.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725133727/http://www.ruaf.org/system/files?file=Chap6-Sanitation.pdf |archive-date=25 July 2011 |access-date=13 April 2008}}</ref> One biological treatment plant dem build am for late 1990s for [[Korle Lagoon]] for Accra, but e only dey handle about 8% of Accra ein wastewater. == Water resources == Ghana get chao water resources. De Volta River system basin, wey dey include [[Oti River|Oti]], [[Daka River|Daka]], [[Pru River|Pru]], [[Sene River|Sene]] den [[Afram River|Afram]] rivers plus de [[White Volta|white]] den [[Black Volta]] rivers, cover about 70% of de country land area. Another 22% of Ghana land dey covered by de southwestern river system watershed wey include [[Bia River|Bia]], [[Tano River|Tano]], [[Ankobra River|Ankobra]] den [[Pra River (Ghana)|Pra]] rivers. De coastal river system watershed, wey include Ochi-Nawuka, Ochi Amissah, [[Ayensu River|Ayensu]], [[Densu River|Densu]] den Tordzie rivers, cover de remaining 8% of Ghana. Plus dat, groundwater dey available for mesozoic den cenozoic sedimentary rocks den inside sedimentary formations wey dey under de Volta basin. De [[Volta Lake]], wey get surface area of 8,500 km², be one of de biggest artificial lakes for di world. Overall, total renewable water resources for Ghana dem estimate say be about 53.2 billion m³ per year.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |author-link=Food and Agriculture Organization |title=Ghana Country Overview |url=http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/ghana/ghana_cp.pdf |access-date=25 March 2008}}, p. 3–4</ref> == Water use == For year 2000, total water wey dem withdraw be 982 million m³, den about two-thirds of am go for agricultural use. Another 10% dem take go industry, wey leave 24% or 235 million m³ for domestic use. Plus dat, 37,843 km³ dey use for hydroelectric power generation for [[Akosombo Dam]] each year.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |author-link=Food and Agriculture Organization |title=Ghana Country Overview |url=http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/ghana/ghana_cp.pdf |access-date=25 March 2008}}, p. 4–5</ref> == History den recent developments == Archaeological work for de house ruins of Begho (12th–19th century) don show say cisterns exist, den on average dem be about two meters deep.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Posnansky |first=Merrick |date=2015 |title=Begho: Life and Times |journal=Journal of West African History |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=95–118 |doi=10.14321/jwestafrihist.1.2.0095 |issn=2327-1868 |jstor=10.14321/jwestafrihist.1.2.0095 |s2cid=193121437}}</ref> For 1817, Thomas Edward Bowdich document de sanitation methods for de Ashanti Empire, including how latrines dey common for most houses for [[Kumasi]].<blockquote>Wetin surprise me pass… be say dem discover say every house get ein own cloacae (latrine), apart from de common ones wey dey outside town for lower class people. Dem usually dey place dem under small archway for de most hidden corner of de building, but sometimes dem dey even upstairs, inside separate room like small closet where big hollow pillar still dey help support de upper floor. De holes small for size, but dem dig dem reach very deep, den dem dey pour boiling water inside every day, wey dey make sure say no bad smell dey at all.</blockquote>— Bowdich, 1817.<ref name=":3">{{cite journal |last=United Nations |author-link=United Nations |year=2004 |title=Freshwater Country Profile: Ghana |url=https://www.un.org/esa/agenda21/natlinfo/countr/ghana/waterghana04f.pdf |access-date=7 April 2008}}, p. 2</ref> For 1821, William Hutton confirm wetin Bowdich observe.<blockquote>Mr. Bowdich ein observation about say houses get cloacae den de general cleanliness of de Ashantees be correct; den e no get doubt say for how dem dey arrange their houses, dem pass plenty of their neighbours for cleanliness.</blockquote>— Hutton, 1821.<ref name=":3" /> Bowdich record am for early 19th century say rubbish den waste from all houses dem dey burn am every morning behind de streets. According to scholar Donna Maier, Public Works Department dey exist for de Ashanti Empire under de stool wey dem call Akwammofo Akonnwa. Dis department be responsible for cleaning de streets of Kumasi every day, den e make sure say people dey keep their compounds clean den dem dey weed am well well.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Feierman |first=Steven |year=1985 |title=Struggles for Control: The Social Roots of Health and Healing in Modern Africa |journal=African Studies Review |volume=28 |issue=2/3 |pages=73–147 |doi=10.2307/524604 |jstor=524604}}</ref> For 1928, dem build de first piped water supply system for [[Cape Coast]]. De Water Supply Division of de Public Works Department dey handle water service provision for both rural den urban areas for Ghana. After Ghana gain independence for 1957, dem separate de division from Public Works Department den put am under Ministry of Works den Housing. For 1965, dem turn am into Ghana Water den Sewerage Corporation (GWSC), one legal public utility wey dey responsible for providing water for urban den rural areas for public, domestic den industrial use, as well as setting up, running den controlling sewerage systems. === Decentralization, focus for rural areas top, den independent regulation (1994–1999) === For mid-1990s, under Presidency of [[Jerry Rawlings]] den after Ghana pass new democratic Constitution for 1992, government of Ghana bring five key laws wey affect how responsibility for water supply den sanitation dey run: * De Local Government Act No. 462 of 1993 explain say District Assemblies be de highest political authority for each district, den dem dey head am by District Chief Executive (like mayor). But neither de constitution nor de Local Government Act clearly define wetin District Assemblies suppose do, den at first dem no get role for water supply den sanitation until 1999 wey dem partially transfer am give dem. * De Water Resources Commission Act No. 552 of 1996 create Water Resources Commission (WRC) wey dem give responsibility for integrated water resources management, wey dey include permits for water abstraction.<ref name="wateraid 5">{{cite web |last=WaterAid |author-link=WaterAid |title=National Water Sector Assessment, Ghana |url=http://www.wateraid.org/other/startdownload.asp?DocumentID=28&mode=plugin |access-date=26 March 2008 |format=[[PDF]]}}{{Dead link|date=July 2018|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}, p. 5</ref> * De Public Utilities den Regulatory Commission Act No. 538 of 1997 create Public Utilities and Regulatory Commission (PURC) wey dem put insyd charge of regulating electricity sector den urban water supply, including checking tariff increase requests, monitoring service quality den protecting consumers.<ref name="oecd 2942">{{cite journal |author=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) |author-link=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development |title=African Economic Outlook 2007 – Ghana Country Note |url=http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/26/51/38562673.pdf |journal=African Economic Outlook 2007 |access-date=25 March 2008}}, p. 294</ref> * De Community Water and Sanitation Agency Act No. 564 of 1998 create Community Water den Sanitation Agency (CWSA) wey cam turn responsible for supporting local communities den District Assemblies for rural water supply den sanitation. CWSA come from Community Water den Sanitation Division wey dem create as semi-autonomous part of GWSC for 1994.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ghanaian Water Resources and Environmental Sanitation Project |author-link=macmeshack |title=Water Supply & Sanitation in Ghana |url=http://www.wresp.org/wsesingh.php#history |access-date=26 March 2008}}</ref> * Under Statutory Corporations (Conversion to Companies) Act 461 of 1993 den government policy wey aim turn state corporations go commercial companies, GWSC transform cam turn company wey dem call GWCL. GWCL remain responsible only for urban water supply, while responsibility for sewer systems move go District Assemblies.<ref>{{cite journal |last=United Nations |author-link=United Nations |year=2004 |title=Freshwater Country Profile: Ghana |url=https://www.un.org/esa/agenda21/natlinfo/countr/ghana/waterghana04f.pdf |access-date=7 April 2008}}, p. 2</ref> For 1999, responsibility say dem go take support communities for provision of water supply den sanitation for more than 110 small towns den rural areas transfer go District Assemblies. Sanitation sana cam turn responsibility of District Assemblies for both urban den rural areas. Plus dat, government try bring private sector go urban water supply plus help from World Bank through preparatory studies den workshops, but dem no fully bring private companies insyd yet. === Private sector participation insyd urban areas (2000–2011) === To carry out de private sector participation of GWCL, dem originally plan say make dem use 10-year lease contract. For 2000, lease contract between GWCL den de US company Azurix fail because of public opposition den accusations of corruption, wey later lead to de formation of de Coalition against Water Privatization.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rahaman |first=Abu Shiraz |author2=Everett, Jeff |author3=Neu, Dean |year=2007 |title=Accounting and the move to privatize water services in Africa |journal=Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal |publisher=Emerald Group Publishing Limited |volume=20 |issue=5 |pages=637–670 |doi=10.1108/09513570710778992}}, p. 648–651</ref> For October 2006 insyd, under Presidency of [[John Kufuor]] den plus support from de World Bank-funded Urban Water Project (see below), dem sign five-year management contract between GWCL den Aqua Vitens Rand Limited (AVRL), wey be consortium of de Dutch public water company Vitens den de South African public company Rand Water. De main objectives of de five-year management contract be: * Improve de reliability (pressure den flow rate) den quality of potable water; * Ensure de company ein financial sustainability; * Improve customer service; den * Provide access to potable water at affordable prices for low-income consumers.<ref name="Vitens Evides">{{cite web |last=Vitens Evides International |title=Management Contract 2006–2011 for urban water supply in Ghana A Partnership – in and for – development |url=http://www.vitensevidesinternational.com/projects/ghana/case-study-book-ghana-5.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130616221305/http://www.vitensevidesinternational.com/projects/ghana/case-study-book-ghana-5.pdf |archive-date=16 June 2013 |access-date=14 August 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Doe |first=Henry Wonder |year=2007 |title=Assessing the Challenges of Water Supply in. Urban Ghana: The case of North Teshie. (EESI Master Thesis) |url=http://www.lwr.kth.se/Publikationer/PDF_Files/LWR_EX_07_06.PDF |publisher=Department of Land and Water Resources Engineering, Royal Institute of Technology (KTH) |access-date=27 March 2008 |place=Stockholm}}{{Dead link|date=January 2020|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}, p. 35-36</ref> For 2008, dem report serious water shortages for Accra because power outages affect two water treatment plants.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news|last=Benson|first=Ivy|title=Government maintains Aqua Vitens deal...to manage water supply in the country|newspaper=The Ghanaian Chronicle|date=12 March 2008|access-date=27 March 2008|url=http://db.ghanaian-chronicle.com/thestory.asp?id=5993}}{{Dead link|date=January 2020|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}.</ref> De management contract expire for June 2011 den dem no renew am, after e achieve only part of ein objectives. For rural areas, de powers den resources of District Assemblies become stronger through de Local Government Service Act 656 of 2003. De Act transfer de power to appoint, promote den discipline civil servants from de national government give de District Assemblies. For 2006, dem create Districts Development Fund to channel central government den donor funds to District Assemblies in transparent den effective way. For 2009, dem create Environmental, Health den Sanitation Directorate insyd de Ministry of Local Government den Rural Development to put more focus on sanitation. As part of dis effort, dem launch programme to eliminate open defecation through community-led total sanitation.<ref name=":4" /> == Responsibility for water supply den sanitation == {{Main|Water privatisation in Ghana|l1=Water privatization in Ghana}} [[File:Pra_River.gif|thumb|372x372px|De [[Pra River (Ghana)|Pra River]] system of de [[List of rivers of Ghana|rivers of Ghana]].]] According to sam multi-donor review of Ghana ein water supply sector, ebe "quite well structured", plus de government wey dey charge of policy den regulation, while de private sector den communities play important roles in service delivery.<ref name="MDG">AMCW/AfDB/EUWI/WSP/UNDP: [http://www.wsp.org/filez/news/27200752243_MDGsAfrica.pdf Getting Africa on Track to meet the MDGs on Water and Sanitation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080227155149/http://www.wsp.org/filez/news/27200752243_MDGsAfrica.pdf|date=27 February 2008}} – A Status Overview of Sixteen African Countries, 2006, p. 27</ref> De institutional framework for sanitation be much less clear, plus responsibilities no be clear. === Policy den regulation === For now, several institutions dey exist to supervise den regulate water supply den sanitation. De policy framework dey based on de Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy (GPRS).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Water-Aid Ghana |year=2005 |title=Assessment of national sanitation policies: Ghana case. Final report. |url=http://wedc.lboro.ac.uk/projects/proj_contents0/WEJEH%20-%20Sanitation%20Policy/www/outputs/Ghana%20Sanitation%20Policy%20Assessment%20Report.pdf |access-date=26 March 2008 |location=Accra}}, p. 28–29</ref> General policies for de water sector, both for rural den urban areas, dey set by de Water Directorate insyd de Ministry of Water Resources, Works den Housing (MWRWH). Plus dat, de ministry dey seek funding from external support agencies, monitor de sector den advise de Cabinet on water matters.<ref name="wateraid 52">{{cite web |last=WaterAid |author-link=WaterAid |title=National Water Sector Assessment, Ghana |url=http://www.wateraid.org/other/startdownload.asp?DocumentID=28&mode=plugin |access-date=26 March 2008 |format=[[PDF]]}}{{Dead link|date=July 2018|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}, p. 5</ref> De Water Sector Restructuring Secretariat, wey dem create for 1997 insyd de Ministry of Water Resources, Works den Housing, dey oversee de process of private sector participation for de water sector.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Doe |first=Henry Wonder |year=2007 |title=Assessing the Challenges of Water Supply in. Urban Ghana: The case of North Teshie. (EESI Master Thesis) |url=http://www.lwr.kth.se/Publikationer/PDF_Files/LWR_EX_07_06.PDF |publisher=Department of Land and Water Resources Engineering, Royal Institute of Technology (KTH) |access-date=27 March 2008 |place=Stockholm}}{{Dead link|date=January 2020|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}, p. 33</ref> De Ministry of Local Government den Rural Development also share responsibility plus MWRWH for setting sanitation policies den coordinating funding for de sanitation sub-sector. Government dey promote decentralization, so dem expect Metropolitan, Municipal den District Assemblies to implement sanitation policies. To enforce environmental quality laws, de Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) under de Ministry of Environment den Science suppose assess de impact of sanitation development activities on de environment. To solve de problem of poor coordination among de many institutions for de sector, de Minister of Water Resources, Works den Housing, Abubakar Saddique Boniface, launch de National Water Policy (NWP) for February 2008. De policy cover water resources management, water supply den sanitation. Although de sector make some progress, lack of coordination for policy formulation result insyd many different implementation strategies. De main aim of de NWP be to create one comprehensive policy for de sector den make am easier for development partners to provide de necessary support for de water sector.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Appiah|first=Innocent|title=Govt tackles water issue|newspaper=[[Ghanaian Times]]|date=28 February 2008|url=http://www.newtimesonline.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=14378&Itemid=181&month=2&year=2008}}{{dead link|date=February 2025|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> De Water Resources Commission (WRC) start preparing de NWP since 2002. === Illegal mining activities den water supply === Lands Minister, Samuel Abu Jinapor re-assure de general public say Ghana ein water supply be safe den consumable despite massive concerns of illegal mining activities wey dey impact natural water bodies insyd de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 October 2024 |title=Lands Minister Jinapor Defends Ghana's Water Supply Amidst Galamsey Concerns |url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/blogs/godblessed/Lands-Minister-Jinapor-Defends-Ghana-s-Water-Supply-Amidst-Galamsey-Concerns-244 |access-date=9 October 2024 |website=Ghana Web}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=New water policy to address 'galamsey' menace – Sanitation Ministry |url=https://www.myjoyonline.com/new-water-policy-to-address-galamsey-menace-sanitation-ministry/ |access-date=16 October 2024}}</ref> ===Service provision=== ==== Urban areas ==== De [[Ghana Water Company]] Ltd. (GWCL) be responsible for providing, distributing, den conserving water for domestic, public, den industrial purposes insyd 82 urban systems insyd localities plus more than 5,000 inhabitants. Local private companies wey dey charge of [[Water meter|meter]] installation, customer billing, den revenue collection.<ref name="wateraid 19">{{Cite web |last=Water-Aid Ghana |year=2005 |title=Assessment of national sanitation policies: Ghana case. Final report. |url=http://wedc.lboro.ac.uk/projects/proj_contents0/WEJEH%20-%20Sanitation%20Policy/www/outputs/Ghana%20Sanitation%20Policy%20Assessment%20Report.pdf |access-date=26 March 2008 |location=Accra}}, p. 19</ref> Urban sanitation be responsibility of local governments.<ref>{{Cite web |title=RUAF Ghana Sanitation Report |url=http://www.ruaf.org/system/files?file=Chap6-Sanitation.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725133727/http://www.ruaf.org/system/files?file=Chap6-Sanitation.pdf |archive-date=25 July 2011 |access-date=13 April 2008}}</ref> ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==External links== {{Commons}} ===Policy setting=== * [http://www.ghana.gov.gh/index.php/2012-02-08-08-18-09/ministries/274-ministry-of-water-resources-works-housing Ghanaian Ministry of Water Resources, Works and Housing] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190926043318/http://www.ghana.gov.gh/index.php/2012-02-08-08-18-09/ministries/274-ministry-of-water-resources-works-housing |date=26 September 2019 }} ===Economic regulation=== * [http://www.purc.com.gh/ Ghanaian Public Utilities and Regulatory Commission (PURC)] ===Service provision=== * [http://www.cwsagh.org/ Community Water and Sanitation Agency] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110727204856/http://www.ghanawater.com.gh/ Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL)] * [http://waterinafrica.org/ Water In Africa Through Everyday Responsiveness, a nonprofit which installs boreholes throughout Ghana] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation insyd Ghana| ]] [[Category:Environment of Ghana]] [[Category:Environmental issues insyd Ghana]] [[Category:Volta River Authority]] [[Category:1994 establishments insyd Ghana]] 0ib57p5vvp35rvnwnsof8z386nzep98 102930 102923 2026-06-15T07:45:02Z Yaw tuba 7 improved article #AWC2026 102930 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''water supply and sanitation''' sector insyd [[Ghana]] be a sector wey be in charge of de supply of healthy water den sanso dey improve de sanitation of water bodies insyd de country. Insyd Ghana, de drinking water supply den sanitation sectors dey face a number of issues, wey dey include relatively limited sanitation access, intermittent supply, significant water losses, poor water pressure, den pollution. Since 1994, na dem gradually reform de sector thru de creation of an autonomous regulatory agency, introduction of private sector participation, decentralization of de rural supply to 138 [[Districts of Ghana|districts]] wey dem increase community participation insyd de management of rural water systems.<ref name="WaterAid">{{cite web|last=WaterAid|title=National Water Sector Assessment, Ghana|url=http://www.wateraid.org/other/startdownload.asp?DocumentID=28&mode=plugin|format=PDF|access-date=26 March 2008}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Scaling up Water and Sanitation in Ghana |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2020/11/18/scaling-up-water-and-sanitation-in-ghana |access-date=13 September 2023 |website=World Bank}}</ref> == References == <references /> ==External links== {{Commons}} ===Policy setting=== * [https://web.archive.org/web/20190926043318/http://www.ghana.gov.gh/index.php/2012-02-08-08-18-09/ministries/274-ministry-of-water-resources-works-housing Ghanaian Ministry of Water Resources, Works and Housing] ===Economic regulation=== * [http://www.purc.com.gh/ Ghanaian Public Utilities and Regulatory Commission (PURC)] ===Service provision=== * [http://www.cwsagh.org/ Community Water and Sanitation Agency] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110727204856/http://www.ghanawater.com.gh/ Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL)] * [http://waterinafrica.org/ Water In Africa Through Everyday Responsiveness, a nonprofit which installs boreholes throughout Ghana] ==Ein Access== De water supply den sanitation [[infrastructure]] be insufficient, especially insyd [[rural area]]s. Substantial discrepancies between access data from various sources dey, partially secof different definitions wey different institutions dey use wey dey provide access data. According to de Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation of [[UNICEF]] and [[WHO]], access plus [[Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa|water den sanitation]] be as follows: {| class="wikitable" |- ! colspan=2| ! Urban<br />(51% of the population) ! Rural<br />(49% of the population) ! Total |- | rowspan=2|Water<ref name="JMP"/> | [[At least basic water source|'At least basic' definition]] | 88% | 66% | 78% |- | House connections | 33% | 3% | 18% |- | rowspan=2|Sanitation<ref name="JMP"/> | [['At least basic' sanitation|'At least basic' definition]] | 19% | 9% | 14% |- |Sewerage | ? | ? | ? |} According to de [[United Nations]] 2015 [[Millennium Development Goal|MDG]] report, Ghana don achieve de target of reducing by half de number of people wey no get access to safe drinking water.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gh.undp.org/content/ghana/en/home/library/poverty/2015-ghana-millennium-development-goals-report.html|title=2015 Ghana Millennium Development Goals Report|website=UNDP in Ghana|access-date=6 May 2016|archive-date=2 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160602042020/http://www.gh.undp.org/content/ghana/en/home/library/poverty/2015-ghana-millennium-development-goals-report.html}}</ref> Dem estimate say almost one-third of de water supply systems for Ghana no dey function properly, while many others dey operate far below de capacity wey dem design dem for. On top of dat, domestic water supply dey compete plus increasing demand for water from de growing industry den agriculture sectors.<ref name="Ghana Safe Water Network">{{cite web|title=Ghana|url=http://www.safewaternetwork.org/countries-regions/ghana|website=Safe Water Network|access-date=29 April 2016}}</ref> [[File:A picture of a boy drinking polluted water.jpg|thumb|Water pollution insyd Ghana]]About 88% of de urban population for Ghana get access to at least [[Improved water source|basic drinking water]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.unicef.org/ghana/Ghana_MICS_Final.pdf|title=Ghana Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey 2011}}</ref> However, differences still dey between urban den rural access to safe drinking water. According to de Ghana Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey of 2011, people wey dey live for urban areas get more chance to access safe drinking water than people for rural areas, with rates of 91% den 69% respectively.<ref name=":0" /> Because of dis, dependence on unsafe water sources higher for rural areas.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://water.org/country/ghana/|title=Ghana – Water Crisis {{!}} Water.org|website=Water.org|access-date=6 May 2016|archive-date=22 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422112638/http://water.org/country/ghana/}}</ref> De turbidity levels of most local surface waters for rural communities pass 200 NTUs (nephelometric turbidity units) den dem contain high microbial den fecal contamination, wey dey put children den de rest of de population for high risk of water-related diseases.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Mintz |first1=Eric |last2=Bartram |first2=Jamie |last3=Lochery |first3=Peter |last4=Wegelin |first4=Martin |date=1 October 2001 |title=Not Just a Drop in the Bucket: Expanding Access to Point-of-Use Water Treatment Systems |journal=American Journal of Public Health |volume=91 |issue=10 |pages=1565–1570 |issn=0090-0036 |pmc=1446826 |pmid=11574307 |doi=10.2105/ajph.91.10.1565}}</ref> Compared plus de rest of Ghana, de three northern regions of Ghana suffer more from lack of clean drinking water, with one out of every ten children dying before dem reach five years because of some water-related illnesses.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.wateraid.org/us/where-we-work/page/ghana |title=Ghana – Where We Work – WaterAid America |website=www.wateraid.org |access-date=6 May 2016}}</ref> For de main Northern Region alone, 32% of de 2.5 million residents no get access to improved water sources den often dem dey depend on contaminated drinking water.<ref name=":0" /> As for sanitation, only 14% of de total population of Ghana dey use improved sanitation facilities as of 2010.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://data.unicef.org/corecode/uploads/document6/uploaded_pdfs/corecode/Pneumonia_Diarrhoea_2012_35.pdf |title=UNICEF. 2012. Pneumonia and Diarrhoea – Tackling the deadliest diseases for the world's poorest children. }}</ref> {| class="wikitable" !Improved Drinking Water Source !Unimproved Drinking Water Source |- |Household connection |Rivers or ponds |- |Borehole |Bucket |- |Protected dug well |Unprotected well |- |Protected spring |Unprotected spring |- |Public Standpipe |Vendor-provided water |- | |Tanker truck water |- | |Bottled (den sachet) water |} Dis table dey present de classifications of improved den unimproved water sources insyd Ghana since de end of de [[Millennium Development Goals]], according to de [[WHO]] den UNICEF.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1251454622-A_Snapshot_of_Drinking_Water_in_Africa_Eng.pdf|title=WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (2008). A Snapshot of Drinking Water and Sanitation in Africa.|access-date=6 May 2016|archive-date=1 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161001154210/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1251454622-A_Snapshot_of_Drinking_Water_in_Africa_Eng.pdf}}</ref> As of de end of 2015, na improved water sources dey include household water pipes, [[borehole]]s, protected dug wells den [[Spring (hydrology)|springs]], den public standpipes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gh.undp.org/content/dam/ghana/docs/Doc/Inclgro/UNDP_GH_2015%20Ghana%20MDGs%20Report.pdf|title=United Nations. 2015. Ghana Millennium Development Goals Report.|access-date=6 May 2016|archive-date=17 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517051924/http://www.gh.undp.org/content/dam/ghana/docs/Doc/Inclgro/UNDP_GH_2015%20Ghana%20MDGs%20Report.pdf}}</ref> ==Ein Service quality== ===Continuity of supply=== According to sam estimate, one quarter of de people wey dey live for [[Accra]] dey receive continuous water supply. About 30% dey get water for 12 hours each day, five days for week. Another 35% dey receive water for two days every week. De remaining 10% wey mostly dey live for de outskirts of de capital no get access to piped water at all.<ref name="wateraid 2" /> According to another source, de situation even worse: for February 2008, some communities insyd de Accra-Tema metropolis dey get water only once for week, or once for two weeks, or even once for month.<ref name=":2">[http://www.water-mwrwh.com/sub.htm#top AVRL: The Dodowa intervention]{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The continuity of water supply in rural areas and the Northern Region of Ghana are less frequent. Particularly in rural areas, locals are forced to fetch their own water from a variety of water sources depending on location:<ref name=":1" /> De regularity of water supply for rural areas den de Northern Region of Ghana dey even less frequent. Especially for rural areas, people dey forced to fetch their own water from different sources depending on where dem dey live:<ref name=":1" /> * Tube wells or boreholes – deep hole wey dem drill or dig reach underground water. Dem dey bring de water come up through pipe plus pump wey human power dey operate, den de well get protection platform to stop dirty water run-off or bird droppings enter de water. * Protected dug well – well wey dem protect from surface runoff water by lining or casing wey dey raised above ground level. * Rainwater collection – rain wey dem collect from surfaces den store inside container for use. * Water tank truck – water wey truck carry come community den dem dey sell am from de truck. * Unprotected dug wells or springs – well wey no get protection from runoff or bird droppings. * Cart plus small tank/drum – water seller dey carry water enter community, den dem dey sell am. Dem dey use donkey cart or motoking for transport. * Surface water sources – rivers, dams, lakes, ponds, etc. All of dem dey very likely to be polluted, wey fit be dangerous for people wey dey drink from there. Dis ones be de most dangerous water sources for Ghana population, because dem fit contain plenty bacteria den toxic substances wey fit cause infections den diseases, some wey even fit kill people.<ref name=":2" /> == Water contamination == === Drinking water quality === [[File:F-diagram-01.jpg|thumb|450x450px|De Fecal-oral disease route transmission]] De lack of clean drinking [[Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa|water]] [[Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa|den sanitation]] systems be serious public health problem for Ghana, den e dey cause about 70% of diseases for de country. Even though government den e development partners dey try plenty, about 76% of households still dey risk drinking water wey get contamination from animal den human waste.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Water, Sanitation and Hygiene {{!}} UNICEF Ghana |url=https://www.unicef.org/ghana/water-sanitation-and-hygiene |access-date=28 September 2023 |website=www.unicef.org |language=en}}</ref> Chao dey use of plastic sachet water secof clean tap water no dey enough aN sey cause big [[plastic pollution]], wey dey block water bodies, clog storm-water drains den even cause death of livestock.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adam |first1=Issahaku |last2=Walker |first2=Tony R. |last3=Bezerra |first3=Joana Carlos |last4=Clayton |first4=Andrea |date=1 June 2020 |title=Policies to reduce single-use plastic marine pollution in West Africa |journal=Marine Policy |volume=116 |bibcode=2020MarPo.11603928A |doi=10.1016/j.marpol.2020.103928 |s2cid=216397079 |article-number=103928}}</ref> Ghana ein gold mining industry sana dey pollute about 60% of de country water sources.<ref name="illegal_gold_mines_2021_08_11_bbc">{{Cite news|title=The illegal gold mines killing rivers and livelihoods in Ghana|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-africa-58119653|access-date=16 October 2024|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=13 October 2024 |title=CONIWAS expresses worry over increasing effects of Galamsey |url=https://www.modernghana.com/news/1348449/coniwas-expresses-worry-over-increasing-effects.html |access-date=16 October 2024 |website=Modern Ghana}}</ref> Secof dirty water den bad sanitation, about 1,000 children under five years dey die every year from diarrhea wey come from polluted water.<ref>{{cite web |title=Water Aid- Where we work: Ghana |url=https://www.wateraid.org/uk/where-we-work/ghana |access-date=10 May 2018 |website=Water Aid UK}}</ref> De water wey dem dey take from [[Pond|ponds]], [[Lake|lakes]] abaa rivers no dey good at all. So households wey no get access to clean water dey forced to use unsafe sources, den dem even dey pay more money.<ref name="oecd 294">{{cite journal |author=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) |author-link=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development |title=African Economic Outlook 2007 – Ghana Country Note |url=http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/26/51/38562673.pdf |journal=African Economic Outlook 2007 |access-date=25 March 2008}}, p. 294</ref> Contaminated drinking water, plus poor sanitation, dey linked to diseases like cholera, diarrhoea, dysentery, hepatitis A, typhoid den polio wey dem dey transmit through water.<ref name=":22">{{Cite web |title=Drinking-water |url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs391/en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808013616/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs391/en/ |archive-date=8 August 2014 |access-date=6 May 2016 |website=World Health Organization |language=en-GB}}</ref> Because people dey drink dirty water, diarrheal disease be the third most common sickness wey dem dey report for health centers across Ghana. 25% of all deaths for children under five years dey come from diarrhea.<ref name=":22" /> Apart from lack of sanitation infrastructure, some cultural beliefs den attitudes dey encourage [[open defecation]]. From de total population for Ghana, 23% dey practice open defecation as their sanitation method.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |title=Ghana Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey 2011 |url=http://www.unicef.org/ghana/Ghana_MICS_Final.pdf}}</ref> As many as 72% of people for de [[Northern Region (Ghana)|Northern Region]] dey do open defecation, wey make am de region wey get de highest rate for Ghana.<ref name=":02" /> Most of de waterborne diseases be enteric diseases (meaning intestinal diseases) wey dem dey spread through fecal-oral route.<ref>{{Cite web |title=WHO. 2006. Preventing disease through healthy environments. |url=https://www.who.int/quantifying_ehimpacts/publications/preventingdisease.pdf}}</ref> For de way disease dey spread through water contamination, human feces from public defecation dey enter sewage systems den non-recycling latrines, den rain carry am go local surface waters, den menners later drink anaa contact am directly, wey cause infection through exposure, absorption den ingestion. Surface water be de main drinking water source for communities for Northern Region of Ghana.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last1=Mintz |first1=Eric |last2=Bartram |first2=Jamie |last3=Lochery |first3=Peter |last4=Wegelin |first4=Martin |date=1 October 2001 |title=Not Just a Drop in the Bucket: Expanding Access to Point-of-Use Water Treatment Systems |journal=American Journal of Public Health |volume=91 |issue=10 |pages=1565–1570 |doi=10.2105/ajph.91.10.1565 |issn=0090-0036 |pmc=1446826 |pmid=11574307}}</ref> For 2024, for one stakeholder conference, Ing. Harold Esseku, Senior Water den Sanitation Specialist for World Bank talk say Ghana dey on track to improve water quality by 2030.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ghana to upscale efforts to improve water quality by 2030 - Esseku |url=https://www.modernghana.com/news/1348313/ghana-to-upscale-efforts-to-improve-water-quality.html |access-date=16 October 2024 |website=Modern Ghana}}</ref> === Effects for education top === De main traditional water sources for many parts of rural Ghana be small ponds den unprotected wells, den both of dem dey very easy make dem get polluted, wey dey cause diseases for people wey dey drink am (Oxfam). More than 50% of de rural population for Ghana also dey depend on unsafe water resources from vendors (Ghana Clean Water Project). Dis thing dey bring plenty sicknesses. De water get parasites den high microbial content, plus dangerous minerals. Many people, mostly children, dey suffer plenty diseases from dis water, den some of dem even fit die from am.<ref name="Water.org: Ghana">{{cite web |title=Ghana |url=http://water.org/country/ghana/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422112638/http://water.org/country/ghana/ |archive-date=22 April 2016 |access-date=27 April 2016 |website=Water.org}}</ref> No be only health de water dey affect; e dey also affect education. For example, for some places for Ghana, children—mostly girls—dey deny their right to go school because their schools no get proper private toilet facilities. Instead, dem expect dem make dem spend whole day dey fetch water. Dis dey affect their education den e dey make am hard make de country develop fast. If people get more clean water den proper sanitation, girls no go dey deny school, den dem go get education wey go increase number of educated people for Ghana.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Delali|first=Sika|title=Ghana Marks Global Hand-washing Day with renewed call for improved hygiene|url=https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/general-news/ghana-news-ghana-marks-global-handwashing-day-with-renewed-call-for-improved-hygiene.html|location=Accra, Ghana|access-date=16 October 2024|newspaper=[[Daily Graphic (Ghana)|Daily Graphic]]|date=16 October 2024}}</ref> All things considered, de water problems wey Ghana dey face no be only about sickness for de population, but e dey also affect education. Dis one no dey happen every time, but e dey happen for some parts of Ghana, especially rural areas.<ref name="Water.org: Ghana" /> === Wastewater treatment === {{further|wastewater treatment}} Dem estimate say for year 2000, urban areas for Ghana dey generate about 763,698 m³ of wastewater every day, wey go amount to around 280 million m³ for the whole year. Regional capitals also add another 180 million m³.<ref>{{cite conference|first=SK|last=Agodzo|author2=Huibers, FP|author3=Chenini, F.|author4=van Lier, JB|author5=Duran A.|title=Use of wastewater in irrgigated agriculture. Country studies from Bolivia, Ghana and Tunisia. Volume 2: Ghana|publisher=WUR|location=Wageningen|url=http://www.iwe.wur.nl/NR/rdonlyres/B87C7F6A-BACA-43CF-BC29-B223B0102B21/9226/fh030624GHANAfinal.PDF|isbn=90-6754-704-2|access-date=28 March 2008}}, p. 16-17</ref> Only small part of de wastewater wey urban areas dey produce dey collected, den even smaller part dey treated. Bad management of urban, industrial den agricultural wastewater often mean say drinking water for millions of people dey either dangerously contaminated or chemically polluted.<ref name=":22" /> For Accra, de capital city, only about 10% of wastewater dey collected. More than that, less than 25% of de 46 industrial den municipal treatment plants for Ghana dey function properly according to inventory wey Ghana Environmental Protection Agency do for 2001. Most of de treatment plants for municipal wastewater dey run by local governments, den most of dem be stabilization ponds.<ref>{{Cite web |title=RUAF Ghana sanitation report |url=http://www.ruaf.org/system/files?file=Chap6-Sanitation.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725133727/http://www.ruaf.org/system/files?file=Chap6-Sanitation.pdf |archive-date=25 July 2011 |access-date=13 April 2008}}</ref> One biological treatment plant dem build am for late 1990s for [[Korle Lagoon]] for Accra, but e only dey handle about 8% of Accra ein wastewater. == Water resources == Ghana get chao water resources. De Volta River system basin, wey dey include [[Oti River|Oti]], [[Daka River|Daka]], [[Pru River|Pru]], [[Sene River|Sene]] den [[Afram River|Afram]] rivers plus de [[White Volta|white]] den [[Black Volta]] rivers, cover about 70% of de country land area. Another 22% of Ghana land dey covered by de southwestern river system watershed wey include [[Bia River|Bia]], [[Tano River|Tano]], [[Ankobra River|Ankobra]] den [[Pra River (Ghana)|Pra]] rivers. De coastal river system watershed, wey include Ochi-Nawuka, Ochi Amissah, [[Ayensu River|Ayensu]], [[Densu River|Densu]] den Tordzie rivers, cover de remaining 8% of Ghana. Plus dat, groundwater dey available for mesozoic den cenozoic sedimentary rocks den inside sedimentary formations wey dey under de Volta basin. De [[Volta Lake]], wey get surface area of 8,500 km², be one of de biggest artificial lakes for di world. Overall, total renewable water resources for Ghana dem estimate say be about 53.2 billion m³ per year.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |author-link=Food and Agriculture Organization |title=Ghana Country Overview |url=http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/ghana/ghana_cp.pdf |access-date=25 March 2008}}, p. 3–4</ref> == Water use == For year 2000, total water wey dem withdraw be 982 million m³, den about two-thirds of am go for agricultural use. Another 10% dem take go industry, wey leave 24% or 235 million m³ for domestic use. Plus dat, 37,843 km³ dey use for hydroelectric power generation for [[Akosombo Dam]] each year.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |author-link=Food and Agriculture Organization |title=Ghana Country Overview |url=http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/ghana/ghana_cp.pdf |access-date=25 March 2008}}, p. 4–5</ref> == History den recent developments == Archaeological work for de house ruins of Begho (12th–19th century) don show say cisterns exist, den on average dem be about two meters deep.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Posnansky |first=Merrick |date=2015 |title=Begho: Life and Times |journal=Journal of West African History |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=95–118 |doi=10.14321/jwestafrihist.1.2.0095 |issn=2327-1868 |jstor=10.14321/jwestafrihist.1.2.0095 |s2cid=193121437}}</ref> For 1817, Thomas Edward Bowdich document de sanitation methods for de Ashanti Empire, including how latrines dey common for most houses for [[Kumasi]].<blockquote>Wetin surprise me pass… be say dem discover say every house get ein own cloacae (latrine), apart from de common ones wey dey outside town for lower class people. Dem usually dey place dem under small archway for de most hidden corner of de building, but sometimes dem dey even upstairs, inside separate room like small closet where big hollow pillar still dey help support de upper floor. De holes small for size, but dem dig dem reach very deep, den dem dey pour boiling water inside every day, wey dey make sure say no bad smell dey at all.</blockquote>— Bowdich, 1817.<ref name=":3">{{cite journal |last=United Nations |author-link=United Nations |year=2004 |title=Freshwater Country Profile: Ghana |url=https://www.un.org/esa/agenda21/natlinfo/countr/ghana/waterghana04f.pdf |access-date=7 April 2008}}, p. 2</ref> For 1821, William Hutton confirm wetin Bowdich observe.<blockquote>Mr. Bowdich ein observation about say houses get cloacae den de general cleanliness of de Ashantees be correct; den e no get doubt say for how dem dey arrange their houses, dem pass plenty of their neighbours for cleanliness.</blockquote>— Hutton, 1821.<ref name=":3" /> Bowdich record am for early 19th century say rubbish den waste from all houses dem dey burn am every morning behind de streets. According to scholar Donna Maier, Public Works Department dey exist for de Ashanti Empire under de stool wey dem call Akwammofo Akonnwa. Dis department be responsible for cleaning de streets of Kumasi every day, den e make sure say people dey keep their compounds clean den dem dey weed am well well.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Feierman |first=Steven |year=1985 |title=Struggles for Control: The Social Roots of Health and Healing in Modern Africa |journal=African Studies Review |volume=28 |issue=2/3 |pages=73–147 |doi=10.2307/524604 |jstor=524604}}</ref> For 1928, dem build de first piped water supply system for [[Cape Coast]]. De Water Supply Division of de Public Works Department dey handle water service provision for both rural den urban areas for Ghana. After Ghana gain independence for 1957, dem separate de division from Public Works Department den put am under Ministry of Works den Housing. For 1965, dem turn am into Ghana Water den Sewerage Corporation (GWSC), one legal public utility wey dey responsible for providing water for urban den rural areas for public, domestic den industrial use, as well as setting up, running den controlling sewerage systems. === Decentralization, focus for rural areas top, den independent regulation (1994–1999) === For mid-1990s, under Presidency of [[Jerry Rawlings]] den after Ghana pass new democratic Constitution for 1992, government of Ghana bring five key laws wey affect how responsibility for water supply den sanitation dey run: * De Local Government Act No. 462 of 1993 explain say District Assemblies be de highest political authority for each district, den dem dey head am by District Chief Executive (like mayor). But neither de constitution nor de Local Government Act clearly define wetin District Assemblies suppose do, den at first dem no get role for water supply den sanitation until 1999 wey dem partially transfer am give dem. * De Water Resources Commission Act No. 552 of 1996 create Water Resources Commission (WRC) wey dem give responsibility for integrated water resources management, wey dey include permits for water abstraction.<ref name="wateraid 5">{{cite web |last=WaterAid |author-link=WaterAid |title=National Water Sector Assessment, Ghana |url=http://www.wateraid.org/other/startdownload.asp?DocumentID=28&mode=plugin |access-date=26 March 2008 |format=[[PDF]]}}{{Dead link|date=July 2018|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}, p. 5</ref> * De Public Utilities den Regulatory Commission Act No. 538 of 1997 create Public Utilities and Regulatory Commission (PURC) wey dem put insyd charge of regulating electricity sector den urban water supply, including checking tariff increase requests, monitoring service quality den protecting consumers.<ref name="oecd 2942">{{cite journal |author=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) |author-link=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development |title=African Economic Outlook 2007 – Ghana Country Note |url=http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/26/51/38562673.pdf |journal=African Economic Outlook 2007 |access-date=25 March 2008}}, p. 294</ref> * De Community Water and Sanitation Agency Act No. 564 of 1998 create Community Water den Sanitation Agency (CWSA) wey cam turn responsible for supporting local communities den District Assemblies for rural water supply den sanitation. CWSA come from Community Water den Sanitation Division wey dem create as semi-autonomous part of GWSC for 1994.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ghanaian Water Resources and Environmental Sanitation Project |author-link=macmeshack |title=Water Supply & Sanitation in Ghana |url=http://www.wresp.org/wsesingh.php#history |access-date=26 March 2008}}</ref> * Under Statutory Corporations (Conversion to Companies) Act 461 of 1993 den government policy wey aim turn state corporations go commercial companies, GWSC transform cam turn company wey dem call GWCL. GWCL remain responsible only for urban water supply, while responsibility for sewer systems move go District Assemblies.<ref>{{cite journal |last=United Nations |author-link=United Nations |year=2004 |title=Freshwater Country Profile: Ghana |url=https://www.un.org/esa/agenda21/natlinfo/countr/ghana/waterghana04f.pdf |access-date=7 April 2008}}, p. 2</ref> For 1999, responsibility say dem go take support communities for provision of water supply den sanitation for more than 110 small towns den rural areas transfer go District Assemblies. Sanitation sana cam turn responsibility of District Assemblies for both urban den rural areas. Plus dat, government try bring private sector go urban water supply plus help from World Bank through preparatory studies den workshops, but dem no fully bring private companies insyd yet. === Private sector participation insyd urban areas (2000–2011) === To carry out de private sector participation of GWCL, dem originally plan say make dem use 10-year lease contract. For 2000, lease contract between GWCL den de US company Azurix fail because of public opposition den accusations of corruption, wey later lead to de formation of de Coalition against Water Privatization.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rahaman |first=Abu Shiraz |author2=Everett, Jeff |author3=Neu, Dean |year=2007 |title=Accounting and the move to privatize water services in Africa |journal=Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal |publisher=Emerald Group Publishing Limited |volume=20 |issue=5 |pages=637–670 |doi=10.1108/09513570710778992}}, p. 648–651</ref> For October 2006 insyd, under Presidency of [[John Kufuor]] den plus support from de World Bank-funded Urban Water Project (see below), dem sign five-year management contract between GWCL den Aqua Vitens Rand Limited (AVRL), wey be consortium of de Dutch public water company Vitens den de South African public company Rand Water. De main objectives of de five-year management contract be: * Improve de reliability (pressure den flow rate) den quality of potable water; * Ensure de company ein financial sustainability; * Improve customer service; den * Provide access to potable water at affordable prices for low-income consumers.<ref name="Vitens Evides">{{cite web |last=Vitens Evides International |title=Management Contract 2006–2011 for urban water supply in Ghana A Partnership – in and for – development |url=http://www.vitensevidesinternational.com/projects/ghana/case-study-book-ghana-5.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130616221305/http://www.vitensevidesinternational.com/projects/ghana/case-study-book-ghana-5.pdf |archive-date=16 June 2013 |access-date=14 August 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Doe |first=Henry Wonder |year=2007 |title=Assessing the Challenges of Water Supply in. Urban Ghana: The case of North Teshie. (EESI Master Thesis) |url=http://www.lwr.kth.se/Publikationer/PDF_Files/LWR_EX_07_06.PDF |publisher=Department of Land and Water Resources Engineering, Royal Institute of Technology (KTH) |access-date=27 March 2008 |place=Stockholm}}{{Dead link|date=January 2020|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}, p. 35-36</ref> For 2008, dem report serious water shortages for Accra because power outages affect two water treatment plants.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news|last=Benson|first=Ivy|title=Government maintains Aqua Vitens deal...to manage water supply in the country|newspaper=The Ghanaian Chronicle|date=12 March 2008|access-date=27 March 2008|url=http://db.ghanaian-chronicle.com/thestory.asp?id=5993}}{{Dead link|date=January 2020|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}.</ref> De management contract expire for June 2011 den dem no renew am, after e achieve only part of ein objectives. For rural areas, de powers den resources of District Assemblies become stronger through de Local Government Service Act 656 of 2003. De Act transfer de power to appoint, promote den discipline civil servants from de national government give de District Assemblies. For 2006, dem create Districts Development Fund to channel central government den donor funds to District Assemblies in transparent den effective way. For 2009, dem create Environmental, Health den Sanitation Directorate insyd de Ministry of Local Government den Rural Development to put more focus on sanitation. As part of dis effort, dem launch programme to eliminate open defecation through community-led total sanitation.<ref name=":4" /> == Responsibility for water supply den sanitation == {{Main|Water privatisation in Ghana|l1=Water privatization in Ghana}} [[File:Pra_River.gif|thumb|372x372px|De [[Pra River (Ghana)|Pra River]] system of de [[List of rivers of Ghana|rivers of Ghana]].]] According to sam multi-donor review of Ghana ein water supply sector, ebe "quite well structured", plus de government wey dey charge of policy den regulation, while de private sector den communities play important roles in service delivery.<ref name="MDG">AMCW/AfDB/EUWI/WSP/UNDP: [http://www.wsp.org/filez/news/27200752243_MDGsAfrica.pdf Getting Africa on Track to meet the MDGs on Water and Sanitation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080227155149/http://www.wsp.org/filez/news/27200752243_MDGsAfrica.pdf|date=27 February 2008}} – A Status Overview of Sixteen African Countries, 2006, p. 27</ref> De institutional framework for sanitation be much less clear, plus responsibilities no be clear. === Policy den regulation === For now, several institutions dey exist to supervise den regulate water supply den sanitation. De policy framework dey based on de Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy (GPRS).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Water-Aid Ghana |year=2005 |title=Assessment of national sanitation policies: Ghana case. Final report. |url=http://wedc.lboro.ac.uk/projects/proj_contents0/WEJEH%20-%20Sanitation%20Policy/www/outputs/Ghana%20Sanitation%20Policy%20Assessment%20Report.pdf |access-date=26 March 2008 |location=Accra}}, p. 28–29</ref> General policies for de water sector, both for rural den urban areas, dey set by de Water Directorate insyd de Ministry of Water Resources, Works den Housing (MWRWH). Plus dat, de ministry dey seek funding from external support agencies, monitor de sector den advise de Cabinet on water matters.<ref name="wateraid 52">{{cite web |last=WaterAid |author-link=WaterAid |title=National Water Sector Assessment, Ghana |url=http://www.wateraid.org/other/startdownload.asp?DocumentID=28&mode=plugin |access-date=26 March 2008 |format=[[PDF]]}}{{Dead link|date=July 2018|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}, p. 5</ref> De Water Sector Restructuring Secretariat, wey dem create for 1997 insyd de Ministry of Water Resources, Works den Housing, dey oversee de process of private sector participation for de water sector.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Doe |first=Henry Wonder |year=2007 |title=Assessing the Challenges of Water Supply in. Urban Ghana: The case of North Teshie. (EESI Master Thesis) |url=http://www.lwr.kth.se/Publikationer/PDF_Files/LWR_EX_07_06.PDF |publisher=Department of Land and Water Resources Engineering, Royal Institute of Technology (KTH) |access-date=27 March 2008 |place=Stockholm}}{{Dead link|date=January 2020|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}, p. 33</ref> De Ministry of Local Government den Rural Development also share responsibility plus MWRWH for setting sanitation policies den coordinating funding for de sanitation sub-sector. Government dey promote decentralization, so dem expect Metropolitan, Municipal den District Assemblies to implement sanitation policies. To enforce environmental quality laws, de Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) under de Ministry of Environment den Science suppose assess de impact of sanitation development activities on de environment. To solve de problem of poor coordination among de many institutions for de sector, de Minister of Water Resources, Works den Housing, Abubakar Saddique Boniface, launch de National Water Policy (NWP) for February 2008. De policy cover water resources management, water supply den sanitation. Although de sector make some progress, lack of coordination for policy formulation result insyd many different implementation strategies. De main aim of de NWP be to create one comprehensive policy for de sector den make am easier for development partners to provide de necessary support for de water sector.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Appiah|first=Innocent|title=Govt tackles water issue|newspaper=[[Ghanaian Times]]|date=28 February 2008|url=http://www.newtimesonline.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=14378&Itemid=181&month=2&year=2008}}{{dead link|date=February 2025|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> De Water Resources Commission (WRC) start preparing de NWP since 2002. === Illegal mining activities den water supply === Lands Minister, Samuel Abu Jinapor re-assure de general public say Ghana ein water supply be safe den consumable despite massive concerns of illegal mining activities wey dey impact natural water bodies insyd de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 October 2024 |title=Lands Minister Jinapor Defends Ghana's Water Supply Amidst Galamsey Concerns |url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/blogs/godblessed/Lands-Minister-Jinapor-Defends-Ghana-s-Water-Supply-Amidst-Galamsey-Concerns-244 |access-date=9 October 2024 |website=Ghana Web}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=New water policy to address 'galamsey' menace – Sanitation Ministry |url=https://www.myjoyonline.com/new-water-policy-to-address-galamsey-menace-sanitation-ministry/ |access-date=16 October 2024}}</ref> ===Service provision=== ==== Urban areas ==== De [[Ghana Water Company]] Ltd. (GWCL) be responsible for providing, distributing, den conserving water for domestic, public, den industrial purposes insyd 82 urban systems insyd localities plus more than 5,000 inhabitants. Local private companies wey dey charge of [[Water meter|meter]] installation, customer billing, den revenue collection.<ref name="wateraid 19">{{Cite web |last=Water-Aid Ghana |year=2005 |title=Assessment of national sanitation policies: Ghana case. Final report. |url=http://wedc.lboro.ac.uk/projects/proj_contents0/WEJEH%20-%20Sanitation%20Policy/www/outputs/Ghana%20Sanitation%20Policy%20Assessment%20Report.pdf |access-date=26 March 2008 |location=Accra}}, p. 19</ref> Urban sanitation be responsibility of local governments.<ref>{{Cite web |title=RUAF Ghana Sanitation Report |url=http://www.ruaf.org/system/files?file=Chap6-Sanitation.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725133727/http://www.ruaf.org/system/files?file=Chap6-Sanitation.pdf |archive-date=25 July 2011 |access-date=13 April 2008}}</ref> ==== Rural areas ==== [[File:Ghana_-_Victory_Pump.jpg|thumb|300x300px|A [[rope pump]] close to [[Paga]], Upper East Region]] De Community Water den Sanitation Agency (CWSA) be de institution wey dey in charge of coordinating den facilitating de implementation of de National Community Water den Sanitation Programme (NCWSP) for rural areas. De programme dey carried out directly by de communities den their District Assemblies. De NCWSP focus on three main objectives to improve health: safe water supply, hygiene education den improved sanitation.<ref>{{cite web |last=Community Water and Sanitation Agency (CWSA) |date=August 2004 |title=Strategic Investment Plan 2005 – 2015 |url=http://www.cwsagh.org/documents/SIP_2005-2015.pdf |access-date=26 March 2008}}{{dead link|date=May 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}, p. 15</ref> Dem create de CWSA for 1994 under de framework of Ghana ein decentralization policy, den e become autonomous for 1998. De institution no dey directly construct, operate or maintain water supply den sanitation facilities. Instead, ein role be to coordinate de work of different actors wey dey provide de services for rural areas, including public sector organizations, local beneficiary communities, private sector organizations den NGOs. CWSA also suppose make sure say financial support from development partners dey used effectively den say hygiene education dey provided. De agency get ten regional offices apart from ein head office for Accra.<ref name="CWSA 9-11">{{cite web |last=Community Water and Sanitation Agency (CWSA) |date=August 2004 |title=Strategic Investment Plan 2005 – 2015 |url=http://www.cwsagh.org/documents/SIP_2005-2015.pdf |access-date=26 March 2008}}{{dead link|date=May 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}, p. 9-11</ref> For communities wey get less than 5,000 people, de water supply systems dey owned den managed by de communities themselves based on demand. According to de NCWSP, dis systems no dey receive any cross-subsidies, den District Assemblies dey pay 5% of de investment costs.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nyarko |first=Kwabena Biritwum |title=Water Resources of Arid and Semi Arid Regions, International Conference |publisher=Taylor and Francis Group |year=2004 |isbn=0-415-35913-9 |editor-last=Chaoka |editor-first=T. R. |place=London |pages=217–226 |contribution=Institutional challenges for small towns' water supply delivery in Ghana |display-editors=etal}}, p. 217–218.</ref> Communities for rural areas den small towns dey elect gender-balanced water den sanitation boards made up of volunteers, including one or two village-based caretakers wey receive special training for repairs den maintenance.<ref name="wateraid 522">{{cite web |last=WaterAid |author-link=WaterAid |title=National Water Sector Assessment, Ghana |url=http://www.wateraid.org/other/startdownload.asp?DocumentID=28&mode=plugin |access-date=26 March 2008 |format=[[PDF]]}}{{Dead link|date=July 2018|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}, p. 5</ref><ref name="wedc 2">{{cite journal |last=Komives |first=K. |author2=Akanbang, B. |author3=Thorsten, R. |author4=Tuffuor, B. |author5=Wakeman, Wasser. |author6=Larbi, E. |author7=Bakalian, A |author8=Whittington, D. |year=2008 |title=Post-construction Support and the Sustainability of Rural Water Projects in Ghana |journal=Paper Presented at the 33rd WEDC International Conference – Access to Sanitation and Safe Water: Global Partnerships and Local Actions |location=Accra}}, p. 2</ref> De communities fit contract private companies or NGOs to provide technical assistance, goods or services.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Water-Aid Ghana |year=2005 |title=Assessment of national sanitation policies: Ghana case. Final report. |url=http://wedc.lboro.ac.uk/projects/proj_contents0/WEJEH%20-%20Sanitation%20Policy/www/outputs/Ghana%20Sanitation%20Policy%20Assessment%20Report.pdf |access-date=26 March 2008 |location=Accra}}, p. 31</ref> Local companies dey drill boreholes den build hand-dug wells, den local artisans dey provide household latrines.<ref name="wateraid 192">{{Cite web |last=Water-Aid Ghana |year=2005 |title=Assessment of national sanitation policies: Ghana case. Final report. |url=http://wedc.lboro.ac.uk/projects/proj_contents0/WEJEH%20-%20Sanitation%20Policy/www/outputs/Ghana%20Sanitation%20Policy%20Assessment%20Report.pdf |access-date=26 March 2008 |location=Accra}}, p. 19</ref> De maintenance units of CWSA don be privatized, den de regional companies wey come out from dis process now dey carry out major repairs on behalf of District Assemblies. Area mechanics dey handle minor repairs.<ref name="KfW RWS">{{cite web |last=KfW Entwicklungsbank |title=Ghana: Rural Water Supply I -II Ex post evaluation, 2005 |url=http://www.kfw-entwicklungsbank.de/ebank/EN_Home/Evaluation/Ex-post_evaluation_reports/PDF-Dokumente_E-K/Ghana_Laendl__WV_I__II_e.pdf |access-date=19 August 2012}}{{Dead link|date=August 2025|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}</ref> De communities ein water den sanitation boards dey receive technical assistance from District Water den Sanitation Teams (DWST), wey ideally suppose include engineer, hygiene expert den community mobilizer.<ref name="wedc 2" /> However, for some districts, these teams weak well well, so de regional teams of CWSA sometimes dey provide direct support to de local water den sanitation boards instead.<ref name="WB SRWSP">{{cite web |last=World Bank |title=Project Appraisal Document: Sustainable Water Supply and Sanitation Project, 28 May 2010 |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2010/06/07/000333037_20100607005153/Rendered/PDF/546720PAD0P120101Official0Use0Only1.pdf |access-date=19 August 2012}}</ref> === Oda stakeholders === De Ghana Coalition of NGOs insyd Water den Sanitation (CONIWAS), wey dem create insyd 2001, " dey work insyd partnership plus sector players so say dem go influence policies, remove barriers den promote access to potable water, sanitation den improve hygiene give de poor den vulnerable." According to de coalition, say you go give NGOs one voice for advocacy den lobbying be one of ein major benefits.<ref>[http://www.water-mwrwh.com/sub.htm#top CONIWAS]{{Dead link|date=August 2025|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}</ref> '''Innovations for Poverty Action''' Dem form [[Innovations for Poverty Action]] (IPA) insyd 2002 as research den policy non-profit organization wey dey aim say ego discover denpromote effective solutions give global poverty issues. IPA dey recruit researchers den decision-makers make dem measure de impact of different interventions for areas like agriculture, education, health, financial inclusion, governance, peace den recovery, small den medium enterprises, den social protection across 18 country programmes.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 August 2015 |title=Research {{!}} Innovations for Poverty Action |url=http://www.poverty-action.org/research |access-date=8 May 2016 |website=www.poverty-action.org}}</ref> So say dem go achieve dis, dem dey conduct Randomized Control Trials (RCTs) den other forms of qualitative research, wey dey include de Clean Water insyd Northern Ghana research study.<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 February 2015 |title=What We Do {{!}} Innovations for Poverty Action |url=http://www.poverty-action.org/about/what-we-do |access-date=8 May 2016 |website=www.poverty-action.org}}</ref> Dis study dey assess whether households for Northern Ghana willing to buy de Kosim filter wey Pure Home Water (PHW), one Ghana-based NGO, dey sell. De study sana dey aim say ego measure de health effects of household-level water treatment for areas where de population get high risk of waterborne diseases.<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 April 2015 |title=Clean Water in Northern Ghana {{!}} Innovations for Poverty Action |url=http://www.poverty-action.org/study/clean-water-northern-ghana |access-date=8 May 2016 |website=www.poverty-action.org}}</ref> ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==External links== {{Commons}} ===Policy setting=== * [http://www.ghana.gov.gh/index.php/2012-02-08-08-18-09/ministries/274-ministry-of-water-resources-works-housing Ghanaian Ministry of Water Resources, Works and Housing] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190926043318/http://www.ghana.gov.gh/index.php/2012-02-08-08-18-09/ministries/274-ministry-of-water-resources-works-housing |date=26 September 2019 }} ===Economic regulation=== * [http://www.purc.com.gh/ Ghanaian Public Utilities and Regulatory Commission (PURC)] ===Service provision=== * [http://www.cwsagh.org/ Community Water and Sanitation Agency] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110727204856/http://www.ghanawater.com.gh/ Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL)] * [http://waterinafrica.org/ Water In Africa Through Everyday Responsiveness, a nonprofit which installs boreholes throughout Ghana] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation insyd Ghana| ]] [[Category:Environment of Ghana]] [[Category:Environmental issues insyd Ghana]] [[Category:Volta River Authority]] [[Category:1994 establishments insyd Ghana]] hf8lhoxrzszvuf8c580x5z8htopz1zw 102933 102930 2026-06-15T08:15:43Z Yaw tuba 7 improved article #AWC2026 102933 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''water supply and sanitation''' sector insyd [[Ghana]] be a sector wey be in charge of de supply of healthy water den sanso dey improve de sanitation of water bodies insyd de country. Insyd Ghana, de drinking water supply den sanitation sectors dey face a number of issues, wey dey include relatively limited sanitation access, intermittent supply, significant water losses, poor water pressure, den pollution. Since 1994, na dem gradually reform de sector thru de creation of an autonomous regulatory agency, introduction of private sector participation, decentralization of de rural supply to 138 [[Districts of Ghana|districts]] wey dem increase community participation insyd de management of rural water systems.<ref name="WaterAid">{{cite web|last=WaterAid|title=National Water Sector Assessment, Ghana|url=http://www.wateraid.org/other/startdownload.asp?DocumentID=28&mode=plugin|format=PDF|access-date=26 March 2008}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Scaling up Water and Sanitation in Ghana |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2020/11/18/scaling-up-water-and-sanitation-in-ghana |access-date=13 September 2023 |website=World Bank}}</ref> == References == <references /> ==External links== {{Commons}} ===Policy setting=== * [https://web.archive.org/web/20190926043318/http://www.ghana.gov.gh/index.php/2012-02-08-08-18-09/ministries/274-ministry-of-water-resources-works-housing Ghanaian Ministry of Water Resources, Works and Housing] ===Economic regulation=== * [http://www.purc.com.gh/ Ghanaian Public Utilities and Regulatory Commission (PURC)] ===Service provision=== * [http://www.cwsagh.org/ Community Water and Sanitation Agency] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110727204856/http://www.ghanawater.com.gh/ Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL)] * [http://waterinafrica.org/ Water In Africa Through Everyday Responsiveness, a nonprofit which installs boreholes throughout Ghana] ==Ein Access== De water supply den sanitation [[infrastructure]] be insufficient, especially insyd [[rural area]]s. Substantial discrepancies between access data from various sources dey, partially secof different definitions wey different institutions dey use wey dey provide access data. According to de Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation of [[UNICEF]] and [[WHO]], access plus [[Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa|water den sanitation]] be as follows: {| class="wikitable" |- ! colspan=2| ! Urban<br />(51% of the population) ! Rural<br />(49% of the population) ! Total |- | rowspan=2|Water<ref name="JMP"/> | [[At least basic water source|'At least basic' definition]] | 88% | 66% | 78% |- | House connections | 33% | 3% | 18% |- | rowspan=2|Sanitation<ref name="JMP"/> | [['At least basic' sanitation|'At least basic' definition]] | 19% | 9% | 14% |- |Sewerage | ? | ? | ? |} According to de [[United Nations]] 2015 [[Millennium Development Goal|MDG]] report, Ghana don achieve de target of reducing by half de number of people wey no get access to safe drinking water.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gh.undp.org/content/ghana/en/home/library/poverty/2015-ghana-millennium-development-goals-report.html|title=2015 Ghana Millennium Development Goals Report|website=UNDP in Ghana|access-date=6 May 2016|archive-date=2 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160602042020/http://www.gh.undp.org/content/ghana/en/home/library/poverty/2015-ghana-millennium-development-goals-report.html}}</ref> Dem estimate say almost one-third of de water supply systems for Ghana no dey function properly, while many others dey operate far below de capacity wey dem design dem for. On top of dat, domestic water supply dey compete plus increasing demand for water from de growing industry den agriculture sectors.<ref name="Ghana Safe Water Network">{{cite web|title=Ghana|url=http://www.safewaternetwork.org/countries-regions/ghana|website=Safe Water Network|access-date=29 April 2016}}</ref> [[File:A picture of a boy drinking polluted water.jpg|thumb|Water pollution insyd Ghana]]About 88% of de urban population for Ghana get access to at least [[Improved water source|basic drinking water]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.unicef.org/ghana/Ghana_MICS_Final.pdf|title=Ghana Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey 2011}}</ref> However, differences still dey between urban den rural access to safe drinking water. According to de Ghana Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey of 2011, people wey dey live for urban areas get more chance to access safe drinking water than people for rural areas, with rates of 91% den 69% respectively.<ref name=":0" /> Because of dis, dependence on unsafe water sources higher for rural areas.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://water.org/country/ghana/|title=Ghana – Water Crisis {{!}} Water.org|website=Water.org|access-date=6 May 2016|archive-date=22 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422112638/http://water.org/country/ghana/}}</ref> De turbidity levels of most local surface waters for rural communities pass 200 NTUs (nephelometric turbidity units) den dem contain high microbial den fecal contamination, wey dey put children den de rest of de population for high risk of water-related diseases.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Mintz |first1=Eric |last2=Bartram |first2=Jamie |last3=Lochery |first3=Peter |last4=Wegelin |first4=Martin |date=1 October 2001 |title=Not Just a Drop in the Bucket: Expanding Access to Point-of-Use Water Treatment Systems |journal=American Journal of Public Health |volume=91 |issue=10 |pages=1565–1570 |issn=0090-0036 |pmc=1446826 |pmid=11574307 |doi=10.2105/ajph.91.10.1565}}</ref> Compared plus de rest of Ghana, de three northern regions of Ghana suffer more from lack of clean drinking water, with one out of every ten children dying before dem reach five years because of some water-related illnesses.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.wateraid.org/us/where-we-work/page/ghana |title=Ghana – Where We Work – WaterAid America |website=www.wateraid.org |access-date=6 May 2016}}</ref> For de main Northern Region alone, 32% of de 2.5 million residents no get access to improved water sources den often dem dey depend on contaminated drinking water.<ref name=":0" /> As for sanitation, only 14% of de total population of Ghana dey use improved sanitation facilities as of 2010.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://data.unicef.org/corecode/uploads/document6/uploaded_pdfs/corecode/Pneumonia_Diarrhoea_2012_35.pdf |title=UNICEF. 2012. Pneumonia and Diarrhoea – Tackling the deadliest diseases for the world's poorest children. }}</ref> {| class="wikitable" !Improved Drinking Water Source !Unimproved Drinking Water Source |- |Household connection |Rivers or ponds |- |Borehole |Bucket |- |Protected dug well |Unprotected well |- |Protected spring |Unprotected spring |- |Public Standpipe |Vendor-provided water |- | |Tanker truck water |- | |Bottled (den sachet) water |} Dis table dey present de classifications of improved den unimproved water sources insyd Ghana since de end of de [[Millennium Development Goals]], according to de [[WHO]] den UNICEF.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1251454622-A_Snapshot_of_Drinking_Water_in_Africa_Eng.pdf|title=WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (2008). A Snapshot of Drinking Water and Sanitation in Africa.|access-date=6 May 2016|archive-date=1 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161001154210/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1251454622-A_Snapshot_of_Drinking_Water_in_Africa_Eng.pdf}}</ref> As of de end of 2015, na improved water sources dey include household water pipes, [[borehole]]s, protected dug wells den [[Spring (hydrology)|springs]], den public standpipes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gh.undp.org/content/dam/ghana/docs/Doc/Inclgro/UNDP_GH_2015%20Ghana%20MDGs%20Report.pdf|title=United Nations. 2015. Ghana Millennium Development Goals Report.|access-date=6 May 2016|archive-date=17 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517051924/http://www.gh.undp.org/content/dam/ghana/docs/Doc/Inclgro/UNDP_GH_2015%20Ghana%20MDGs%20Report.pdf}}</ref> ==Ein Service quality== ===Continuity of supply=== According to sam estimate, one quarter of de people wey dey live for [[Accra]] dey receive continuous water supply. About 30% dey get water for 12 hours each day, five days for week. Another 35% dey receive water for two days every week. De remaining 10% wey mostly dey live for de outskirts of de capital no get access to piped water at all.<ref name="wateraid 2" /> According to another source, de situation even worse: for February 2008, some communities insyd de Accra-Tema metropolis dey get water only once for week, or once for two weeks, or even once for month.<ref name=":2">[http://www.water-mwrwh.com/sub.htm#top AVRL: The Dodowa intervention]{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The continuity of water supply in rural areas and the Northern Region of Ghana are less frequent. Particularly in rural areas, locals are forced to fetch their own water from a variety of water sources depending on location:<ref name=":1" /> De regularity of water supply for rural areas den de Northern Region of Ghana dey even less frequent. Especially for rural areas, people dey forced to fetch their own water from different sources depending on where dem dey live:<ref name=":1" /> * Tube wells or boreholes – deep hole wey dem drill or dig reach underground water. Dem dey bring de water come up through pipe plus pump wey human power dey operate, den de well get protection platform to stop dirty water run-off or bird droppings enter de water. * Protected dug well – well wey dem protect from surface runoff water by lining or casing wey dey raised above ground level. * Rainwater collection – rain wey dem collect from surfaces den store inside container for use. * Water tank truck – water wey truck carry come community den dem dey sell am from de truck. * Unprotected dug wells or springs – well wey no get protection from runoff or bird droppings. * Cart plus small tank/drum – water seller dey carry water enter community, den dem dey sell am. Dem dey use donkey cart or motoking for transport. * Surface water sources – rivers, dams, lakes, ponds, etc. All of dem dey very likely to be polluted, wey fit be dangerous for people wey dey drink from there. Dis ones be de most dangerous water sources for Ghana population, because dem fit contain plenty bacteria den toxic substances wey fit cause infections den diseases, some wey even fit kill people.<ref name=":2" /> == Water contamination == === Drinking water quality === [[File:F-diagram-01.jpg|thumb|450x450px|De Fecal-oral disease route transmission]] De lack of clean drinking [[Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa|water]] [[Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa|den sanitation]] systems be serious public health problem for Ghana, den e dey cause about 70% of diseases for de country. Even though government den e development partners dey try plenty, about 76% of households still dey risk drinking water wey get contamination from animal den human waste.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Water, Sanitation and Hygiene {{!}} UNICEF Ghana |url=https://www.unicef.org/ghana/water-sanitation-and-hygiene |access-date=28 September 2023 |website=www.unicef.org |language=en}}</ref> Chao dey use of plastic sachet water secof clean tap water no dey enough aN sey cause big [[plastic pollution]], wey dey block water bodies, clog storm-water drains den even cause death of livestock.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adam |first1=Issahaku |last2=Walker |first2=Tony R. |last3=Bezerra |first3=Joana Carlos |last4=Clayton |first4=Andrea |date=1 June 2020 |title=Policies to reduce single-use plastic marine pollution in West Africa |journal=Marine Policy |volume=116 |bibcode=2020MarPo.11603928A |doi=10.1016/j.marpol.2020.103928 |s2cid=216397079 |article-number=103928}}</ref> Ghana ein gold mining industry sana dey pollute about 60% of de country water sources.<ref name="illegal_gold_mines_2021_08_11_bbc">{{Cite news|title=The illegal gold mines killing rivers and livelihoods in Ghana|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-africa-58119653|access-date=16 October 2024|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=13 October 2024 |title=CONIWAS expresses worry over increasing effects of Galamsey |url=https://www.modernghana.com/news/1348449/coniwas-expresses-worry-over-increasing-effects.html |access-date=16 October 2024 |website=Modern Ghana}}</ref> Secof dirty water den bad sanitation, about 1,000 children under five years dey die every year from diarrhea wey come from polluted water.<ref>{{cite web |title=Water Aid- Where we work: Ghana |url=https://www.wateraid.org/uk/where-we-work/ghana |access-date=10 May 2018 |website=Water Aid UK}}</ref> De water wey dem dey take from [[Pond|ponds]], [[Lake|lakes]] abaa rivers no dey good at all. So households wey no get access to clean water dey forced to use unsafe sources, den dem even dey pay more money.<ref name="oecd 294">{{cite journal |author=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) |author-link=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development |title=African Economic Outlook 2007 – Ghana Country Note |url=http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/26/51/38562673.pdf |journal=African Economic Outlook 2007 |access-date=25 March 2008}}, p. 294</ref> Contaminated drinking water, plus poor sanitation, dey linked to diseases like cholera, diarrhoea, dysentery, hepatitis A, typhoid den polio wey dem dey transmit through water.<ref name=":22">{{Cite web |title=Drinking-water |url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs391/en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808013616/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs391/en/ |archive-date=8 August 2014 |access-date=6 May 2016 |website=World Health Organization |language=en-GB}}</ref> Because people dey drink dirty water, diarrheal disease be the third most common sickness wey dem dey report for health centers across Ghana. 25% of all deaths for children under five years dey come from diarrhea.<ref name=":22" /> Apart from lack of sanitation infrastructure, some cultural beliefs den attitudes dey encourage [[open defecation]]. From de total population for Ghana, 23% dey practice open defecation as their sanitation method.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |title=Ghana Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey 2011 |url=http://www.unicef.org/ghana/Ghana_MICS_Final.pdf}}</ref> As many as 72% of people for de [[Northern Region (Ghana)|Northern Region]] dey do open defecation, wey make am de region wey get de highest rate for Ghana.<ref name=":02" /> Most of de waterborne diseases be enteric diseases (meaning intestinal diseases) wey dem dey spread through fecal-oral route.<ref>{{Cite web |title=WHO. 2006. Preventing disease through healthy environments. |url=https://www.who.int/quantifying_ehimpacts/publications/preventingdisease.pdf}}</ref> For de way disease dey spread through water contamination, human feces from public defecation dey enter sewage systems den non-recycling latrines, den rain carry am go local surface waters, den menners later drink anaa contact am directly, wey cause infection through exposure, absorption den ingestion. Surface water be de main drinking water source for communities for Northern Region of Ghana.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last1=Mintz |first1=Eric |last2=Bartram |first2=Jamie |last3=Lochery |first3=Peter |last4=Wegelin |first4=Martin |date=1 October 2001 |title=Not Just a Drop in the Bucket: Expanding Access to Point-of-Use Water Treatment Systems |journal=American Journal of Public Health |volume=91 |issue=10 |pages=1565–1570 |doi=10.2105/ajph.91.10.1565 |issn=0090-0036 |pmc=1446826 |pmid=11574307}}</ref> For 2024, for one stakeholder conference, Ing. Harold Esseku, Senior Water den Sanitation Specialist for World Bank talk say Ghana dey on track to improve water quality by 2030.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ghana to upscale efforts to improve water quality by 2030 - Esseku |url=https://www.modernghana.com/news/1348313/ghana-to-upscale-efforts-to-improve-water-quality.html |access-date=16 October 2024 |website=Modern Ghana}}</ref> === Effects for education top === De main traditional water sources for many parts of rural Ghana be small ponds den unprotected wells, den both of dem dey very easy make dem get polluted, wey dey cause diseases for people wey dey drink am (Oxfam). More than 50% of de rural population for Ghana also dey depend on unsafe water resources from vendors (Ghana Clean Water Project). Dis thing dey bring plenty sicknesses. De water get parasites den high microbial content, plus dangerous minerals. Many people, mostly children, dey suffer plenty diseases from dis water, den some of dem even fit die from am.<ref name="Water.org: Ghana">{{cite web |title=Ghana |url=http://water.org/country/ghana/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422112638/http://water.org/country/ghana/ |archive-date=22 April 2016 |access-date=27 April 2016 |website=Water.org}}</ref> No be only health de water dey affect; e dey also affect education. For example, for some places for Ghana, children—mostly girls—dey deny their right to go school because their schools no get proper private toilet facilities. Instead, dem expect dem make dem spend whole day dey fetch water. Dis dey affect their education den e dey make am hard make de country develop fast. If people get more clean water den proper sanitation, girls no go dey deny school, den dem go get education wey go increase number of educated people for Ghana.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Delali|first=Sika|title=Ghana Marks Global Hand-washing Day with renewed call for improved hygiene|url=https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/general-news/ghana-news-ghana-marks-global-handwashing-day-with-renewed-call-for-improved-hygiene.html|location=Accra, Ghana|access-date=16 October 2024|newspaper=[[Daily Graphic (Ghana)|Daily Graphic]]|date=16 October 2024}}</ref> All things considered, de water problems wey Ghana dey face no be only about sickness for de population, but e dey also affect education. Dis one no dey happen every time, but e dey happen for some parts of Ghana, especially rural areas.<ref name="Water.org: Ghana" /> === Wastewater treatment === {{further|wastewater treatment}} Dem estimate say for year 2000, urban areas for Ghana dey generate about 763,698 m³ of wastewater every day, wey go amount to around 280 million m³ for the whole year. Regional capitals also add another 180 million m³.<ref>{{cite conference|first=SK|last=Agodzo|author2=Huibers, FP|author3=Chenini, F.|author4=van Lier, JB|author5=Duran A.|title=Use of wastewater in irrgigated agriculture. Country studies from Bolivia, Ghana and Tunisia. Volume 2: Ghana|publisher=WUR|location=Wageningen|url=http://www.iwe.wur.nl/NR/rdonlyres/B87C7F6A-BACA-43CF-BC29-B223B0102B21/9226/fh030624GHANAfinal.PDF|isbn=90-6754-704-2|access-date=28 March 2008}}, p. 16-17</ref> Only small part of de wastewater wey urban areas dey produce dey collected, den even smaller part dey treated. Bad management of urban, industrial den agricultural wastewater often mean say drinking water for millions of people dey either dangerously contaminated or chemically polluted.<ref name=":22" /> For Accra, de capital city, only about 10% of wastewater dey collected. More than that, less than 25% of de 46 industrial den municipal treatment plants for Ghana dey function properly according to inventory wey Ghana Environmental Protection Agency do for 2001. Most of de treatment plants for municipal wastewater dey run by local governments, den most of dem be stabilization ponds.<ref>{{Cite web |title=RUAF Ghana sanitation report |url=http://www.ruaf.org/system/files?file=Chap6-Sanitation.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725133727/http://www.ruaf.org/system/files?file=Chap6-Sanitation.pdf |archive-date=25 July 2011 |access-date=13 April 2008}}</ref> One biological treatment plant dem build am for late 1990s for [[Korle Lagoon]] for Accra, but e only dey handle about 8% of Accra ein wastewater. == Water resources == Ghana get chao water resources. De Volta River system basin, wey dey include [[Oti River|Oti]], [[Daka River|Daka]], [[Pru River|Pru]], [[Sene River|Sene]] den [[Afram River|Afram]] rivers plus de [[White Volta|white]] den [[Black Volta]] rivers, cover about 70% of de country land area. Another 22% of Ghana land dey covered by de southwestern river system watershed wey include [[Bia River|Bia]], [[Tano River|Tano]], [[Ankobra River|Ankobra]] den [[Pra River (Ghana)|Pra]] rivers. De coastal river system watershed, wey include Ochi-Nawuka, Ochi Amissah, [[Ayensu River|Ayensu]], [[Densu River|Densu]] den Tordzie rivers, cover de remaining 8% of Ghana. Plus dat, groundwater dey available for mesozoic den cenozoic sedimentary rocks den inside sedimentary formations wey dey under de Volta basin. De [[Volta Lake]], wey get surface area of 8,500 km², be one of de biggest artificial lakes for di world. Overall, total renewable water resources for Ghana dem estimate say be about 53.2 billion m³ per year.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |author-link=Food and Agriculture Organization |title=Ghana Country Overview |url=http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/ghana/ghana_cp.pdf |access-date=25 March 2008}}, p. 3–4</ref> == Water use == For year 2000, total water wey dem withdraw be 982 million m³, den about two-thirds of am go for agricultural use. Another 10% dem take go industry, wey leave 24% or 235 million m³ for domestic use. Plus dat, 37,843 km³ dey use for hydroelectric power generation for [[Akosombo Dam]] each year.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |author-link=Food and Agriculture Organization |title=Ghana Country Overview |url=http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/ghana/ghana_cp.pdf |access-date=25 March 2008}}, p. 4–5</ref> == History den recent developments == Archaeological work for de house ruins of Begho (12th–19th century) don show say cisterns exist, den on average dem be about two meters deep.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Posnansky |first=Merrick |date=2015 |title=Begho: Life and Times |journal=Journal of West African History |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=95–118 |doi=10.14321/jwestafrihist.1.2.0095 |issn=2327-1868 |jstor=10.14321/jwestafrihist.1.2.0095 |s2cid=193121437}}</ref> For 1817, Thomas Edward Bowdich document de sanitation methods for de Ashanti Empire, including how latrines dey common for most houses for [[Kumasi]].<blockquote>Wetin surprise me pass… be say dem discover say every house get ein own cloacae (latrine), apart from de common ones wey dey outside town for lower class people. Dem usually dey place dem under small archway for de most hidden corner of de building, but sometimes dem dey even upstairs, inside separate room like small closet where big hollow pillar still dey help support de upper floor. De holes small for size, but dem dig dem reach very deep, den dem dey pour boiling water inside every day, wey dey make sure say no bad smell dey at all.</blockquote>— Bowdich, 1817.<ref name=":3">{{cite journal |last=United Nations |author-link=United Nations |year=2004 |title=Freshwater Country Profile: Ghana |url=https://www.un.org/esa/agenda21/natlinfo/countr/ghana/waterghana04f.pdf |access-date=7 April 2008}}, p. 2</ref> For 1821, William Hutton confirm wetin Bowdich observe.<blockquote>Mr. Bowdich ein observation about say houses get cloacae den de general cleanliness of de Ashantees be correct; den e no get doubt say for how dem dey arrange their houses, dem pass plenty of their neighbours for cleanliness.</blockquote>— Hutton, 1821.<ref name=":3" /> Bowdich record am for early 19th century say rubbish den waste from all houses dem dey burn am every morning behind de streets. According to scholar Donna Maier, Public Works Department dey exist for de Ashanti Empire under de stool wey dem call Akwammofo Akonnwa. Dis department be responsible for cleaning de streets of Kumasi every day, den e make sure say people dey keep their compounds clean den dem dey weed am well well.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Feierman |first=Steven |year=1985 |title=Struggles for Control: The Social Roots of Health and Healing in Modern Africa |journal=African Studies Review |volume=28 |issue=2/3 |pages=73–147 |doi=10.2307/524604 |jstor=524604}}</ref> For 1928, dem build de first piped water supply system for [[Cape Coast]]. De Water Supply Division of de Public Works Department dey handle water service provision for both rural den urban areas for Ghana. After Ghana gain independence for 1957, dem separate de division from Public Works Department den put am under Ministry of Works den Housing. For 1965, dem turn am into Ghana Water den Sewerage Corporation (GWSC), one legal public utility wey dey responsible for providing water for urban den rural areas for public, domestic den industrial use, as well as setting up, running den controlling sewerage systems. === Decentralization, focus for rural areas top, den independent regulation (1994–1999) === For mid-1990s, under Presidency of [[Jerry Rawlings]] den after Ghana pass new democratic Constitution for 1992, government of Ghana bring five key laws wey affect how responsibility for water supply den sanitation dey run: * De Local Government Act No. 462 of 1993 explain say District Assemblies be de highest political authority for each district, den dem dey head am by District Chief Executive (like mayor). But neither de constitution nor de Local Government Act clearly define wetin District Assemblies suppose do, den at first dem no get role for water supply den sanitation until 1999 wey dem partially transfer am give dem. * De Water Resources Commission Act No. 552 of 1996 create Water Resources Commission (WRC) wey dem give responsibility for integrated water resources management, wey dey include permits for water abstraction.<ref name="wateraid 5">{{cite web |last=WaterAid |author-link=WaterAid |title=National Water Sector Assessment, Ghana |url=http://www.wateraid.org/other/startdownload.asp?DocumentID=28&mode=plugin |access-date=26 March 2008 |format=[[PDF]]}}{{Dead link|date=July 2018|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}, p. 5</ref> * De Public Utilities den Regulatory Commission Act No. 538 of 1997 create Public Utilities and Regulatory Commission (PURC) wey dem put insyd charge of regulating electricity sector den urban water supply, including checking tariff increase requests, monitoring service quality den protecting consumers.<ref name="oecd 2942">{{cite journal |author=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) |author-link=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development |title=African Economic Outlook 2007 – Ghana Country Note |url=http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/26/51/38562673.pdf |journal=African Economic Outlook 2007 |access-date=25 March 2008}}, p. 294</ref> * De Community Water and Sanitation Agency Act No. 564 of 1998 create Community Water den Sanitation Agency (CWSA) wey cam turn responsible for supporting local communities den District Assemblies for rural water supply den sanitation. CWSA come from Community Water den Sanitation Division wey dem create as semi-autonomous part of GWSC for 1994.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ghanaian Water Resources and Environmental Sanitation Project |author-link=macmeshack |title=Water Supply & Sanitation in Ghana |url=http://www.wresp.org/wsesingh.php#history |access-date=26 March 2008}}</ref> * Under Statutory Corporations (Conversion to Companies) Act 461 of 1993 den government policy wey aim turn state corporations go commercial companies, GWSC transform cam turn company wey dem call GWCL. GWCL remain responsible only for urban water supply, while responsibility for sewer systems move go District Assemblies.<ref>{{cite journal |last=United Nations |author-link=United Nations |year=2004 |title=Freshwater Country Profile: Ghana |url=https://www.un.org/esa/agenda21/natlinfo/countr/ghana/waterghana04f.pdf |access-date=7 April 2008}}, p. 2</ref> For 1999, responsibility say dem go take support communities for provision of water supply den sanitation for more than 110 small towns den rural areas transfer go District Assemblies. Sanitation sana cam turn responsibility of District Assemblies for both urban den rural areas. Plus dat, government try bring private sector go urban water supply plus help from World Bank through preparatory studies den workshops, but dem no fully bring private companies insyd yet. === Private sector participation insyd urban areas (2000–2011) === To carry out de private sector participation of GWCL, dem originally plan say make dem use 10-year lease contract. For 2000, lease contract between GWCL den de US company Azurix fail because of public opposition den accusations of corruption, wey later lead to de formation of de Coalition against Water Privatization.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rahaman |first=Abu Shiraz |author2=Everett, Jeff |author3=Neu, Dean |year=2007 |title=Accounting and the move to privatize water services in Africa |journal=Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal |publisher=Emerald Group Publishing Limited |volume=20 |issue=5 |pages=637–670 |doi=10.1108/09513570710778992}}, p. 648–651</ref> For October 2006 insyd, under Presidency of [[John Kufuor]] den plus support from de World Bank-funded Urban Water Project (see below), dem sign five-year management contract between GWCL den Aqua Vitens Rand Limited (AVRL), wey be consortium of de Dutch public water company Vitens den de South African public company Rand Water. De main objectives of de five-year management contract be: * Improve de reliability (pressure den flow rate) den quality of potable water; * Ensure de company ein financial sustainability; * Improve customer service; den * Provide access to potable water at affordable prices for low-income consumers.<ref name="Vitens Evides">{{cite web |last=Vitens Evides International |title=Management Contract 2006–2011 for urban water supply in Ghana A Partnership – in and for – development |url=http://www.vitensevidesinternational.com/projects/ghana/case-study-book-ghana-5.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130616221305/http://www.vitensevidesinternational.com/projects/ghana/case-study-book-ghana-5.pdf |archive-date=16 June 2013 |access-date=14 August 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Doe |first=Henry Wonder |year=2007 |title=Assessing the Challenges of Water Supply in. Urban Ghana: The case of North Teshie. (EESI Master Thesis) |url=http://www.lwr.kth.se/Publikationer/PDF_Files/LWR_EX_07_06.PDF |publisher=Department of Land and Water Resources Engineering, Royal Institute of Technology (KTH) |access-date=27 March 2008 |place=Stockholm}}{{Dead link|date=January 2020|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}, p. 35-36</ref> For 2008, dem report serious water shortages for Accra because power outages affect two water treatment plants.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news|last=Benson|first=Ivy|title=Government maintains Aqua Vitens deal...to manage water supply in the country|newspaper=The Ghanaian Chronicle|date=12 March 2008|access-date=27 March 2008|url=http://db.ghanaian-chronicle.com/thestory.asp?id=5993}}{{Dead link|date=January 2020|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}.</ref> De management contract expire for June 2011 den dem no renew am, after e achieve only part of ein objectives. For rural areas, de powers den resources of District Assemblies become stronger through de Local Government Service Act 656 of 2003. De Act transfer de power to appoint, promote den discipline civil servants from de national government give de District Assemblies. For 2006, dem create Districts Development Fund to channel central government den donor funds to District Assemblies in transparent den effective way. For 2009, dem create Environmental, Health den Sanitation Directorate insyd de Ministry of Local Government den Rural Development to put more focus on sanitation. As part of dis effort, dem launch programme to eliminate open defecation through community-led total sanitation.<ref name=":4" /> == Responsibility for water supply den sanitation == {{Main|Water privatisation in Ghana|l1=Water privatization in Ghana}} [[File:Pra_River.gif|thumb|372x372px|De [[Pra River (Ghana)|Pra River]] system of de [[List of rivers of Ghana|rivers of Ghana]].]] According to sam multi-donor review of Ghana ein water supply sector, ebe "quite well structured", plus de government wey dey charge of policy den regulation, while de private sector den communities play important roles in service delivery.<ref name="MDG">AMCW/AfDB/EUWI/WSP/UNDP: [http://www.wsp.org/filez/news/27200752243_MDGsAfrica.pdf Getting Africa on Track to meet the MDGs on Water and Sanitation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080227155149/http://www.wsp.org/filez/news/27200752243_MDGsAfrica.pdf|date=27 February 2008}} – A Status Overview of Sixteen African Countries, 2006, p. 27</ref> De institutional framework for sanitation be much less clear, plus responsibilities no be clear. === Policy den regulation === For now, several institutions dey exist to supervise den regulate water supply den sanitation. De policy framework dey based on de Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy (GPRS).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Water-Aid Ghana |year=2005 |title=Assessment of national sanitation policies: Ghana case. Final report. |url=http://wedc.lboro.ac.uk/projects/proj_contents0/WEJEH%20-%20Sanitation%20Policy/www/outputs/Ghana%20Sanitation%20Policy%20Assessment%20Report.pdf |access-date=26 March 2008 |location=Accra}}, p. 28–29</ref> General policies for de water sector, both for rural den urban areas, dey set by de Water Directorate insyd de Ministry of Water Resources, Works den Housing (MWRWH). Plus dat, de ministry dey seek funding from external support agencies, monitor de sector den advise de Cabinet on water matters.<ref name="wateraid 52">{{cite web |last=WaterAid |author-link=WaterAid |title=National Water Sector Assessment, Ghana |url=http://www.wateraid.org/other/startdownload.asp?DocumentID=28&mode=plugin |access-date=26 March 2008 |format=[[PDF]]}}{{Dead link|date=July 2018|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}, p. 5</ref> De Water Sector Restructuring Secretariat, wey dem create for 1997 insyd de Ministry of Water Resources, Works den Housing, dey oversee de process of private sector participation for de water sector.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Doe |first=Henry Wonder |year=2007 |title=Assessing the Challenges of Water Supply in. Urban Ghana: The case of North Teshie. (EESI Master Thesis) |url=http://www.lwr.kth.se/Publikationer/PDF_Files/LWR_EX_07_06.PDF |publisher=Department of Land and Water Resources Engineering, Royal Institute of Technology (KTH) |access-date=27 March 2008 |place=Stockholm}}{{Dead link|date=January 2020|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}, p. 33</ref> De Ministry of Local Government den Rural Development also share responsibility plus MWRWH for setting sanitation policies den coordinating funding for de sanitation sub-sector. Government dey promote decentralization, so dem expect Metropolitan, Municipal den District Assemblies to implement sanitation policies. To enforce environmental quality laws, de Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) under de Ministry of Environment den Science suppose assess de impact of sanitation development activities on de environment. To solve de problem of poor coordination among de many institutions for de sector, de Minister of Water Resources, Works den Housing, Abubakar Saddique Boniface, launch de National Water Policy (NWP) for February 2008. De policy cover water resources management, water supply den sanitation. Although de sector make some progress, lack of coordination for policy formulation result insyd many different implementation strategies. De main aim of de NWP be to create one comprehensive policy for de sector den make am easier for development partners to provide de necessary support for de water sector.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Appiah|first=Innocent|title=Govt tackles water issue|newspaper=[[Ghanaian Times]]|date=28 February 2008|url=http://www.newtimesonline.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=14378&Itemid=181&month=2&year=2008}}{{dead link|date=February 2025|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> De Water Resources Commission (WRC) start preparing de NWP since 2002. === Illegal mining activities den water supply === Lands Minister, Samuel Abu Jinapor re-assure de general public say Ghana ein water supply be safe den consumable despite massive concerns of illegal mining activities wey dey impact natural water bodies insyd de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 October 2024 |title=Lands Minister Jinapor Defends Ghana's Water Supply Amidst Galamsey Concerns |url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/blogs/godblessed/Lands-Minister-Jinapor-Defends-Ghana-s-Water-Supply-Amidst-Galamsey-Concerns-244 |access-date=9 October 2024 |website=Ghana Web}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=New water policy to address 'galamsey' menace – Sanitation Ministry |url=https://www.myjoyonline.com/new-water-policy-to-address-galamsey-menace-sanitation-ministry/ |access-date=16 October 2024}}</ref> ===Service provision=== ==== Urban areas ==== De [[Ghana Water Company]] Ltd. (GWCL) be responsible for providing, distributing, den conserving water for domestic, public, den industrial purposes insyd 82 urban systems insyd localities plus more than 5,000 inhabitants. Local private companies wey dey charge of [[Water meter|meter]] installation, customer billing, den revenue collection.<ref name="wateraid 19">{{Cite web |last=Water-Aid Ghana |year=2005 |title=Assessment of national sanitation policies: Ghana case. Final report. |url=http://wedc.lboro.ac.uk/projects/proj_contents0/WEJEH%20-%20Sanitation%20Policy/www/outputs/Ghana%20Sanitation%20Policy%20Assessment%20Report.pdf |access-date=26 March 2008 |location=Accra}}, p. 19</ref> Urban sanitation be responsibility of local governments.<ref>{{Cite web |title=RUAF Ghana Sanitation Report |url=http://www.ruaf.org/system/files?file=Chap6-Sanitation.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725133727/http://www.ruaf.org/system/files?file=Chap6-Sanitation.pdf |archive-date=25 July 2011 |access-date=13 April 2008}}</ref> ==== Rural areas ==== [[File:Ghana_-_Victory_Pump.jpg|thumb|300x300px|A [[rope pump]] close to [[Paga]], Upper East Region]] De Community Water den Sanitation Agency (CWSA) be de institution wey dey in charge of coordinating den facilitating de implementation of de National Community Water den Sanitation Programme (NCWSP) for rural areas. De programme dey carried out directly by de communities den their District Assemblies. De NCWSP focus on three main objectives to improve health: safe water supply, hygiene education den improved sanitation.<ref>{{cite web |last=Community Water and Sanitation Agency (CWSA) |date=August 2004 |title=Strategic Investment Plan 2005 – 2015 |url=http://www.cwsagh.org/documents/SIP_2005-2015.pdf |access-date=26 March 2008}}{{dead link|date=May 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}, p. 15</ref> Dem create de CWSA for 1994 under de framework of Ghana ein decentralization policy, den e become autonomous for 1998. De institution no dey directly construct, operate or maintain water supply den sanitation facilities. Instead, ein role be to coordinate de work of different actors wey dey provide de services for rural areas, including public sector organizations, local beneficiary communities, private sector organizations den NGOs. CWSA also suppose make sure say financial support from development partners dey used effectively den say hygiene education dey provided. De agency get ten regional offices apart from ein head office for Accra.<ref name="CWSA 9-11">{{cite web |last=Community Water and Sanitation Agency (CWSA) |date=August 2004 |title=Strategic Investment Plan 2005 – 2015 |url=http://www.cwsagh.org/documents/SIP_2005-2015.pdf |access-date=26 March 2008}}{{dead link|date=May 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}, p. 9-11</ref> For communities wey get less than 5,000 people, de water supply systems dey owned den managed by de communities themselves based on demand. According to de NCWSP, dis systems no dey receive any cross-subsidies, den District Assemblies dey pay 5% of de investment costs.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nyarko |first=Kwabena Biritwum |title=Water Resources of Arid and Semi Arid Regions, International Conference |publisher=Taylor and Francis Group |year=2004 |isbn=0-415-35913-9 |editor-last=Chaoka |editor-first=T. R. |place=London |pages=217–226 |contribution=Institutional challenges for small towns' water supply delivery in Ghana |display-editors=etal}}, p. 217–218.</ref> Communities for rural areas den small towns dey elect gender-balanced water den sanitation boards made up of volunteers, including one or two village-based caretakers wey receive special training for repairs den maintenance.<ref name="wateraid 522">{{cite web |last=WaterAid |author-link=WaterAid |title=National Water Sector Assessment, Ghana |url=http://www.wateraid.org/other/startdownload.asp?DocumentID=28&mode=plugin |access-date=26 March 2008 |format=[[PDF]]}}{{Dead link|date=July 2018|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}, p. 5</ref><ref name="wedc 2">{{cite journal |last=Komives |first=K. |author2=Akanbang, B. |author3=Thorsten, R. |author4=Tuffuor, B. |author5=Wakeman, Wasser. |author6=Larbi, E. |author7=Bakalian, A |author8=Whittington, D. |year=2008 |title=Post-construction Support and the Sustainability of Rural Water Projects in Ghana |journal=Paper Presented at the 33rd WEDC International Conference – Access to Sanitation and Safe Water: Global Partnerships and Local Actions |location=Accra}}, p. 2</ref> De communities fit contract private companies or NGOs to provide technical assistance, goods or services.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Water-Aid Ghana |year=2005 |title=Assessment of national sanitation policies: Ghana case. Final report. |url=http://wedc.lboro.ac.uk/projects/proj_contents0/WEJEH%20-%20Sanitation%20Policy/www/outputs/Ghana%20Sanitation%20Policy%20Assessment%20Report.pdf |access-date=26 March 2008 |location=Accra}}, p. 31</ref> Local companies dey drill boreholes den build hand-dug wells, den local artisans dey provide household latrines.<ref name="wateraid 192">{{Cite web |last=Water-Aid Ghana |year=2005 |title=Assessment of national sanitation policies: Ghana case. Final report. |url=http://wedc.lboro.ac.uk/projects/proj_contents0/WEJEH%20-%20Sanitation%20Policy/www/outputs/Ghana%20Sanitation%20Policy%20Assessment%20Report.pdf |access-date=26 March 2008 |location=Accra}}, p. 19</ref> De maintenance units of CWSA don be privatized, den de regional companies wey come out from dis process now dey carry out major repairs on behalf of District Assemblies. Area mechanics dey handle minor repairs.<ref name="KfW RWS">{{cite web |last=KfW Entwicklungsbank |title=Ghana: Rural Water Supply I -II Ex post evaluation, 2005 |url=http://www.kfw-entwicklungsbank.de/ebank/EN_Home/Evaluation/Ex-post_evaluation_reports/PDF-Dokumente_E-K/Ghana_Laendl__WV_I__II_e.pdf |access-date=19 August 2012}}{{Dead link|date=August 2025|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}</ref> De communities ein water den sanitation boards dey receive technical assistance from District Water den Sanitation Teams (DWST), wey ideally suppose include engineer, hygiene expert den community mobilizer.<ref name="wedc 2" /> However, for some districts, these teams weak well well, so de regional teams of CWSA sometimes dey provide direct support to de local water den sanitation boards instead.<ref name="WB SRWSP">{{cite web |last=World Bank |title=Project Appraisal Document: Sustainable Water Supply and Sanitation Project, 28 May 2010 |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2010/06/07/000333037_20100607005153/Rendered/PDF/546720PAD0P120101Official0Use0Only1.pdf |access-date=19 August 2012}}</ref> === Oda stakeholders === De Ghana Coalition of NGOs insyd Water den Sanitation (CONIWAS), wey dem create insyd 2001, " dey work insyd partnership plus sector players so say dem go influence policies, remove barriers den promote access to potable water, sanitation den improve hygiene give de poor den vulnerable." According to de coalition, say you go give NGOs one voice for advocacy den lobbying be one of ein major benefits.<ref>[http://www.water-mwrwh.com/sub.htm#top CONIWAS]{{Dead link|date=August 2025|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}</ref> '''Innovations for Poverty Action''' Dem form [[Innovations for Poverty Action]] (IPA) insyd 2002 as research den policy non-profit organization wey dey aim say ego discover denpromote effective solutions give global poverty issues. IPA dey recruit researchers den decision-makers make dem measure de impact of different interventions for areas like agriculture, education, health, financial inclusion, governance, peace den recovery, small den medium enterprises, den social protection across 18 country programmes.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 August 2015 |title=Research {{!}} Innovations for Poverty Action |url=http://www.poverty-action.org/research |access-date=8 May 2016 |website=www.poverty-action.org}}</ref> So say dem go achieve dis, dem dey conduct Randomized Control Trials (RCTs) den other forms of qualitative research, wey dey include de Clean Water insyd Northern Ghana research study.<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 February 2015 |title=What We Do {{!}} Innovations for Poverty Action |url=http://www.poverty-action.org/about/what-we-do |access-date=8 May 2016 |website=www.poverty-action.org}}</ref> Dis study dey assess whether households for Northern Ghana willing to buy de Kosim filter wey Pure Home Water (PHW), one Ghana-based NGO, dey sell. De study sana dey aim say ego measure de health effects of household-level water treatment for areas where de population get high risk of waterborne diseases.<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 April 2015 |title=Clean Water in Northern Ghana {{!}} Innovations for Poverty Action |url=http://www.poverty-action.org/study/clean-water-northern-ghana |access-date=8 May 2016 |website=www.poverty-action.org}}</ref> '''Pure Home Water''' Pure Home Water (PHW) be Ghana-based NGO den social enterprise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pure Home Water, Tamale, Ghana. 2013. |url=http://hwts.web.unc.edu/files/2014/08/2013Accra_Day1_11_Jackson.pdf}}</ref> Dem found am for 2005, den de purpose be make e manufacture ceramic pot water filters for de northern city of Tamale, Ghana. PHW get two main goals: to provide support to people wey need safe drinking water, sanitation den hygiene (WASH) pass for Northern Ghana, den sana say ego cam turn financially den locally self-sustaining. Dem achieve dis by say dem go provide training den monitoring de correct, consistent den continuous (3Cs) use of de AfriClay filter. Dem sana dey build den distribute hand-washing stations den sanitation facilities across villages for de Northern Region. PHW be partner organization of Innovations for Poverty Action.<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 April 2015 |title=Pure Home Water {{!}} Innovations for Poverty Action |url=http://www.poverty-action.org/organization/pure-home-water |access-date=8 May 2016 |website=www.poverty-action.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Pure Home Water |url=https://purehomewater.org/ |access-date=8 May 2016 |website=Pure Home Water |language=en-US}}</ref> '''Saha Global''' Saha Global (formerly known as Community Water Solutions) be nonprofit organization based for Boston, wey dem establish for 2008 to help meet de water den energy needs of Ghanaian communities for de Northern Region. Saha Global dey work say dem go empower shoddies for rural Ghanaian communities make dem provide access to clean water den electricity through business opportunities. Dem achieve dis by say dem go bring young leaders from different parts of de world come Ghana through de Global Leadership Program. While dem dey Ghana, de participants train local shoddies so say dem go build businesses wey fit generate income back into their communities. As of 2016, dem create 84 clean-water businesses den 20 solar-electric businesses plus support from Saha Global, den all of dem still dey operate fully up till dat time.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Saha Global |url=http://sahaglobal.org/ |access-date=7 May 2016 |website=sahaglobal.org}}</ref> '''Water.org''' [[Water.org]] be American den international nonprofit development aid organization wey dem design make e provide access to safe water den sanitation all over de world by introducing new den sustainable ways to solve global water crisis. Dem found dis organization for 1990 after two water NGOs merge: H2O Africa, wey [[Matt Damon]] co-found, den [[WaterPartners]], wey [[Gary White (environmentalist)|Gary White]] co-found. Through their work to make water den sanitation safe, easy to reach den cheap, Water.org don continue dey support more than four million lives around de world for over 25 years.<ref>{{Cite web |title=About Us – Learn About Our Clean Water Solutions {{!}} Water.org |url=http://water.org/about/ |access-date=8 May 2016 |website=Water.org}}</ref> Right now, Water.org dey work for two rural areas for Ghana: Volta Region den Upper East Region. Dis districts be among de poorest for de country, with less than half of de population get small or no access to safe drinking water den fewer families get improved sanitation. Plus dat, rural communities for these regions dey suffer plenty from waterborne diseases like diarrhea. Water.org dey work together plus local communities den partner organizations like Rural Aid to build wells, latrines den biosand filters for Ghana, den also provide health den hygiene education.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ghana – Water Crisis {{!}} Water.org |url=http://water.org/country/ghana/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422112638/http://water.org/country/ghana/ |archive-date=22 April 2016 |access-date=8 May 2016 |website=Water.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Opportunity in Ghana |url=http://water.org/post/opportunity-in-ghana/ |access-date=8 May 2016 |website=Water.org}}</ref> ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==External links== {{Commons}} ===Policy setting=== * [http://www.ghana.gov.gh/index.php/2012-02-08-08-18-09/ministries/274-ministry-of-water-resources-works-housing Ghanaian Ministry of Water Resources, Works and Housing] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190926043318/http://www.ghana.gov.gh/index.php/2012-02-08-08-18-09/ministries/274-ministry-of-water-resources-works-housing |date=26 September 2019 }} ===Economic regulation=== * [http://www.purc.com.gh/ Ghanaian Public Utilities and Regulatory Commission (PURC)] ===Service provision=== * [http://www.cwsagh.org/ Community Water and Sanitation Agency] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110727204856/http://www.ghanawater.com.gh/ Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL)] * [http://waterinafrica.org/ Water In Africa Through Everyday Responsiveness, a nonprofit which installs boreholes throughout Ghana] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation insyd Ghana| ]] [[Category:Environment of Ghana]] [[Category:Environmental issues insyd Ghana]] [[Category:Volta River Authority]] [[Category:1994 establishments insyd Ghana]] 6cbtqmphlj17achxuqnsvc6fugskldb 0 14385 102922 86492 2026-06-15T06:44:55Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 102922 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala''' GCON (dem born am 13 June 1954<ref>[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-54903788 "Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala makes history at WTO"]. ''BBC News''. 1 March 2021. Retrieved 4 March 2022.</ref>) be Nigerian economist,<ref>[https://www.cgdev.org/expert/ngozi-okonjo-iweala "Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala"]. Center For Global Development. 5 February 2021. Retrieved 24 June 2021.</ref><ref>[https://www.wto.org/english/news_e/news21_e/dgno_05mar21_e.htm "DG Okonjo-Iweala Hits the Ground Running"]. WTO: World Trade Organization. Retrieved 24 June 2021.</ref><ref>[https://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/profile/ngozi-okonjo-iweala/ "Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala – The Rockefeller Foundation"]. The Rockefeller Foundation. Retrieved 24 June 2021.</ref><ref>[https://www.vanguardngr.com/2022/04/russia-ukraine-war-my-fears-for-nigeria-other-african-countries-ngozi-okonjo-iweala/ "Russia-Ukraine War: My fears for Nigeria, other African countries — Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala"]. ''Vanguard News''. 2 April 2022. Retrieved 3 April 2022.</ref> wey she dey serve as de Director-General of de World Trade Organization since March 2021. She be de first woman den first African make she lead de World Trade Organization as director-general.<ref>[https://www.un.org/africarenewal/magazine/march-2021/history-made-dr-ngozi-okonjo-iweala-picked-head-wto "History Made as Dr. Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala Picked to Head the WTO"]. Africa Renewal: United Nations Magazine. 26 February 2021. Retrieved 24 June 2021.</ref><ref>[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-54903788 "Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala Makes History at the WTO"]. BBC News. March 2021. Retrieved 24 June 2021.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20211029203553/https://www.pri.org/stories/2021-04-22/wto-head-ngozi-okonjo-iweala-vaccines-we-have-solve-health-crisis-if-we-want "WTO Director-General Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala Discusses Vaccines"]. The World: Public Radio. Retrieved 24 June 2021.</ref> Na she previously dey for de boards of Danone, Standard Chartered Bank, MINDS: Mandela Institute for Development Studies, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Georgetown Institute for Women, Peace and Security, One Campaign, GAVI: Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunization, Rockefeller Foundation, R4D: Results for Development, ARC: African Risk Capacity den Earthshot Prize plus odas.<ref>[https://www.msn.com/en-ca/lifestyle/travel/news/prince-william-and-earthshot-prize-council-members-sign-letter-encouraging-everyone-to-give-the-earth-a-shot/ar-BB1fW9wT "Prince William and Earthshot Prize Council Members Sign Letter Encouraging Everyone to Give the Earth a Shot"]. MSN. Retrieved 24 June 2021.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20220714043141/https://www.earthshotprize.org/about-us/the-prize-council/ "Earthshot Prize Council: Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala"]. Earthshot Prize. Retrieved 24 June 2021.</ref><ref>[https://www.bloomberg.com/profile/person/1833898 "Profile: Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala"]. Bloomberg. Retrieved 24 June 2021.</ref><ref>[https://r4d.org/about/board-of-directors/ngozi-okonjo-iweala "Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala: Results for Development"]. ''Results for Development''. R4D: Results for Development. Retrieved 24 June 2021.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20200520205839/https://www.africanriskcapacity.org/about/who-is-arc/arc-governing-board/ "ARC Agency Governing Board – African Risk Capacity"]. Archived from the original on 20 May 2020. Retrieved 12 May 2020.</ref> She sanso previously tap for de Twitter Board of Directors top, wey she step down insyd February 2021 insyd connection plus ein appointment as director-general of de World Trade Organization.<ref>MarketScreener (19 February 2021). "Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala to Step Down as Member of Board of Directors of Twitter, Inc., Effective February 28, 2021 | MarketScreener". ''www.marketscreener.com''. Retrieved 2 August 2022.</ref> Okonjo-Iweala dey serve at de Brookings Institution as a non-resident distinguished fellow plus de Africa Growth Initiative insyd dema Global Economy den Development Program.<ref>[https://www.brookings.edu/experts/ngozi-okonjo-iweala-2/ "Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala: Non-resident Distinguished Fellow – Global Economy and Development, Africa Growth Initiative"]. Brookings Institution. 4 April 2018. Retrieved 24 June 2021.</ref><ref>Abiodun Sanusi (13 March 2022). [https://punchng.com/nigerian-women-global-leaders/ "Nigerian women, global leaders"]. ''Punch''.</ref> She be Commissioner Emeritus den Co-Chair of Global Commission for de Economy den Climate top.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20230927152355/https://newclimateeconomy.net/about/global-commission/ngozi-okonjo-iweala "Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala: Co-Chair: Former Finance Minister of Nigeria"]. New Climate Economy: Global Commission on the Economy and Climate. Retrieved 24 June 2021.</ref> At de World Bank, na she get a 25-year career as a development economist; wey she rise make she cam turn Managing Director give Operations from 2007 to 2011. Okonjo-Iweala be de first Nigerian woman wey serve two terms as Finance Minister of Nigeria; initially, under Presido Olusegun Obasanjo from 2003 to 2006; den secondly, under Presido Goodluck Jonathan from 2011 to 2015. Subsequently, from June to August 2006, she serve as Minister for Foreign Affairs of Nigeria. Insyd 2005, ''Euromoney'' name am Global Finance Minister of de Year.<ref>[https://www.euromoney.com/article/b1320xywxmx4bk/finance-minister-of-the-year-2005-ngozi-okonjo-iweala-nigeria "Euromoney Finance Minister of the Year 2005: Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala: Nigeria"]. Euromoney Magazine. 31 August 2005. Retrieved 25 June 2021.</ref><ref>Tribune, Emea. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210217181008/https://emeatribune.uk/nigerias-ngozi-okonjo-iweala-becomes-first-female-african-to-head-world-trade-organisation/ "Nigeria's Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala Becomes First Female, African To Head The World Trade Organisation"]. Archived from the original on 17 February 2021. Retrieved 16 February 2021.</ref><ref>luwole, Victor (7 March 2022). [https://africa.businessinsider.com/local/leaders/6-leadership-lessons-from-wto-director-general-dr-ngozi-okonjo-iweala/1tme2zs "6 leadership lessons from WTO Director-General Dr. Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala"]. ''Business Insider Africa''. Retrieved 3 April 2022.</ref> == Ein early life den education == Dem born Okonjo-Iweala insyd Ogwashi-Ukwu, Delta State, Nigeria, wey na ein poppie, Professor Chukwuka Okonjo, be de Obi (king) of de Obahai royal family of Ogwashi-Ukwu insyd Nigeria.<ref>[https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Okonjo/ "Chukwuka Okonjo – Biography"]. ''Maths History''. Retrieved 20 August 2024.</ref> Na she briefly attend Queen's School, Enugu; wey she later relocate make she live den to further ein education insyd St. Anne's School, Molete, Ibadan, Oyo State; wey she sanso attend de International School, Ibadan, insyd Oyo State. Insyd 1973 she move go de [[United States]] make she study at Harvard University wey she graduate ''magna cum laude'' plus an AB insyd Economics insyd 1976.<ref>[https://www.hks.harvard.edu/announcements/ngozi-okonjo-iweala-former-finance-minister-nigeria-and-former-managing-director "Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala, former finance minister of Nigeria and former managing director of the World Bank, will deliver the 2020 Graduation Address"]. ''www.hks.harvard.edu''. 2 March 2020. [https://web.archive.org/web/20200513211315/https://www.hks.harvard.edu/announcements/ngozi-okonjo-iweala-former-finance-minister-nigeria-and-former-managing-director Archived] from the original on 13 May 2020. Retrieved 12 May 2020.</ref><ref>Okonjo-Iweala, Ngozi (4 April 2018). [https://www.brookings.edu/experts/ngozi-okonjo-iweala-2/ "Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala"]. ''Brookings''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20200513205223/https://www.brookings.edu/experts/ngozi-okonjo-iweala-2/ Archived] from the original on 13 May 2020. Retrieved 17 February 2021.</ref> She earn a master's degree insyd city planning insyd 1978 wey she obtain ein PhD insyd regional economics den development insyd 1981 from de Massachusetts Institute of Technology plus de thesis ''Credit policy, rural financial markets,'' ''den Nigeria's agricultural development''.<ref>Okonjo-Iweala, Ngozi (1981). ''Credit policy, rural financial markets, and Nigeria's agricultural development'' (Thesis). Massachusetts Institute of Technology. [[Hdl (identifier)|hdl:]][[hdl:1721.1/46400|1721.1/46400]]. [[OCLC (identifier)|OCLC]] [https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/08096642 08096642].</ref> She receive an international fellowship from de American Association of University Women (AAUW), wey support ein doctoral studies.<ref name=":0">[https://cgdev.org/blog/nigeria-receives-its-first-sovereign-credit-ratings "Nigeria receives its first sovereign credit ratings"]. ''Center for Global Development''. 9 February 2006. [https://web.archive.org/web/20180702012538/https://www.cgdev.org/blog/nigeria-receives-its-first-sovereign-credit-ratings Archived] from the original on 2 July 2018. Retrieved 8 May 2017.</ref> == Ein career == === World Bank === Na Okonjo-Iweala get a 25-year career at de World Bank insyd Washington, D.C., as a development economist wey she rise to de No. 2 position of Managing Director, Operations.<ref name=":1">[https://live.worldbank.org/experts/ngozi-okonjo-iweala "Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala"]. ''World Bank Live''. 2 October 2013. [https://web.archive.org/web/20200804121037/https://live.worldbank.org/experts/ngozi-okonjo-iweala Archived] from the original on 4 August 2020. Retrieved 12 May 2020.</ref> As Managing Director, she get oversight responsibility give de World Bank’s $81 billion operational portfolio insyd [[Africa]], South Asia, Europe, den Central Asia. Na Okonjo-Iweala spearhead chaw World Bank initiatives make dem assist low-income countries during de 2008–2009 food crises den later during de financial crisis. Insyd 2010, she chair de IDA replenishment, de World Bank ein successful drive make dem raise $49.3 billion insyd grants den low-interest credit give de world ein poorest country.<ref>[http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2010/12/15/world-banks-fund-for-the-poorest-receives-almost-50-billion-in-record-funding "World Bank's Fund for The Poorest Receives Almost $50 Billion in Record Funding"]. ''World Bank''. 15 December 2010. [https://web.archive.org/web/20180924190346/http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2010/12/15/world-banks-fund-for-the-poorest-receives-almost-50-billion-in-record-funding Archived] from the original on 24 September 2018. Retrieved 24 September 2018.</ref> During ein tym for de World Bank, na she sanso be a member of de Commission on Effective Development Cooperation plus Africa, wey Danish Prime Minister Anders Fogh Rasmussen set am wey dem hold meetings between April den October 2008.<ref>[http://www.ft.dk/samling/20072/lovforslag/l188/pgf/6/spm/1/svar/570287/594322.pdf Commission on Effective Development Cooperation with Africa] [https://web.archive.org/web/20171107013413/http://www.ft.dk/samling/20072/lovforslag/l188/pgf/6/spm/1/svar/570287/594322.pdf Archived] 7 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine Folketing.</ref> === Insyd government === Na Okonjo-Iweala serve twice as Nigeria ein Finance Minister (2003–2006 den 2011–2015) den she briefly act as Foreign Minister insyd 2006. She be de first woman make she hold both positions. During ein first tenure as Finance Minister insyd de administration of Presido Olusegun Obasanjo, na she spearhead negotiations plus de Paris Club wey lead to de elimination of US$30 billion of Nigeria ein debt, wey dey include de outright cancellation of US$18 billion.<ref>[https://cgdev.org/initiative/nigerian-debt-relief "Nigerian Debt Relief"]. ''Center for Global Development''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20160404194805/http://www.cgdev.org/initiative/nigerian-debt-relief Archived] from the original on 4 April 2016. Retrieved 8 May 2017.</ref> Insyd 2003, she lead efforts make dem improve Nigeria ein macroeconomic management wey dey include de implementation of an oil-price based fiscal rule. Na dem save revenues wey dey accrue above a reference benchmark oil price insyd a special account, de "Excess Crude Account," wey help make e reduce macroeconomic volatility.<ref>[https://nsi-ins.ca/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/NgoziOkonjoIweala_Ottawa_Forum_ForDelivery.pdf#page=3 "The African State and Natural Resource Governance in the 21st Century"] (PDF). ''The North-South Institute''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20190618191157/http://www.nsi-ins.ca/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/NgoziOkonjoIweala_Ottawa_Forum_ForDelivery.pdf#page=3 Archived] (PDF) from the original on 18 June 2019. Retrieved 8 May 2017.</ref> Okonjo-Iweala sanso be instrumental insyd wey she help Nigeria obtain ein first ever sovereign credit rating (of BB minus) from Fitch Ratings den Standard & Poor’s insyd 2006.<ref name=":0" /> She sanso introduce de practice of publishing de federal, state, den local government shares of revenue from de country ein federal account. Na dat action go a long way in increasing transparency insyd governance at all levels of government, particularly de sub-national level.<ref>[https://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTSOCIALDEVELOPMENT/Resources/244362-1193949504055/4348035-1298566783395/7755386-1298566794345/7755368-1298581402948/nigeria.pdf "Nigeria's Experience Publishing Budget Allocations: A Practical Tool to Promote Demand for Better Governance"] (PDF). ''World Bank''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20130608194747/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTSOCIALDEVELOPMENT/Resources/244362-1193949504055/4348035-1298566783395/7755386-1298566794345/7755368-1298581402948/nigeria.pdf Archived] (PDF) from the original on 8 June 2013. Retrieved 8 May 2017.</ref><ref>Songwe, Vera; Francis, Paul; Rossiasco, Paula; O'Neill, Fionnuala; Chase, Rob (1 October 2008). [http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/220031468288952944/Nigerias-experience-publishing-budget-allocations-a-practical-tool-to-promote-demand-for-better-governance "Nigeria's experience publishing budget allocations : a practical tool to promote demand for better governance"]. pp. 1–4. [https://web.archive.org/web/20200318121200/http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/220031468288952944/Nigerias-experience-publishing-budget-allocations-a-practical-tool-to-promote-demand-for-better-governance Archived] from the original on 18 March 2020. Retrieved 18 March 2020.</ref> After ein first term as Finance Minister, she serve two months as Minister of Foreign Affairs insyd 2006. She return to de World Bank as a Managing Director insyd December 2007.<ref name=":1" /><ref>Okonjo-Iweala, Ngozi (4 April 2018). [https://www.brookings.edu/experts/ngozi-okonjo-iweala-2/ "Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala"]. ''Brookings''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20200513205223/https://www.brookings.edu/experts/ngozi-okonjo-iweala-2/ Archived] from the original on 13 May 2020. Retrieved 12 May 2020.</ref> Insyd 2011, na dem re-appoint Okonjo-Iweala as Minister of Finance insyd Nigeria plus de expanded portfolio of de Coordinating Minister give de Economy by Presido Goodluck Jonathan. During ein second tenure as Finance Minister, Dr Okonjo-Iweala lead reforms wey enhance transparency of government accounts den strengthen institutions against corruption, wey dey include de implementation of de GIFMS (Government Integrated Financial Management System), de IPPMS (Integrated Personnel and Payroll Management System), den de TSA (Treasury Single Accounts). As of February 2015, na de IPPIS platform eliminate 62,893 ghost workers from de system wey e save de government about $1.25 billion insyd de process.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160819105807/http://www.nitda.gov.ng/wp-content/uploads/ICT4D-SAPI-Book.pdf#page=20 "ICT4D Strategic Action Plan Implementation – Status Update and Illustrations Book"] (PDF). Archived from [https://nitda.gov.ng/wp-content/uploads/ICT4D-SAPI-Book.pdf#page=20 the original] (PDF) on 19 August 2016. Retrieved 8 May 2017.</ref><ref>[https://www.pressreader.com/nigeria/thisday/20170510/281685434761568 "Hats off to Okonjo-Iweala"]. ''This Day''. 10 May 2017. [https://web.archive.org/web/20200804094855/https://www.pressreader.com/nigeria/thisday/20170510/281685434761568 Archived] from the original on 4 August 2020 – via pressreader.com.</ref> Ein legacy dey include strengthening de country ein public financial systems den dey stimulate de housing sector plus de establishment of de Nigerian Mortgage Refinance Corporation (NMRC) insyd 2013.<ref>[https://oxfordbusinessgroup.com/interview/ngozi-okonjo-iweala-coordinating-minister-economy-and-minister-finance-interview "Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala, Coordinating Minister of the Economy and Minister of Finance: Interview"]. ''Oxford Business Group''. 17 May 2015. [https://web.archive.org/web/20200508143041/https://oxfordbusinessgroup.com/interview/ngozi-okonjo-iweala-coordinating-minister-economy-and-minister-finance-interview Archived] from the original on 8 May 2020. Retrieved 13 March 2020.</ref> Under ein leadership, na de National Bureau of Statistics carry out a re-basing exercise of de Gross Domestic Product (GDP), de first insyd 24 years, wey see Nigeria emerge as de largest economy insyd Africa.<ref>[https://allafrica.com/view/group/main/main/id/00029897.html "Rebasing Makes Nigeria Africa's Biggest Economy"]. 5 April 2014. [https://web.archive.org/web/20170610050630/http://allafrica.com/view/group/main/main/id/00029897.html Archived] from the original on 10 June 2017. Retrieved 8 May 2017.</ref> She sanso empower women den youth plus de Growing Girls and Women in Nigeria Programme (GWIN), a gender-responsive budgeting system,<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20150526193722/https://v4c-nigeria.com/gwin-growing-girls-and-women-in-nigeria-gets-the-limelight "GWiN (Growing Girls and Women in Nigeria) Gets the Limelight!"]. Archived from [https://v4c-nigeria.com/gwin-growing-girls-and-women-in-nigeria-gets-the-limelight the original] on 26 May 2015. Retrieved 15 May 2017.</ref> den de highly acclaimed Youth Enterprise plus Innovation Programme (YouWIN); make e support entrepreneurs, wey create thousands of jobs.<ref>David McKenzie (8 September 2015). [https://blogs.worldbank.org/impactevaluations/what-happens-when-you-give-50000-aspiring-nigerian-entrepreneur "What happens when you give $50,000 to an aspiring Nigerian entrepreneur?"]. ''Impact Evaluations''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20170428010316/http://blogs.worldbank.org/impactevaluations/what-happens-when-you-give-50000-aspiring-nigerian-entrepreneur Archived] from the original on 28 April 2017. Retrieved 8 May 2017.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20111013144944/http://youwin.org.ng/ "Youth Enterprise with Innovation"]. ''YouWIN''. Archived from [http://youwin.org.ng/ the original] on 13 October 2011.</ref> As part of Goodluck Jonathan ein administration, she receive death threats wey na she endure de kidnapping of ein mommie wen she try make she sanitise Nigeria ein fuel subsidy payments to sam marketers insyd 2012.<ref>[https://guardian.ng/news/fuel-subsidy-thieves-threatened-my-life-okonjo-iweala-says/ "Fuel subsidy thieves threatened my life, Okonjo-Iweala says"]. ''The Guardian''. Nigeria. 14 July 2021.</ref> For addition to ein role insyd government, Okonjo-Iweala serve for Commission on Growth and Development (2006–2009) top, wey Nobel Prize winner Professor Michael Spence lead am. She be a member of de International Monetary den Finance Committee of de IMF (2003–2006 den 2011–2015) den de United Nations’ Secretary-General’s High-Level Panel for Post-2015 Development Agenda (2012–2013) top. She sanso co-chair de Global Partnership give Effective Development Cooperation plus UK Secretary Justine Greening.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20170224033605/http://effectivecooperation.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Room-document-Media-guide.pdf#page=7 "Global Partnership for Effective Development Co-operation Media Guide"] (PDF). Archived from [https://effectivecooperation.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Room-document-Media-guide.pdf#page=7 the original] (PDF) on 24 February 2017. Retrieved 8 May 2017.</ref> Insyd 2012, na she be a candidate give Presido of de World Bank, wey she run against former Colombian finance minister Jose Antonio Ocampo den Dartmouth College President Jim Yong Kim; if na dem elect am, she go be de organization ein first female presido.<ref>Elizabeth Flock, [https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/ngozi-okonnjo-iweala-world-bank-presidential-candidate-says-she-would-focus-on-job-creation/2012/04/09/gIQAxR7j6S_story.html Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala, World Bank presidential candidate, says she would focus on job creation] [https://web.archive.org/web/20190111054903/https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/ngozi-okonnjo-iweala-world-bank-presidential-candidate-says-she-would-focus-on-job-creation/2012/04/09/gIQAxR7j6S_story.html Archived] 11 January 2019 at the Wayback Machine, ''Washington Post'' (9 April 2012).</ref> === Later career === After she lef government, Okonjo-Iweala cam turn a member of de International Commission for Financing Global Education Opportunity (2015–2016) top, wey Gordon Brown chair am, den de Eminent Persons Group for Global Financial Governance top, wey de G20 Finance Ministers den Central Bank Governors establish am (2017–2018).<ref>[https://www.globalfinancialgovernance.org/about-g20-epg/epg-members/ Members] [https://web.archive.org/web/20210217040226/https://www.globalfinancialgovernance.org/about-g20-epg/epg-members/ Archived] 17 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine Eminent Persons Group on Global Financial Governance.</ref> Since 2014, she dey co-chair de Global Commission give de Economy den Climate, plus Nicholas Stern den Paul Polman.<ref>[http://newclimateeconomy.net/about/members-global-commission/ "Members of the Global Commission"]. ''NewClimateEconomy.net''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20170418162215/http://newclimateeconomy.net/about/members-global-commission/ Archived] from the original on 18 April 2017. Retrieved 17 April 2017.</ref> She sanso serve as Chair of de Board of Gavi, de Vaccine Alliance (2016–2020). Okonjo-Iweala be de founder of Nigeria ein first indigenous opinion-research organization, NOI-Polls.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20170706002836/http://www.noi-polls.com/root/index.php?pid=34&ptid=1&parentid=8 "Our Founder"]. Archived from [https://noi-polls.com/root/index.php?pid=34&ptid=1&parentid=8 the original] on 6 July 2017. Retrieved 8 May 2017.</ref> She sanso found de Centre for the Study of the Economies of Africa (C-SEA),<ref>[http://cseaafrica.org/ "Center for the Study of the Economies of Africa Homepage"]. ''Centre for the Study of the Economies of Africa''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210218041135/http://cseaafrica.org/ Archived] from the original on 18 February 2021. Retrieved 21 February 2021.</ref> a development research think-tank wey base insyd Abuja, wey she be a Distinguished Visiting Fellow at de Center for Global Development den de Brookings Institution.<ref>Nistoran, Nkiruka (28 October 2020). [https://nkirukanistoran.com/breaking-dr-okonjo-iweala-emerges-new-wto-director-general/ "BREAKING: Dr. Okonjo-Iweala emerges new WTO Director General"]. ''NN News''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210129002324/https://nkirukanistoran.com/breaking-dr-okonjo-iweala-emerges-new-wto-director-general/ Archived] from the original on 29 January 2021. Retrieved 22 January 2021.</ref> Since 2019, na Okonjo-Iweala be part of UNESCO ein International Commission for de Futures of Education top, wey Sahle-Work Zewde chair am.<ref>[https://en.unesco.org/futuresofeducation/international-commission International Commission on the Futures of Education] [https://web.archive.org/web/20200415113204/https://en.unesco.org/futuresofeducation/international-commission Archived] 15 April 2020 at the Wayback Machine UNESCO.</ref> Since 2019, she sanso dey serve for de High-Level Council top on Leadership & Management give Development of de Aspen Management Partnership for Health (AMP Health).<ref>[https://www.leadmanagedevelop.org/council Members of the High-Level Council on Leadership & Management for Development] [https://web.archive.org/web/20210122041401/https://www.leadmanagedevelop.org/council Archived] 22 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine Aspen Management Partnership for Health (AMP Health).</ref> Insyd 2020, de International Monetary Fund ein Managing Director Kristalina Georgieva appoint am to an external advisory group make she provide input for policy challenges top.<ref>Shalal, Andrea, and David Lawder (10 April 2020), [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-imf/imfs-georgieva-creates-external-advisory-panel-on-pandemic-idUSKCN21S1O1 IMF's Georgieva creates external advisory panel on pandemic] [https://web.archive.org/web/20200414070122/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-imf/imfs-georgieva-creates-external-advisory-panel-on-pandemic-idUSKCN21S1O1 Archived] 14 April 2020 at the Wayback Machine ''Reuters''.</ref> Insyd 2020, de [[African Union]] (AU) sanso appoint am as special envoy make she solicit international support to help de continent deal plus de economic impact of de COVID-19 pandemic, sana World Health Organization COVID-19 Special Envoy.<ref>Rumney, Emma (12 April 2020), [https://www.reuters.com/article/health-coronavirus-africa/african-union-appoints-ex-credit-suisse-boss-as-envoy-for-virus-support-idUSL5N2C00E2 African Union appoints ex-Credit Suisse boss as envoy for virus support] [https://web.archive.org/web/20200416095000/https://www.reuters.com/article/health-coronavirus-africa/african-union-appoints-ex-credit-suisse-boss-as-envoy-for-virus-support-idUSL5N2C00E2 Archived] 16 April 2020 at the Wayback Machine ''Reuters''.</ref> Insyd June 2020, na Nigerian Presido Muhammadu Buhari nominate Okonjo-Iweala as de country ein candidate make she be director-general of de World Trade Organization (WTO).<ref>Ana Monteiro (5 June 2020), [https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-06-05/nigeria-nominates-okonjo-iweala-as-wto-director-general Nigeria Nominates Okonjo-Iweala as WTO Director-General] [https://web.archive.org/web/20200613144959/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-06-05/nigeria-nominates-okonjo-iweala-as-wto-director-general Archived] 13 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine ''Bloomberg News''.</ref> She later advance to de final round of de election den eventually she compete plus Yoo Myung-hee. Ahead of de vote, na she receive de backing of de European Union give ein candidacy.<ref>Jim Brunsden (26 October 2020) [https://www.ft.com/content/502282a2-a652-46a1-8195-58340e7f1627 "The EU will back Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala as the next director-general of the World Trade Organization, boosting the Nigerian’s frontrunner status"], ''Financial Times''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20201031011350/https://www.ft.com/content/502282a2-a652-46a1-8195-58340e7f1627 Archived] 31 October 2020 at the Wayback Machine.</ref> Insyd October 2020, de United States government indicate say e no go back Okonjo-Iweala ein candidacy.<ref>Kazeem, Yomi (28 October 2020). [https://qz.com/africa/1923909/trump-blocks-nigerias-ngozi-okonjo-iweala-from-wto-trade-role/ "The Trump White House is the last obstacle to a first African leader of the WTO"]. ''Quartz Africa''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20201030010410/https://qz.com/africa/1923909/trump-blocks-nigerias-ngozi-okonjo-iweala-from-wto-trade-role/ Archived] from the original on 30 October 2020. Retrieved 29 October 2020.</ref> De WTO insyd ein formal report say dat Okonjo-Iweala "clearly carry de largest support by Members insyd de final round; den, she enjoy broad support from Members from all levels of development den from all geographic regions wey do so thru out de process".<ref>[https://docs.wto.org/dol2fe/Pages/FE_Search/FE_S_S009-DP.aspx?language=E&CatalogueIdList=267829,267830,267828,267831,267824,267833,267827,267837,267840,267832&CurrentCatalogueIdIndex=9&FullTextHash=371857150&HasEnglishRecord=True&HasFrenchRecord=True&HasSpanishRecord=True "JOB/GC/247"]. ''docs.wto.org''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20201101023624/https://docs.wto.org/dol2fe/Pages/FE_Search/FE_S_S009-DP.aspx?language=E&CatalogueIdList=267829,267830,267828,267831,267824,267833,267827,267837,267840,267832&CurrentCatalogueIdIndex=9&FullTextHash=371857150&HasEnglishRecord=True&HasFrenchRecord=True&HasSpanishRecord=True Archived] from the original on 1 November 2020. Retrieved 29 October 2020.</ref> For 5 February 2021, Yoo Myung-hee announce ein withdrawal from de race in "close consultation plus de United States".<ref>Ziady, Hanna; Charles Riley (5 February 2021). [https://www.cnn.com/2021/02/05/business/wto-nigeria-ngozi-okonjo-iweala/index.html "A Black woman will be the world's top trade official for the first time"]. ''CNN''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210205153444/https://www.cnn.com/2021/02/05/business/wto-nigeria-ngozi-okonjo-iweala/index.html Archived] from the original on 5 February 2021. Retrieved 5 February 2021.</ref> According to a statement dem issue from de United States Trade Representative, “De United States dey take note of today ein decision by de Republic of Korea ein Trade Minister Yoo Myung-hee make he withdraw ein candidacy give Director General of de WTO. De Biden-Harris Administration be pleased make dem express ein strong support give de candidacy of Dr. Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala as de next Director General of de WTO."<ref>[https://www.vanguardngr.com/2021/02/just-in-us-finally-okays-okonjo-iweala-for-wto-dg/ "Just in: US finally okays Okonjo-Iweala for WTO DG"]. ''Vanguard News''. 6 February 2021. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210210004338/https://www.vanguardngr.com/2021/02/just-in-us-finally-okays-okonjo-iweala-for-wto-dg/ Archived] from the original on 10 February 2021. Retrieved 10 February 2021.</ref> Na dem unanimously appoint Okonjo-Iweala as de next director-general for 15 February.<ref>[https://www.straitstimes.com/world/united-states/wto-set-to-gain-new-chief-but-deep-issues-remain "Nigerian ex-finance minister Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala makes history as WTO's first female leader"]. ''The Straits Times''. 15 February 2021. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210215143704/https://www.straitstimes.com/world/united-states/wto-set-to-gain-new-chief-but-deep-issues-remain Archived] from the original on 15 February 2021. Retrieved 15 February 2021.</ref> She begin ein career as Director General of de WTO for 1 March 2021.<ref>WTO (17 June 2022). [https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/dg_e/dg_e.htm "WTO Director-General: Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala"]. ''World Trade Organization''.</ref> Insyd early 2021, na dem appoint Okonjo-Iweala as co-chair, alongside Tharman Shanmugaratnam den Lawrence Summers, of de G20 High Level Independent Panel (HLIP) for financing de global commons top give pandemic preparedness den response wey na e be one of de founders of de COVAX Facility, wey dem design am make e get affordable vaccines to Low den Middle-Income Countries.<ref>[https://www.mef.gov.it/en/ufficio-stampa/comunicati/2021/The-G20-establishes-a-High-Level-Independent-Panel-on-financing-the-Global-Commons-for-Pandemic-Preparedness-and-Response-00001/ Ministry of Economy and FinanceThe G20 establishes a High Level Independent Panel on financing the Global Commons for Pandemic Preparedness and Response] [https://web.archive.org/web/20210127150723/https://www.mef.gov.it/en/ufficio-stampa/comunicati/2021/The-G20-establishes-a-High-Level-Independent-Panel-on-financing-the-Global-Commons-for-Pandemic-Preparedness-and-Response-00001/ Archived] 27 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine Ministry of Economy and Finance, press release of 27 January 2021.</ref> Insyd July 2021, she join de Multilateral Leaders Task Force for COVID-19 Vaccines, Therapeutics, den Diagnostics top give developing countries, wey na Tedros Adhanom den David Malpass co-chair.<ref>[https://www.who.int/news/item/30-07-2021-joint-statement-of-the-multilateral-leaders-task-force-on-covid-19-vaccines-therapeutics-and-diagnostics-for-developing-countries-following-its-second-meeting Joint Statement of the Multilateral Leaders Task Force on COVID-19 Vaccines, Therapeutics, and Diagnostics for Developing Countries following its Second Meeting] World Health Organization (WHO), press release of 30 July 2021.</ref> Insyd January 2022, Okonjo-Iweala join De Group of thirty (G30), an independent body of distinguished policymakers from around de world. Insyd November 2024, dem reappoint am make she serve ein second term as de director-general of de World Trade Organization(WTO).<ref>https://3news.com/business/dr-ngozi-okonjo-iweala-gets-second-term-as-wto-director-general/</ref> == Ein life matter == She be married to Ikemba Iweala, a neurosurgeon from Umuahia, Abia State, Nigeria.<ref>[https://www.healthgrades.com/physician/dr-ikemba-iweala-3kkp9 "Dr. Ikemba Iweala, MD | Washington, DC | Healthgrades"]. ''www.healthgrades.com''.</ref> Dem born four kiddie, wey include author Uzodinma Iweala.<ref>[https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/ngozi-okonjo-iweala-and-her-son-uzodinma-0pnwk99g8s5 "Ngozi Okonjo Iweala and her son Uzodinma"]. ''The Sunday Times''. 20 August 2006. [https://web.archive.org/web/20190331121325/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/ngozi-okonjo-iweala-and-her-son-uzodinma-0pnwk99g8s5 Archived] from the original on 31 March 2019. Retrieved 30 March 2019.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20170612113741/http://bteam.org/team/dr-ngozi-okonjo-iweala/ "Dr. Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala"]. The B Team. 15 September 2016. Archived from [https://bteam.org/team/dr-ngozi-okonjo-iweala the original] on 12 June 2017. Retrieved 8 May 2017.</ref><ref>Smith, Dinitia (24 November 2005), [https://www.nytimes.com/2005/11/24/books/young-and-privileged-but-writing-vividly-of-africas-child-soldiers.html "Young and Privileged, but Writing Vividly of Africa's Child Soldiers"], ''The New York Times''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20200511202629/https://www.nytimes.com/2005/11/24/books/young-and-privileged-but-writing-vividly-of-africas-child-soldiers.html Archived] 11 May 2020 at the Wayback Machine.</ref><ref>Jain, Niharika S. (8 December 2008). [https://www.thecrimson.com/article/2008/12/8/alumna-leads-world-bank-in-crisis/ "Alumna Leads World Bank in Crisis"]. ''The Harvard Crimson''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20150602235015/http://www.thecrimson.com/article/2008/12/8/alumna-leads-world-bank-in-crisis/ Archived] from the original on 2 June 2015. Retrieved 15 February 2021.</ref><ref>Omotayo, Joseph (5 June 2020). [https://www.legit.ng/1336055-ngozi-okonjo-iweala-children-attended-harvard.html "Beautiful family photos of Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala's family drop, melt many hearts"]. ''Legit.ng – Nigeria news''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210217021048/https://www.legit.ng/1336055-ngozi-okonjo-iweala-children-attended-harvard.html Archived] from the original on 17 February 2021. Retrieved 15 February 2021.</ref> During ein campaign make she cam turn de next director-general of de WTO, na dem reveal say Okonjo-Iweala cam turn a US citizen insyd 2019 after she spend chaw decades she dey job den dey study for der.<ref>[https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-09-02/wto-hopeful-okonjo-iweala-balances-nigeria-u-s-citizenships "WTO Hopeful Okonjo-Iweala Balances Nigeria, U.S. Citizenships"]. 4 September 2020. [https://web.archive.org/web/20200905173423/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-09-02/wto-hopeful-okonjo-iweala-balances-nigeria-u-s-citizenships Archived] from the original on 5 September 2020. Retrieved 8 September 2020.</ref> Given de ongoing trade tensions between [[China]] den de US, na analysts comment dat de disclosure go be a contributing factor insyd shaping China ein attitude towards am.<ref>Bermingham, Finbarr (4 September 2020). [https://www.scmp.com/economy/global-economy/article/3100280/ngozi-okonjo-iwealas-us-passport-will-not-help-her-chances "Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala's US passport will not help her chances in WTO leadership race, Chinese trade experts say"]. ''South China Morning Post''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20200908185217/https://www.scmp.com/economy/global-economy/article/3100280/ngozi-okonjo-iwealas-us-passport-will-not-help-her-chances Archived] from the original on 8 September 2020. Retrieved 8 September 2020.</ref> == Oda activities == === Government agencies === * Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), Member of de International Advisory Board (since 2017)<ref>[https://www.jica.go.jp/english/news/press/2017/170710_02.html First Meeting of the International Advisory Board] [https://web.archive.org/web/20200509014017/https://www.jica.go.jp/english/news/press/2017/170710_02.html Archived] 9 May 2020 at the Wayback Machine Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), press release of 10 July 2017.</ref> === International organizations === * Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB), Member of de International Advisory Panel (since 2016)<ref>[https://www.aiib.org/en/news-events/news/2016/20161019_001.html "International Advisory Panel Holds Inaugural Meeting"]. ''Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20200319021428/https://www.aiib.org/en/news-events/news/2016/20161019_001.html Archived] from the original on 19 March 2020. Retrieved 19 March 2020.</ref> * OECD/UNDP Tax Inspectors Without Borders (TIWB), Member of de Board<ref>[http://www.tiwb.org/about/governing-board/ Governing Board] [https://web.archive.org/web/20200923150058/http://www.tiwb.org/about/governing-board/ Archived] 23 September 2020 at the Wayback Machine Tax Inspectors Without Borders (TIWB).</ref> * GAVI, Chair of de Board (2016–2020)<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20170415201036/http://www.gavi.org/library/news/press-releases/2015/ngozi-okonjo-iweala-appointed-chair-elect-of-gavi-board/ "Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala appointed Chair-elect of Gavi Board"]. Gavi.org. Archived from [https://gavi.org/library/news/press-releases/2015/ngozi-okonjo-iweala-appointed-chair-elect-of-gavi-board the original] on 15 April 2017. Retrieved 8 May 2017.</ref> * African Development Bank (AfDB), Ex-Officio Member of de Board of Governors (2003–2006, 2011–2015)<ref>[https://www.afdb.org/en/documents/document/annual-report-2013-48189 2013 Annual Report] [https://web.archive.org/web/20200508091320/https://www.afdb.org/en/documents/document/annual-report-2013-48189 Archived] 8 May 2020 at the Wayback Machine African Development Bank (AfDB).</ref> * International Monetary Fund (IMF), Member of de International Monetary den Finance Committee (2003–2006, 2011–2015)<ref>[https://www.thisdaylive.com/index.php/2020/10/27/european-union-backs-okonjo-iweala-for-wto-dg-2/ "European Union Backs Okonjo-Iweala for WTO DG"]. ''THISDAYLIVE''. 27 October 2020. [https://web.archive.org/web/20201123224112/https://www.thisdaylive.com/index.php/2020/10/27/european-union-backs-okonjo-iweala-for-wto-dg-2/ Archived] from the original on 23 November 2020. Retrieved 23 January 2021.</ref> * Joint World Bank-IMF Development Committee, Chair (2004)<ref>[https://www.imf.org/en/News/Articles/2015/09/28/04/51/cm042404 "Communiqué of the International Monetary and Financial Committee of the Board of Governors of the International Monetary Fund"]. ''IMF''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210129225601/https://www.imf.org/en/News/Articles/2015/09/28/04/51/cm042404 Archived] from the original on 29 January 2021. Retrieved 23 January 2021.</ref> === Corporate boards === * Danone, Member of de Mission Committee (since 2020)<ref>Leila Abboud (26 June 2020), [https://www.ft.com/content/1eff9241-ef11-4a38-8b5c-bb825fa108ca "Danone adopts new legal status to reflect social mission"], ''Financial Times''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210108071743/https://www.ft.com/content/1eff9241-ef11-4a38-8b5c-bb825fa108ca Archived] 8 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine</ref><ref>[https://www.danone.com/about-danone/sustainable-value-creation/danone-entreprise-a-mission.html Danone becomes an “Entreprise à Mission”] [https://web.archive.org/web/20210123105303/https://www.danone.com/about-danone/sustainable-value-creation/danone-entreprise-a-mission.html Archived] 23 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine Danone, press release of 24 June 2020.</ref> * Twitter, Member of the Board of Directors (since 2018)<ref>[https://twitter.com/jack/status/1020055752944177152 "Tweet by @jack"]. ''twitter.com''. 19 July 2018. [https://web.archive.org/web/20200901002935/https://twitter.com/jack/status/1020055752944177152 Archived] from the original on 1 September 2020. Retrieved 24 September 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/twitter-appoints-ngozi-okonjo-iweala-and-robert-zoellick-to-board-of-directors-300684015.html?tc=eml_cleartime "Twitter Appoints Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala and Robert Zoellick to Board of Directors"]. ''PR Newswire''. 19 July 2018. [https://web.archive.org/web/20200502155822/https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/twitter-appoints-ngozi-okonjo-iweala-and-robert-zoellick-to-board-of-directors-300684015.html?tc=eml_cleartime Archived] from the original on 2 May 2020. Retrieved 18 March 2020.</ref> * Standard Chartered, Independent Non-executive Member of the Board of Directors (since 2017)<ref>[http://www.vanguardngr.com/2017/07/okonjo-iweala-named-director-uk-bank/ "Okonjo-Iweala named director at UK bank – Vanguard News"]. ''Vanguard News''. Vanguard News. 28 July 2017. [https://web.archive.org/web/20170805181542/http://www.vanguardngr.com/2017/07/okonjo-iweala-named-director-uk-bank/ Archived] from the original on 5 August 2017. Retrieved 5 August 2017.</ref> * Lazard, Senior Advisor (since 2015)<ref name="washingtonspeakers.com">[https://www.wsb.com/speakers/ngozi-okonjo-iweala/ "Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala"]. ''Washington Speakers Bureau''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20200318112705/https://www.wsb.com/speakers/ngozi-okonjo-iweala/ Archived] from the original on 18 March 2020. Retrieved 8 May 2017.</ref> === Non-profit organizations === * Africa Europe Foundation (AEF), Member of de High-Level Group of Personalities for Africa-Europe Relations top (since 2020)<ref>[https://www.friendsofeurope.org/initiatives/eu-africa-high-level-group/ High-Level Group of Personalities on Africa-Europe Relations] [https://web.archive.org/web/20220411085150/https://www.friendsofeurope.org/initiatives/eu-africa-high-level-group/ Archived] 11 April 2022 at the Wayback Machine Africa Europe Foundation (AEF).</ref> * Carnegie Endowment give International Peace, Member of de Board of Trustees (since 2019)<ref>[https://carnegieendowment.org/posts/2019/06/carnegie-endowment-for-international-peace-board-of-trustees-welcomes-five-new-members?lang=en Carnegie Endowment for International Peace Board of Trustees Welcomes Five New Members] Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 6 June 2019.</ref> * Bloomberg New Economy Forum, Member of de Advisory Board (since 2018)<ref>[https://www.neweconomyforum.com/leadership/#row-footer Advisory Board] [https://web.archive.org/web/20200408200839/https://www.neweconomyforum.com/leadership/#row-footer Archived] 8 April 2020 at the Wayback Machine Bloomberg New Economy Forum.</ref> * Results for Development (R4D), Member of de Board of Directors (since 2014)<ref>[https://www.r4d.org/about/board-of-directors/ Board of Directors] [https://web.archive.org/web/20200406155939/https://www.r4d.org/about/board-of-directors/ Archived] 6 April 2020 at the Wayback Machine Results for Development (R4D)</ref><ref>[https://www.r4d.org/news/nigerian-finance-minister-ngozi-okonjo-iweala-joins-r4d-board-directors/ Nigerian Finance Minister Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala Joins R4D Board of Directors] [https://web.archive.org/web/20200508153127/https://www.r4d.org/news/nigerian-finance-minister-ngozi-okonjo-iweala-joins-r4d-board-directors/ Archived] 8 May 2020 at the Wayback Machine Results for Development (R4D), press release of 8 May 2014.</ref> * Women's World Banking, Member of de Africa Advisory Council (since 2014)<ref>[https://www.womensworldbanking.org/insights-and-impact/press-release-african-leaders-commit-economic-empowerment-low-income-women/ African leaders commit to economic empowerment for low-income women] [https://web.archive.org/web/20200508231641/https://www.womensworldbanking.org/insights-and-impact/press-release-african-leaders-commit-economic-empowerment-low-income-women/ Archived] 8 May 2020 at the Wayback Machine Women's World Banking, press release of 24 November 2014.</ref> * The B Team, Member (since 2013)<ref>[https://bteam.org/who-we-are/leaders Leaders], [https://web.archive.org/web/20200404030606/https://bteam.org/who-we-are/leaders Archived] 4 April 2020 at the Wayback Machine The B Team.</ref><ref>[https://bteam.org/press/press-release-richard-branson-and-jochen-zeitz-reveal-the-b-team-leaders-and-kick-start-a-plan-b-for-business "Richard Branson and Jochen Zeitz reveal The B Team Leaders and kick-start a Plan B for business"]. The B Team, press release, 13 June 2013. [https://web.archive.org/web/20200508192832/https://bteam.org/press/press-release-richard-branson-and-jochen-zeitz-reveal-the-b-team-leaders-and-kick-start-a-plan-b-for-business Archived] 8 May 2020 at the Wayback Machine.</ref> * Friends of de Global Fund Africa, Member of de Board (since 2007)<ref>[https://www.theglobalfund.org/en/news/2007-02-12-friends-of-the-global-fund-africa-officially-launched/ Friends of The Global Fund Africa officially launched] [https://web.archive.org/web/20200509105859/https://www.theglobalfund.org/en/news/2007-02-12-friends-of-the-global-fund-africa-officially-launched/ Archived] 9 May 2020 at the Wayback Machine Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria, press release of 12 February 2007.</ref> * Global Financial Integrity (GFI), Member of de Advisory Board (since 2007)<ref>[https://gfintegrity.org/press-release/gfi-advisory-board-member-ngozi-okonjo-iweala-nominated-world-bank-presidency/ GFI Advisory Board Member, Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala, to Be Nominated for World Bank Presidency] [https://web.archive.org/web/20200508234350/https://gfintegrity.org/press-release/gfi-advisory-board-member-ngozi-okonjo-iweala-nominated-world-bank-presidency/ Archived] 8 May 2020 at the Wayback Machine Global Financial Integrity (GFI), press release of 22 March 2012.</ref> * African Risk Capacity, Chair of de Board<ref>[http://www.africanriskcapacity.org/2016/10/29/arc-agency-governing-board/ "ARC Agency Governing Board"]. ''African Risk Capacity''. 29 October 2016. [https://web.archive.org/web/20180924190636/http://www.africanriskcapacity.org/2016/10/29/arc-agency-governing-board/ Archived] from the original on 24 September 2018. Retrieved 24 September 2018.</ref> * African University of Science and Technology, Chair of de Board<ref name="washingtonspeakers.com" /> * Georgetown Institute for Women, Peace and Security, Member of de Advisory Board<ref>[https://giwps.georgetown.edu/advisory-board/ Advisory Board] [https://web.archive.org/web/20200617145624/https://giwps.georgetown.edu/advisory-board/ Archived] 17 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine Georgetown Institute for Women, Peace and Security.</ref> * Global Business Coalition give Education, Member of de Advisory Board<ref>[https://gbc-education.org/our-board/ Advisory Board] [https://web.archive.org/web/20200508231642/https://gbc-education.org/our-board/ Archived] 8 May 2020 at the Wayback Machine Global Business Coalition for Education.</ref> * International Growth Centre (IGC), Senior Advisor<ref>[https://www.theigc.org/about/people/senior-advisors/ Senior Advisors] International Growth Centre (IGC).</ref> * Mandela Institute for Development Studies (MINDS), Member of de Advisory Board<ref>[https://minds-africa.org/about-us/ Advisory Board] [https://web.archive.org/web/20200508203432/https://minds-africa.org/about-us/ Archived] 8 May 2020 at the Wayback Machine Mandela Institute for Development Studies (MINDS).</ref> * Mercy Corps, Member of de Global Leadership Council<ref>[https://www.mercycorps.org/who-we-are/our-team Global Leadership Council] [https://web.archive.org/web/20200417074935/https://www.mercycorps.org/who-we-are/our-team Archived] 17 April 2020 at the Wayback Machine Mercy Corps.</ref> * Rockefeller Foundation, Member of de Board of Trustees (2008–2018)<ref name=":3">[https://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/profile/ngozi-okonjo-iweala/ "Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala"]. ''The Rockefeller Foundation''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210126215529/https://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/profile/ngozi-okonjo-iweala/ Archived] from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 15 February 2021.</ref><ref name=":2">[https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/dg_e/dg_e.htm "WTO Director-General: Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala"]. ''www.wto.org''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210215160620/https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/dg_e/dg_e.htm Archived] from the original on 15 February 2021. Retrieved 15 February 2021.</ref> * Nelson Mandela Institution, Chair of de Board<ref>[https://www.nminst.org/why-nmi/governance/board-of-directors/ Board of Directors] [https://web.archive.org/web/20210217180605/https://www.nminst.org/why-nmi/governance/board-of-directors/ Archived] 17 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine Nelson Mandela Institution.</ref> * One Campaign, Member of de Board<ref>Elliott, Michael (25 June 2013), [https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/jun/25/one-campaign-not-drown-out-african-voices "The ONE campaign does not drown out African voices"], ''The Guardian''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20200508203427/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/jun/25/one-campaign-not-drown-out-african-voices Archived] 8 May 2020 at the Wayback Machine.</ref> * Oxford Martin School, Member of de Advisory Council<ref>[https://www.oxfordmartin.ox.ac.uk/about/governance/ Governance] [https://web.archive.org/web/20200316185905/https://www.oxfordmartin.ox.ac.uk/about/governance/ Archived] 16 March 2020 at the Wayback Machine Oxford Martin School.</ref> * Vital Voices, Member of de Global Advisory Council<ref>[https://www.vitalvoices.org/who-we-are/bod/ Global Advisory Council] [https://web.archive.org/web/20200401212846/https://www.vitalvoices.org/who-we-are/bod/ Archived] 1 April 2020 at the Wayback Machine Vital Voices.</ref> * World Economic Forum Young Global Leaders Foundation, former Member of de Board<ref name=":2" /> * World Economic Forum member of de Board of Trustees<ref>[https://www.weforum.org/about/leadership-and-governance/ "Leadership and Governance – World Economic Forum"].</ref> == Recognition == === Awards === Okonjo-Iweala receive chaw recognition and awards. Na dem list am as one of de 50 Greatest World Leaders (''Fortune'', 2015),<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala|url=https://fortune.com/worlds-greatest-leaders/2015/ngozi-okonjo-iweala|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200513104424/https://fortune.com/worlds-greatest-leaders/2015/ngozi-okonjo-iweala/|archive-date=13 May 2020|access-date=5 May 2020|website=Fortune}}</ref> de Top 100 Most Influential People insyd de World (''TIME'', 2014 den 2021),<ref>{{Cite web|date=24 April 2014|title=Okonjo-Iweala, Dangote named among Time Magazine's 100 most influential people {{!}} Premium Times Nigeria|url=https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/159357-okonjo-iweala-dangote-named-among-time-magazines-100-influential-people.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806001346/https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/159357-okonjo-iweala-dangote-named-among-time-magazines-100-influential-people.html|archive-date=6 August 2020|access-date=15 February 2021}}</ref> de Top 100 Global Thinkers (''Foreign Policy'', 2011 den 2012),<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala|url=https://www.cgdev.org/expert/ngozi-okonjo-iweala|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180423013515/https://www.cgdev.org/expert/ngozi-okonjo-iweala|archive-date=23 April 2018|access-date=12 May 2020|publisher=Center For Global Development}}</ref> de Top 100 Most Powerful Women insyd de World (''Forbes'', 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2022 den 2023),<ref>{{Cite web|last=Okonjo-Iweala|first=Ngozi|date=4 April 2018|title=Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala|url=https://www.brookings.edu/experts/ngozi-okonjo-iweala-2/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200513205223/https://www.brookings.edu/experts/ngozi-okonjo-iweala-2/|archive-date=13 May 2020|access-date=16 May 2020|website=Brookings}}</ref> de 25 Most Influential Women insyd de World (''Financial Times'', 2021),<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.ft.com/womenof2021|title=The FT's 25 most influential women of 2021|newspaper=Financial Times|date=2 December 2021}}</ref> de Top 3 Most Powerful Women insyd Africa (''Forbes'', 2012), de Top 10 Most Influential Women insyd Africa (''Forbes'', 2011), de Top 100 Women insyd de World (''The Guardian'', 2011), de Top 150 Women insyd de World (''Newsweek'', 2011), de Top 100 most inspiring people insyd de World Delivering for Girls den Women (Women Deliver, 2011).<ref name=":2" /> Na dem list am among 73 "brilliant" business influencers insyd de world by Condé Nast International.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Managing Director of The World Bank, Dr. Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala, Visiting Turkey|url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2009/06/16/managing-director-of-the-world-bank-dr-ngozi-okonjo-iweala-visiting-turkey|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200508215303/https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2009/06/16/managing-director-of-the-world-bank-dr-ngozi-okonjo-iweala-visiting-turkey|archive-date=8 May 2020|access-date=5 May 2020|publisher=World Bank}}</ref> Insyd 2019, na dem elect Okonjo-Iweala to de American Academy of Arts and Sciences.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala|url=https://www.amacad.org/person/ngozi-okonjo-iweala|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200328120633/https://www.amacad.org/person/ngozi-okonjo-iweala|archive-date=28 March 2020|access-date=15 February 2021|publisher=American Academy of Arts & Sciences}}</ref> Na dem sanso confer High National Honours from de [[Ivory Coast|Republic of Côte d'Ivoire]] den de [[Liberia|Republic of Liberia]]. Na she sanso be de recipient of Nigeria ein second highest national honor Grand Commander of de Order of the Niger (GCON, 2022) den Nigeria ein third highest National Honors Commander of the Federal Republic (CFR).<ref name=":2" /> She sanso receive de Grand Cross of de Order of Rio Branco from de [[Brazil|Federative Republic of Brazil]] insyd 2023. Oda honors dey include: * 2004 – ''TIME''’s European Heroes Award<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala|url=https://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/profile/ngozi-okonjo-iweala/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200426113958/https://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/profile/ngozi-okonjo-iweala/|archive-date=26 April 2020|access-date=17 May 2020|publisher=The Rockefeller Foundation}}</ref> * 2004 – Finance Minister of the Year, ''Africa Investor Magazine''<ref>{{Cite web|date=10 October 2014|title=Okonjo-Iweala bags African Finance Minister of the year award|url=https://www.vanguardngr.com/2014/10/okonjo-iweala-bags-african-finance-minister-year-award/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804141354/https://www.vanguardngr.com/2014/10/okonjo-iweala-bags-african-finance-minister-year-award/|archive-date=4 August 2020|access-date=17 May 2020|website=Vanguard News}}</ref> * 2005 – Finance Minister of the Year for Africa and the Middle East, ''Emerging Markets Magazine<ref name=":22">{{Cite web|title=WITA Webinar: Conversation with WTO Director General Candidate Dr. Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala of Nigeria|url=https://www.wita.org/events/wto-candidate-dr-ngozi-okonjo-iweala/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129210904/https://www.wita.org/events/wto-candidate-dr-ngozi-okonjo-iweala/|archive-date=29 January 2021|access-date=23 January 2021}}</ref>'' * 2005 – Global Finance Minister of the Year, ''Euromoney''<ref>{{Cite web|date=31 August 2005|title=Finance minister of the year 2005: Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala, Nigeria|url=https://www.euromoney.com/article/b1320xywxmx4bk/finance-minister-of-the-year-2005-ngozi-okonjo-iweala-nigeria|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201020150140/https://www.euromoney.com/article/b1320xywxmx4bk/finance-minister-of-the-year-2005-ngozi-okonjo-iweala-nigeria|archive-date=20 October 2020|access-date=15 February 2021|website=Euromoney}}</ref> * 2005 – Finance Minister of the Year for Africa and the Middle East, ''The Banker''<ref name=":3" /> * 2010 – Bishop John T. Walker Distinguished Humanitarian Service Award<ref>{{Cite web|title=A Conversation with Liberia's President Sirleaf and World Bank's Ngozi Nkonjo-Iweala|url=https://www.voanews.com/africa/conversation-liberias-president-sirleaf-and-world-banks-ngozi-nkonjo-iweala|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201001050748/https://www.voanews.com/africa/conversation-liberias-president-sirleaf-and-world-banks-ngozi-nkonjo-iweala|archive-date=1 October 2020|access-date=15 February 2021|website=Voice of America – English}}</ref> * 2010 – Global Leadership Award, Columbia University School of International and Public Affairs<ref>{{Cite web|date=18 March 2016|title=2016 Graduation Speaker: Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala|url=https://sipa.columbia.edu/news/2016-graduation-speaker-ngozi-okonjo-iweala|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181227141933/https://sipa.columbia.edu/news/2016-graduation-speaker-ngozi-okonjo-iweala|archive-date=27 December 2018|publisher=Columbia University School of International and Public Affairs}}</ref> * 2011 – Global Leadership Award, Chicago Council on Global Affairs<ref>{{Cite web|title=Global Leadership Awards|url=https://www.thechicagocouncil.org/support-council/global-leadership-awards|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210217173403/https://www.thechicagocouncil.org/support-council/global-leadership-awards|archive-date=17 February 2021|access-date=15 February 2021|publisher=Chicago Council on Global Affairs}}</ref> * 2011 – President of the Italian Republic Gold Medal, Pia Manzu Centre<ref name=":22" /> * 2014 – David Rockefeller Bridging Leadership Award<ref>{{Cite web|date=9 April 2014|title=Okonjo-Iweala honoured with David Rockefeller Bridging Leadership Award|url=https://businessday.ng/exclusives/article/okonjo-iweala-honoured-with-david-rockefeller-bridging-leadership-award/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804120944/https://businessday.ng/exclusives/article/okonjo-iweala-honoured-with-david-rockefeller-bridging-leadership-award/|archive-date=4 August 2020|access-date=17 May 2020|website=Businessday NG}}</ref> * 2016 – Global Fairness Award, Global Fairness Initiative<ref>{{Cite web|date=2 December 2016|title=Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala receives 2016 Global Fairness Award|url=https://www.vanguardngr.com/2016/12/ngozi-okonjo-iweala-receives-2016-global-fairness-award/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200331171307/https://www.vanguardngr.com/2016/12/ngozi-okonjo-iweala-receives-2016-global-fairness-award/|archive-date=31 March 2020|access-date=19 May 2020|website=Vanguard News}}</ref> * 2016 – Power with Purpose Award, Devex Development Communications Network<ref>{{Cite web|title=Power With Purpose|url=https://pages.devex.com/power-with-purpose.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200805074722/https://pages.devex.com/power-with-purpose.html|archive-date=5 August 2020|access-date=19 May 2020}}</ref> * 2017 – Madeleine K. Albright Global Development Award, Aspen Institute<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Aspen Institute Madeleine K. Albright Global Development Lecture: Honorable Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala & Madeleine K. Albright|url=https://www.aspeninstitute.org/events/albright_okonjoiweala/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210217142213/https://www.aspeninstitute.org/events/albright_okonjoiweala/|archive-date=17 February 2021|access-date=15 February 2021|publisher=Aspen Institute}}</ref> * 2017 – Women’s Economic Empowerment Award, WEConnect International<ref name=":22" /> * 2017 – Vanguard Award, Howard University<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Swift|first1=Jaimee|last2=Zerweck|first2=Stephanie|last3=Amulega|first3=Shamilla|date=2 May 2017|title=Howard University Celebrated the Power and Resilience of Women on International Women's Day|url=https://newsroom.howard.edu/newsroom/article/7291/howard-university-celebrated-power-and-resilience-women-international-women-s|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201130171630/https://newsroom.howard.edu/newsroom/article/7291/howard-university-celebrated-power-and-resilience-women-international-women-s|archive-date=30 November 2020|access-date=15 February 2021|publisher=Howard University Newsroom}}</ref> * 2017 – BBC's 100 women<ref>{{Cite news|date=2017-09-27|title=BBC 100 Women 2017: Who is on the list?|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-41380265|access-date=2022-12-17}}</ref> * 2020 – African of the Year, Forbes Africa<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hakeem|first=Ajalogun|date=3 December 2020|title=Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala bags Forbes African of the Year, 2020|url=https://nairametrics.com/2020/12/03/ngozi-okonjo-iweala-bags-forbes-african-of-the-year-2020/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201212144226/https://nairametrics.com/2020/12/03/ngozi-okonjo-iweala-bags-forbes-african-of-the-year-2020/|archive-date=12 December 2020|access-date=10 December 2020|website=Nairametrics}}</ref> * 2022 – 50 Over 50: EMEA Award, Forbes<ref>{{Cite web|last=McGrath|first=Maggie|title=50 Over 50: EMEA 2022|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/maggiemcgrath/2022/01/18/50-over-50-emea-2022/|access-date=2022-08-25|website=Forbes|language=en}}</ref> * 2022 – Golden Plate Award, American Academy of Achievement<ref>{{cite web|title=Golden Plate Awardees of the American Academy of Achievement|website=www.achievement.org|publisher=American Academy of Achievement|url=https://achievement.org/our-history/golden-plate-awards/#public-service}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=2022 Summit|website=www.achievement.org|publisher=American Academy of Achievement|url=https://achievement.org/summit/2022/}}</ref> * 2022 – Humanitarian Award for a Lifetime of Public Service and Advocacy of Sustainable International Development, United Nations Association of New York <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.unanyc.org/events/2022-un-day-gala-dinner|title=The 2022 United Nations Day Humanitarian Awards Gala Dinner|date=1 November 2022|publisher=United Nations Association of New York}}</ref> * 2023 – dem honor am plus de Carnegie Corporation of New York's Great Immigrant Award.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2023-06-28|title=Pedro Pascal and World Bank's Ajay Banga among those named to Carnegie's 2023 Great Immigrants list|url=https://apnews.com/article/pedro-pascal-ajay-banga-carnegie-great-immigrants-f28abf588332dd3bf2fe089100efb279|access-date=2024-06-17|website=AP News|language=en}}</ref> * 2023 – dem induct am into de International Women’s Forum (IWF) Hall of Fame === Honorary degrees === Okonjo-Iweala receive honorary Doctorate Degrees from 21 universities worldwide, wey dey include sam from de most prestigious colleges: * Brown University (2006),<ref>{{Cite web|title=Brown University will confer eight honorary degrees on May 28|url=https://brown.edu/Administration/News_Bureau/2005-06/05-116|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020191514/https://brown.edu/Administration/News_Bureau/2005-06/05-116|archive-date=20 October 2017|access-date=8 May 2017|publisher=Brown University}}</ref> * Colby College (2007)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala {{!}} Commencement|url=http://www.colby.edu/commencement/honorary-4/ngozi-okonjo-iweala/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191214214818/http://www.colby.edu/commencement/honorary-4/ngozi-okonjo-iweala/|archive-date=14 December 2019|access-date=20 October 2017|publisher=Colby College}}</ref> * Trinity College, Dublin (2007)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Honorary Degree Recipients|url=https://tcd.ie/registrar/honorary-degrees/recipients.php|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180701055200/https://www.tcd.ie/registrar/honorary-degrees/recipients.php|archive-date=1 July 2018|access-date=8 May 2017|publisher=Trinity College Dublin}}</ref> * Amherst College (2009)<ref>{{Cite web|title=2009 Honorees {{!}} Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala|url=https://www.amherst.edu/news/specialevents/commencement/awards/2009/okonjo-iweala|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180223021519/https://www.amherst.edu/news/specialevents/commencement/awards/2009/okonjo-iweala|archive-date=23 February 2018|access-date=20 October 2017|publisher=Amherst College}}</ref> * University of Pennsylvania (2013)<ref>{{Cite web|date=14 March 2013|title=Vice President Biden to speak at Penn's 257th Commencement {{!}} Penn Current|url=https://penncurrent.upenn.edu/2013-03-14/latest-news/vice-president-biden-speak-penn%E2%80%99s-257th-commencement|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171021004040/https://penncurrent.upenn.edu/2013-03-14/latest-news/vice-president-biden-speak-penn%E2%80%99s-257th-commencement|archive-date=21 October 2017|access-date=20 October 2017|publisher=University of Pennsylvania}}</ref> * Yale University (2015)<ref>{{Cite web|date=15 May 2015|title=Yale awards nine honorary degrees at Commencement 2015|url=http://news.yale.edu/2015/05/15/yale-awards-nine-honorary-degrees-commencement-2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170704130717/http://news.yale.edu/2015/05/15/yale-awards-nine-honorary-degrees-commencement-2015|archive-date=4 July 2017|access-date=8 May 2017|website=Yale News}}</ref> * Northern Caribbean University, Jamaica<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala|url=https://worldleaders.columbia.edu/directory/ngozi-okonjo-iweala|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201228061449/https://worldleaders.columbia.edu/directory/ngozi-okonjo-iweala|archive-date=28 December 2020|access-date=15 February 2021|website=World Leaders Forum|publisher=Columbia University}}</ref> * LUISS Guido Carli, Italy (2021) <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ansa.it/sito/notizie/economia/2021/10/28/luiss-dottorato-ad-honorem-a-direttrice-wto-okonjo-iweala_33421a26-ef3d-4509-84f5-d80f5c8be9d9.html|title=Luiss, dottorato ad honorem a direttrice Wto Okonjo-Iweala – Economia|date=28 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.luiss.edu/event/2021/10/29/inauguration-ceremony-academic-year-2021-2022|title=Luiss Guido Carli &#124; Libera Università Internazionale degli Studi Sociali, Roma|website=Luiss Guido Carli|access-date=11 March 2023}}</ref> * American University (2022) * Nyenrode Business University (2022) <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nyenrode.nl/en/dies-natalis|title=Dies Natalis}}</ref> * London School of Economics and Political Science (2023) <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.lse.ac.uk/Events/2023/02/202302071845/conversation|title=In Conversation with Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala}}</ref> * Glasgow University (2023) * University of Amsterdam (2022) <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.uva.nl/shared-content/uva/en/news/news/2021/11.1/uva-honorary-doctorate-for-top-economist-ngozi-okonjo-iweala.html?cb|title=UvA honorary doctorate for top economist Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala|date=30 November 2021}}</ref> * University of Oxford (2024)<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ox.ac.uk/news/2024-04-24-honorary-degree-recipients-2024-announced|title=Honorary degree recipients for 2024 announced &#124; University of Oxford|date=24 April 2024|website=www.ox.ac.uk}}</ref> She sanso receive degrees from a host of Nigerian universities wey dey include [[Abia State University]], [[Delta State University, Abraka]], [[Oduduwa University]], [[Babcock University]], den de Universities of Port Harcourt, Calabar, den [[Obafemi Awolowo University|Obafemi Awolowo University (OAU)]]. Insyd 2019, na dem award Okonjo Iweala an honorary degree from Tel Aviv University.<ref>{{Cite web|date=17 May 2019|title=Photo News: Okonjo-Iweala bags honorary PhD from Tel Aviv varsity|url=https://www.pmnewsnigeria.com/2019/05/17/photo-news-okonjo-iweala-bags-honorary-phd-from-tel-aviv-varsity/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190518085259/https://www.pmnewsnigeria.com/2019/05/17/photo-news-okonjo-iweala-bags-honorary-phd-from-tel-aviv-varsity/|archive-date=18 May 2019|access-date=18 May 2019|website=PM News}}</ref> Insyd June 2024, Okonjo-Iweala receive an honorary degree from de University of Oxford.<ref name="auto" /> ==Works== === Books === * {{Cite book |last1=Sallah |first1=Tijan |title=Chinua Achebe: Teacher of Light, A Biography |last2=Okonjo-Iweala |first2=Ngozi |date=2003 |publisher=Africa World Press |isbn=978-1-59221-031-2 |location=Trenton, NJ |lccn=2002152037 |oclc=50919841 |ol=OL3576773M }} * {{Cite book |title=The Debt Trap in Nigeria: Towards a Sustainable Debt Strategy |publisher=Africa World Press |year=2003 |isbn=9781592210015 |editor-last=Okonjo-Iweala |editor-first=Ngozi |location=Trenton, NJ |lccn=2002007778 |oclc=49875048 |ol=OL12376413M |editor-last2=Soludo |editor-first2=Charles Chukwuma |editor-last3=Muhtar |editor-first3=Mansur}} * {{Cite book |last=Okonjo-Iweala |first=Ngozi |title=Reforming the Unreformable: Lessons from Nigeria |publisher=MIT Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-262-01814-2 |location=Cambridge |lccn=2012008453 |oclc=878501895 |ol=OL25238823M}} * {{Cite book |last=Okonjo-Iweala |first=Ngozi |title=Fighting Corruption Is Dangerous: The Story Behind the Headlines |publisher=MIT Press |year=2018 |isbn=978-0-262-03801-0 |location=Cambridge |lccn=2017041524 |oclc=1003273241 |ol=27372326M}}<ref>{{Cite news |title=Fighting Corruption Is Dangerous by Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala |url=https://www.ft.com/content/1710b42a-4ef3-11e8-a7a9-37318e776bab |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180727085201/https://www.ft.com/content/1710b42a-4ef3-11e8-a7a9-37318e776bab |archive-date=27 July 2018 |access-date=27 July 2018 |website=Financial Times|date=6 May 2018 |last1=Wallis |first1=William }}</ref> * {{Cite book |last1=Gillard, Julia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YBkSEAAAQBAJ |title=Women and Leadership: Real Lives, Real Lessons |last2=Okonjo-Iweala, Ngozi |date=2020 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=9780143794288 |pages=336 |access-date=17 May 2021}} === Articles === * {{Cite magazine |last1=Okonjo-Iweala |first1=Ngozi |last2=Keller |first2=Janeen Madan |date=19 January 2016 |title=Shine a Light on the Gaps: Financial Inclusion Matters for Africa's Smallholder Farmers |url=https://www.cgdev.org/publication/ft/shine-light-gaps |magazine=Foreign Affairs |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190509111707/https://www.cgdev.org/publication/ft/shine-light-gaps |archive-date=9 May 2019}} * {{Cite journal |last=Okonjo-Iweala |first=Ngozi |date=2016 |title=Funding THE SDGs: Licit and Illicit Financial Flows From Developing Countries |journal=Horizons: Journal of International Relations and Sustainable Development |volume=6 |issue=6 |pages=108–117 |jstor=48573616}} === Talks === * Okonjo-Iweala, Ngozi (March 2007). ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20210217205728/https://www.ted.com/talks/ngozi_okonjo_iweala_want_to_help_africa_do_business_here Want to Help Africa? Do Business Here]'' (TED Talk). Archived from [https://www.ted.com/talks/ngozi_okonjo_iweala_want_to_help_africa_do_business_here the original] on 17 February 2021. * Okonjo-Iweala, Ngozi (June 2007). ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20210217210014/https://www.ted.com/talks/ngozi_okonjo_iweala_aid_versus_trade Aid versus trade]'' (TED Talk). Archived from [https://www.ted.com/talks/ngozi_okonjo_iweala_aid_versus_trade the original] on 17 February 2021. * Okonjo-Iweala, Ngozi (10 January 2014). ''[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-UMI9-6gmzE Don't trivialise corruption, tackle it]'' (TEDxEuston). [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/-UMI9-6gmzE Archived] from the original on 21 December 2021. == Gallery == <gallery> File:Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala WEF Davos 2010.jpg|Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala for de 2007 World Economic Forum File:Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala - World Economic Forum on Africa 2012.jpg File:Ngozi okonjo-iweala world economic forum.jpg|Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala for de 2007 World Economic Forum File:The Managing Director, World Bank, Ms. Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala calls on the Union Finance Minister, Shri Pranab Mukherjee, in New Delhi on May 12, 2011.jpg|Ms. Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala call on de Union Finance Minister, 13th Presido of India Shri Pranab Mukherjee, insyd New Delhi for May 12, 2011 File:Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala, former Nigerian Finance Minister and former Managing Director of the World Bank, speaking at the UK-Africa Investment Summit in London, 20 January 2020 20200120154611 GMCB0323 (49419243418).jpg|Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala, den former Managing Director of de World Bank, dey speak for de UK-Africa Investment Summit insyd London File:Umaru YarAdua 080630-F-1644L-111.jpg File:20th Anniversary of Treasury’s Office of Technical Assistance (5621907811).jpg File:Jiang Jianqing, 2009 World Economic Forum on Africa.jpg File:African Finance Ministers IMF 2003 Annual Meeting - IMF 62ph030920GH.jpg </gallery> == References == <references /> == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q289350|c=Category:Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} * [https://www.wto.org/spanish/thewto_s/dg_s/dg_s.htm Full biograpny and CV] (WTO site) * [https://web.archive.org/web/20041016183327/http://www.time.com/time/europe/hero2004/iweala.html Time Europe's Heroes of 2004] * [http://www.cgdev.org/content/multimedia/detail/1426091/ The Center for Global Development and ''The Washington Post'' Present: A World Bank President Candidate Event: Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala] {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Okonjo-Iweala, Ngozi}} [[Category:1954 births]] [[Category:Human]] [[Category:Nigerian people]] [[Category:20th-century Nigerian people]] [[Category:21st-century American people]] [[Category:21st-century Nigerian people]] [[Category:21st-century Nigerian women]] [[Category:American people of Nigerian descent]] [[Category:Brookings Institution people]] [[Category:Center for Global Development]] [[Category:Delta State politicians]] [[Category:Directors-general of de World Trade Organization]] [[Category:Fellows of de American Academy of Arts and Sciences]] [[Category:Female finance ministers]] [[Category:Female foreign ministers]] [[Category:Finance ministers of Nigeria]] [[Category:Foreign ministers of Nigeria]] [[Category:Harvard University alumni]] [[Category:International School, Ibadan alumni]] [[Category:MIT School of Architecture and Planning alumni]] [[Category:Nigerian corporate directors]] [[Category:Nigerian economists]] [[Category:Nigerian expatriates insyd de United States]] [[Category:Nigerian princesses]] [[Category:Nigerian women diplomats]] [[Category:Nigerian women economists]] [[Category:People wey komot Delta State]] [[Category:St Anne's School, Ibadan alumni]] [[Category:Women corporate directors]] [[Category:Women government ministers of Nigeria]] [[Category:Women of African descent]] [[Category:African Union officials]] 3nx4yjhat3bfkvkul7wd4zspxmcnmmk 0 15649 102887 87815 2026-06-14T22:53:36Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 102887 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Na de '''Jim Crow laws''' be state den local laws dem introduce insyd de Southern United States insyd de late 19th den early 20th centuries wey na e enforce racial segregation, Na "Jim Crow" be a pejorative term give an African American.<ref name="fremon">{{Cite book|last=Fremon|first=David|url=https://archive.org/details/jimcrowlawsracis00frem|title=The Jim Crow Laws and Racism in American History|date=2000|publisher=Enslow|isbn=0766012972|url-access=registration}}</ref> Na dem generally overturn de last of de Jim Crow laws insyd 1965.<ref name="Schmermund2016">{{Cite book|last=Schmermund|first=Elizabeth|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RgpiDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA27|title=Reading and Interpreting the Works of Harper Lee|publisher=Enslow Publishing, LLC|year=2016|isbn=978-0-7660-7914-4|pages=27–}}</ref> Na formal den informal racial segregation policies be present insyd oda areas of de [[United States]] as well, even as chaw states outsyd de South ban discrimination insyd public accommodations den voting.<ref>Bubar, Joe (March 9, 2020). [https://upfront.scholastic.com/issues/2019-20/030920/the-jim-crow-north.html#1300L "The Jim Crow North"], ''Upfront Magazine - Scholastic''. Retrieved June 7, 2021.</ref><ref>''Discrimination in Access to Public Places: A Survey of State and Federal Accommodations Laws'', 7 N.Y.U. Rev.L. & Soc.Change 215, 238 (1978).</ref> Na dem enact southern laws by white-dominated state legislatures (Redeemers) make dem disenfranchise den remove political den economic gains African Americans make during de Reconstruction era.<ref name="Bartlett2008">{{Cite book|last=Bartlett|first=Bruce|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=POhHuoGILNYC&pg=PA24|title=Wrong on Race: The Democratic Party's Buried Past|publisher=St. Martin's Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-230-61138-2|pages=24–}}</ref> Na such continuing racial segregation sanso be supported by de successful Lily-white movement.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Heersink |first=Boris |last2=Jenkins |first2=Jeffery A. |date=April 2020 |title=Whiteness and the Emergence of the Republican Party in the Early Twentieth-Century South |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/studies-in-american-political-development/article/abs/whiteness-and-the-emergence-of-the-republican-party-in-the-early-twentiethcentury-south/899B4B98A78353683C3C6050DFA5771B |journal=Studies in American Political Development |language=en |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=71–90 |doi=10.1017/S0898588X19000208 |issn=0898-588X |s2cid=213551748 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> For practice insyd, na Jim Crow laws mandate racial segregation insyd all public facilities insyd de states of de former Confederate States of America den insyd sam odas, wey dey begin insyd de 1870s. Na dem uphold Jim Crow laws insyd 1896 insyd de case of ''Plessy v. Ferguson'', insyd wich na de Supreme Court lay out ein "separate buh equal" legal doctrine wey dey concern facilities give African Americans. Moreover, na public education essentially be segregated since ein establishment insyd chaw of de South after de Civil War insyd 1861–1865. Na companion laws exclude almost all African Americans from de vote insyd de South wey e deprive dem of any representative government. Although insyd theory, na de "equal" segregation doctrine govern public facilities den transportation too, na facilities give African Americans be consistently inferior den underfunded dem compare to facilities give white Americans; sam times, na der be no facilities give d black community at all.<ref name="tperd">{{Cite web|last=Perdue|first=Theda|date=October 28, 2011|title=Legacy of Jim Crow for Southern Native Americans|url=https://www.c-span.org/video/?302379-1/legacy-jim-crow-southern-native-americans|access-date=27 November 2018|website=C-SPAN}}</ref><ref name="jimlu">{{Cite book|last=Lowery|first=Malinda Maynor|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vLY3XbAqDUwC|title=Lumbee Indians in the Jim Crow South: Race, Identity, and the Making of a Nation|date=2010|publisher=Univ of North Carolina Press|isbn=9780807833681|pages=0–339|access-date=27 November 2018}}</ref> Far from equality, as a body of law, na Jim Crow institutionalize economic, educational, political den social disadvantages den second-class citizenship give chaw African Americans wey dey live insyd de United States.<ref name="tperd" /><ref name="jimlu" /><ref>Wolfley, Jeanette (1990). [https://web.archive.org/web/20190412011616/http://health-equity.lib.umd.edu/567/1/JimCrowAIStyle.pdf "Jim Crow, Indian Style: The Disenfranchisement of Native Americans"] (PDF). ''Indian Law Review''. '''16''' (1): 167–202. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2307/20068694|10.2307/20068694]]. [[Hdl (identifier)|hdl]]:[[hdl:1903/22633|1903/22633]]. [[JSTOR (identifier)|JSTOR]] [[hdl:1903/22633|20068694]]. Archived from [http://health-equity.lib.umd.edu/567/1/JimCrowAIStyle.pdf the original] (PDF) on April 12, 2019. Retrieved November 27, 2018.</ref> After na dem found de National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) insyd 1909, e cam be involved insyd a sustained public protest den campaigns against de Jim Crow laws, den de so-called "separate buh equal" doctrine. Insyd 1954, na dem declare segregation of public schools (state-sponsored) unconstitutional by de U.S. Supreme Court insyd de landmark case ''Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka''.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Brown v. Board of Education|url=https://www.landmarkcases.org/cases/brown-v-board-of-education|access-date=2019-09-29|website=Landmark Supreme Court Cases}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka|url=https://www.oyez.org/cases/1940-1955/347us483|access-date=2019-09-29|website=Oyez|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|date=2017-10-11|title=Two Landmark Decisions in the Fight for Equality and Justice|url=https://nmaahc.si.edu/blog-post/two-landmark-decisions-fight-equality-and-justice|access-date=2019-09-29|website=National Museum of African American History and Culture|language=en}}</ref> Insyd sam states, na e take chaw years make dem implement dis decision, while na de Warren Court continue dey rule against Jim Crow legislation insyd oda cases such as ''Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States'' (1964).<ref>{{Cite web|title=Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States|url=https://www.oyez.org/cases/1964/515|access-date=2019-09-29|website=Oyez|language=en}}</ref> In general, na dem generally overturn de Jim Crow laws wey remain by de [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]] den de [[Voting Rights Act of 1965]]. Na dem generally overturn southern state anti-miscegenation laws insyd de 1967 case of ''Loving v. Virginia''. == Etymology == Dem talk say the phrase '[[:en:Jim_Crow_(character)|Jim Crow]]' come from one song wey dem dey call "[[:en:Jump_Jim_Crow|Jump Jim Crow]]".<ref>Duane T. Loynes, Sr., "Jim Crow" in ''Encyclopedia of Critical Whiteness Studies in Education'' (2021) pp.331–340 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004444836_044</ref> One white actor, [[:en:Thomas_D._Rice|Thomas D. Rice,]] na im first perform am for 1828, e do am like say e be Black person, e paint e face. Because e make famous, by 1838, 'Jim Crow' don turn bad word wey dem dey use mean "Negro".For di end of 19th century, wen southern lawmakers begin pass laws wey go separate Black people from oda people, dem come call dem Jim Crow laws." According to ''The Jim Crow Encyclopedia'':<blockquote>De routine was immensely popular during de antebellum period, den de figure of Jim Crow becam a recognizable den enduring icon for American popular culture insyd. Insyd de 1840s, abolitionists used de phrase Jim Crow to describe segregated railroad cars. By the end of the nineteenth century, the term came to signify the social separation of the races. <ref>See ''The Jim Crow Encyclopedia.'' edited by Nikki L.M. Brown and Barry M. Stentiford (2008) p.417</ref><ref>Louis Ruchames, "Jim Crow Railroads in Massachusetts" ''American Quarterly'' 8#1 (1956), pp. 61-75, especially pp 70, 72. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2710298 online]</ref> </blockquote>Di first time wey dem use di phrase "Jim Crow law" bi for 1884 inside one newspaper article wey dem take summarize congressional debate.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/75375764/sioux-city-journal-iowa-18-december/|title=Congressional|work=Sioux City Journal|date=December 18, 1884|page=2}}</ref> Dem first use dat term for 1892 inside one ''[[:en:The_New_York_Times|New York Times]]'' article wey talk say Louisiana requiring segregated railroad cars.<ref name="scjc7">[[C. Vann Woodward|Woodward, C. Vann]], and McFeely, William S. (2001), ''The Strange Career of Jim Crow''. p. 7.</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9E05EEDB1F31E033A25752C2A9649D94639ED7CF|page=1|title=Louisiana's 'Jim Crow' Law Valid|quote=New Orleans, Dec 20. – The Supreme Court yesterday declared constitutional the law passed two years ago and known as the 'Jim Crow' law, making it compulsory on railroads to provide separate cars for black people.|work=The New York Times|date=December 21, 1892|location=New York|issn=0362-4331|access-date=February 6, 2011}}</ref> == Origins == [[File:Jimcrow.jpg|thumb|Cover of an early edition of [[:en:Jump_Jim_Crow|"Jump Jim Crow"]] sheet music (c. 1832)]] [[File:FreedmenVotingInNewOrleans1867.jpeg|thumb|Freedmen voting in [[:en:New_Orleans|New Orleans]], 1867]] Na true talk, January 1865, Congress bring am for table and by December 18, 1865, dem finally seal am as the 13th Amendment slavery don scatter for USA.<ref>Jaynes, Gerald D. (2005). [https://books.google.com/books?id=eV45DQAAQBAJ&pg=PT864 ''Encyclopedia of African American Society''.] Sage. pp. 864–. ISBN <bdi>978-0-7619-2764-8</bdi>.</ref> For di period wey dem dey call Reconstruction from 1865 to 1877, federal laws dey give civil rights protection for di South for freedmen, those African Americans wey don chop slave life before, and di few black people wey don dey free since before di war. For di 1870s, Democrats begin regain control for di Southern legislatures<ref>Milewski, Melissa (2017). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=zXo7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA47 Litigating Across the Color Line: Civil Cases Between Black and White Southerners from the End of Slavery to Civil Rights]''. Oxford University Press. pp. 47–. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN <bdi>978-0-19-024919-9</bdi>.]]</ref> as violent groups like Ku Klux Klan, White League, and Red Shirts dey disturb Republican activities, chase Republican leaders commot, and dey lynch black voters to make dem fear and no go vote.<ref>Harriot, Michael (2021). "Reconstruction". In [[:en:Ibram_X._Kendi|Kendi, Ibram X.; Blain, Keisha N.]] (eds.). ''[[:en:Four_Hundred_Souls|Four Hundred Souls: A Community History of African America, 1619–2019]]''. New York: One World. pp. 234–238. [[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0-593-13404-7|ISBN <bdi>978-0-593-13404-7</bdi>.]]</ref> Dem even dey do plenty voter fraud too. One time, for coastal North Carolina, some violent takeover happen wey make dem remove di democratically elected Republican leaders forcefully. Gubernatorial elections dey tight and dem don dey argue about am for Louisiana for plenty years, with violence dey increase against black Americans during campaigns from 1868.<ref>[[:en:Michael_Perman|Perman, Michael]] (2009). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=jVHODYI1fNUC&pg=PA138 Pursuit of Unity: A Political History of the American South]''. Univ of North Carolina Press. pp. 138–. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] [[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-3324-7|<bdi>978-0-8078-3324-7</bdi>.]]</ref> Di Compromise of 1877 wey fit help get Southern support for di presidential election make di government pull di last federal troops from di South. White Democrats don take back power for all di Southern states.<ref>[[:en:C._Vann_Woodward|Woodward, C. Vann,]] and McFeely, William S. ''The Strange Career of Jim Crow''. 2001, p. 6.</ref> Dis Southern, white, 'Redeemer' governments dey create Jim Crow laws, make dem separate di people officially. Jim Crow laws na just way to control one race group.<ref>Parker, Christopher Sebastian; Towler, Christopher C. (May 11, 2019). [[doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-050317-064519|"Race and Authoritarianism in American Politics"]]. ''Annual Review of Political Science''. '''22''' (1): 503–519. [[doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-050317-064519]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1094-2939 1094-2939].</ref> Black people still dey win local offices for di 1880s, especially for areas wey get plenty black population, but dem dey suppress dem for state and national elections. States dey pass laws wey go make voter registration and voting rules harder, so many black people and some poor white people dey participate less for politics.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Michael_Perman|Perman, Michael]]. ''Struggle for Mastery: Disfranchisement in the South, 1888–1908''. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001, Introduction.</ref><ref name=":4">Kousser, J. Morgan,''The Shaping of Southern Politics: Suffrage Restriction and the Establishment of the One-Party South'', New Haven: Yale University Press, 1974.</ref> Between 1890 and 1910, ten out of eleven former Confederate states, starting from Mississippi, pass new constitutions wey no let plenty black people and many poor whites vote at all. Dem do am with poll taxes, literacy tests and all those wahala.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /> Some illiterate white folks fit vote small because of grandfather clauses, but no help for most black people. Voter turnout fall sharply for South because of all these. For Louisiana by 1900, black voters drop to just 5,320, even though dem be majority for the state. By 1910, only 730 black people fit register, wey be less than 0.5% of qualified black men. For 27 out of 60 parishes, no black voter dey anymore; for 9 more parishes, just one black voter dey.<ref name=":5">Richard H. Pildes, [https://ssrn.com/abstract=224731 "Democracy, Anti-Democracy, and the Canon", 2000, pp. 12, 27.] Retrieved March 10, 2008.</ref> For North Carolina, black voters dey totally vanish from the rolls between 1896 to 1904. Their middle class wey dey grow dey slow down. For North Carolina and other Southern states, black people dey suffer from dem no see dem for the political system: within ten years after dem remove their vote, white supremacy don erase black middle class from white folks mind.<ref name=":5" /> For Alabama, plenty poor whites too lose their vote, even though the lawmakers say dem no go suffer from the new rules.<ref>Glenn Feldman, ''The Disfranchisement Myth: Poor Whites and Suffrage Restriction in Alabama'', Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2004, pp. 135–36.</ref> Those wey fit no vote no fit serve for juries or run for local offices. Dem practically vanish from political life, as dem no fit influence the state laws, and nobody dey check their interests. As public schools dey come up for South states for di time of Reconstruction, dem schools for black pikin always dey suffer from low funding compare to dey white pikin school, even when we check di tight money matter wey postwar South dey face wey cotton price dey drop plenty.<ref>Reese, W. (2010). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=TUjFAAAAQBAJ&q=underfunded+jim+crow+schools&pg=PA145 History, Education, and the Schools]''. Springer. p. 145. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0230104822|978-0230104822]]</bdi>.</ref> Like di schools, public libraries for black folks dey also underfunded, if dem even fit get any, and dem go dey full with secondhand books and wetin dem fit find.<ref name="jimlu" /><ref>Buddy, J., & Williams, M. (2005). "A dream deferred: school libraries and segregation", ''American Libraries'', 36(2), 33–35.</ref> Dem facilities no come for African Americans for di South till di first part of di 20th century.<ref>Battles, D. M. (2009). ''The History of Public Library Access for African Americans in the South, or, Leaving Behind the Plow.'' Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press.</ref> During di Jim Crow time, libraries dey appear small-small.<ref name=":6">Fultz, M. (2006). "Black Public Libraries in the South in the Era of De Jure Segregation". ''Libraries & The Cultural Record'', 41(3), 338.</ref> Before di 20th century, most libraries wey dey for African Americans na school-library mix.<ref name=":6" /> Plenty public libraries for both white and black people wey dey come up for dat time na because middle-class people push am with help from Carnegie Foundation grant.<ref name=":6" /> Sometimes, some laws wey suppose help reduce election fraud like di Eight Box Law for South Carolina dey affect both black and white voters wey no sabi read, as dem no fit follow di instructions.<ref>[[:en:Thomas_C._Holt|Holt, Thomas]] (1979). ''Black over White: Negro Political Leadership in South Carolina during Reconstruction''. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.</ref> As di separation of African Americans from di white folks dey turn law for Progressive Era (1890s–1920s), e dey become normal too. Even when Jim Crow laws no clear say black people fit no join sports or fun, di culture of segregation don enta everywhere.<ref name="scjc7" /> For di Jim Crow setting, presidential election for 1912 no favor African Americans at all.<ref>[[:en:John_Dittmer|Dittmer, John]] (1980). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=mW4gKvP1oZkC&pg=PA108 Black Georgia in the Progressive Era, 1900–1920]''. University of Illinois Press. pp. 108–. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] [[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0-252-00813-9|<bdi>978-0-252-00813-9</bdi>.]]</ref> Most black Americans still dey South, where dem don really block dem from voting, so dem no fit vote at all. The way dem dey use poll tax and literacy requirements, e dey ban plenty poor and illiterate people from voting. But dem no dey treat everybody the same, European Americans get some kind loophole wey make dem no follow the rules. For Oklahoma, if you fit vote before 1866 or you be related to person wey fit vote before that year (like grandfather clause), you go waka free from the literacy requirement; but na only white men fit vote before that year. European Americans no dey do the literacy test, but the black Americans na dem wey law dey target.<ref>Tomlins, Christopher L. ''The United States Supreme Court: The Pursuit of Justice''. 2005, p. 195.</ref> Woodrow Wilson, him be Democrat wey come from New Jersey, but e grow for South, na him be the first president wey born for South after Civil War. E fit Southern guys for him Cabinet. Some dey push for separate workplaces, even though D.C. and federal offices don mix since after the war. For 1913, Secretary of the Treasury William Gibbs McAdoo, wey Wilson appoint, talk say white women no go like make black and white women dey work together for one office: 'I dey sure say e go dey pain white women. Wetin make white women no fit have only white women for front of dem?'<ref>King, Desmond. ''Separate and Unequal: Black Americans and the US Federal Government''. 1995, p. 3.</ref> Wilson administration bring segregation for federal offices, even though African-American leaders and white progressive groups dey protest.<ref>[[:en:Carol_Berkin|Berkin, Carol;]] Christopher Miller; Robert Cherny; James Gormly (2011). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=zhcIPxzRC9YC&pg=PT578 Making America: A History of the United States]''. Cengage Learning. pp. 578–. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0-495-90979-8|978-0-495-90979-8]]</bdi>.</ref> E dey appoint Southern politicians wey believe in segregation because e think say e go benefit both black and European Americans.<ref>Schulte Nordholt, J. W. [nl], and [[:en:Herbert_H._Rowen|Rowen, Herbert H]]., ''[[iarchive:woodrowwilsonlif00schu|Woodrow Wilson: A Life for World Peace]]''. 1991, pp. 99–100.</ref> For the Great Reunion of 1913 for Gettysburg, Wilson address crowd for July 4, wey be the 50 years wey Abraham Lincoln talk say 'all men be equal.' See how this union don complete, e sweet us well, no wahala, e be grand and fine, as state dey join join our big family of free guys!<ref name=":7">[[:en:David_W._Blight|Blight, David W]]. (2001), ''[[:en:Race_and_Reunion:_The_Civil_War_in_American_Memory|Race and Reunion: The Civil War in American Memory]]'', pp. 9–11.</ref> Dem talk say this 'reunion' wey happen for 1913 be for those wey fight to kill slavery or the ones wey fight to keep am, as dem dey use all sort of tricks and mouth talk to make freedom look like failure.<ref name=":7" /> Historian David W. Blight talk say the 'Peace Jubilee' wey Wilson run for Gettysburg for 1913 be Jim Crow reunion and e be white supremacy wey dey control everything wey happen.<ref name=":7" /> For Texas, many towns begin put segregation laws from 1910 to 1920s. Dem say make people drink water from different fountains and use different restrooms.<ref name=":7" /> E be the Republican lily-white movement wey dey support this exclusion of African Americans.<ref>Heersink, Boris; Jenkins, Jeffery A. (January 6, 2020). [https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/studies-in-american-political-development/article/abs/whiteness-and-the-emergence-of-the-republican-party-in-the-early-twentiethcentury-south/899B4B98A78353683C3C6050DFA5771B "Whiteness and the Emergence of the Republican Party in the Early Twentieth-Century South"]. ''Studies in American Political Development''. '''34''' (1): 71–90. [[doi:10.1017/S0898588X19000208]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0898-588X 0898-588X]. [[:en:S2CID_(identifier)|S2CID]] [https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:213551748 213551748].</ref> == History wey don pass == === Early try wey people dey break Jim Crow === [[File:“COLORED WAITING ROOM” and “HITLER’S LOVE LIFE REVEALED” - Jim Crow in Durham, North Carolina (cropped).jpg|thumb|Sign for the "colored" waiting room at a bus station in [[:en:Durham,_North_Carolina|Durham, North Carolina]], May 1940]] Sign for di "colored" waiting area for bus station for Durham, North Carolina, May 1940 Di Civil Rights Act of 1875 wey Charles Sumner and Benjamin F. Butler bring come, talk say make everybody, no matter di color or wetin dem don go through, fit get di same treatment for public places like hotels, transport, theaters, and other fun spots. But dis Act no really do anything for reality.<ref>"Colored Methodists Indignant Over the Expulsion of Their Senior Bishop From a Florida Railway Car", ''The New York Times'', 30 March 1882: "Colored men of spirit and culture are resisting the conductors, who attempt to drive them into the 'Jim Crow cars,' and they sometimes succeed."</ref> One Supreme Court decision for 1883 talk say di act no dey constitutionally correct for some areas, say Congress no fit control private people or companies. Plus, white southern Democrats dey form strong voting bloc for Congress, because dem get extra power wit di seats wey dey divided based on total population for di South (even though many thousands don lose dem voting rights), Congress no pass another civil rights law until 1957.<ref name="usgov">{{cite web |title=Constitutional Amendments and Major Civil Rights Acts of Congress Referenced in Black Americans in Congress |url=http://history.house.gov/Exhibitions-and-Publications/BAIC/Historical-Data/Constitutional-Amendments-and-Legislation/ |access-date=27 January 2018 |website=History, Art & Archives |publisher=US House of Representatives}}</ref> For 1887, Rev. W. H. Heard file complaint with di Interstate Commerce Commission against Georgia Railroad wey dey discriminate, showing say dem dey provide different cars for white and black/colored passengers. Di company manage to win appeal because dem talk say dem dey offer "separate but equal" treatment.<ref>''New York Times'', 30 July 1887: "No 'Jim Crow' Cars": "The answer further avers that the cars provided for the colored passengers are equally as safe, comfortable, clean, well ventilated, and cared for as those provided for whites. The difference, it says, if any, relates to matters aesthetical only."</ref> For 1890, Louisiana pass law wey require separate places for colored and white passengers for trains. Louisiana law fit tell di difference between "white", "black" and "colored" (wey be people wey get mix of European and African blood). Di law don already say black people no fit ride wit white people, but colored people fit ride wit white people before 1890. One group of worried black, colored and white citizens for New Orleans form association wey fit cancel di law. Dem persuade Homer Plessy to test di law; him be man of color wey get fair skin and one-eighth "Negro" for him blood.<ref name="lou">{{cite web |title=Plessy v. Ferguson |url=http://www.knowlouisiana.org/entry/plessy-v-ferguson |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180730131859/http://www.knowlouisiana.org/entry/plessy-v-ferguson |archive-date=July 30, 2018 |access-date=27 January 2018 |website=Know Louisiana |publisher=Louisiana Endowment for the Humanities}}</ref> For 1892, Plessy buy first-class ticket wey come from New Orleans for East Louisiana Railway. When e enter train, e tell conductor sey him get black lineage and e sit for whites-only car. Dem direct am make e leave dat car and sit for 'coloreds only' car. Plessy no gree, and dem arrest am sharp-sharp. Citizens Committee of New Orleans fight dem case go Supreme Court wey dem lose for Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), wey Court talk sey 'separate but equal' facilities dey okay. Dis ruling carry 58 more years of legal wahala for black and colored people for United States.<ref name="lou" /> For 1908, Congress stop dem from bring segregated streetcars come capital.<ref>Congress rejected by a majority of 140 to 59 a transport bill amendment proposed by [[James Thomas Heflin]] (Ala.) to introduce racially segregated streetcars to the capital's transport system. ''The New York Times'', 23 February 1908: "'Jim Crow Cars' Denied by Congress".</ref> === Racism for United States den Jim Crow matter dey serious. === [[File:JimCrowCar2.jpg|thumb|1904 caricature of "White" and "Jim Crow" rail cars by [[:en:John_T._McCutcheon|John T. McCutcheon.]] Despite Jim Crow's legal pretense that the races be "separate but equal" under the law, non-whites were given inferior facilities and treatment.<ref>John McCutheon. The Mysterious Stranger and Other Cartoons by John T. McCutcheon, New York, McClure, Phillips & Co. 1905.</ref>]] White Southerners dey struggle learn free labor management after slavery done finish, and dem dey vex for African Americans, wey be reminder of Confederate defeat for Civil War: 'As white supremacy dey under challenge for South, plenty whites dey try hold on to dem old status by threatening African Americans wey dey use dem new rights.'<ref>[[Henry Louis Gates|Gates, Henry Louis]] and [[Kwame Anthony Appiah|Appiah, Anthony]]. ''Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience''. 1999, p. 1211.</ref> White Southerners dey use dem power to separate public spaces and facilities by law and take back social control over black people for South. One reason wey make dem want exclude African Americans from southern public life be sey na for their own protection. One early 20th-century scholar talk sey if dem allow black people enter white schools, e go mean sey dem go dey face bad feelings and opinion, wey fit lead to 'morbid race consciousness.'<ref>[[Edgar Gardner Murphy|Murphy, Edgar Gardner]]. ''The Problems of the Present South''. 1910, p. 37.</ref> Dis kind perspective no take anti-black wahala serious, kasi bigotry dey everywhere for South after slavery turn racial caste system. Scientists and bad vibes about African Americans give reasons why white people wan dey supreme. Dem use social segregation, from where people fit live to laws wey go stop interracial chess games, to justify am so that black guys no go dey chop white women, especially with dat one wey dem dey call Black Buck stereotype.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cashin |first=Sheryll |author-link= |title=Loving: Interracial Intimacy in America and the Threat to White Supremacy |date=June 6, 2017 |publisher=2017 Beacon Press |isbn=978-0807058275}}</ref> === World War II den after dem war era === For 1944, Associate Justice Frank Murphy bring the word "racism" come Supreme Court talk for Korematsu v. United States, 323 U.S. 214 (1944).<ref>{{cite web |title=Full text of Korematsu v. United States opinion |url=http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=323&invol=214 |work=Findlaw}}</ref> For him no gree opinion, Murphy talk say as dem dey uphold the forced move of Japanese Americans during World War II, the Court dey enter "the ugly abyss of racism". Dis na di first time dem use "racism" for Supreme Court talk (Murphy use am twice insyd a concurring opinion insyd ''[[:en:Steele_v_Louisville_&_Nashville_Railway_Co|Steele v Louisville & Nashville Railway Co]]'' [[:en:Case_citation|323 192]] (1944) wey issue am dat day).<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110628193058/http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cgi-bin/getcase.pl?court=US&vol=323&invol=192 Steele v. Louisville], Findlaw.</ref> After Murphy come drop the Court, dem no use "racism" again for opinion for two decades before e show face for dem landmark case of Loving v. Virginia, 388 U.S. 1 (1967).[[File:Educational separation in the US prior to Brown Map.svg|thumb|Educational segregation in the US prior to ''Brown''. All the states of the "South" or with the longest histories of slavery (in red) segregated schools by law statewide.]] Plenty boycotts den demonstrations against segregation happen from 1930s to 1940s. Di National Association for di Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) dey fight many law cases since early 20th century to stop laws wey dey disenfranchise black voters for South. Some early demonstrations bring positive outcome, boost political activism, especially for di time after World War II. Black veterans no get patience for social wahala after dem don fight for USA and freedom everywhere. For 1947, K. Leroy Irvis from Pittsburgh Urban League, lead dem to protest against job discrimination wey city department stores dey show. Na so hin start hin own strong political career.<ref name="pg">{{cite web |title=Former Pa. House speaker K. Leroy Irvis dies |url=http://old.post-gazette.com/pg/06075/671363.stm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319080058/http://old.post-gazette.com/pg/06075/671363.stm |archive-date=March 19, 2022 |access-date=27 January 2018 |website=Pittsburgh Post-Gazette}}</ref> After World War II, people wey no be white dey challenge segregation plenty, dem feel say dem don earn the right to dey treated like full citizens because of wetin dem sacrifice for military. Civil rights movement start to gather pace from some hot points, like the 1946 police beating wey dem give WWII veteran Isaac Woodard while e dey wear U.S. Army uniform. For 1948, President Harry S. Truman come issue Executive Order 9981, wey end racial discrimination for armed services.<ref name="Truman9881">{{cite book |last=Taylor |first=Jon E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8qS8gCz6gHAC&q=Executive%20Order%209981&pg=PA159 |title=Freedom to Serve: Truman, Civil Rights, and Executive Order 9981 |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-89449-4 |pages=159}}</ref> Dat same year, Silas Herbert Hunt go enroll for University of Arkansas, nah so education for South begin dey desegregate.<ref name="Buckelew">{{cite web |last1=Buckelew |first1=Richard A. |title=Silas Herbert Hunt |url=http://www.encyclopediaofarkansas.net/encyclopedia/entry-detail.aspx?search=1&entryID=1676 |access-date=June 4, 2018 |website=Encyclopedia of Arkansas History and Culture |publisher=Butler Center}}</ref> As civil rights movement rise, dem dey use federal courts to fight Jim Crow laws, but the white governments for South dey counter with better tactics.<ref>Bartley, Numan V., ''The Rise of Massive Resistance: Race and Politics in the South during the 1950s'' (LSU Press, 1999).</ref> ==Decline den removal== Historian William Chafe don explore de defensive techniques wey dem develop insyd de African American community to avoid de worst features of Jim Crow as dem express am for de legal system, unbalanced economic power, den intimidation den psychological pressure. Chafe talk say "protective socialization by black people demselves" dem create insyd de community for order to accommodate white-imposed sanctions while subtly encouraging challenges to those sanctions. Known as "walking de tightrope", such efforts for bringing about change be only slightly effective before de 1920s. However, dis build de foundation for later generations to advance racial equality den de-segregation. Chafe argue say de places wey be essential for change to begin be institutions, particularly black churches, wich function as centers for community-building den discussion of politics. Additionally, chaw all-black communities, such as Mound Bayou, Mississippi den Ruthville, Virginia serve as sources of pride den inspiration for black society as whole. Over time, pushback den open defiance of de oppressive existing laws grow, until e reach boiling point for de aggressive, large-scale activism of de 1950s civil rights movement.<ref>Chafe, William H., "Presidential Address: 'The Gods Bring Threads to Webs Begun'." ''Journal of American History'' 86.4 (2000): 1531–51. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2567576 Online]</ref> ===''Brown v. Board of Education''=== [[File:Warren Supreme Court.jpg|thumb|For de landmark case ''Brown v. Board of Education'' (1954), de U.S. Supreme Court under Chief Justice Earl Warren rule unanimously say public school segregation be unconstitutional.]] De NAACP Legal Defense Committee (group wey become independent of de NAACP) – den ein lawyer, Thurgood Marshall – bring de landmark case ''Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka'', before de U.S. Supreme Court under Chief Justice Earl Warren.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> For ein pivotal 1954 decision, de Warren Court unanimously (9–0) overturn de 1896 ''Plessy'' decision.<ref name=":1" /> De Supreme Court find say legally mandated (''de jure'') public school segregation be unconstitutional. De decision get far-reaching social ramifications.<ref>Patterson, James T., ''Brown v. Board of Education: A Civil Rights Milestone and Its Troubled Legacy'' (2002).</ref> ===Integrating collegiate sports=== Racial integration of all-white collegiate sports teams dey high for de Southern agenda for de 1950s den 1960s. Involved be issues of equality, racism, den de alumni demand for de top players wey dem need to win high-profile games. De Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC) of flagship state universities for de Southeast take de lead. First dem start to schedule integrated teams from de North. Finally, ACC schools{{snd}}typically under pressure from boosters den civil rights groups{{snd}}integrate dem teams.<ref>Martin, Charles H., "The Rise and Fall of Jim Crow in Southern College Sports: The Case of the Atlantic Coast Conference". ''North Carolina Historical Review'', 76.3 (1999): 253–84. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/23522657 online]</ref> Plus alumni base wey dominate local den state politics, society den business, de ACC schools be successful for dem endeavor{{snd}}as Pamela Grundy argue, dem don learn how to win: : De widespread admiration wey athletic ability inspire go help transform athletic fields from grounds of symbolic play to forces for social change, places where wide range of citizens fit publicly den for times effectively challenge de assumptions wey cast dem as unworthy of full participation for U.S. society. While athletic successes no go rid society of prejudice or stereotype – black athletes go continue to confront racial slurs...[minority star players demonstrate] de discipline, intelligence, den poise to contend for position or influence for every arena of national life.<ref>Pamela Grundy, ''Learning to win: Sports, education, and social change in twentieth-century North Carolina'' (University of North Carolina Press, 2003), p. 297, [https://web.archive.org/web/20181215171453/https://www.questia.com/read/101457616/learning-to-win-sports-education-and-social-change online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215171453/https://www.questia.com/read/101457616/learning-to-win-sports-education-and-social-change |date=December 15, 2018 }}.</ref> ===Public arena=== For 1955, Rosa Parks refuse to give up her seat for city bus to white man for Montgomery, Alabama. Dis no be de first time dis happen – for example, Parks dem inspire by 15-year-old Claudette Colvin wey do de same thing nine months earlier<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.democracynow.org/2013/3/29/the_other_rosa_parks_now_73|title=The Other Rosa Parks: Now 73, Claudette Colvin Was First to Refuse Giving Up Seat on Montgomery Bus|website=Democracy Now!}}</ref> – but de Parks act of civil disobedience dem choose, symbolically, as important catalyst for de growth of de post-1954 civil rights movement; activists build de Montgomery bus boycott around am, wich last more dan year den result for desegregation of de privately run buses for de city. Civil rights protests den actions, together plus legal challenges, result for series of legislative den court decisions wich contribute to undermining de Jim Crow system.<ref name="vcu">{{cite web|title=Jim Crow Laws and Racial Segregation|url=https://socialwelfare.library.vcu.edu/eras/civil-war-reconstruction/jim-crow-laws-andracial-segregation/|access-date=27 January 2018|website=VCU Libraries Social Welfare History Project|date=January 20, 2011|publisher=Virginia Commonwealth University}}</ref> ===End of legal segregation=== [[File:Lyndon Johnson signing Civil Rights Act, July 2, 1964.jpg|thumb|President Johnson sign de Civil Rights Act of 1964.]] De decisive action wey end segregation come when Congress for bipartisan fashion overcome Southern filibusters to pass de Civil Rights Act of 1964 den de Voting Rights Act of 1965. Complex interaction of factors come together unexpectedly for de period 1954–1965 to make de momentous changes possible. De Supreme Court don take de first initiative for ''Brown v. Board of Education'' (1954), declaring segregation of public schools unconstitutional. Enforcement be rapid for de North den border states, but dem deliberately stop am for de South by de movement wey dem call Massive Resistance, wey rural segregationists sponsor who largely control de state legislatures. Southern liberals, who counsel moderation, dem shout down by both sides den get limited impact. Much more significant be de civil rights movement, especially de Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) wey Martin Luther King Jr. head. E largely displace de old, much more moderate NAACP for taking leadership roles. King organize massive demonstrations, wey seize massive media attention for era when network television news be innovative den universally watched phenomenon.<ref>Allison, Graham, [https://www.amazon.com/Framing-South-Hollywood-Television-Struggle/dp/0801866154/ ''Framing the South: Hollywood, television, and race during the Civil Rights Struggle''] (2001).</ref> SCLC, student activists den smaller local organizations stage demonstrations across de South. National attention focus for Birmingham, Alabama, where protesters (mostly young teenagers), face off against Commissioner of Public Safety Bull Connor, Connor arrest 900 for one day alone. De next day Connor unleash billy clubs, police dogs, den high-pressure water hoses to disperse den punish de young demonstrators plus brutality wey horrify de nation. De brutality undermine de image of modernizing progressive urban South. President John F. Kennedy, who don dey call for moderation, threaten to use federal troops to restore order for Birmingham. De result for Birmingham be compromise by wich de new mayor open de library, golf courses, den other city facilities to both races, against de backdrop of church bombings den assassinations.<ref>McWhorter, Diane, ''Carry Me Home: Birmingham, Alabama: The Climactic Battle of the Civil Rights Revolution'' (2001), [https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780743217729 online free to borrow]</ref> For summer 1963, der be 800 demonstrations for 200 southern cities den towns, plus over 100,000 participants, den 15,000 arrests. For Alabama for June 1963, Governor George Wallace escalate de crisis by defying court orders to admit de first two black students to de University of Alabama.<ref>Carter, Dan T. ''The politics of rage: George Wallace, the origins of the new conservatism, and the transformation of American politics'' (LSU Press, 2000).</ref> Kennedy respond by sending Congress comprehensive civil rights bill, den order Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy to file federal lawsuits against segregated schools, den to deny funds for discriminatory programs. Martin Luther King launch huge march for Washington for August 1963, bringing out 200,000 demonstrators for front of de Lincoln Memorial, for de time de largest political assembly for de nation ein history. De Kennedy administration now give full-fledged support to de civil rights movement, but powerful southern congressmen block any legislation.<ref>Robert E. Gilbert, "John F. Kennedy and civil rights for black Americans." ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' 12.3 (1982): 386–99. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/27547837 Online]</ref> After Kennedy dem assassinate, President Lyndon B. Johnson call for immediate passage of Kennedy ein civil rights legislation as memorial to de martyred president. Johnson form coalition plus Northern Republicans wey lead to passage for de House, den plus de help of Republican Senate leader Everett Dirksen plus passage for de Senate early for 1964. For de first time for history, de southern filibuster dem break den de Senate finally pass ein version for June 19 by vote of 73 to 27.<ref>Pauley, Garth E., "Presidential rhetoric and interest group politics: Lyndon B. Johnson and the Civil Rights Act of 1964." ''Southern Journal of Communication'' 63.1 (1997): 1–19.</ref> De Civil Rights Act of 1964 be de most powerful affirmation of equal rights wey Congress ever make. E guarantee access to public accommodations such as restaurants den places of amusement, authorize de Justice Department to bring suits to desegregate facilities for schools, give new powers to de Civil Rights Commission; den allow federal funds to be cut off for cases of discrimination. Furthermore, racial, religious den gender discrimination dem outlaw for businesses plus 25 or more employees, as well as apartment houses. De South resist until de last moment, but as soon as de new law dem sign by President Johnson for July 2, 1964, e be widely accept across de nation. Der be only scattering of diehard opposition, typify by restaurant owner Lester Maddox for Georgia.<ref>Grantham, Dewey W., ''The South in Modern America '' (1994), 228–45.</ref><ref>Barrow, David, ''Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King Jr. and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference'' (1989).</ref><ref>Theoharis, Jeanne, ''A More Beautiful and Terrible History: The Uses and Misuses of Civil Rights History'' (2018).</ref><ref>For primary sources see John A. Kirk, ed., ''The Civil Rights Movement: A Documentary Reader'' (2020).</ref> Insyd January 1964, President Lyndon Johnson meet plus civil rights leaders. On January 8, during ein first State of de Union address, Johnson asked Congress to ''"let this session of Congress be known as the session which did more for civil rights than the last hundred sessions combined."'' On June 21, civil rights workers Michael Schwerner, Andrew Goodman, den James Chaney disappear for Neshoba County, Mississippi insyd, wer dem dey volunteer insyd de registration of African American voters as part of de Freedom Summer project. De disappearance of de three activists capture national attention den de Johnson den civil rights activists use ensuing outrage to dey build a coalition of northern den western Democrats den Republicans den push Congress to pass de Civil Rights Act of 1964.''<ref name="cra64">{{cite web |title=Civil Rights Act of 1964 – CRA – Title VII – Equal Employment Opportunities – 42 US Code Chapter 21 |url=http://finduslaw.com/civil_rights_act_of_1964_cra_title_vii_equal_employment_opportunities_42_us_code_chapter_21 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111229033506/http://finduslaw.com/civil_rights_act_of_1964_cra_title_vii_equal_employment_opportunities_42_us_code_chapter_21 |archive-date=December 29, 2011 |access-date=October 2, 2008}}</ref>'' For July 2, 1964, Johnson sign de historic Civil Rights Act of 1964.<ref name="cra64" /><ref>{{cite web |title=LBJ for Kids – Civil rights during the Johnson Administration |url=http://www.lbjlib.utexas.edu/johnson/lbjforkids/civil_timeline.shtm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120720111358/http://www.lbjlib.utexas.edu/johnson/lbjforkids/civil_timeline.shtm |archive-date=July 20, 2012 |publisher=[[University of Texas]] |df=mdy-all}}</ref> It invoke de Commerce Clause<ref name="cra64" /> to outlaw discrimination for public accommodations insyd (privately owned restaurants, hotels, den stores, den for private schools den workplaces insyd). De Warren Court uphold dis use of de Commerce Clause insyd de landmark case ''Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States'' 379 US 241 (1964).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lopez |first=Ian F. Haney |author-link= |date=February 1, 2007 |title=A nation of minorities: race, ethnicity, and reactionary colorblindness |url=http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-30274716_ITM |journal=Stanford Law Review}}</ref> By 1965, efforts to break de grip of state disenfranchisement by education give voter registration for southern counties insyd had been underway for some time, but had achieve only modest success overall. For some areas of de Deep South insyd, white resistance made dem efforts almost entirely ineffectual. De murder of de three voting-rights activists insyd Mississippi for 1964 insyd den de state ein refusal to prosecute de murderers, along plus numerous oda acts of violence den terrorism against black people, had gained national attention. Finally, de unprovoked attack for March 7, 1965, by county den state troopers on peaceful Alabama marchers wey dey cross de Edmund Pettus Bridge en route from Selma to de state capital of Montgomery, persuaded de President den Congress to ovacam Southern legislators ein resistance to effective voting rights enforcement legislation. President Johnson issue a call give a strong voting rights law den hearings soon began for de bill top dat would becam de Voting Rights Act.<ref>[http://www.usdoj.gov/crt/voting/intro/intro_b.htm "Introduction To Federal Voting Rights Laws"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070304111738/http://www.usdoj.gov/crt/voting/intro/intro_b.htm|date=March 4, 2007}}. United States Department of Justice.</ref> De Voting Rights Act of 1965 end legally sanctioned state barriers to voting for all federal, state den local elections. E sanso provide for federal oversight den monitoring of counties plus historically low minority voter turnout. Years of enforcement don be needed to overcome resistance, den additional legal challenges dem make for de courts to ensure de ability of voters to elect candidates of dem choice. For instance, many cities den counties introduce at-large election of council members, wich result for many cases of diluting minority votes den preventing election of minority-supported candidates. After passage of de act, Martin Luther King, Jr., begin to turn ein attentions to fledgling Poor People's Campaign. Ein ill-fated proposal for Economic Bills of Rights dem meet plus hostility from southern Democrats as well as northern den southern Republicans for Congress.<ref>Patterson, '' Brown v. Board of Education: A Civil Rights Milestone and Its Troubled Legacy'' (2002)</ref> For 2013, de Roberts Court, for ''Shelby County v. Holder'', remove de requirement wey de Voting Rights Act establish say Southern states need Federal approval for changes for voting policies. Several states immediately make changes for dem laws restricting voting access.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2018/07/how-shelby-county-broke-america/564707/|title=How a Pivotal Voting Rights Act Case Broke America|first=Vann R. |last=Newkirk II|author-link=Vann R. Newkirk II|date=July 10, 2018|magazine=The Atlantic}}</ref> De decisive action wey end segregation come when Congress for bipartisan fashion overcome Southern filibusters to pass de Civil Rights Act of 1964 den de Voting Rights Act of 1965. Complex interaction of factors come together unexpectedly for de period 1954–1965 to make de momentous changes possible. De Supreme Court don take de first initiative for ''Brown v. Board of Education'' (1954), declaring segregation of public schools unconstitutional. Enforcement be rapid for de North den border states, but dem deliberately stop am for de South by de movement wey dem call Massive Resistance, wey rural segregationists sponsor who largely control de state legislatures. Southern liberals, who counsel moderation, dem shout down by both sides den get limited impact. Much more significant be de civil rights movement, especially de Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) wey Martin Luther King Jr. head. E largely displace de old, much more moderate NAACP for taking leadership roles. King organize massive demonstrations, wey seize massive media attention for era when network television news be innovative den universally watched phenomenon.<ref>Allison, Graham, [https://www.amazon.com/Framing-South-Hollywood-Television-Struggle/dp/0801866154/ ''Framing the South: Hollywood, television, and race during the Civil Rights Struggle''] (2001).</ref> ==Influence den aftermath== ===African American life=== [[File:Negro drinking at "Colored" water cooler in streetcar terminal, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma by Russell Lee.jpg|thumb|An African American man drinking at a "colored" drinking fountain in a streetcar terminal in [[:en:Oklahoma_City|Oklahoma City]], Oklahoma, 1939]] De Jim Crow laws den de high rate of lynchings for de South be major factors wey lead to de Great Migration during de first half of de 20th century. Secof opportunities be very limited for de South, African Americans move for great numbers go cities for Northeastern, Midwestern, den Western states make dem seek better lives. African American athletes face plenty discrimination during de Jim Crow era plus white opposition wey lead to dem exclusion from most organized sporting competitions. De boxers Jack Johnson den Joe Louis (both of dem become world heavyweight boxing champions) den track and field athlete Jesse Owens (wey win four gold medals for de 1936 Summer Olympics for Berlin) gain prominence during de era. For baseball, color line wey dem institute for de 1880s informally bar black people from playing for de major leagues, wey lead to de development of de Negro leagues, wey feature many famous players. Major breakthrough occur for 1947, when Jackie Robinson get hired as de first African American wey play for Major League Baseball; e permanently break de color bar. Baseball teams continue to integrate for de following years, wey lead to de full participation of black baseball players for de Major Leagues for de 1960s. === Interracial marriage === Although sometimes dem count am among Jim Crow laws of de South, statutes such as anti-miscegenation laws dem also pass by other states. Anti-miscegenation laws no be repeal by de Civil Rights Act of 1964, but dem declare am unconstitutional by de U.S. Supreme Court (de Warren Court) for unanimous ruling Loving v. Virginia (1967).<ref name="cra64" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sollors |first=Werner |author-link= |title=Interracialism black-white intermarriage in American history, literature, and law |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2000 |isbn=1-280-65507-0 |location=New York; Oxford |pages=26–34}}</ref><ref name=":32" /> Chief Justice Earl Warren write for de court opinion say "de freedom to marry, anaa no marry, person of another race dey reside plus de individual, den e no fi infringe by de State."<ref name=":32">{{Cite web |title=Loving v. Virginia |url=https://www.oyez.org/cases/1966/395 |access-date=2019-09-29 |website=Oyez |language=en}}</ref> ===Jury trials=== De Sixth Amendment to de United States Constitution grant criminal defendants de right to trial by jury of dem peers. While federal law require say convictions fi only grant by unanimous jury for federal crimes, states be free to set dem own jury requirements. All but two states, Oregon den Louisiana, opt for unanimous juries for conviction. Oregon den Louisiana, however, allow juries of at least 10–2 to decide criminal conviction. Louisiana ein law get amend for 2018 to require unanimous jury for criminal convictions, effective for 2019. Prior to dat amendment, de law be seen as remnant of Jim Crow laws, secof e allow minority voices for jury to dey marginalize.<ref>Sarah Lambert, "A Call for Legislative Action: Five Reasons to Say Yes to Unanimous Criminal Jury Verdicts in Louisiana." ''Journal of Race Gender & Poverty'' 9 (2017): 1+.</ref> For 2020 insyd, de Supreme Court find, for Ramos v. Louisiana, say unanimous jury votes dey require for criminal convictions for state levels, thereby nullifying Oregon ein remaining law, den overturning previous cases for Louisiana.<ref name="vox">{{cite news|last1=Lopez|first1=German|title=Louisiana votes to eliminate Jim Crow jury law with Amendment 2|url=https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2018/11/6/18052540/election-results-louisiana-amendment-2-unanimous-jim-crow-jury-law|access-date=20 April 2020|work=Vox|date=6 November 2018|language=en}}</ref> ===Later court cases=== For 1971 insyd, de U.S. Supreme Court (de Burger Court), for Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education, uphold desegregation busing of students to achieve integration. Interpretation of de Constitution den ein application to minority rights continue to dey controversial as Court membership dey change. Observers such as Ian F. Lopez believe say for de 2000s, de Supreme Court become more protective of de status quo.<ref>[[Ian Haney López|Lopez, Ian F. Haney]] (February 1, 2007), [http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-30274716_ITM "A nation of minorities: race, ethnicity, and reactionary colorblindness"], ''Stanford Law Review''</ref> ===Felony disenfranchisement=== Mississippi Today discuss de present-day Jim Crow legacy of felony disenfranchisement, den state say part of Mississippi ein 1890 constitution no be erase by de Civil Rights Movement during de 1960s. De article state de constitutional felony disenfranchisement clause "take away – for life – de right to vote upon conviction for several low-level crimes, lyk theft den bribery, wey de 1890 drafters feel go mostly commit by Black people."<ref>{{cite web |date=April 12, 2024 |title=How Mississippi's Jim Crow Laws Still Haunt Black Voters Today |url=https://mississippitoday.org/2024/04/12/mississippi-voting-rights-history-disenfranchisement/}}</ref> ===International=== For 2017 insyd, Ford Foundation Professor of Law James Whitman provide records say, during 1934 drafting sessions wey culminate for de Nuremberg Laws, Nazi officials such as Franz Gürtner den Bernhard Lösener cite den discuss memorandum by Heinrich Krieger, former German graduate student for de University of Arkansas. Krieger previously publish article for "Principles of Indian [Native American] law" for de United States, particularly de Dawes Act den Indian Reorganization Act. De memorandum, wey base for preliminary research into de history of U.S. immigration den Jim Crow laws, become de basis for Krieger ein Race Law in the United States (Das Rassenrecht in den Vereinigten Staaten) almost two years later. Reviewers praise dis passage for Whitman ein study as well as ein comparative analyses of state-sponsored eugenics legislation. Conversely, number of scholars grow critical of contentions elsewhere for de book, demanding more evaluation den evidence.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Whitman |first1=James Q. |title=Hitler's American model: the United States and the making of Nazi race law |date=2017 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=9780691172422 |location=Princeton (N. J.) |pages=76–113}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Americans and the Nazis: Who Copied Whom? |url=https://athenaeumreview.org/review/the-americans-and-the-nazis-who-copied-whom/#_ftnref2 |website=Athenaeum Review}}</ref> For 2023 insyd, Darren Walker, president of de Ford Foundation endowment for Whitman ein chair, note say "Henry Ford, our founder, be among de twentieth century ein most virulent American antisemites. Den yet, to me, our past confer special obligation to engage, no to retreat—no matter de complications anaa de consequences."<ref>{{cite web |last1=Walker |first1=Darren |date=15 September 2023 |title=Rejecting the Rising Tide of Antisemitism |url=https://www.fordfoundation.org/news-and-stories/stories/rejecting-the-rising-tide-of-antisemitism/ |website=Ford Foundation}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Walker |first1=Darren |date=23 October 2023 |title=Holding Fast to Our Shared Humanity |url=https://www.fordfoundation.org/news-and-stories/stories/holding-fast-to-our-shared-humanity/ |website=Ford Foundation}}</ref> == Remembrance == Ferris State University for Big Rapids, Michigan get Jim Crow Museum wey dey hold plenty items wey promote racial segregation or show stereotype about African Americans, all for academic research den to educate people about di cultural influence.<ref>{{cite web |last=Carter |first=Kelley L. |date=February 5, 2001 |title=RELICS OF RACISM: BIG RAPIDS MUSEUM LETS ITS MEMORABILIA TELL THE UGLY STORY OF JIM CROW IN AMERICA |url=http://www.ferris.edu/jimcrow/links/newslist/freep/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071224104659/http://www.ferris.edu/jimcrow/links/newslist/freep/ |archive-date=December 24, 2007 |access-date=March 21, 2008}}</ref> == Sanso see == * [[:en:Portal:Civil_rights_movement|Civil rights movement portal]] * [[:en:Portal:Law|Law portal]] * [[:en:Portal:United_States|United States portal]] * [[:en:Anti-miscegenation_laws|Anti-miscegenation laws]] * [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] * [[:en:Black_Codes_(United_States)|Black Codes in the United States]] * [[:en:Casta|Casta]] * [[:en:Convict_leasing|Convict leasing]] * [[:en:Disenfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_era|Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction era]] * [[:en:Group_Areas_Act|Group Areas Act]] * [[:en:Indian_Act|Indian Act]] * [[:en:Israeli_apartheid|Israeli apartheid]] * [[:en:Jim_Crow_economy|Jim Crow economy]] * [[:en:Juan_Crow|Juan Crow]] * [[:en:List_of_Jim_Crow_law_examples_by_state|List of Jim Crow law examples by state]] * [[:en:Lynching|Lynching]] * [[:en:Mass_racial_violence_in_the_United_States|Mass racial violence in the United States]] * [[:en:Native_Lands_Act_1865|Native Lands Act 1865]] * [[:en:Natives_Land_Act,_1913|Natives Land Act, 1913]] * [[:en:Pass_law|Pass law]] * [[:en:Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States|Racial segregation in the United States]] * [[:en:Racism_in_the_United_States|Racism in the United States]] * [[:en:Second-class_citizen|Second-class citizen]] * [[:en:Sharecropping|Sharecropping]] * [[:en:Sundown_town|Sundown town]] * ''[[:en:The_New_Jim_Crow|The New Jim Crow]]'' * [[:en:Timeline_of_the_civil_rights_movement|Timeline of the civil rights movement]] * [[:en:White_Australia_policy|White Australia Policy]] == Footnotes == <references /> ==Read further== * {{cite book |last=Alexander |first=Michelle |author-link= |title=The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness |publisher=New Press |year=2012 |orig-year=2010 |location=New York |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781595581037/page/n11/mode/2up |isbn=978-1-59558-103-7}} * Ayers, Edward L. ''The Promise of the New South: Life After Reconstruction.'' New York: Oxford University Press, 1992. {{ISBN|0-1950-3756-1}} * Barnes, Catherine A. ''Journey from Jim Crow: The Desegregation of Southern Transit.'' New York: Columbia University Press, 1983. {{ISBN|0-2310-5380-0}} * Bartley, Numan V. ''The Rise of Massive Resistance: Race and Politics in the South during the 1950s.'' Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1969. * Bond, Horace Mann. "The Extent and Character of Separate Schools in the United States." ''Journal of Negro Education'' vol. 4 (July 1935), pp.&nbsp;321–327. * Brown, Nikki L.M., and Barry M. Stentiford, eds. ''The Jim Crow Encyclopedia'' (Greenwood, 2008) * Chin, Gabriel, and Karthikeyan, Hrishi. ''Preserving Racial Identity: Population Patterns and the Application of Anti-Miscegenation Statutes to Asians, 1910 to 1950'', [https://ssrn.com/abstract=283998&high=%20Gabriel%20CHin 9 Asian L.J. 1 (2002)] * Campbell, Nedra. ''More Justice, More Peace: The Black Person's Guide to the American Legal System''. Lawrence Hill Books, 2002. {{ISBN|1-5565-2468-4}} * Cole, Stephanie and Natalie J. Ring (eds.), ''The Folly of Jim Crow: Rethinking the Segregated South''. College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press, 2012. {{ISBN|1-6034-4582-X}} * Dailey, Jane; Gilmore, Glenda Elizabeth and Simon, Bryant (eds.), ''Jumpin' Jim Crow: Southern Politics from Civil War to Civil Rights''. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000. {{ISBN|0-6910-0192-8}} * Fairclough, Adam. "'Being in the Field of Education and Also Being a Negro ... Seems ... Tragic': Black Teachers in the Jim Crow South." ''The Journal of American History'' vol. 87 (June 2000), pp.&nbsp;65–91. * Feldman, Glenn. ''Politics, Society, and the Klan in Alabama, 1915–1949''. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press, 1999. {{ISBN|0-8173-0984-5}} * Fireside, Harvey. ''Separate and Unequal: Homer Plessy and the Supreme Court Decision That Legalized Racism''. New York: Carroll & Graf, 2003. {{ISBN|0-7867-1293-7}} * Foner, Eric. ''Reconstruction, America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877''. New York: Harper & Row, 1988. {{ISBN|0-0601-5851-4}} * Gaines, Kevin. ''Uplifting the Race: Black Leadership, Politics, and Culture in the Twentieth Century''. University of North Carolina Press, 1996. {{ISBN|0-8078-2239-6}} * Gaston, Paul M. ''The New South Creed: A Study in Southern Mythmaking''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1970. * Gates, Henry Louis Jr. ''Stony the Road: Reconstruction, White Supremacy, and the Rise of Jim Crow''. New York: Penguin Press, 2019. {{ISBN|0-5255-5953-1}} * Gilmore, Glenda Elizabeth. ''Gender and Jim Crow: Women and the Politics of White Supremacy in North Carolina, 1896–1920''. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1996. {{ISBN|0-8078-2287-6}} * Griffin, John Howard. ''Black Like Me''. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1961. * Haws, Robert, ed. ''The Age of Segregation: Race Relations in the South, 1890–1945'' University Press of Mississippi, 1978. * Hackney, Sheldon. ''Populism to Progressivism in Alabama''. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1969. * Johnson, Charles S. ''Patterns of Negro Segregation''. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1943. * Klarman, Michael J. ''From Jim Crow to Civil Rights: The Supreme Court and the Struggle for Racial Equality''. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. {{ISBN|0-1951-2903-2}} * Litwack, Leon F. ''Trouble in Mind: Black Southerners in the Age of Jim Crow''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1998. {{ISBN|0-3945-2778-X}} * Lopez, Ian F. Haney. [http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-30274716_ITM "A nation of minorities": race, ethnicity, and reactionary colorblindness]. ''Stanford Law Review'', February 1, 2007. * Kantrowitz, Stephen. ''Ben Tillman & the Reconstruction of White Supremacy'' (2000) * McMillen, Neil R. ''Dark Journey: Black Mississippians in the Age of Jim Crow''. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1989. * Medley, Keith Weldon. ''We As Freemen: Plessy v. Ferguson''. Pelican. March, 2003. * Murray, Pauli. ''States' Law on Race and Color''. University of Georgia Press. 2d ed. 1997 (Davison Douglas ed.). {{ISBN|978-0-8203-1883-7}} * Myrdal, Gunnar. ''An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy.'' New York: Harper and Row, 1944. * Newby, I.A. ''Jim Crow's Defense: Anti-Negro Thought in America, 1900–1930.'' Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1965. * {{cite book|last=Oshinsky|first=David M.|url=https://archive.org/details/worsethanslavery0000oshi/page/n3/mode/2up|title=Worse than Slavery: Parchman Farm and the Ordeal of Jim Crow Justice|publisher=Free Press|year=1996|isbn=0-684-82298-9|location=New York}} * Percy, William Alexander. ''Lanterns on the Levee: Recollections of a Planter's Son.'' 1941. Reprint, Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1993. * Pye, David Kenneth. [http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=27955258&site=eds-live&scope=site "Complex Relations: An African-American Attorney Navigates Jim Crow Atlanta".] ''Georgia Historical Quarterly'', Winter 2007, vol. 91, issue 4, 453–477. * Rabinowitz, Howard N. ''Race Relations in the Urban South, 1856–1890'' (1978) * Smith, J. Douglas. ''Managing: Race, Politics, and Citizenship in Jim Crow Virginia'' University of North Carolina Press, 2002. * Smith, J. Douglas. "The Campaign for Racial Purity and the Erosion of Paternalism in Virginia, 1922–1930: "Nominally White, Biologically Mixed, and Legally Negro." ''Journal of Southern History'' vol. 68 (February 2002), pp.&nbsp;65–106. * Smith, J. Douglas. "Patrolling the Boundaries of Race: Motion Picture Censorship and Jim Crow in Virginia, 1922–1932." ''Historical Journal of Film, Radio, and Television'' 21 (August 2001): 273–91. * Richard Sterner. ''The Negro's Share'' (1943) detailed statistics * {{cite news|first=Casey|last=Toth|newspaper=News & Observer|title=Churches once abandoned by Jim Crow are being rediscovered|date=December 26, 2017|url=https://www.newsobserver.com/news/local/counties/orange-county/article191603129.html}} * Wood, Amy Louise and Natalie J. Ring (eds.), ''Crime and Punishment in the Jim Crow South.'' Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 2019. * Woodward, C. Vann. ''The Strange Career of Jim Crow: A Brief Account of Segregation''. New York: Oxford University Press, 1955. * Woodward, C. Vann. ''The Origins of the New South: 1877–1913''. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1951. [[iarchive:strangecareerofj0000wood_m0h2|online]] === Sports === * {{cite journal |last=Blackman |first=Dexter Lee |year=2016 |title="The Negro Athlete and Victory": Athletics and Athletes as Advancement Strategies in Black America, 1890s–1930s |journal=Sport History Review |publisher=Human Kinetics |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=46–68 |doi=10.1123/shr.2015-0006 |issn=1087-1659}} * Demas, Lane. “Beyond Jackie Robinson: Racial Integration in American College Football and New Directions in Sport History.” ''History Compass'' 5.2 (2007): 675–90. * Essington, Amy. ''The Integration of the Pacific Coast League: Race and Baseball on the West Coast'' (U of Nebraska Press, 2018). * Hawkins, Billy. ''The new plantation: Black athletes, college sports, and predominantly white NCAA institutions'' (Palgrave Macmillan, 2013). * Clement, Rufus E. "Racial integration in the field of sports." ''Journal of Negro Education'' 23.3 (1954): 222– [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2293219 online] * Fitzpatrick, Frank. ''And the Walls Came Tumbling Down: The Basketball Game That Changed American Sports'' (2000) * Hutchison, Phillip. "The legend of Texas Western: journalism and the epic sports spectacle that wasn’t." ''Critical Studies in Media Communication'' 33.2 (2016): 154–67. * Lopez, Katherine. ''Cougars of Any Color: The Integration of University of Houston Athletics, 1964–1968'' (McFarland, 2008). * Martin, Charles H. "Jim Crow in the gymnasium: the integration of college basketball in the American South." ''International Journal of the History of Sport'' 10.1 (1993): 68–86. * Miller, Patrick B. "[https://journals.ku.edu/amsj/article/view/2664/2623 Slouching toward a new expediency: College football and the color line during the depression decade]" ''American Studies'' 40.3 (1999): 5–30. * Pennington, Richard. ''Breaking the Ice: The Racial Integration of Southwest Conference Football'' (McFarland, 1987). * Romero, Francine Sanders. "'There are only white champions': The rise and demise of segregated boxing in Texas." ''Southwestern Historical Quarterly'' 108.1 (2004): 26–41. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/30239493 online] * Sacks, Marcy S. ''Joe Louis: Sports and Race in Twentieth-Century America'' (Routledge, 2018). * Spivey, Donald. "The black athlete in big-time intercollegiate sports, 1941–1968." ''Phylon'' 44.2 (1983): 116–25. [http://www.pages.drexel.edu/~rosenl/sports%20Folder/The%20Black%20Athlete%20in%20Big-Time%20Intercollegiate%20Sports%2041-68.pdf online] [https://web.archive.org/web/20220319080059/http://www.pages.drexel.edu/~rosenl/sports%20Folder/The%20Black%20Athlete%20in%20Big-Time%20Intercollegiate%20Sports%2041-68.pdf Archived] March 19, 2022, at the Wayback Machine * White, Derrick E. "[https://stars.library.ucf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4541&context=fhq From desegregation to integration: Race, football, and 'Dixie' at the University of Florida]" ''Florida Historical Quarterly'' 88.4 (2010): 469–96. == External links == {{Library resources box}} {{sister project links||d=Q865365|c=Category:Jim Crow laws|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20230423165820/https://www.ferris.edu/HTMLS/news/jimcrow/index.htm The Jim Crow Museum of Racist Memorabilia] * [https://www.nps.gov/subjects/africanamericanheritage/reconstruction.htm/ Jim Crow and Reconstruction] * [https://archive.today/20021004051643/http://www.jimcrowhistory.org/history/history.htm The History of Jim Crow], Ronald L. F. Davis – A series of essays on the history of Jim Crow. [https://web.archive.org/web/*/http://www.jimcrowhistory.org/history/history.htm Archive index] at the Wayback Machine ** [https://web.archive.org/web/20070601223741/http://www.jimcrowhistory.org/history/creating2.htm Creating Jim Crow] – Origins of the term and system of laws. ** [https://web.archive.org/web/20040203140654/http://www.jimcrowhistory.org/resources/lessonplans/hs_es_etiquette.htm Racial Etiquette: The Racial Customs and Rules of Racial Behavior in Jim Crow America] – The basics of Jim Crow etiquette. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20050407215126/http://www.robinwashington.com/jimcrow/1_home.html "You Don't Have to Ride Jim Crow!"] PBS documentary on first Freedom Ride, in 1947. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20040618111006/http://www.ferris.edu/news/jimcrow/what.htm Ferris University page] about Jim Crow * [http://www.ushmm.org/museum/exhibit/focus/antisemitism/voices/transcript/?content=20090423 ''Voices on Antisemitism'' Interview with David Pilgrim, founder of Jim Crow Museum] [https://web.archive.org/web/20090506001428/http://www.ushmm.org/museum/exhibit/focus/antisemitism/voices/transcript/?content=20090423 Archived] May 6, 2009, at the Wayback Machine from the US Holocaust Memorial Museum * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160330213342/http://www.pbs.org/jazz/time/time_jim_crow.htm Jim Crow Era, History in the Key of Jazz], Gerald Early, Washington University in St. Louis, Missouri (esp. see section "Jim Crow is Born") * {{cite web|title=Jim Crow Laws|url=http://www.nps.gov/malu/forteachers/jim_crow_laws.htm|url-status=live|access-date=November 17, 2010|publisher=National Park Service}} Examples of Jim Crow laws * [https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221118/http://www.thedailybeast.com/reports-of-the-death-of-jim-crow-prove-greatly-exaggerated Reports of the Death of Jim Crow Prove Greatly Exaggerated.] Bill Morris, ''The Daily Beast##.'' * [https://stars.library.ucf.edu/ahistoryofcentralfloridapodcast/43/ Jim Crow Signs] at [http://stars.library.ucf.edu/ahistoryofcentralfloridapodcast/ A History of Central Florida Podcast] * [https://www.aclu.org/publications/aclus-1931-black-justice-report Black Justice] – American Civil Liberties Union, 1931 {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Jim Crow}} [[Category:Jim Crow| ]] [[Category:1870s establishments insyd de United States]] [[Category:1960s disestablishments insyd de United States]] [[Category:Debt bondage]] [[Category:Democratic backsliding insyd de interwar period]] [[Category:Democratic backsliding insyd de United States]] [[Category:Discrimination insyd de United States]] [[Category:History of African-American civil rights]] [[Category:History of racial segregation insyd de United States]] [[Category:Human rights abuses insyd de United States]] [[Category:Legal history of de United States]] [[Category:Native American history]] [[Category:Political terminology of de United States]] [[Category:Politics den race insyd de United States]] [[Category:Race den law insyd de United States]] [[Category:Reconstruction Era]] [[Category:Repealed United States legislation]] [[Category:White supremacy insyd de United States]] iwvx2901snxkhbohoup7fvs6eq90qcf 0 27151 102929 99616 2026-06-15T07:44:49Z Achiri Bitamsimli 64 Added more content 102929 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Nile''' be a major north-flowing river insyd northeast [[Africa]] wich dey empty into de Mediterranean Sea. At 7,088 kilometers (4,404 mi) long, e be de longest river insyd de world, although de volume of water e dey carry be much smaller dan oda major rivers such as de Amazon anaa de Congo. De Nile play a central role insyd de environmental, economic, den cultural history of Africa for millennia. De Nile get two major tributaries: de [[White Nile]] den de [[Blue Nile]]. De White Nile be longer wey be considered to be de headwaters, yet de Blue Nile dey contribute over twice de volume of de White Nile. De White Nile dey begin near Lake Victoria den dey flow thru [[Uganda]] den [[South Sudan]]; while de Blue Nile dey begin near Lake Tana insyd [[Ethiopia]] den dey flow into [[Sudan]] from de southeast. De two rivers dey meet at de Sudanese capital of Khartoum. From der, de Nile dey flow north thru de Nubian Desert to Egypt ein capital, Cairo, den finally dey empty into de Mediterranean Sea near Alexandria, wer e form a large river delta. Geologically, de Nile be a young river wey e follow ein present course for about 15,000 years. Ein drainage basin dey extend across eleven countries. Chaw of de water insyd de Nile dey cam from rainfall insyd de upstream countries [[Ethiopia]], [[Kenya]], [[Tanzania]], den [[Uganda]]. Downstream countries – [[Egypt]], [[Sudan]], den [[South Sudan]] – be primarily desert, den withdraw river water for irrigation. Oda countries wey lie wholly anaa partly insyd de Nile Basin be [[Burundi]], de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Eritrea]], den [[Rwanda]]. De Nile be de foundation of de Ancient Egyptian civilization, wich rely on de river for nearly every aspect of life. De annual flooding of de river deposit nutrient-rich silt along de riverbanks. Dis soil support crops wey enable a sophisticated society to thrive insyd an otherwise inhospitable desert. De Nile facilitate trade, communication, transportation, den governance. South (upstream) of de second Nile cataract lay Nubia, de historical home of de ancient Kerma culture den de Kushite Empire. Na chaw Europeans be fascinated by de Nile, den dema explorations around Lake Victoria insyd de late 19th century locate de source of de river. Among de cultures wey live along de Nile insyd de modern era be de Nilotic peoples, semi-nomadic cattle herders wey practice nomadic pastoralism, wey dey move dema cattle seasonally in response to de Nile ein floods. Insyd de modern era, de Nile dey play a critical role insyd de economies of Egypt den Sudan, wich dey rely on am to irrigate extensive croplands. Since de late 20th century, na dem build over a dozen dams insyd de Nile Basin to provide for irrigation den to generate electricity. De dams alter de river ein annual flood cycle wey e restrict de transport of silt downstream, wey dey cause de Nile Delta to shrink. Sam dams – such as de Aswan High Dam den Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam – be de source of international political disputes about water scarcity, safety, food security, den forced displacement of peoples. == Names den etymology == De English word "Nile" be derived from de Latin Nilus den de Ancient Greek Νεῖλος (Neilos), wich possibly originate from de Semitic term ''naḥal'', wey dey mean 'river'.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} Several tributaries (smaller rivers wey merge into de Nile) den segments of de river incorporate "Nile" insyd dema names, wey dey include: * Albert Nile{{snd}}Segment of de White Nile wey dey flow north from Lake Albert to Nimule * Black Nile{{snd}}An alternate name give de [[Atbarah River]] * [[Blue Nile]]{{snd}}One of de two major tributaries of de Nile * Kyoga Nile{{snd}}Segment of White Nile from Lake Kyoga to Lake Albert{{sfn|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=338,345}} * Main Nile{{snd}}Segment of de Nile downstream from de confluence of Blue Nile den White Nile{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=4}} * Mountain Nile{{snd}}Segment of de White Nile from de mountains of Uganda to de plains of South Sudan{{sfn|Talling|2009|p=390}}<!-- {{efn|The Mountain Nile is also called ''Baḥr al-Jabal'' or ''Baḥr el-Jebel'' in Arabic. }} --> * Victoria Nile{{snd}}Segment of White Nile from [[Lake Victoria]] to Lake Kyoga{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=5}} * [[White Nile]]{{snd}}One of de two major tributaries of de Nile * Yellow Nile{{snd}}De Wadi Howar, remnant of an ancient tributary wey dry up several thousand years ago{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=4}} == Names and etymology == Di English word "Nile" come from di {{lang|la|Nilus}} for Latin and {{lang|grc|Νεῖλος}} (Neilos) for Ancient Greek, wey fit originate from Semitic term ''naḥal'', wey mean 'river'.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} {{Quote box|align=right|width=30|Egyptian hieroglyphs for {{lang|egy-latn|jtrw}},<br>di word for 'river' or 'Nile':{{sfn|Gardiner|1964|pp=43,623}}{{efn|Other hieroglyphs for 'river' dey presented in {{harvnb|Faulkner|1964|p=33}} and {{harvnb|Allen|2000|pp=21,101}}. }} <hiero>M17-X1:D21-G43-N35:N35:N35</hiero> }} For ancient Egyptian language, di same word dem dey use for 'Nile' and 'river': {{lang|egy-latn|jtrw}}.{{sfn|Allen|2000|pp=21,101}} Dem Egyptians dey call dem country {{lang|egy-latn|kmt}} meaning 'black', wey dey refer to di dark colour of Nile flood water wey carry soil from upstream.{{sfn|Allen|2000|p=339, 470}} Di English name "Blue Nile" na translation of Arabic name ''Al-Baḥr Al-Azraq''.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} For modern time, di river get different names inside Nile Basin. For Egypt, dem dey call am ''Al-Nīl'', ''Baḥr Al-Nīl'' or ''Nahr Al-Nīl''.<ref name=Barh>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Badawi|2003 |p=717}}. |{{harvnb|Hurst|2025}}. }}</ref> For South Sudan, dem sometimes dey call am Arabic ''Baḥr el-Jebel'', {{lang|ar|بحر الجبل}}, wey mean 'Mountain River'.{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=6}} For Uganda, Luganda speakers dey use name ''Kiyira''.{{sfn|Hamilton |2016|p=66}} Some Nubian people for Egypt and Sudan dey use Nobiin name ''Áman Dawū'' ('Great Water').{{sfn|Murray|1923|p=8}} Some tributaries and river sections even carry "Nile" inside their names, including: * Albert Nile—section of White Nile wey dey flow north from Lake Albert go Nimule<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Dumont|2009|pp=5,6,40}}. |{{harvnb|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=338,345}}. }}</ref> * Black Nile—another name for Atbarah River<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Haupt|1926|p=305}}. |{{harvnb|Ranjan|2024|p=24}}. }}</ref> * Blue Nile—one of di two main tributaries of Nile * Kyoga Nile—section of White Nile from Lake Kyoga go Lake Albert{{sfn|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=338,345}} * Main Nile—section after Blue Nile and White Nile join{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=4}} * Mountain Nile—section of White Nile from Uganda mountains go South Sudan plains{{sfn|Talling|2009|p=390}} * Victoria Nile—section from Lake Victoria go Lake Kyoga{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=5}} * White Nile—one of di two main tributaries of Nile * Yellow Nile—Wadi Howar, old river wey don dry up thousands of years ago{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=4}} == Sources == [[File:Nile River Sources.svg|thumb|alt= A map of northeast Africa. The Nile is visible as a meandering blue line, running vertically. The river starts at the bottom in green forested area, and goes upward then ends in a blue sea at the top.| Di Nile get six cataracts{{efn|Some cataracts don enter man-made reservoirs.}} and several sources.]] Di source of Nile dey come from tributary of Rukarara River for Nyungwe National Park, Rwanda, at {{Coord|2|19|35|S|29|21|30|E}}, for elevation of about {{convert|2,539|m|ft|sp=us}}.<ref name=SourceCite>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Liu|2009}}. |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=277–278}}. }}</ref> Di highest sources of Nile dey for slopes of Rwenzori Mountains for Uganda.<ref name=Rwenz/> Dem sometimes dey call these mountains “Mountains of the Moon”, as Greek astronomer Ptolemy describe am, and dem dey associate am with Rwenzori.<ref name=Rwenz>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Eggermont|2009|pp=243–246}}. |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=282}}. }}</ref> Di southernmost source of Nile dey for Burundi at one branch of Ruvyironza River, wey join Kagera River.<ref name=southSource/> Burkhart Waldecker build monument near am for 1937 around Rutovu, near Mount Kikizi.<ref name=southSource>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Collins|2002|pp=27-29}}. |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=300–301}}. |{{harvnb|Hughes|1992|pp=97,119,198}}. |{{harvnb|Warburg|2007|pp=475,483-484}}. |{{harvnb|"Source Du Nil", ''Google Maps''}}. }}</ref> Lake Victoria—wey Tanzania, Uganda and Kenya share—sometimes dem dey call am source because White Nile dey start from where e dey flow out for Jinja, Uganda.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|p=6}} But some people dey even suggest say real source na rain clouds over Lake Victoria because dem dey supply most of di water.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=340-341}}. |{{harvnb|Camberlin|2009|pp=312-314}}. }}</ref> Di source of Blue Nile dey near Gish Abay town, south of Lake Tana.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|pp=323–324}} == Geography == [[File:Nile River Landmarks.svg|thumb|The waters of the Nile originate as rainfall in the mountains in the south and east regions of the Nile Basin.|alt=A map of northeast Africa, showing the location of several cities and tourist sights on the river]] Nile na major river for northeast Africa wey dey flow enter Mediterranean Sea. Nile Basin na all di land wey rain water dey drain enter Nile, and e cover about 2,927,843 km{{super|2}}, about 10% of Africa. Eleven countries dey inside am: Burundi, DR Congo, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania and Uganda.{{sfn|Allan|2009|p=753}} Di basin get different climates—from desert for north, swamp for middle, go rainforest mountains for south.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=335-340}}. |{{harvnb|Collins|2002|p=5}}. }}</ref> Dem fit divide di basin into seven regions: African Great Lakes, Mountain Nile, White Nile, Main Nile, Nile Delta, Blue Nile and Atbarah River.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} === African Great Lakes === Dis region get di main Nile source plus big lakes like Lake Victoria, Lake Albert, Lake George and Lake Edward.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Eggermont |2009|p=255}}. |{{harvnb|Collins|2002|pp=27-46}}. }}</ref> === Mountain Nile === Mountain Nile (Bahr al Jabal) start near Nimule, pass Juba and Bor, enter Sudd swamp wey dey slow river and block navigation.<ref>{{harvnb|Collins|2002|pp=47-69}}.</ref> === White Nile region === White Nile flow from Malakal reach Khartoum, calm but swampy, and plenty water dey lost through evaporation.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} === Main Nile === Main Nile start from Khartoum go Cairo. E pass cataracts, rapids, enter Lake Nasser wey Aswan High Dam create, then flow reach Egypt farmland.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} === Nile Delta === Nile Delta na triangular fertile land for north Egypt where river split into Rosetta and Damietta branches before e enter Mediterranean Sea.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} === Blue Nile === Blue Nile start from Ethiopia near Gish Abay, pass Lake Tana, go through deep gorge enter Sudan, then join White Nile for Khartoum.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|pp=323–324}} === Atbarah River === Atbarah River come from Ethiopia, join Nile north of Khartoum. E strong for rainy season but fit dry for dry season, still e contribute important water to Nile.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} ==Hydrology== <!-- {{Image frame |align=right |caption = The flow of the Nile varies widely throughout the year.<br>Rates (m{{super|3}}/sec) measured at [[Dongola]] on the main Nile.<br>Data collected before construction of [[Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam]].{{sfn|"Nile Basin Dongola", ''Global Runoff Data Center''}} |content= {{ #invoke:Chart | bar-chart | group 1 = 1285.7 : 1006.0 : 831.3 : 881.7 : 828.7: 845.2 : 1930.3 : 6984.0 : 7866.5 : 4895.2 : 2510.8 : 1596.9 | colors = lightblue | group names = Flow | x legends = J : F: M:A:M:J:J:A:S:O:N:D }} }} --> === Sediment transport === * Gilgel Abay, Ethiopia : 7.6 million tonnes of suspended, den an additional 0.7% of bedload * El Deim (at de border of Ethiopia den Sudan): 140 million tonnes{{sfn|Sutcliffe|2009|p=359}} * Aswan, Egypt: 0.14 million tonnes of suspended, den an additional 28% of bedload * Beni Sweif, Egypt: 0.5 million tonnes of suspended, den an additional 20% of bedload * Qena, Egypt: 0.27 million tonnes of suspended, den an additional 27% of bedload * Sohag, Egypt: 1.5 million tonnes of suspended, den an additional 13% of bedload ===Water sources den sinks=== ====Sources and sinks: countries==== De following table dey summarize water balance measurements give countries within de Nile Basin. Portions of countries outsyd de Nile Basin be excluded from de values. {| class="wikitable" |+ Key for "Source/Sink" columns |- | Source || De country be a significant water source |- | Sink || De country be a significant water sink |- | Neutral || De country no be a significant source anaa sink |} <!-- The data includes the following: * Per-basin data: land surface area, [[precipitation]], [[evapotranspiration]], [[surface runoff]] * Per-station data: [[Discharge (hydrology)|discharge]] --> {| class= "wikitable mw-collapsible nowrap defaultright col1left sortable" style="font-size: 85%;" |+ Country water balance (annual){{sfn|Senay|2014|p=8640|loc=Table 5}} ! scope="col" | Country ! scope="col" | Source/Sink<br />(water bal km{{sup|3}}) ! scope="col" | Basin<br />Area km{{sup|2}} ! scope="col" | Precip km{{sup|3}} ! scope="col" | Evap km{{sup|3}} ! scope="col" | Runoff km{{sup|3}} |- ! scope="row" | [[Burundi]] | Neutral (2) || 13,240|| 14 || 13 || 3 |- ! scope="row" |[[Democratic Republic of the Congo|DR Congo]] | Neutral (0) || 19,919|| 23 || 23 || 0 |- ! scope="row" |[[Egypt]] | Sink (−39) || 235,108 || 4 || 44 || 0 |- ! scope="row" | [[Eritrea]] | Neutral (2) || 24,427 || 14 || 12 || 0 |- ! scope="row" |[[Ethiopia]] | Source (164) || 363,775 || 459 || 295 || 138 |- ! scope="row" |[[Kenya]] | Source (27) || 49,513 || 76 || 49 || 23 |- ! scope="row" | [[Rwanda]] | Neutral (1) || 20,676 || 21 || 20 || 4 |- ! scope="row" |[[South Sudan]] | Sink (−146) || 617,256 || 612 || 757 ||92 |- ! scope="row" |[[Sudan]] | Sink (−81) || 1,226,660 || 364 || 445 ||23 |- ! scope="row" |[[Tanzania]] | Source (38) || 120,506 || 160 || 122 || 18 |- ! scope="row" | [[Uganda]] | Source (25) || 236,763 || 301 || 276 ||22 |- ! scope="row" | Total | || 2,927,843 || 2,048 || 2,056 || 324 |} ====Sources den sinks: geographic basins==== [[File:Nile River discharge flow gauge locations.svg|thumb|De water balance tables of dis article dey contain water flow information dem measure at de twelve stations dem show insyd dis map.<ref name=HydroData/>|alt=A map of northeast Africa. The Nile River is drawn, and there are a dozen landmarks shown on the map, at various points of the river]] {| class= "wikitable mw-collapsible mw-uncollapsed nowrap defaultright col1left sortable" style="font-size: 85%;" |+ Geographic basin water balance (annual)<ref name=HydroData>{{harvnb|Senay|2014|loc=Tables 3,4,5 and 6; Sec 3.5.5 (Source/Sink)}}.</ref> ! scope="col" | Basin's<br />downstream<br />station ! scope="col" | Source/Sink<br />(water bal km{{sup|3}}) ! scope="col" | Basin<br />Area km{{sup|2}} ! scope="col" | Precip km{{sup|3}} ! scope="col" | Evap km{{sup|3}} ! scope="col" | Runoff km{{sup|3}} |- ! scope="row" | 1 [[Lake Victoria]] outlet | Source (74) || 264,259 || 353 || 279 || 57 |- ! scope="row" | 2 Murchison Falls | Source (15) || 85,513 || 109 || 94 || 9 |- ! scope="row" |3 Mongalla | Neutral (1) || 131,691 || 159 || 158 || 5 |- ! scope="row" | 4 Malakal | Sink (−159) || 925,160|| 798 || 957 || 150 |- ! scope="row" |5 Khartoum |Sink (−40) || 257,130 || 134 || 174 || 14 |- ! scope="row" | 6 Dam{{sfn|Senay|2014|loc=Figure 1, Table 2}} | Source (105) || 188,296|| 246 || 142 || 70 |- ! scope="row" |7 Khartoum | Neutral (10) || 118,651|| 96 || 72 || 9 |- ! scope="row" |8 Khashm el Girba | Source (30) || 100,318|| 95 || 66 || 10 |- ! scope="row" | 9 Mouth of [[Atbarah River]] | Neutral (−3) || 104,051 || 22 || 25 || 1 |- ! scope="row" | 11 Aswan Dam{{sfn|Senay|2014|loc=Figure 1, Table 2}} | Sink (−10) || 188,011||2 || 13 || 0 |- ! scope="row" |12 Cairo/Delta | Sink (−10) || 145,293||3 || 12 || 0 |} ==Economy == ===Hydropower=== [[File:Nile River Hydropower Stations.svg|thumb|Sam hydropower stations on de Nile. "GERD" be de Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam.|alt=A map of northeast Africa. The Nile is shown as a blue line. Along the Nile, locations of about ten hydropower stations are indicated.]] {| class= "wikitable defaultright col2center col5center sortable" |+ Major hydropower stations insyd de Nile Basin ! scope="col" | Hydropower<br>station ! scope="col" | Nearby<br>landmark ! scope="col" | Year<br>dem plete ! scope="col" | Power<br>(MW, insyd 2025) ! scope="col" | Tributary |- ! scope="row" | Aswan Low Dam | Aswan, Egypt ||1902, 1912, 1933, 1985|| 550{{sfn|"Aswan Low Dam", ''Egypt MOEE'' }} || Main Nile |- ! scope="row" | Aswan High Dam | Aswan, Egypt || 1970 || 2,100{{sfn|El-Shabrawy|2009|p=149}} || Main Nile |- ! scope="row" | Merowe Dam | Merowe, Sudan|| 2009 || 1,250{{sfn|"Merowe Dam - Sudan", '' Abu Dhabi Fund for Development''}} || Main Nile |- ! scope="row" | Upper Atbara and Setit | Showak, Sudan|| 2017 || 320{{sfn|"Upper Atbara Dam", ''OPEC Fund for International Development''}} || [[Atbarah River|Atbarah]] den Tekezé |- ! scope="row" | Roseires Dam | Er Roseires, Sudan || 1966, 2013 || 280{{sfn|"Roseires Dam", ''IHA''}} || Blue Nile |- ! scope="row" | Tana Beles | Lake Tana, Ethiopia || 2010 || 460{{sfn|Hailu|2022 |loc=Table 4}} || Beles River, Blue Nile |- ! scope="row" | Tekezé Dam | Tekezé River, Ethiopia || 2009 || 300{{sfn|Hailu|2022 |loc=Table 4}} || Tekezé, [[Atbarah River|Atbarah]] |- ! scope="row" | Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam | Bameza, Ethiopia|| 2020 || 5,150{{sfn|Endeshaw|2025}} || Blue Nile |- ! scope="row" | Fincha | Fincha'a, Ethiopia || 1973|| 134{{sfn|Hailu|2022 |loc=Table 4}} || Blue Nile (Chomen Lake) |- ! scope="row" | Karuma | Karuma Falls, Uganda || 2024 || 600{{sfn|"Karuma", ''Uganda Radio Network''}} || Victoria Nile |- ! scope="row" | Isimba | Kamuli District, Uganda|| 2019 || 183{{sfn|"Isimba Power Station", ''UEGCL''}} || Victoria Nile |- ! scope="row" | Bujagali | Bujagali Falls, Uganda|| 2012|| 250{{sfn|Griffin|2018}} || Victoria Nile |- ! scope="row" | Kiira | Kimaka, Uganda|| 2003 || 200{{sfn|Angurini|2021}} || Victoria Nile |- ! scope="row" | Nalubaale | Jinja, Uganda || 1954|| 180{{Sfn|Tumwesigye|2011|p=10}} || Victoria Nile |} == References == <references /> == External links == {{Subject bar|auto=yes|wikt=yes|}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Nile| ]] [[Category:Ancient Egyptian religion]] [[Category:Geography of ancient Egypt]] [[Category:Hebrew Bible rivers]] [[Category:International rivers of Africa]] [[Category:National parks of Egypt]] [[Category:Nile basin|*]] [[Category:Rivers insyd art]] [[Category:Rivers of Burundi]] [[Category:Rivers of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:Rivers of Egypt]] [[Category:Rivers of Eritrea]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Rivers of Kenya]] [[Category:Rivers of Rwanda]] [[Category:Rivers of South Sudan]] [[Category:Rivers of Sudan]] [[Category:Rivers of Tanzania]] [[Category:Rivers of Uganda]] [[Category:Water transport insyd Egypt]] jye0t1sp1dviflr0f504dyoyhu7yy81 102931 102929 2026-06-15T07:54:06Z Achiri Bitamsimli 64 Added more content 102931 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Nile''' be a major north-flowing river insyd northeast [[Africa]] wich dey empty into de Mediterranean Sea. At 7,088 kilometers (4,404 mi) long, e be de longest river insyd de world, although de volume of water e dey carry be much smaller dan oda major rivers such as de Amazon anaa de Congo. De Nile play a central role insyd de environmental, economic, den cultural history of Africa for millennia. De Nile get two major tributaries: de [[White Nile]] den de [[Blue Nile]]. De White Nile be longer wey be considered to be de headwaters, yet de Blue Nile dey contribute over twice de volume of de White Nile. De White Nile dey begin near Lake Victoria den dey flow thru [[Uganda]] den [[South Sudan]]; while de Blue Nile dey begin near Lake Tana insyd [[Ethiopia]] den dey flow into [[Sudan]] from de southeast. De two rivers dey meet at de Sudanese capital of Khartoum. From der, de Nile dey flow north thru de Nubian Desert to Egypt ein capital, Cairo, den finally dey empty into de Mediterranean Sea near Alexandria, wer e form a large river delta. Geologically, de Nile be a young river wey e follow ein present course for about 15,000 years. Ein drainage basin dey extend across eleven countries. Chaw of de water insyd de Nile dey cam from rainfall insyd de upstream countries [[Ethiopia]], [[Kenya]], [[Tanzania]], den [[Uganda]]. Downstream countries – [[Egypt]], [[Sudan]], den [[South Sudan]] – be primarily desert, den withdraw river water for irrigation. Oda countries wey lie wholly anaa partly insyd de Nile Basin be [[Burundi]], de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Eritrea]], den [[Rwanda]]. De Nile be de foundation of de Ancient Egyptian civilization, wich rely on de river for nearly every aspect of life. De annual flooding of de river deposit nutrient-rich silt along de riverbanks. Dis soil support crops wey enable a sophisticated society to thrive insyd an otherwise inhospitable desert. De Nile facilitate trade, communication, transportation, den governance. South (upstream) of de second Nile cataract lay Nubia, de historical home of de ancient Kerma culture den de Kushite Empire. Na chaw Europeans be fascinated by de Nile, den dema explorations around Lake Victoria insyd de late 19th century locate de source of de river. Among de cultures wey live along de Nile insyd de modern era be de Nilotic peoples, semi-nomadic cattle herders wey practice nomadic pastoralism, wey dey move dema cattle seasonally in response to de Nile ein floods. Insyd de modern era, de Nile dey play a critical role insyd de economies of Egypt den Sudan, wich dey rely on am to irrigate extensive croplands. Since de late 20th century, na dem build over a dozen dams insyd de Nile Basin to provide for irrigation den to generate electricity. De dams alter de river ein annual flood cycle wey e restrict de transport of silt downstream, wey dey cause de Nile Delta to shrink. Sam dams – such as de Aswan High Dam den Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam – be de source of international political disputes about water scarcity, safety, food security, den forced displacement of peoples. == Names den etymology == De English word "Nile" be derived from de Latin Nilus den de Ancient Greek Νεῖλος (Neilos), wich possibly originate from de Semitic term ''naḥal'', wey dey mean 'river'.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} Several tributaries (smaller rivers wey merge into de Nile) den segments of de river incorporate "Nile" insyd dema names, wey dey include: * Albert Nile{{snd}}Segment of de White Nile wey dey flow north from Lake Albert to Nimule * Black Nile{{snd}}An alternate name give de [[Atbarah River]] * [[Blue Nile]]{{snd}}One of de two major tributaries of de Nile * Kyoga Nile{{snd}}Segment of White Nile from Lake Kyoga to Lake Albert{{sfn|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=338,345}} * Main Nile{{snd}}Segment of de Nile downstream from de confluence of Blue Nile den White Nile{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=4}} * Mountain Nile{{snd}}Segment of de White Nile from de mountains of Uganda to de plains of South Sudan{{sfn|Talling|2009|p=390}}<!-- {{efn|The Mountain Nile is also called ''Baḥr al-Jabal'' or ''Baḥr el-Jebel'' in Arabic. }} --> * Victoria Nile{{snd}}Segment of White Nile from [[Lake Victoria]] to Lake Kyoga{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=5}} * [[White Nile]]{{snd}}One of de two major tributaries of de Nile * Yellow Nile{{snd}}De Wadi Howar, remnant of an ancient tributary wey dry up several thousand years ago{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=4}} == Names and etymology == Di English word "Nile" come from di {{lang|la|Nilus}} for Latin and {{lang|grc|Νεῖλος}} (Neilos) for Ancient Greek, wey fit originate from Semitic term ''naḥal'', wey mean 'river'.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} {{Quote box|align=right|width=30|Egyptian hieroglyphs for {{lang|egy-latn|jtrw}},<br>di word for 'river' or 'Nile':{{sfn|Gardiner|1964|pp=43,623}}{{efn|Other hieroglyphs for 'river' dey presented in {{harvnb|Faulkner|1964|p=33}} and {{harvnb|Allen|2000|pp=21,101}}. }} <hiero>M17-X1:D21-G43-N35:N35:N35</hiero> }} For ancient Egyptian language, di same word dem dey use for 'Nile' and 'river': {{lang|egy-latn|jtrw}}.{{sfn|Allen|2000|pp=21,101}} Dem Egyptians dey call dem country {{lang|egy-latn|kmt}} meaning 'black', wey dey refer to di dark colour of Nile flood water wey carry soil from upstream.{{sfn|Allen|2000|p=339, 470}} Di English name "Blue Nile" na translation of Arabic name ''Al-Baḥr Al-Azraq''.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} For modern time, di river get different names inside Nile Basin. For Egypt, dem dey call am ''Al-Nīl'', ''Baḥr Al-Nīl'' or ''Nahr Al-Nīl''.<ref name=Barh>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Badawi|2003 |p=717}}. |{{harvnb|Hurst|2025}}. }}</ref> For South Sudan, dem sometimes dey call am Arabic ''Baḥr el-Jebel'', {{lang|ar|بحر الجبل}}, wey mean 'Mountain River'.{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=6}} For Uganda, Luganda speakers dey use name ''Kiyira''.{{sfn|Hamilton |2016|p=66}} Some Nubian people for Egypt and Sudan dey use Nobiin name ''Áman Dawū'' ('Great Water').{{sfn|Murray|1923|p=8}} Some tributaries and river sections even carry "Nile" inside their names, including: * Albert Nile—section of White Nile wey dey flow north from Lake Albert go Nimule<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Dumont|2009|pp=5,6,40}}. |{{harvnb|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=338,345}}. }}</ref> * Black Nile—another name for Atbarah River<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Haupt|1926|p=305}}. |{{harvnb|Ranjan|2024|p=24}}. }}</ref> * Blue Nile—one of di two main tributaries of Nile * Kyoga Nile—section of White Nile from Lake Kyoga go Lake Albert{{sfn|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=338,345}} * Main Nile—section after Blue Nile and White Nile join{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=4}} * Mountain Nile—section of White Nile from Uganda mountains go South Sudan plains{{sfn|Talling|2009|p=390}} * Victoria Nile—section from Lake Victoria go Lake Kyoga{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=5}} * White Nile—one of di two main tributaries of Nile * Yellow Nile—Wadi Howar, old river wey don dry up thousands of years ago{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=4}} == Sources == [[File:Nile River Sources.svg|thumb|alt= A map of northeast Africa. The Nile is visible as a meandering blue line, running vertically. The river starts at the bottom in green forested area, and goes upward then ends in a blue sea at the top.| Di Nile get six cataracts{{efn|Some cataracts don enter man-made reservoirs.}} and several sources.]] Di source of Nile dey come from tributary of Rukarara River for Nyungwe National Park, Rwanda, at {{Coord|2|19|35|S|29|21|30|E}}, for elevation of about {{convert|2,539|m|ft|sp=us}}.<ref name=SourceCite>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Liu|2009}}. |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=277–278}}. }}</ref> Di highest sources of Nile dey for slopes of Rwenzori Mountains for Uganda.<ref name=Rwenz/> Dem sometimes dey call these mountains “Mountains of the Moon”, as Greek astronomer Ptolemy describe am, and dem dey associate am with Rwenzori.<ref name=Rwenz>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Eggermont|2009|pp=243–246}}. |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=282}}. }}</ref> Di southernmost source of Nile dey for Burundi at one branch of Ruvyironza River, wey join Kagera River.<ref name=southSource/> Burkhart Waldecker build monument near am for 1937 around Rutovu, near Mount Kikizi.<ref name=southSource>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Collins|2002|pp=27-29}}. |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=300–301}}. |{{harvnb|Hughes|1992|pp=97,119,198}}. |{{harvnb|Warburg|2007|pp=475,483-484}}. |{{harvnb|"Source Du Nil", ''Google Maps''}}. }}</ref> Lake Victoria—wey Tanzania, Uganda and Kenya share—sometimes dem dey call am source because White Nile dey start from where e dey flow out for Jinja, Uganda.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|p=6}} But some people dey even suggest say real source na rain clouds over Lake Victoria because dem dey supply most of di water.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=340-341}}. |{{harvnb|Camberlin|2009|pp=312-314}}. }}</ref> Di source of Blue Nile dey near Gish Abay town, south of Lake Tana.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|pp=323–324}} == Geography== [[File:Nile River Landmarks.svg|thumb|The waters of the Nile originate as rainfall in the mountains in the south and east regions of the Nile Basin.|alt=A map of northeast Africa, showing the location of several cities and tourist sights on the river]] Nile na big river wey dey Northeast Africa wey go enter Mediterranean Sea. The Nile Basin na all di land wey water dey drain go inside Nile, and e cover about 2,927,843 km{{super|2}}{{snd}}which be around 10% of Africa continent (see di map wey dey side).<ref name=basinSize/> Eleven countries dey inside di basin fully or partly: Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania, and Uganda.{{sfn|Allan|2009|p=753}}{{efn| In 2011, South Sudan break comot from Sudan, becoming di eleventh country for Nile Basin.{{sfn|Ranjan|2024|p=18}}}} Di basin get different-different climate, ecosystems, and landforms{{snd}}from dry sandy desert for north side, go reach flat swamp wetlands for middle, then rainy forest mountains for south side.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=335-340}}. |{{harvnb|Collins|2002|p=5}}. }}</ref> Di basin fit divide into seven regions; five of dem follow di longest route of Nile. If we follow di river from downstream direction, these five regions be: African Great Lakes, Mountain Nile, White Nile, main Nile, and Nile Delta. Two extra regions dey cover important tributaries: Blue Nile and Atbarah River.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} ===African Great Lakes=== African Great Lakes region na where Nile start from, and e get plenty big lakes wey dey part of di river system: Lake Victoria, Lake Albert, Lake George, and Lake Edward.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Eggermont |2009|p=255}}. |{{harvnb|Collins|2002|pp=27-46}}. Overview of African Great Lakes. }}</ref> Di real source of Nile na Rukarara River for Rwanda Nyungwe National Park,<ref name=SourceCite/> and e go join Kagera River wey go enter Lake Victoria.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}}{{efn|name=sourceRivSequence|Di source of Nile go pass Rukarara River, then Mwogo River, wey join Mbirurume River form Nyabarongo River, wey later enter Kagera River, wey go Lake Victoria.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=260,263,277–278}}. Furthest source. |{{harvnb|Hughes|1992|pp=97,119,198}}. Southernmost source. }}</ref> }} Even though Lake Victoria big pass, e still shallow, average depth be {{convert|40|m|ft|sp=us}}.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|p=214}} Nile first get name “Nile” for where Lake Victoria dey pour water for north side; from there reach Lake Albert dem dey call am Victoria Nile.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} Two waterfalls{{snd}}Ripon Falls and Owen Falls{{snd}}dey where Nile comot from Lake Victoria, but Nalubaale dam don cover dem. After Bujagali Falls and Bujagali Power Station, Victoria Nile enter Lake Kyoga. After e comot from Lake Kyoga, River Kafu join am, then e pass Murchison Falls enter Lake Albert. Lake Albert different from Lake Victoria because e deep and mountain surround am. River comot from north side of Lake Albert, where dem call am Albert Nile; this part calm and wide, and boat fit travel am easy with steamboat.<ref name=phys>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Hurst|2025}}. |{{harvnb|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=336–339}}. }}</ref> ===Mountain Nile=== Second region of Nile Basin, if we dey go downstream, na Mountain Nile ({{langx|ar-latn|Bahr al Jabal}}).<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Hurst|2025}}. |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=5. Arabic translation.}} }}</ref> This place start near Nimule town, reach Lake No, and e dey fully inside South Sudan. After Nimule, river pass Fula Rapids go Juba{{snd}}capital of South Sudan. After Juba, Nile pass Bor town, then e enter Sudd swamp wey big well well and dey flat land.<ref>{{harvnb|Collins|2002|pp=47-69}}. Overview of Sudd.</ref> Di land slope for Sudd be very small, about 1:13,000 rise over run, so river slow and spread wide. Plenty plants like sedges, papyrus, and water hyacinth (wey be invasive species) dey block water path and make navigation hard. For north side of Sudd, Nile pass Lake No small lake where Bahr el Ghazal River (meaning ‘gazelle river’) join am from west side.<ref name=phys/> One big tributary for Mountain Nile be Bahr el Ghazal wey come from western Sudan and join White Nile for Lake No. Di basin of this river big reach about 860,000 square km{{sfn|"Baḥr al-Ghazāl" ''Britannica''}} but even though rain plenty, e contribute small water to Nile compared to other tributaries.{{efn|Most rainwater for Bahr el Ghazal basin go loss through evaporation before e reach Nile.<ref name=Ghazal/>}} E basin get Lake Kundi and Lake Keilak. Bahr el Ghazal pass through Wau town, South Sudan: east side of Wau na permanent stream, but west side na seasonal stream.<ref name=Ghazal>{{multiref |{{harvnb|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=352–354}}. |{{harvnb|Dumont|2009|p=6}}. }}</ref> ===White Nile region=== [[File:Whiteandblueniles.jpg|thumb|alt=Aerial photograph of Khartoum, showing two rivers joining, each with a distinct coloration of its water|Di different colours of White Nile (left) and Blue Nile (right) show where dem meet form main Nile (top left).]] If we continue downstream, third region be White Nile region{{efn|White Nile region here cover only small part of di big White Nile River.}} wey get about {{convert|800 |km|mi|sp=us}} river stretch from near Malakal reach Khartoum, capital of Sudan. For there, Blue Nile join am. This part of river be wide, calm, and get swamp edges for both sides. Water here shallow and plenty of am dey lost through evaporation.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} Where White Nile meet Blue Nile, dem colour no be same. White Nile light because e carry sediment like quartz and feldspar. Blue Nile carry dark clay sediment from Ethiopia basalt rocks.{{sfn|Bunbury|2023|pp=44-45}} Sobat River na tributary wey join White Nile near Malakal (after Bahr el Ghazal join, before Blue Nile). E basin{{snd}}wey include Machar Marshes{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=6}} cover about 225,000 square km.{{sfn|Shahin|2002|p=276}} Sobat dey flood between July and December.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} ===Main Nile=== [[File:Assuan-Hochdamm 15.JPG|thumb|Aswan High Dam dey for main Nile near Egypt and Sudan border. E fit produce 2.1 gigawatts electricity.{{sfn|El-Shabrawy|2009| p= 149}}|alt=A large concrete building next to a placid lake. Many large power transmission towers are next to the building.]] Fourth region na main Nile{{snd}}wey be the part from Khartoum go Cairo, Egypt capital.<ref name=phys/> This section get almost same width and depth: about {{convert|500|m|ft|sp=us}} wide and {{convert|10|m|ft|sp=us}} deep for deepest part when no flood.{{sfn|Bunbury|2023|p=45}} After Khartoum, river enter Sabaloka Game Reserve and pass strong rapids wey boat no fit pass. This na sixth cataract of Nile. Atbarah River{{snd}}big tributary{{snd}}join here, then river bend S-shape go west. Four more cataracts (5, 4, 3, 2) dey inside this curve and dem make navigation hard. River later enter Lake Nasser reservoir. This lake{{snd}}second largest artificial lake for world{{snd}}come from Aswan High Dam, and e cover about {{convert|480 |km|mi|sp=us}} Nile stretch. Aswan Low Dam dey under High Dam near first cataract area (now submerged). From there, Nile flow about {{convert|800|km|mi|sp=us}} through limestone land with plenty farm irrigation reach Cairo.<ref name=phys/> ===Nile Delta=== {{main|Nile Delta}} [[File:Nile River and delta from orbit.jpg|thumb|Nile Delta na di big triangle green area for top of this picture where river enter Mediterranean Sea.|alt=A photograph of north Egypt, taken from space. The Nile terminates by flowing into the Mediterranean Sea, forming a large, triangular area of land.]] Fifth and last region na Nile Delta, big triangle river delta (about 22,000 km{{super|2}}){{sfn|Hamza|2009|p=75}} wey stretch from Cairo reach Mediterranean Sea.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} River split into two main distributaries for delta: Rosetta branch and Damietta branch. Total size of delta (including underwater part) be about 150,000 km{{super|3}}. Delta form over millions of years from sediment wey river carry come from upstream.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Hurst|2025}}. |{{harvnb|Talbot|Williams|2009|pp=37–40, 57}}. }}</ref> Since Aswan High Dam finish for 1970, delta start shrink because sea erosion dey remove land. Before, new sediment from river dey balance am, but dam block sediment so e no reach delta again.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Hamza|2009|p=93}}. |{{harvnb|Bunbury|2023|pp=45-46}}. }}</ref> === Blue Nile tributary === {{main|Blue Nile}} [[File:Lower Aber river and tributaries.png|thumb|Blue Nile source na Gish Abay for bottom of bright line. River go north reach Lake Tana for top.|alt=A map of Ethiopia, showing a part of the Blue Nile and Lake Tana.]] Longest Nile route{{snd}}including White Nile tributary{{snd}}get other tributaries too. Blue Nile and Atbarah basin form last two regions of Nile Basin.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} Blue Nile start from Ethiopian hills as small stream called Abay near Gish Abay: Gish mean ‘source’ for Amharic, and Abay na di river name.<ref>{{multiref |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=323–324}}. |{{harvnb|McKenna|2025}}. |{{harvnb|Collins|2002|pp=88-104}}. Overview of Blue Nile. }}</ref> E go enter Lake Tana, and from there e continue as Blue Nile. River bend south first, then west through deep gorge about {{convert|2 |km|ft|sp=us}} deep, then north pass South Sudan enter Sudan, where e join White Nile for Khartoum to form main Nile.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|McKenna|2025}}. |{{harvnb|Dumont|2009}}. }}</ref> Along di route, Blue Nile generate electricity for hydro plants like Tis Abay hydropower project at Blue Nile Falls, Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam near Ethiopia–South Sudan border, Roseires Dam near Ad Damazin, and Sennar Dam.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=274, 339}}. Blue Nile Falls. |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=116,135}}. Roseires Dam. |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=341}}. Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam. |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=118, 131, 348}}. Sennar Dam. }}</ref> Blue Nile drainage basin cover over 306,000 square km.{{sfn|Senay|2014|p=8639|loc=Table 3}} === Atbarah tributary=== {{main|Atbarah River}} Atbarah River na tributary of Nile wey start from northern Ethiopia, and e join Nile about {{convert|320|km|mi|sp=us}} north of Khartoum.<ref name=Atbarah/> E basin cover over 204,000 square km.{{sfn|Senay|2014|p=8639|loc=Table 3}} Atbarah flow strong during monsoon season (summer and fall), but fit dry for winter and spring. Even though e no steady, e still give more than 10% of Nile total yearly water.<ref name=Atbarah>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Hurst|2025}}. |{{harvnb|Dumont|2009|p=7}}. |{{harvnb|Sutcliffe|2009|p=339}}. }}</ref> Dams for Atbarah include Khashm el-Girba Dam, Upper Atbara and Setit Dam Complex, and Tekezé Dam (wey dey Tekezé River tributary).<ref>{{multiref |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=321,336–337}}. Tekezé Dam. |{{harvnb|Sutcliffe|2009|p=359}}. Khashm el-Girba Dam. |{{harvnb|Hafez |2024}}. Upper Atbara and Setit Dam Complex. }}</ref> ==Hydrology== <!-- {{Image frame |align=right |caption = The flow of the Nile varies widely throughout the year.<br>Rates (m{{super|3}}/sec) measured at [[Dongola]] on the main Nile.<br>Data collected before construction of [[Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam]].{{sfn|"Nile Basin Dongola", ''Global Runoff Data Center''}} |content= {{ #invoke:Chart | bar-chart | group 1 = 1285.7 : 1006.0 : 831.3 : 881.7 : 828.7: 845.2 : 1930.3 : 6984.0 : 7866.5 : 4895.2 : 2510.8 : 1596.9 | colors = lightblue | group names = Flow | x legends = J : F: M:A:M:J:J:A:S:O:N:D }} }} --> === Sediment transport === * Gilgel Abay, Ethiopia : 7.6 million tonnes of suspended, den an additional 0.7% of bedload * El Deim (at de border of Ethiopia den Sudan): 140 million tonnes{{sfn|Sutcliffe|2009|p=359}} * Aswan, Egypt: 0.14 million tonnes of suspended, den an additional 28% of bedload * Beni Sweif, Egypt: 0.5 million tonnes of suspended, den an additional 20% of bedload * Qena, Egypt: 0.27 million tonnes of suspended, den an additional 27% of bedload * Sohag, Egypt: 1.5 million tonnes of suspended, den an additional 13% of bedload ===Water sources den sinks=== ====Sources and sinks: countries==== De following table dey summarize water balance measurements give countries within de Nile Basin. Portions of countries outsyd de Nile Basin be excluded from de values. {| class="wikitable" |+ Key for "Source/Sink" columns |- | Source || De country be a significant water source |- | Sink || De country be a significant water sink |- | Neutral || De country no be a significant source anaa sink |} <!-- The data includes the following: * Per-basin data: land surface area, [[precipitation]], [[evapotranspiration]], [[surface runoff]] * Per-station data: [[Discharge (hydrology)|discharge]] --> {| class= "wikitable mw-collapsible nowrap defaultright col1left sortable" style="font-size: 85%;" |+ Country water balance (annual){{sfn|Senay|2014|p=8640|loc=Table 5}} ! scope="col" | Country ! scope="col" | Source/Sink<br />(water bal km{{sup|3}}) ! scope="col" | Basin<br />Area km{{sup|2}} ! scope="col" | Precip km{{sup|3}} ! scope="col" | Evap km{{sup|3}} ! scope="col" | Runoff km{{sup|3}} |- ! scope="row" | [[Burundi]] | Neutral (2) || 13,240|| 14 || 13 || 3 |- ! scope="row" |[[Democratic Republic of the Congo|DR Congo]] | Neutral (0) || 19,919|| 23 || 23 || 0 |- ! scope="row" |[[Egypt]] | Sink (−39) || 235,108 || 4 || 44 || 0 |- ! scope="row" | [[Eritrea]] | Neutral (2) || 24,427 || 14 || 12 || 0 |- ! scope="row" |[[Ethiopia]] | Source (164) || 363,775 || 459 || 295 || 138 |- ! scope="row" |[[Kenya]] | Source (27) || 49,513 || 76 || 49 || 23 |- ! scope="row" | [[Rwanda]] | Neutral (1) || 20,676 || 21 || 20 || 4 |- ! scope="row" |[[South Sudan]] | Sink (−146) || 617,256 || 612 || 757 ||92 |- ! scope="row" |[[Sudan]] | Sink (−81) || 1,226,660 || 364 || 445 ||23 |- ! scope="row" |[[Tanzania]] | Source (38) || 120,506 || 160 || 122 || 18 |- ! scope="row" | [[Uganda]] | Source (25) || 236,763 || 301 || 276 ||22 |- ! scope="row" | Total | || 2,927,843 || 2,048 || 2,056 || 324 |} ====Sources den sinks: geographic basins==== [[File:Nile River discharge flow gauge locations.svg|thumb|De water balance tables of dis article dey contain water flow information dem measure at de twelve stations dem show insyd dis map.<ref name=HydroData/>|alt=A map of northeast Africa. The Nile River is drawn, and there are a dozen landmarks shown on the map, at various points of the river]] {| class= "wikitable mw-collapsible mw-uncollapsed nowrap defaultright col1left sortable" style="font-size: 85%;" |+ Geographic basin water balance (annual)<ref name=HydroData>{{harvnb|Senay|2014|loc=Tables 3,4,5 and 6; Sec 3.5.5 (Source/Sink)}}.</ref> ! scope="col" | Basin's<br />downstream<br />station ! scope="col" | Source/Sink<br />(water bal km{{sup|3}}) ! scope="col" | Basin<br />Area km{{sup|2}} ! scope="col" | Precip km{{sup|3}} ! scope="col" | Evap km{{sup|3}} ! scope="col" | Runoff km{{sup|3}} |- ! scope="row" | 1 [[Lake Victoria]] outlet | Source (74) || 264,259 || 353 || 279 || 57 |- ! scope="row" | 2 Murchison Falls | Source (15) || 85,513 || 109 || 94 || 9 |- ! scope="row" |3 Mongalla | Neutral (1) || 131,691 || 159 || 158 || 5 |- ! scope="row" | 4 Malakal | Sink (−159) || 925,160|| 798 || 957 || 150 |- ! scope="row" |5 Khartoum |Sink (−40) || 257,130 || 134 || 174 || 14 |- ! scope="row" | 6 Dam{{sfn|Senay|2014|loc=Figure 1, Table 2}} | Source (105) || 188,296|| 246 || 142 || 70 |- ! scope="row" |7 Khartoum | Neutral (10) || 118,651|| 96 || 72 || 9 |- ! scope="row" |8 Khashm el Girba | Source (30) || 100,318|| 95 || 66 || 10 |- ! scope="row" | 9 Mouth of [[Atbarah River]] | Neutral (−3) || 104,051 || 22 || 25 || 1 |- ! scope="row" | 11 Aswan Dam{{sfn|Senay|2014|loc=Figure 1, Table 2}} | Sink (−10) || 188,011||2 || 13 || 0 |- ! scope="row" |12 Cairo/Delta | Sink (−10) || 145,293||3 || 12 || 0 |} ==Economy == ===Hydropower=== [[File:Nile River Hydropower Stations.svg|thumb|Sam hydropower stations on de Nile. "GERD" be de Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam.|alt=A map of northeast Africa. The Nile is shown as a blue line. Along the Nile, locations of about ten hydropower stations are indicated.]] {| class= "wikitable defaultright col2center col5center sortable" |+ Major hydropower stations insyd de Nile Basin ! scope="col" | Hydropower<br>station ! scope="col" | Nearby<br>landmark ! scope="col" | Year<br>dem plete ! scope="col" | Power<br>(MW, insyd 2025) ! scope="col" | Tributary |- ! scope="row" | Aswan Low Dam | Aswan, Egypt ||1902, 1912, 1933, 1985|| 550{{sfn|"Aswan Low Dam", ''Egypt MOEE'' }} || Main Nile |- ! scope="row" | Aswan High Dam | Aswan, Egypt || 1970 || 2,100{{sfn|El-Shabrawy|2009|p=149}} || Main Nile |- ! scope="row" | Merowe Dam | Merowe, Sudan|| 2009 || 1,250{{sfn|"Merowe Dam - Sudan", '' Abu Dhabi Fund for Development''}} || Main Nile |- ! scope="row" | Upper Atbara and Setit | Showak, Sudan|| 2017 || 320{{sfn|"Upper Atbara Dam", ''OPEC Fund for International Development''}} || [[Atbarah River|Atbarah]] den Tekezé |- ! scope="row" | Roseires Dam | Er Roseires, Sudan || 1966, 2013 || 280{{sfn|"Roseires Dam", ''IHA''}} || Blue Nile |- ! scope="row" | Tana Beles | Lake Tana, Ethiopia || 2010 || 460{{sfn|Hailu|2022 |loc=Table 4}} || Beles River, Blue Nile |- ! scope="row" | Tekezé Dam | Tekezé River, Ethiopia || 2009 || 300{{sfn|Hailu|2022 |loc=Table 4}} || Tekezé, [[Atbarah River|Atbarah]] |- ! scope="row" | Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam | Bameza, Ethiopia|| 2020 || 5,150{{sfn|Endeshaw|2025}} || Blue Nile |- ! scope="row" | Fincha | Fincha'a, Ethiopia || 1973|| 134{{sfn|Hailu|2022 |loc=Table 4}} || Blue Nile (Chomen Lake) |- ! scope="row" | Karuma | Karuma Falls, Uganda || 2024 || 600{{sfn|"Karuma", ''Uganda Radio Network''}} || Victoria Nile |- ! scope="row" | Isimba | Kamuli District, Uganda|| 2019 || 183{{sfn|"Isimba Power Station", ''UEGCL''}} || Victoria Nile |- ! scope="row" | Bujagali | Bujagali Falls, Uganda|| 2012|| 250{{sfn|Griffin|2018}} || Victoria Nile |- ! scope="row" | Kiira | Kimaka, Uganda|| 2003 || 200{{sfn|Angurini|2021}} || Victoria Nile |- ! scope="row" | Nalubaale | Jinja, Uganda || 1954|| 180{{Sfn|Tumwesigye|2011|p=10}} || Victoria Nile |} == References == <references /> == External links == {{Subject bar|auto=yes|wikt=yes|}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Nile| ]] [[Category:Ancient Egyptian religion]] [[Category:Geography of ancient Egypt]] [[Category:Hebrew Bible rivers]] [[Category:International rivers of Africa]] [[Category:National parks of Egypt]] [[Category:Nile basin|*]] [[Category:Rivers insyd art]] [[Category:Rivers of Burundi]] [[Category:Rivers of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:Rivers of Egypt]] [[Category:Rivers of Eritrea]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Rivers of Kenya]] [[Category:Rivers of Rwanda]] [[Category:Rivers of South Sudan]] [[Category:Rivers of Sudan]] [[Category:Rivers of Tanzania]] [[Category:Rivers of Uganda]] [[Category:Water transport insyd Egypt]] qint5xrmhf5tw344eyggn2dj58t3ysp 102932 102931 2026-06-15T08:03:01Z Achiri Bitamsimli 64 /* Hydrology */ added more content 102932 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Nile''' be a major north-flowing river insyd northeast [[Africa]] wich dey empty into de Mediterranean Sea. At 7,088 kilometers (4,404 mi) long, e be de longest river insyd de world, although de volume of water e dey carry be much smaller dan oda major rivers such as de Amazon anaa de Congo. De Nile play a central role insyd de environmental, economic, den cultural history of Africa for millennia. De Nile get two major tributaries: de [[White Nile]] den de [[Blue Nile]]. De White Nile be longer wey be considered to be de headwaters, yet de Blue Nile dey contribute over twice de volume of de White Nile. De White Nile dey begin near Lake Victoria den dey flow thru [[Uganda]] den [[South Sudan]]; while de Blue Nile dey begin near Lake Tana insyd [[Ethiopia]] den dey flow into [[Sudan]] from de southeast. De two rivers dey meet at de Sudanese capital of Khartoum. From der, de Nile dey flow north thru de Nubian Desert to Egypt ein capital, Cairo, den finally dey empty into de Mediterranean Sea near Alexandria, wer e form a large river delta. Geologically, de Nile be a young river wey e follow ein present course for about 15,000 years. Ein drainage basin dey extend across eleven countries. Chaw of de water insyd de Nile dey cam from rainfall insyd de upstream countries [[Ethiopia]], [[Kenya]], [[Tanzania]], den [[Uganda]]. Downstream countries – [[Egypt]], [[Sudan]], den [[South Sudan]] – be primarily desert, den withdraw river water for irrigation. Oda countries wey lie wholly anaa partly insyd de Nile Basin be [[Burundi]], de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Eritrea]], den [[Rwanda]]. De Nile be de foundation of de Ancient Egyptian civilization, wich rely on de river for nearly every aspect of life. De annual flooding of de river deposit nutrient-rich silt along de riverbanks. Dis soil support crops wey enable a sophisticated society to thrive insyd an otherwise inhospitable desert. De Nile facilitate trade, communication, transportation, den governance. South (upstream) of de second Nile cataract lay Nubia, de historical home of de ancient Kerma culture den de Kushite Empire. Na chaw Europeans be fascinated by de Nile, den dema explorations around Lake Victoria insyd de late 19th century locate de source of de river. Among de cultures wey live along de Nile insyd de modern era be de Nilotic peoples, semi-nomadic cattle herders wey practice nomadic pastoralism, wey dey move dema cattle seasonally in response to de Nile ein floods. Insyd de modern era, de Nile dey play a critical role insyd de economies of Egypt den Sudan, wich dey rely on am to irrigate extensive croplands. Since de late 20th century, na dem build over a dozen dams insyd de Nile Basin to provide for irrigation den to generate electricity. De dams alter de river ein annual flood cycle wey e restrict de transport of silt downstream, wey dey cause de Nile Delta to shrink. Sam dams – such as de Aswan High Dam den Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam – be de source of international political disputes about water scarcity, safety, food security, den forced displacement of peoples. == Names den etymology == De English word "Nile" be derived from de Latin Nilus den de Ancient Greek Νεῖλος (Neilos), wich possibly originate from de Semitic term ''naḥal'', wey dey mean 'river'.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} Several tributaries (smaller rivers wey merge into de Nile) den segments of de river incorporate "Nile" insyd dema names, wey dey include: * Albert Nile{{snd}}Segment of de White Nile wey dey flow north from Lake Albert to Nimule * Black Nile{{snd}}An alternate name give de [[Atbarah River]] * [[Blue Nile]]{{snd}}One of de two major tributaries of de Nile * Kyoga Nile{{snd}}Segment of White Nile from Lake Kyoga to Lake Albert{{sfn|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=338,345}} * Main Nile{{snd}}Segment of de Nile downstream from de confluence of Blue Nile den White Nile{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=4}} * Mountain Nile{{snd}}Segment of de White Nile from de mountains of Uganda to de plains of South Sudan{{sfn|Talling|2009|p=390}}<!-- {{efn|The Mountain Nile is also called ''Baḥr al-Jabal'' or ''Baḥr el-Jebel'' in Arabic. }} --> * Victoria Nile{{snd}}Segment of White Nile from [[Lake Victoria]] to Lake Kyoga{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=5}} * [[White Nile]]{{snd}}One of de two major tributaries of de Nile * Yellow Nile{{snd}}De Wadi Howar, remnant of an ancient tributary wey dry up several thousand years ago{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=4}} == Names and etymology == Di English word "Nile" come from di {{lang|la|Nilus}} for Latin and {{lang|grc|Νεῖλος}} (Neilos) for Ancient Greek, wey fit originate from Semitic term ''naḥal'', wey mean 'river'.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} {{Quote box|align=right|width=30|Egyptian hieroglyphs for {{lang|egy-latn|jtrw}},<br>di word for 'river' or 'Nile':{{sfn|Gardiner|1964|pp=43,623}}{{efn|Other hieroglyphs for 'river' dey presented in {{harvnb|Faulkner|1964|p=33}} and {{harvnb|Allen|2000|pp=21,101}}. }} <hiero>M17-X1:D21-G43-N35:N35:N35</hiero> }} For ancient Egyptian language, di same word dem dey use for 'Nile' and 'river': {{lang|egy-latn|jtrw}}.{{sfn|Allen|2000|pp=21,101}} Dem Egyptians dey call dem country {{lang|egy-latn|kmt}} meaning 'black', wey dey refer to di dark colour of Nile flood water wey carry soil from upstream.{{sfn|Allen|2000|p=339, 470}} Di English name "Blue Nile" na translation of Arabic name ''Al-Baḥr Al-Azraq''.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} For modern time, di river get different names inside Nile Basin. For Egypt, dem dey call am ''Al-Nīl'', ''Baḥr Al-Nīl'' or ''Nahr Al-Nīl''.<ref name=Barh>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Badawi|2003 |p=717}}. |{{harvnb|Hurst|2025}}. }}</ref> For South Sudan, dem sometimes dey call am Arabic ''Baḥr el-Jebel'', {{lang|ar|بحر الجبل}}, wey mean 'Mountain River'.{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=6}} For Uganda, Luganda speakers dey use name ''Kiyira''.{{sfn|Hamilton |2016|p=66}} Some Nubian people for Egypt and Sudan dey use Nobiin name ''Áman Dawū'' ('Great Water').{{sfn|Murray|1923|p=8}} Some tributaries and river sections even carry "Nile" inside their names, including: * Albert Nile—section of White Nile wey dey flow north from Lake Albert go Nimule<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Dumont|2009|pp=5,6,40}}. |{{harvnb|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=338,345}}. }}</ref> * Black Nile—another name for Atbarah River<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Haupt|1926|p=305}}. |{{harvnb|Ranjan|2024|p=24}}. }}</ref> * Blue Nile—one of di two main tributaries of Nile * Kyoga Nile—section of White Nile from Lake Kyoga go Lake Albert{{sfn|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=338,345}} * Main Nile—section after Blue Nile and White Nile join{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=4}} * Mountain Nile—section of White Nile from Uganda mountains go South Sudan plains{{sfn|Talling|2009|p=390}} * Victoria Nile—section from Lake Victoria go Lake Kyoga{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=5}} * White Nile—one of di two main tributaries of Nile * Yellow Nile—Wadi Howar, old river wey don dry up thousands of years ago{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=4}} == Sources == [[File:Nile River Sources.svg|thumb|alt= A map of northeast Africa. The Nile is visible as a meandering blue line, running vertically. The river starts at the bottom in green forested area, and goes upward then ends in a blue sea at the top.| Di Nile get six cataracts{{efn|Some cataracts don enter man-made reservoirs.}} and several sources.]] Di source of Nile dey come from tributary of Rukarara River for Nyungwe National Park, Rwanda, at {{Coord|2|19|35|S|29|21|30|E}}, for elevation of about {{convert|2,539|m|ft|sp=us}}.<ref name=SourceCite>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Liu|2009}}. |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=277–278}}. }}</ref> Di highest sources of Nile dey for slopes of Rwenzori Mountains for Uganda.<ref name=Rwenz/> Dem sometimes dey call these mountains “Mountains of the Moon”, as Greek astronomer Ptolemy describe am, and dem dey associate am with Rwenzori.<ref name=Rwenz>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Eggermont|2009|pp=243–246}}. |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=282}}. }}</ref> Di southernmost source of Nile dey for Burundi at one branch of Ruvyironza River, wey join Kagera River.<ref name=southSource/> Burkhart Waldecker build monument near am for 1937 around Rutovu, near Mount Kikizi.<ref name=southSource>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Collins|2002|pp=27-29}}. |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=300–301}}. |{{harvnb|Hughes|1992|pp=97,119,198}}. |{{harvnb|Warburg|2007|pp=475,483-484}}. |{{harvnb|"Source Du Nil", ''Google Maps''}}. }}</ref> Lake Victoria—wey Tanzania, Uganda and Kenya share—sometimes dem dey call am source because White Nile dey start from where e dey flow out for Jinja, Uganda.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|p=6}} But some people dey even suggest say real source na rain clouds over Lake Victoria because dem dey supply most of di water.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=340-341}}. |{{harvnb|Camberlin|2009|pp=312-314}}. }}</ref> Di source of Blue Nile dey near Gish Abay town, south of Lake Tana.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|pp=323–324}} == Geography== [[File:Nile River Landmarks.svg|thumb|The waters of the Nile originate as rainfall in the mountains in the south and east regions of the Nile Basin.|alt=A map of northeast Africa, showing the location of several cities and tourist sights on the river]] Nile na big river wey dey Northeast Africa wey go enter Mediterranean Sea. The Nile Basin na all di land wey water dey drain go inside Nile, and e cover about 2,927,843 km{{super|2}}{{snd}}which be around 10% of Africa continent (see di map wey dey side).<ref name=basinSize/> Eleven countries dey inside di basin fully or partly: Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania, and Uganda.{{sfn|Allan|2009|p=753}}{{efn| In 2011, South Sudan break comot from Sudan, becoming di eleventh country for Nile Basin.{{sfn|Ranjan|2024|p=18}}}} Di basin get different-different climate, ecosystems, and landforms{{snd}}from dry sandy desert for north side, go reach flat swamp wetlands for middle, then rainy forest mountains for south side.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=335-340}}. |{{harvnb|Collins|2002|p=5}}. }}</ref> Di basin fit divide into seven regions; five of dem follow di longest route of Nile. If we follow di river from downstream direction, these five regions be: African Great Lakes, Mountain Nile, White Nile, main Nile, and Nile Delta. Two extra regions dey cover important tributaries: Blue Nile and Atbarah River.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} ===African Great Lakes=== African Great Lakes region na where Nile start from, and e get plenty big lakes wey dey part of di river system: Lake Victoria, Lake Albert, Lake George, and Lake Edward.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Eggermont |2009|p=255}}. |{{harvnb|Collins|2002|pp=27-46}}. Overview of African Great Lakes. }}</ref> Di real source of Nile na Rukarara River for Rwanda Nyungwe National Park,<ref name=SourceCite/> and e go join Kagera River wey go enter Lake Victoria.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}}{{efn|name=sourceRivSequence|Di source of Nile go pass Rukarara River, then Mwogo River, wey join Mbirurume River form Nyabarongo River, wey later enter Kagera River, wey go Lake Victoria.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=260,263,277–278}}. Furthest source. |{{harvnb|Hughes|1992|pp=97,119,198}}. Southernmost source. }}</ref> }} Even though Lake Victoria big pass, e still shallow, average depth be {{convert|40|m|ft|sp=us}}.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|p=214}} Nile first get name “Nile” for where Lake Victoria dey pour water for north side; from there reach Lake Albert dem dey call am Victoria Nile.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} Two waterfalls{{snd}}Ripon Falls and Owen Falls{{snd}}dey where Nile comot from Lake Victoria, but Nalubaale dam don cover dem. After Bujagali Falls and Bujagali Power Station, Victoria Nile enter Lake Kyoga. After e comot from Lake Kyoga, River Kafu join am, then e pass Murchison Falls enter Lake Albert. Lake Albert different from Lake Victoria because e deep and mountain surround am. River comot from north side of Lake Albert, where dem call am Albert Nile; this part calm and wide, and boat fit travel am easy with steamboat.<ref name=phys>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Hurst|2025}}. |{{harvnb|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=336–339}}. }}</ref> ===Mountain Nile=== Second region of Nile Basin, if we dey go downstream, na Mountain Nile ({{langx|ar-latn|Bahr al Jabal}}).<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Hurst|2025}}. |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=5. Arabic translation.}} }}</ref> This place start near Nimule town, reach Lake No, and e dey fully inside South Sudan. After Nimule, river pass Fula Rapids go Juba{{snd}}capital of South Sudan. After Juba, Nile pass Bor town, then e enter Sudd swamp wey big well well and dey flat land.<ref>{{harvnb|Collins|2002|pp=47-69}}. Overview of Sudd.</ref> Di land slope for Sudd be very small, about 1:13,000 rise over run, so river slow and spread wide. Plenty plants like sedges, papyrus, and water hyacinth (wey be invasive species) dey block water path and make navigation hard. For north side of Sudd, Nile pass Lake No small lake where Bahr el Ghazal River (meaning ‘gazelle river’) join am from west side.<ref name=phys/> One big tributary for Mountain Nile be Bahr el Ghazal wey come from western Sudan and join White Nile for Lake No. Di basin of this river big reach about 860,000 square km{{sfn|"Baḥr al-Ghazāl" ''Britannica''}} but even though rain plenty, e contribute small water to Nile compared to other tributaries.{{efn|Most rainwater for Bahr el Ghazal basin go loss through evaporation before e reach Nile.<ref name=Ghazal/>}} E basin get Lake Kundi and Lake Keilak. Bahr el Ghazal pass through Wau town, South Sudan: east side of Wau na permanent stream, but west side na seasonal stream.<ref name=Ghazal>{{multiref |{{harvnb|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=352–354}}. |{{harvnb|Dumont|2009|p=6}}. }}</ref> ===White Nile region=== [[File:Whiteandblueniles.jpg|thumb|alt=Aerial photograph of Khartoum, showing two rivers joining, each with a distinct coloration of its water|Di different colours of White Nile (left) and Blue Nile (right) show where dem meet form main Nile (top left).]] If we continue downstream, third region be White Nile region{{efn|White Nile region here cover only small part of di big White Nile River.}} wey get about {{convert|800 |km|mi|sp=us}} river stretch from near Malakal reach Khartoum, capital of Sudan. For there, Blue Nile join am. This part of river be wide, calm, and get swamp edges for both sides. Water here shallow and plenty of am dey lost through evaporation.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} Where White Nile meet Blue Nile, dem colour no be same. White Nile light because e carry sediment like quartz and feldspar. Blue Nile carry dark clay sediment from Ethiopia basalt rocks.{{sfn|Bunbury|2023|pp=44-45}} Sobat River na tributary wey join White Nile near Malakal (after Bahr el Ghazal join, before Blue Nile). E basin{{snd}}wey include Machar Marshes{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=6}} cover about 225,000 square km.{{sfn|Shahin|2002|p=276}} Sobat dey flood between July and December.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} ===Main Nile=== [[File:Assuan-Hochdamm 15.JPG|thumb|Aswan High Dam dey for main Nile near Egypt and Sudan border. E fit produce 2.1 gigawatts electricity.{{sfn|El-Shabrawy|2009| p= 149}}|alt=A large concrete building next to a placid lake. Many large power transmission towers are next to the building.]] Fourth region na main Nile{{snd}}wey be the part from Khartoum go Cairo, Egypt capital.<ref name=phys/> This section get almost same width and depth: about {{convert|500|m|ft|sp=us}} wide and {{convert|10|m|ft|sp=us}} deep for deepest part when no flood.{{sfn|Bunbury|2023|p=45}} After Khartoum, river enter Sabaloka Game Reserve and pass strong rapids wey boat no fit pass. This na sixth cataract of Nile. Atbarah River{{snd}}big tributary{{snd}}join here, then river bend S-shape go west. Four more cataracts (5, 4, 3, 2) dey inside this curve and dem make navigation hard. River later enter Lake Nasser reservoir. This lake{{snd}}second largest artificial lake for world{{snd}}come from Aswan High Dam, and e cover about {{convert|480 |km|mi|sp=us}} Nile stretch. Aswan Low Dam dey under High Dam near first cataract area (now submerged). From there, Nile flow about {{convert|800|km|mi|sp=us}} through limestone land with plenty farm irrigation reach Cairo.<ref name=phys/> ===Nile Delta=== {{main|Nile Delta}} [[File:Nile River and delta from orbit.jpg|thumb|Nile Delta na di big triangle green area for top of this picture where river enter Mediterranean Sea.|alt=A photograph of north Egypt, taken from space. The Nile terminates by flowing into the Mediterranean Sea, forming a large, triangular area of land.]] Fifth and last region na Nile Delta, big triangle river delta (about 22,000 km{{super|2}}){{sfn|Hamza|2009|p=75}} wey stretch from Cairo reach Mediterranean Sea.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} River split into two main distributaries for delta: Rosetta branch and Damietta branch. Total size of delta (including underwater part) be about 150,000 km{{super|3}}. Delta form over millions of years from sediment wey river carry come from upstream.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Hurst|2025}}. |{{harvnb|Talbot|Williams|2009|pp=37–40, 57}}. }}</ref> Since Aswan High Dam finish for 1970, delta start shrink because sea erosion dey remove land. Before, new sediment from river dey balance am, but dam block sediment so e no reach delta again.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Hamza|2009|p=93}}. |{{harvnb|Bunbury|2023|pp=45-46}}. }}</ref> === Blue Nile tributary === {{main|Blue Nile}} [[File:Lower Aber river and tributaries.png|thumb|Blue Nile source na Gish Abay for bottom of bright line. River go north reach Lake Tana for top.|alt=A map of Ethiopia, showing a part of the Blue Nile and Lake Tana.]] Longest Nile route{{snd}}including White Nile tributary{{snd}}get other tributaries too. Blue Nile and Atbarah basin form last two regions of Nile Basin.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} Blue Nile start from Ethiopian hills as small stream called Abay near Gish Abay: Gish mean ‘source’ for Amharic, and Abay na di river name.<ref>{{multiref |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=323–324}}. |{{harvnb|McKenna|2025}}. |{{harvnb|Collins|2002|pp=88-104}}. Overview of Blue Nile. }}</ref> E go enter Lake Tana, and from there e continue as Blue Nile. River bend south first, then west through deep gorge about {{convert|2 |km|ft|sp=us}} deep, then north pass South Sudan enter Sudan, where e join White Nile for Khartoum to form main Nile.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|McKenna|2025}}. |{{harvnb|Dumont|2009}}. }}</ref> Along di route, Blue Nile generate electricity for hydro plants like Tis Abay hydropower project at Blue Nile Falls, Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam near Ethiopia–South Sudan border, Roseires Dam near Ad Damazin, and Sennar Dam.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=274, 339}}. Blue Nile Falls. |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=116,135}}. Roseires Dam. |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=341}}. Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam. |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=118, 131, 348}}. Sennar Dam. }}</ref> Blue Nile drainage basin cover over 306,000 square km.{{sfn|Senay|2014|p=8639|loc=Table 3}} === Atbarah tributary=== {{main|Atbarah River}} Atbarah River na tributary of Nile wey start from northern Ethiopia, and e join Nile about {{convert|320|km|mi|sp=us}} north of Khartoum.<ref name=Atbarah/> E basin cover over 204,000 square km.{{sfn|Senay|2014|p=8639|loc=Table 3}} Atbarah flow strong during monsoon season (summer and fall), but fit dry for winter and spring. Even though e no steady, e still give more than 10% of Nile total yearly water.<ref name=Atbarah>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Hurst|2025}}. |{{harvnb|Dumont|2009|p=7}}. |{{harvnb|Sutcliffe|2009|p=339}}. }}</ref> Dams for Atbarah include Khashm el-Girba Dam, Upper Atbara and Setit Dam Complex, and Tekezé Dam (wey dey Tekezé River tributary).<ref>{{multiref |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=321,336–337}}. Tekezé Dam. |{{harvnb|Sutcliffe|2009|p=359}}. Khashm el-Girba Dam. |{{harvnb|Hafez |2024}}. Upper Atbara and Setit Dam Complex. }}</ref> ==Hydrology== {{Nile River routemap}} [[File:Monthly variations of the flow of the Nile River.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|alt=Chart showing monthly flow of the Nile in cubic meters per second. Values (January to December) are 1285.7, 1006.0, 831.3, 881.7, 828.7, 845.2, 1930.3, 6984.0, 7866.5, 4895.2, 2510.8, 1596.9.|The flow of the Nile River dey change plenty through di year. Rates (m{{super|3}}/sec) dem measure am for Dongola on top di main Nile.{{sfn|"Nile Basin Dongola", ''Global Runoff Data Center''}}{{efn|name=exclGERD}} ]] ===Flow and floods=== {{further|Flooding of the Nile}} Even though Nile be di longest river for world, e no get di biggest water flow. Di amount wey e dey carry—about 87 km{{super|3}} per year—be small pass many big rivers. Di Nile flow be only about 1% of Amazon, 6% of Congo, and 12% of Yangtze.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=4}}. |{{harvnb|Sutcliffe|2009|p=340}}. |{{harvnb|Collins|2002|p=11}}. }}</ref>{{efn|Comparisons are using discharge of the Nile as measured at Aswan. The Nile's discharge into the Mediterranean Sea is far less.{{efn|name=discharge}} }} Di yearly water wey come from di three main tributaries be: 54% from Blue Nile, 32% from White Nile (including Bahr el Ghazal and Sobat), and 14% from Atbarah.{{sfn|Senay|2014|p=8639|loc= Table 4. Based on annual discharge figures: Blue Nile 48 km{{sup|3}}; White Nile 28 km{{sup|3}}; Atbarah 12 km{{sup|3}} }} Both White Nile highlands and Blue Nile highlands dey get seasonal rain, but White Nile flow dey more steady pass Blue Nile.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} Dis be because plenty lakes and wetlands for White Nile dey control the water flow.{{sfn|Sutcliffe|2009|p=357}} As White Nile dey pass Sudd swamp, almost half of di water dey lost through evaporation.{{sfn|Sutcliffe|2009|p=346}} But Blue Nile flow dey change plenty through di year. E dey flood from July go October because of summer monsoon rain.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} During dis time, Blue Nile water so strong say e dey push White Nile back for di junction.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=5}}. |{{harvnb|Ghabbour|2009|pp=503–504}}. }}</ref> For peak flood time, di Nile water contribution be about 70% Blue Nile, 20% Atbarah, and 10% White Nile.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} At di highest point, water wey dey enter Lake Nasser fit reach about 0.71 km{{sup|3}} per day, wey be almost three times normal average.{{ref}} Before dams come, Nile for Egypt dey rise for summer/fall and drop for winter/spring.{{efn|Flood size fit change for different years, even last for many years.}} But after Aswan High Dam build, water flow down go Egypt don become more steady all year round.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|El-Shabrawy|2009|p=125}}. |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=5}}. |{{harvnb|Bunbury|2023|p=45}}. }}</ref> === Sediment transport === Nile dey carry soil and rock particles go downstream. Dis sediment dey move either as suspended load (wey dey float inside water) or bedload (wey dey roll for river bottom).{{sfn|Lemma |2019|p=1}} About 97% of sediment wey Nile dey carry come from Atbarah and Blue Nile, both wey start for Ethiopia.{{sfn|Talbot|Williams|2009|p=38}} Most erosion happen only during rainy season for Ethiopian Highlands.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} Soil for Nile Delta actually come from Ethiopian rocks. For about 30 million years, erosion from Ethiopia create about 102,000 km{{super|3}} of material, almost same as delta size of 150,000 km{{super|3}}.{{sfn|Talbot|Williams|2009|p=37}} Sediment wey enter dam fit settle inside and reduce dam capacity. Dis don already happen for Sennar Dam, Roseires Dam, and Khashm el Girba Dam.{{sfn|Sutcliffe|2009|p=359}} Annual sediment data for some places: * Gilgel Abay, Ethiopia : 7.6 million tonnes suspended, plus 0.7% bedload * El Deim (Ethiopia–Sudan border): 140 million tonnes{{sfn|Sutcliffe|2009|p=359}} * Aswan, Egypt: 0.14 million tonnes suspended, plus 28% bedload * Beni Sweif, Egypt: 0.5 million tonnes suspended, plus 20% bedload * Qena, Egypt: 0.27 million tonnes suspended, plus 27% bedload * Sohag, Egypt: 1.5 million tonnes suspended, plus 13% bedload ===Water sources and sinks=== [[File:Surface water cycle.svg|thumb|right| Water balance for Nile Basin dey show how hydrology dey work: rain, evaporation, soil, and river flow.|alt=A schematic diagram shows water movements around a piece of ground. Arrows show water moving upward due to evaporation and transpiration; other arrows show water moving downward into groundwater recharge.]] As river dey move downstream, some places dey add water (source), while some dey remove water (sink).{{sfn|Senay|2014|p=8631|loc= Equation (4)}} Upstream areas like Ethiopian Highlands and African Great Lakes be water sources. Downstream areas like South Sudan, Sudan, and Egypt dey act as sinks.{{sfn|Senay|2014|pp=8641,8648|loc=Figure 7; Sections 3.5.5, 4; Tables 3,4,5 and 6}} Hydrologists dey use water balance method to check source and sink. Water balance mean say: water wey enter area must equal water wey leave area.{{sfn|Healy|2007|pp=5-6}} ====Sources and sinks: countries==== {| class="wikitable" |+ Key for "Source/Sink" columns |- | {{D-P|Source}} || Country be major water source |- | {{D-N|Sink}} || Country be major water sink |- | {{D-W|Neutral}} || Country no be strong source or sink |} {| class= "wikitable mw-collapsible nowrap defaultright col1left sortable" style="font-size: 85%;" |+ Country water balance (annual){{sfn|Senay|2014|p=8640|loc=Table 5}}{{efn|name=exclGERD|Data does not include impacts of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam, completed in 2025}}{{efn|name=TableLegend}} ! scope="col" | Country ! scope="col" | Source/Sink<br />(water bal km{{sup|3}}) ! scope="col" | Basin<br />Area km{{sup|2}}{{efn|Basin area is the Nile Basin within the country.}} ! scope="col" | Precip km{{sup|3}} ! scope="col" | Evap km{{sup|3}} ! scope="col" | Runoff km{{sup|3}} |- ! scope="row" | [[Burundi]] | {{D-W|Neutral}} (2) || 13,240|| 14 || 13 || 3 |- ! scope="row" |[[DR Congo]] | {{D-W|Neutral}} (0) || 19,919|| 23 || 23 || 0 |- ! scope="row" |[[Egypt]] | {{D-N|Sink}} (−39) || 235,108 || 4 || 44 || 0 |- ! scope="row" | [[Eritrea]] | {{D-W|Neutral}} (2) || 24,427 || 14 || 12 || 0 |- ! scope="row" |[[Ethiopia]] | {{D-P|Source}} (164) || 363,775 || 459 || 295 || 138 |- ! scope="row" |[[Kenya]] | {{D-P|Source}} (27) || 49,513 || 76 || 49 || 23 |- ! scope="row" | [[Rwanda]] | {{D-W|Neutral}} (1) || 20,676 || 21 || 20 || 4 |- ! scope="row" |[[South Sudan]] | {{D-N|Sink}} (−146) || 617,256 || 612 || 757 ||92 |- ! scope="row" |[[Sudan]] | {{D-N|Sink}} (−81) || 1,226,660 || 364 || 445 ||23 |- ! scope="row" |[[Tanzania]] | {{D-P|Source}} (38) || 120,506 || 160 || 122 || 18 |- ! scope="row" | [[Uganda]] | {{D-P|Source}} (25) || 236,763 || 301 || 276 ||22 |- ! scope="row" | Total | || 2,927,843 || 2,048 || 2,056 || 324 |} ====Sources and sinks: geographic basins==== [[File:Nile River discharge flow gauge locations.svg|thumb|Map show di 12 measurement stations wey dem use for water balance study.|alt=A map of northeast Africa. The Nile River is drawn, and there are a dozen landmarks shown on the map, at various points of the river]] Another way to study Nile water balance be to split basin into smaller basins. Data come from 12 river stations.{{sfn|Senay|2014}} {| class= "wikitable mw-collapsible mw-uncollapsed nowrap defaultright col1left sortable" style="font-size: 85%;" |+ Geographic basin water balance (annual)<ref name=HydroData>{{harvnb|Senay|2014|loc=Tables 3,4,5 and 6; Sec 3.5.5 (Source/Sink)}}.</ref> ! scope="col" | Basin's<br />downstream<br />station ! scope="col" | Source/Sink<br />(water bal km{{sup|3}}) ! scope="col" | Basin<br />Area km{{sup|2}} ! scope="col" | Precip km{{sup|3}} ! scope="col" | Evap km{{sup|3}} ! scope="col" | Runoff km{{sup|3}} |- ! scope="row" | 1 [[Lake Victoria]] outlet | {{D-P|Source}} (74) || 264,259 || 353 || 279 || 57 |- ! scope="row" | 2 [[Murchison Falls]] | {{D-P|Source}} (15) || 85,513 || 109 || 94 || 9 |- ! scope="row" |3 Mongalla | {{D-W|Neutral}} (1) || 131,691 || 159 || 158 || 5 |- ! scope="row" | 4 Malakal | {{D-N|Sink}} (−159) || 925,160|| 798 || 957 || 150 |- ! scope="row" |5 Khartoum |{{D-N|Sink}} (−40) || 257,130 || 134 || 174 || 14 |- ! scope="row" | 6 Dam | {{D-P|Source}} (105) || 188,296|| 246 || 142 || 70 |- ! scope="row" |7 Khartoum | {{D-W|Neutral}} (10) || 118,651|| 96 || 72 || 9 |- ! scope="row" |8 Khashm el Girba | {{D-P|Source}} (30) || 100,318|| 95 || 66 || 10 |- ! scope="row" | 9 Mouth of Atbarah River | {{D-W|Neutral}} (−3) || 104,051 || 22 || 25 || 1 |- ! scope="row" | 11 Aswan Dam | {{D-N|Sink}} (−10) || 188,011||2 || 13 || 0 |- ! scope="row" |12 Cairo/Delta | {{D-N|Sink}} (−10) || 145,293||3 || 12 || 0 |} ===Nilometers=== Measurement of Nile flow always important for Egypt to manage farming and flood safety. Simple gauges called nilometers don dey use for thousands of years to check river level.<ref name=nilometer>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=340,361}}. |{{harvnb|Talling|2009|p=25}}. |{{harvnb|Bunbury|2023|p=68}}. |{{harvnb|Collins|2002|pp=15-20}}. }}</ref> Ideal flood for Egypt be moderate—about 6 m rise above normal level. If e too high, e fit destroy communities; if e too low, crops no go get fertile silt.<ref name=nilometer/> One important nilometer dey Roda Island since 622 CE. Egyptians dey record flood levels from am till 1921. Modern river gauges start from 1860s, and later systems for measuring flow start from 1900s.{{sfn|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=340,361}} ==Economy == ===Hydropower=== [[File:Nile River Hydropower Stations.svg|thumb|Sam hydropower stations on de Nile. "GERD" be de Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam.|alt=A map of northeast Africa. The Nile is shown as a blue line. Along the Nile, locations of about ten hydropower stations are indicated.]] {| class= "wikitable defaultright col2center col5center sortable" |+ Major hydropower stations insyd de Nile Basin ! scope="col" | Hydropower<br>station ! scope="col" | Nearby<br>landmark ! scope="col" | Year<br>dem plete ! scope="col" | Power<br>(MW, insyd 2025) ! scope="col" | Tributary |- ! scope="row" | Aswan Low Dam | Aswan, Egypt ||1902, 1912, 1933, 1985|| 550{{sfn|"Aswan Low Dam", ''Egypt MOEE'' }} || Main Nile |- ! scope="row" | Aswan High Dam | Aswan, Egypt || 1970 || 2,100{{sfn|El-Shabrawy|2009|p=149}} || Main Nile |- ! scope="row" | Merowe Dam | Merowe, Sudan|| 2009 || 1,250{{sfn|"Merowe Dam - Sudan", '' Abu Dhabi Fund for Development''}} || Main Nile |- ! scope="row" | Upper Atbara and Setit | Showak, Sudan|| 2017 || 320{{sfn|"Upper Atbara Dam", ''OPEC Fund for International Development''}} || [[Atbarah River|Atbarah]] den Tekezé |- ! scope="row" | Roseires Dam | Er Roseires, Sudan || 1966, 2013 || 280{{sfn|"Roseires Dam", ''IHA''}} || Blue Nile |- ! scope="row" | Tana Beles | Lake Tana, Ethiopia || 2010 || 460{{sfn|Hailu|2022 |loc=Table 4}} || Beles River, Blue Nile |- ! scope="row" | Tekezé Dam | Tekezé River, Ethiopia || 2009 || 300{{sfn|Hailu|2022 |loc=Table 4}} || Tekezé, [[Atbarah River|Atbarah]] |- ! scope="row" | Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam | Bameza, Ethiopia|| 2020 || 5,150{{sfn|Endeshaw|2025}} || Blue Nile |- ! scope="row" | Fincha | Fincha'a, Ethiopia || 1973|| 134{{sfn|Hailu|2022 |loc=Table 4}} || Blue Nile (Chomen Lake) |- ! scope="row" | Karuma | Karuma Falls, Uganda || 2024 || 600{{sfn|"Karuma", ''Uganda Radio Network''}} || Victoria Nile |- ! scope="row" | Isimba | Kamuli District, Uganda|| 2019 || 183{{sfn|"Isimba Power Station", ''UEGCL''}} || Victoria Nile |- ! scope="row" | Bujagali | Bujagali Falls, Uganda|| 2012|| 250{{sfn|Griffin|2018}} || Victoria Nile |- ! scope="row" | Kiira | Kimaka, Uganda|| 2003 || 200{{sfn|Angurini|2021}} || Victoria Nile |- ! scope="row" | Nalubaale | Jinja, Uganda || 1954|| 180{{Sfn|Tumwesigye|2011|p=10}} || Victoria Nile |} == References == <references /> == External links == {{Subject bar|auto=yes|wikt=yes|}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Nile| ]] [[Category:Ancient Egyptian religion]] [[Category:Geography of ancient Egypt]] [[Category:Hebrew Bible rivers]] [[Category:International rivers of Africa]] [[Category:National parks of Egypt]] [[Category:Nile basin|*]] [[Category:Rivers insyd art]] [[Category:Rivers of Burundi]] [[Category:Rivers of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:Rivers of Egypt]] [[Category:Rivers of Eritrea]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Rivers of Kenya]] [[Category:Rivers of Rwanda]] [[Category:Rivers of South Sudan]] [[Category:Rivers of Sudan]] [[Category:Rivers of Tanzania]] [[Category:Rivers of Uganda]] [[Category:Water transport insyd Egypt]] t4vicsctuaup4m4ad0n7c08pkig2ag0 102934 102932 2026-06-15T08:16:42Z Achiri Bitamsimli 64 Added more content 102934 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Nile''' be a major north-flowing river insyd northeast [[Africa]] wich dey empty into de Mediterranean Sea. At 7,088 kilometers (4,404 mi) long, e be de longest river insyd de world, although de volume of water e dey carry be much smaller dan oda major rivers such as de Amazon anaa de Congo. De Nile play a central role insyd de environmental, economic, den cultural history of Africa for millennia. De Nile get two major tributaries: de [[White Nile]] den de [[Blue Nile]]. De White Nile be longer wey be considered to be de headwaters, yet de Blue Nile dey contribute over twice de volume of de White Nile. De White Nile dey begin near Lake Victoria den dey flow thru [[Uganda]] den [[South Sudan]]; while de Blue Nile dey begin near Lake Tana insyd [[Ethiopia]] den dey flow into [[Sudan]] from de southeast. De two rivers dey meet at de Sudanese capital of Khartoum. From der, de Nile dey flow north thru de Nubian Desert to Egypt ein capital, Cairo, den finally dey empty into de Mediterranean Sea near Alexandria, wer e form a large river delta. Geologically, de Nile be a young river wey e follow ein present course for about 15,000 years. Ein drainage basin dey extend across eleven countries. Chaw of de water insyd de Nile dey cam from rainfall insyd de upstream countries [[Ethiopia]], [[Kenya]], [[Tanzania]], den [[Uganda]]. Downstream countries – [[Egypt]], [[Sudan]], den [[South Sudan]] – be primarily desert, den withdraw river water for irrigation. Oda countries wey lie wholly anaa partly insyd de Nile Basin be [[Burundi]], de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Eritrea]], den [[Rwanda]]. De Nile be de foundation of de Ancient Egyptian civilization, wich rely on de river for nearly every aspect of life. De annual flooding of de river deposit nutrient-rich silt along de riverbanks. Dis soil support crops wey enable a sophisticated society to thrive insyd an otherwise inhospitable desert. De Nile facilitate trade, communication, transportation, den governance. South (upstream) of de second Nile cataract lay Nubia, de historical home of de ancient Kerma culture den de Kushite Empire. Na chaw Europeans be fascinated by de Nile, den dema explorations around Lake Victoria insyd de late 19th century locate de source of de river. Among de cultures wey live along de Nile insyd de modern era be de Nilotic peoples, semi-nomadic cattle herders wey practice nomadic pastoralism, wey dey move dema cattle seasonally in response to de Nile ein floods. Insyd de modern era, de Nile dey play a critical role insyd de economies of Egypt den Sudan, wich dey rely on am to irrigate extensive croplands. Since de late 20th century, na dem build over a dozen dams insyd de Nile Basin to provide for irrigation den to generate electricity. De dams alter de river ein annual flood cycle wey e restrict de transport of silt downstream, wey dey cause de Nile Delta to shrink. Sam dams – such as de Aswan High Dam den Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam – be de source of international political disputes about water scarcity, safety, food security, den forced displacement of peoples. == Names den etymology == De English word "Nile" be derived from de Latin Nilus den de Ancient Greek Νεῖλος (Neilos), wich possibly originate from de Semitic term ''naḥal'', wey dey mean 'river'.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} Several tributaries (smaller rivers wey merge into de Nile) den segments of de river incorporate "Nile" insyd dema names, wey dey include: * Albert Nile{{snd}}Segment of de White Nile wey dey flow north from Lake Albert to Nimule * Black Nile{{snd}}An alternate name give de [[Atbarah River]] * [[Blue Nile]]{{snd}}One of de two major tributaries of de Nile * Kyoga Nile{{snd}}Segment of White Nile from Lake Kyoga to Lake Albert{{sfn|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=338,345}} * Main Nile{{snd}}Segment of de Nile downstream from de confluence of Blue Nile den White Nile{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=4}} * Mountain Nile{{snd}}Segment of de White Nile from de mountains of Uganda to de plains of South Sudan{{sfn|Talling|2009|p=390}}<!-- {{efn|The Mountain Nile is also called ''Baḥr al-Jabal'' or ''Baḥr el-Jebel'' in Arabic. }} --> * Victoria Nile{{snd}}Segment of White Nile from [[Lake Victoria]] to Lake Kyoga{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=5}} * [[White Nile]]{{snd}}One of de two major tributaries of de Nile * Yellow Nile{{snd}}De Wadi Howar, remnant of an ancient tributary wey dry up several thousand years ago{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=4}} == Names and etymology == Di English word "Nile" come from di {{lang|la|Nilus}} for Latin and {{lang|grc|Νεῖλος}} (Neilos) for Ancient Greek, wey fit originate from Semitic term ''naḥal'', wey mean 'river'.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} {{Quote box|align=right|width=30|Egyptian hieroglyphs for {{lang|egy-latn|jtrw}},<br>di word for 'river' or 'Nile':{{sfn|Gardiner|1964|pp=43,623}}{{efn|Other hieroglyphs for 'river' dey presented in {{harvnb|Faulkner|1964|p=33}} and {{harvnb|Allen|2000|pp=21,101}}. }} <hiero>M17-X1:D21-G43-N35:N35:N35</hiero> }} For ancient Egyptian language, di same word dem dey use for 'Nile' and 'river': {{lang|egy-latn|jtrw}}.{{sfn|Allen|2000|pp=21,101}} Dem Egyptians dey call dem country {{lang|egy-latn|kmt}} meaning 'black', wey dey refer to di dark colour of Nile flood water wey carry soil from upstream.{{sfn|Allen|2000|p=339, 470}} Di English name "Blue Nile" na translation of Arabic name ''Al-Baḥr Al-Azraq''.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} For modern time, di river get different names inside Nile Basin. For Egypt, dem dey call am ''Al-Nīl'', ''Baḥr Al-Nīl'' or ''Nahr Al-Nīl''.<ref name=Barh>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Badawi|2003 |p=717}}. |{{harvnb|Hurst|2025}}. }}</ref> For South Sudan, dem sometimes dey call am Arabic ''Baḥr el-Jebel'', {{lang|ar|بحر الجبل}}, wey mean 'Mountain River'.{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=6}} For Uganda, Luganda speakers dey use name ''Kiyira''.{{sfn|Hamilton |2016|p=66}} Some Nubian people for Egypt and Sudan dey use Nobiin name ''Áman Dawū'' ('Great Water').{{sfn|Murray|1923|p=8}} Some tributaries and river sections even carry "Nile" inside their names, including: * Albert Nile—section of White Nile wey dey flow north from Lake Albert go Nimule<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Dumont|2009|pp=5,6,40}}. |{{harvnb|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=338,345}}. }}</ref> * Black Nile—another name for Atbarah River<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Haupt|1926|p=305}}. |{{harvnb|Ranjan|2024|p=24}}. }}</ref> * Blue Nile—one of di two main tributaries of Nile * Kyoga Nile—section of White Nile from Lake Kyoga go Lake Albert{{sfn|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=338,345}} * Main Nile—section after Blue Nile and White Nile join{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=4}} * Mountain Nile—section of White Nile from Uganda mountains go South Sudan plains{{sfn|Talling|2009|p=390}} * Victoria Nile—section from Lake Victoria go Lake Kyoga{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=5}} * White Nile—one of di two main tributaries of Nile * Yellow Nile—Wadi Howar, old river wey don dry up thousands of years ago{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=4}} == Sources == [[File:Nile River Sources.svg|thumb|alt= A map of northeast Africa. The Nile is visible as a meandering blue line, running vertically. The river starts at the bottom in green forested area, and goes upward then ends in a blue sea at the top.| Di Nile get six cataracts{{efn|Some cataracts don enter man-made reservoirs.}} and several sources.]] Di source of Nile dey come from tributary of Rukarara River for Nyungwe National Park, Rwanda, at {{Coord|2|19|35|S|29|21|30|E}}, for elevation of about {{convert|2,539|m|ft|sp=us}}.<ref name=SourceCite>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Liu|2009}}. |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=277–278}}. }}</ref> Di highest sources of Nile dey for slopes of Rwenzori Mountains for Uganda.<ref name=Rwenz/> Dem sometimes dey call these mountains “Mountains of the Moon”, as Greek astronomer Ptolemy describe am, and dem dey associate am with Rwenzori.<ref name=Rwenz>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Eggermont|2009|pp=243–246}}. |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=282}}. }}</ref> Di southernmost source of Nile dey for Burundi at one branch of Ruvyironza River, wey join Kagera River.<ref name=southSource/> Burkhart Waldecker build monument near am for 1937 around Rutovu, near Mount Kikizi.<ref name=southSource>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Collins|2002|pp=27-29}}. |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=300–301}}. |{{harvnb|Hughes|1992|pp=97,119,198}}. |{{harvnb|Warburg|2007|pp=475,483-484}}. |{{harvnb|"Source Du Nil", ''Google Maps''}}. }}</ref> Lake Victoria—wey Tanzania, Uganda and Kenya share—sometimes dem dey call am source because White Nile dey start from where e dey flow out for Jinja, Uganda.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|p=6}} But some people dey even suggest say real source na rain clouds over Lake Victoria because dem dey supply most of di water.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=340-341}}. |{{harvnb|Camberlin|2009|pp=312-314}}. }}</ref> Di source of Blue Nile dey near Gish Abay town, south of Lake Tana.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|pp=323–324}} == Geography== [[File:Nile River Landmarks.svg|thumb|The waters of the Nile originate as rainfall in the mountains in the south and east regions of the Nile Basin.|alt=A map of northeast Africa, showing the location of several cities and tourist sights on the river]] Nile na big river wey dey Northeast Africa wey go enter Mediterranean Sea. The Nile Basin na all di land wey water dey drain go inside Nile, and e cover about 2,927,843 km{{super|2}}{{snd}}which be around 10% of Africa continent (see di map wey dey side).<ref name=basinSize/> Eleven countries dey inside di basin fully or partly: Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania, and Uganda.{{sfn|Allan|2009|p=753}}{{efn| In 2011, South Sudan break comot from Sudan, becoming di eleventh country for Nile Basin.{{sfn|Ranjan|2024|p=18}}}} Di basin get different-different climate, ecosystems, and landforms{{snd}}from dry sandy desert for north side, go reach flat swamp wetlands for middle, then rainy forest mountains for south side.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=335-340}}. |{{harvnb|Collins|2002|p=5}}. }}</ref> Di basin fit divide into seven regions; five of dem follow di longest route of Nile. If we follow di river from downstream direction, these five regions be: African Great Lakes, Mountain Nile, White Nile, main Nile, and Nile Delta. Two extra regions dey cover important tributaries: Blue Nile and Atbarah River.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} ===African Great Lakes=== African Great Lakes region na where Nile start from, and e get plenty big lakes wey dey part of di river system: Lake Victoria, Lake Albert, Lake George, and Lake Edward.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Eggermont |2009|p=255}}. |{{harvnb|Collins|2002|pp=27-46}}. Overview of African Great Lakes. }}</ref> Di real source of Nile na Rukarara River for Rwanda Nyungwe National Park,<ref name=SourceCite/> and e go join Kagera River wey go enter Lake Victoria.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}}{{efn|name=sourceRivSequence|Di source of Nile go pass Rukarara River, then Mwogo River, wey join Mbirurume River form Nyabarongo River, wey later enter Kagera River, wey go Lake Victoria.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=260,263,277–278}}. Furthest source. |{{harvnb|Hughes|1992|pp=97,119,198}}. Southernmost source. }}</ref> }} Even though Lake Victoria big pass, e still shallow, average depth be {{convert|40|m|ft|sp=us}}.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|p=214}} Nile first get name “Nile” for where Lake Victoria dey pour water for north side; from there reach Lake Albert dem dey call am Victoria Nile.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} Two waterfalls{{snd}}Ripon Falls and Owen Falls{{snd}}dey where Nile comot from Lake Victoria, but Nalubaale dam don cover dem. After Bujagali Falls and Bujagali Power Station, Victoria Nile enter Lake Kyoga. After e comot from Lake Kyoga, River Kafu join am, then e pass Murchison Falls enter Lake Albert. Lake Albert different from Lake Victoria because e deep and mountain surround am. River comot from north side of Lake Albert, where dem call am Albert Nile; this part calm and wide, and boat fit travel am easy with steamboat.<ref name=phys>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Hurst|2025}}. |{{harvnb|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=336–339}}. }}</ref> ===Mountain Nile=== Second region of Nile Basin, if we dey go downstream, na Mountain Nile ({{langx|ar-latn|Bahr al Jabal}}).<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Hurst|2025}}. |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=5. Arabic translation.}} }}</ref> This place start near Nimule town, reach Lake No, and e dey fully inside South Sudan. After Nimule, river pass Fula Rapids go Juba{{snd}}capital of South Sudan. After Juba, Nile pass Bor town, then e enter Sudd swamp wey big well well and dey flat land.<ref>{{harvnb|Collins|2002|pp=47-69}}. Overview of Sudd.</ref> Di land slope for Sudd be very small, about 1:13,000 rise over run, so river slow and spread wide. Plenty plants like sedges, papyrus, and water hyacinth (wey be invasive species) dey block water path and make navigation hard. For north side of Sudd, Nile pass Lake No small lake where Bahr el Ghazal River (meaning ‘gazelle river’) join am from west side.<ref name=phys/> One big tributary for Mountain Nile be Bahr el Ghazal wey come from western Sudan and join White Nile for Lake No. Di basin of this river big reach about 860,000 square km{{sfn|"Baḥr al-Ghazāl" ''Britannica''}} but even though rain plenty, e contribute small water to Nile compared to other tributaries.{{efn|Most rainwater for Bahr el Ghazal basin go loss through evaporation before e reach Nile.<ref name=Ghazal/>}} E basin get Lake Kundi and Lake Keilak. Bahr el Ghazal pass through Wau town, South Sudan: east side of Wau na permanent stream, but west side na seasonal stream.<ref name=Ghazal>{{multiref |{{harvnb|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=352–354}}. |{{harvnb|Dumont|2009|p=6}}. }}</ref> ===White Nile region=== [[File:Whiteandblueniles.jpg|thumb|alt=Aerial photograph of Khartoum, showing two rivers joining, each with a distinct coloration of its water|Di different colours of White Nile (left) and Blue Nile (right) show where dem meet form main Nile (top left).]] If we continue downstream, third region be White Nile region{{efn|White Nile region here cover only small part of di big White Nile River.}} wey get about {{convert|800 |km|mi|sp=us}} river stretch from near Malakal reach Khartoum, capital of Sudan. For there, Blue Nile join am. This part of river be wide, calm, and get swamp edges for both sides. Water here shallow and plenty of am dey lost through evaporation.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} Where White Nile meet Blue Nile, dem colour no be same. White Nile light because e carry sediment like quartz and feldspar. Blue Nile carry dark clay sediment from Ethiopia basalt rocks.{{sfn|Bunbury|2023|pp=44-45}} Sobat River na tributary wey join White Nile near Malakal (after Bahr el Ghazal join, before Blue Nile). E basin{{snd}}wey include Machar Marshes{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=6}} cover about 225,000 square km.{{sfn|Shahin|2002|p=276}} Sobat dey flood between July and December.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} ===Main Nile=== [[File:Assuan-Hochdamm 15.JPG|thumb|Aswan High Dam dey for main Nile near Egypt and Sudan border. E fit produce 2.1 gigawatts electricity.{{sfn|El-Shabrawy|2009| p= 149}}|alt=A large concrete building next to a placid lake. Many large power transmission towers are next to the building.]] Fourth region na main Nile{{snd}}wey be the part from Khartoum go Cairo, Egypt capital.<ref name=phys/> This section get almost same width and depth: about {{convert|500|m|ft|sp=us}} wide and {{convert|10|m|ft|sp=us}} deep for deepest part when no flood.{{sfn|Bunbury|2023|p=45}} After Khartoum, river enter Sabaloka Game Reserve and pass strong rapids wey boat no fit pass. This na sixth cataract of Nile. Atbarah River{{snd}}big tributary{{snd}}join here, then river bend S-shape go west. Four more cataracts (5, 4, 3, 2) dey inside this curve and dem make navigation hard. River later enter Lake Nasser reservoir. This lake{{snd}}second largest artificial lake for world{{snd}}come from Aswan High Dam, and e cover about {{convert|480 |km|mi|sp=us}} Nile stretch. Aswan Low Dam dey under High Dam near first cataract area (now submerged). From there, Nile flow about {{convert|800|km|mi|sp=us}} through limestone land with plenty farm irrigation reach Cairo.<ref name=phys/> ===Nile Delta=== {{main|Nile Delta}} [[File:Nile River and delta from orbit.jpg|thumb|Nile Delta na di big triangle green area for top of this picture where river enter Mediterranean Sea.|alt=A photograph of north Egypt, taken from space. The Nile terminates by flowing into the Mediterranean Sea, forming a large, triangular area of land.]] Fifth and last region na Nile Delta, big triangle river delta (about 22,000 km{{super|2}}){{sfn|Hamza|2009|p=75}} wey stretch from Cairo reach Mediterranean Sea.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} River split into two main distributaries for delta: Rosetta branch and Damietta branch. Total size of delta (including underwater part) be about 150,000 km{{super|3}}. Delta form over millions of years from sediment wey river carry come from upstream.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Hurst|2025}}. |{{harvnb|Talbot|Williams|2009|pp=37–40, 57}}. }}</ref> Since Aswan High Dam finish for 1970, delta start shrink because sea erosion dey remove land. Before, new sediment from river dey balance am, but dam block sediment so e no reach delta again.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Hamza|2009|p=93}}. |{{harvnb|Bunbury|2023|pp=45-46}}. }}</ref> === Blue Nile tributary === {{main|Blue Nile}} [[File:Lower Aber river and tributaries.png|thumb|Blue Nile source na Gish Abay for bottom of bright line. River go north reach Lake Tana for top.|alt=A map of Ethiopia, showing a part of the Blue Nile and Lake Tana.]] Longest Nile route{{snd}}including White Nile tributary{{snd}}get other tributaries too. Blue Nile and Atbarah basin form last two regions of Nile Basin.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} Blue Nile start from Ethiopian hills as small stream called Abay near Gish Abay: Gish mean ‘source’ for Amharic, and Abay na di river name.<ref>{{multiref |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=323–324}}. |{{harvnb|McKenna|2025}}. |{{harvnb|Collins|2002|pp=88-104}}. Overview of Blue Nile. }}</ref> E go enter Lake Tana, and from there e continue as Blue Nile. River bend south first, then west through deep gorge about {{convert|2 |km|ft|sp=us}} deep, then north pass South Sudan enter Sudan, where e join White Nile for Khartoum to form main Nile.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|McKenna|2025}}. |{{harvnb|Dumont|2009}}. }}</ref> Along di route, Blue Nile generate electricity for hydro plants like Tis Abay hydropower project at Blue Nile Falls, Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam near Ethiopia–South Sudan border, Roseires Dam near Ad Damazin, and Sennar Dam.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=274, 339}}. Blue Nile Falls. |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=116,135}}. Roseires Dam. |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=341}}. Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam. |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=118, 131, 348}}. Sennar Dam. }}</ref> Blue Nile drainage basin cover over 306,000 square km.{{sfn|Senay|2014|p=8639|loc=Table 3}} === Atbarah tributary=== {{main|Atbarah River}} Atbarah River na tributary of Nile wey start from northern Ethiopia, and e join Nile about {{convert|320|km|mi|sp=us}} north of Khartoum.<ref name=Atbarah/> E basin cover over 204,000 square km.{{sfn|Senay|2014|p=8639|loc=Table 3}} Atbarah flow strong during monsoon season (summer and fall), but fit dry for winter and spring. Even though e no steady, e still give more than 10% of Nile total yearly water.<ref name=Atbarah>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Hurst|2025}}. |{{harvnb|Dumont|2009|p=7}}. |{{harvnb|Sutcliffe|2009|p=339}}. }}</ref> Dams for Atbarah include Khashm el-Girba Dam, Upper Atbara and Setit Dam Complex, and Tekezé Dam (wey dey Tekezé River tributary).<ref>{{multiref |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=321,336–337}}. Tekezé Dam. |{{harvnb|Sutcliffe|2009|p=359}}. Khashm el-Girba Dam. |{{harvnb|Hafez |2024}}. Upper Atbara and Setit Dam Complex. }}</ref> ==Hydrology== {{Nile River routemap}} [[File:Monthly variations of the flow of the Nile River.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|alt=Chart showing monthly flow of the Nile in cubic meters per second. Values (January to December) are 1285.7, 1006.0, 831.3, 881.7, 828.7, 845.2, 1930.3, 6984.0, 7866.5, 4895.2, 2510.8, 1596.9.|The flow of the Nile River dey change plenty through di year. Rates (m{{super|3}}/sec) dem measure am for Dongola on top di main Nile.{{sfn|"Nile Basin Dongola", ''Global Runoff Data Center''}}{{efn|name=exclGERD}} ]] ===Flow and floods=== {{further|Flooding of the Nile}} Even though Nile be di longest river for world, e no get di biggest water flow. Di amount wey e dey carry—about 87 km{{super|3}} per year—be small pass many big rivers. Di Nile flow be only about 1% of Amazon, 6% of Congo, and 12% of Yangtze.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=4}}. |{{harvnb|Sutcliffe|2009|p=340}}. |{{harvnb|Collins|2002|p=11}}. }}</ref>{{efn|Comparisons are using discharge of the Nile as measured at Aswan. The Nile's discharge into the Mediterranean Sea is far less.{{efn|name=discharge}} }} Di yearly water wey come from di three main tributaries be: 54% from Blue Nile, 32% from White Nile (including Bahr el Ghazal and Sobat), and 14% from Atbarah.{{sfn|Senay|2014|p=8639|loc= Table 4. Based on annual discharge figures: Blue Nile 48 km{{sup|3}}; White Nile 28 km{{sup|3}}; Atbarah 12 km{{sup|3}} }} Both White Nile highlands and Blue Nile highlands dey get seasonal rain, but White Nile flow dey more steady pass Blue Nile.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} Dis be because plenty lakes and wetlands for White Nile dey control the water flow.{{sfn|Sutcliffe|2009|p=357}} As White Nile dey pass Sudd swamp, almost half of di water dey lost through evaporation.{{sfn|Sutcliffe|2009|p=346}} But Blue Nile flow dey change plenty through di year. E dey flood from July go October because of summer monsoon rain.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} During dis time, Blue Nile water so strong say e dey push White Nile back for di junction.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=5}}. |{{harvnb|Ghabbour|2009|pp=503–504}}. }}</ref> For peak flood time, di Nile water contribution be about 70% Blue Nile, 20% Atbarah, and 10% White Nile.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} At di highest point, water wey dey enter Lake Nasser fit reach about 0.71 km{{sup|3}} per day, wey be almost three times normal average.{{ref}} Before dams come, Nile for Egypt dey rise for summer/fall and drop for winter/spring.{{efn|Flood size fit change for different years, even last for many years.}} But after Aswan High Dam build, water flow down go Egypt don become more steady all year round.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|El-Shabrawy|2009|p=125}}. |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=5}}. |{{harvnb|Bunbury|2023|p=45}}. }}</ref> === Sediment transport === Nile dey carry soil and rock particles go downstream. Dis sediment dey move either as suspended load (wey dey float inside water) or bedload (wey dey roll for river bottom).{{sfn|Lemma |2019|p=1}} About 97% of sediment wey Nile dey carry come from Atbarah and Blue Nile, both wey start for Ethiopia.{{sfn|Talbot|Williams|2009|p=38}} Most erosion happen only during rainy season for Ethiopian Highlands.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} Soil for Nile Delta actually come from Ethiopian rocks. For about 30 million years, erosion from Ethiopia create about 102,000 km{{super|3}} of material, almost same as delta size of 150,000 km{{super|3}}.{{sfn|Talbot|Williams|2009|p=37}} Sediment wey enter dam fit settle inside and reduce dam capacity. Dis don already happen for Sennar Dam, Roseires Dam, and Khashm el Girba Dam.{{sfn|Sutcliffe|2009|p=359}} Annual sediment data for some places: * Gilgel Abay, Ethiopia : 7.6 million tonnes suspended, plus 0.7% bedload * El Deim (Ethiopia–Sudan border): 140 million tonnes{{sfn|Sutcliffe|2009|p=359}} * Aswan, Egypt: 0.14 million tonnes suspended, plus 28% bedload * Beni Sweif, Egypt: 0.5 million tonnes suspended, plus 20% bedload * Qena, Egypt: 0.27 million tonnes suspended, plus 27% bedload * Sohag, Egypt: 1.5 million tonnes suspended, plus 13% bedload ===Water sources and sinks=== [[File:Surface water cycle.svg|thumb|right| Water balance for Nile Basin dey show how hydrology dey work: rain, evaporation, soil, and river flow.|alt=A schematic diagram shows water movements around a piece of ground. Arrows show water moving upward due to evaporation and transpiration; other arrows show water moving downward into groundwater recharge.]] As river dey move downstream, some places dey add water (source), while some dey remove water (sink).{{sfn|Senay|2014|p=8631|loc= Equation (4)}} Upstream areas like Ethiopian Highlands and African Great Lakes be water sources. Downstream areas like South Sudan, Sudan, and Egypt dey act as sinks.{{sfn|Senay|2014|pp=8641,8648|loc=Figure 7; Sections 3.5.5, 4; Tables 3,4,5 and 6}} Hydrologists dey use water balance method to check source and sink. Water balance mean say: water wey enter area must equal water wey leave area.{{sfn|Healy|2007|pp=5-6}} ====Sources and sinks: countries==== {| class="wikitable" |+ Key for "Source/Sink" columns |- | {{D-P|Source}} || Country be major water source |- | {{D-N|Sink}} || Country be major water sink |- | {{D-W|Neutral}} || Country no be strong source or sink |} {| class= "wikitable mw-collapsible nowrap defaultright col1left sortable" style="font-size: 85%;" |+ Country water balance (annual){{sfn|Senay|2014|p=8640|loc=Table 5}}{{efn|name=exclGERD|Data does not include impacts of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam, completed in 2025}}{{efn|name=TableLegend}} ! scope="col" | Country ! scope="col" | Source/Sink<br />(water bal km{{sup|3}}) ! scope="col" | Basin<br />Area km{{sup|2}}{{efn|Basin area is the Nile Basin within the country.}} ! scope="col" | Precip km{{sup|3}} ! scope="col" | Evap km{{sup|3}} ! scope="col" | Runoff km{{sup|3}} |- ! scope="row" | [[Burundi]] | {{D-W|Neutral}} (2) || 13,240|| 14 || 13 || 3 |- ! scope="row" |[[DR Congo]] | {{D-W|Neutral}} (0) || 19,919|| 23 || 23 || 0 |- ! scope="row" |[[Egypt]] | {{D-N|Sink}} (−39) || 235,108 || 4 || 44 || 0 |- ! scope="row" | [[Eritrea]] | {{D-W|Neutral}} (2) || 24,427 || 14 || 12 || 0 |- ! scope="row" |[[Ethiopia]] | {{D-P|Source}} (164) || 363,775 || 459 || 295 || 138 |- ! scope="row" |[[Kenya]] | {{D-P|Source}} (27) || 49,513 || 76 || 49 || 23 |- ! scope="row" | [[Rwanda]] | {{D-W|Neutral}} (1) || 20,676 || 21 || 20 || 4 |- ! scope="row" |[[South Sudan]] | {{D-N|Sink}} (−146) || 617,256 || 612 || 757 ||92 |- ! scope="row" |[[Sudan]] | {{D-N|Sink}} (−81) || 1,226,660 || 364 || 445 ||23 |- ! scope="row" |[[Tanzania]] | {{D-P|Source}} (38) || 120,506 || 160 || 122 || 18 |- ! scope="row" | [[Uganda]] | {{D-P|Source}} (25) || 236,763 || 301 || 276 ||22 |- ! scope="row" | Total | || 2,927,843 || 2,048 || 2,056 || 324 |} ====Sources and sinks: geographic basins==== [[File:Nile River discharge flow gauge locations.svg|thumb|Map show di 12 measurement stations wey dem use for water balance study.|alt=A map of northeast Africa. The Nile River is drawn, and there are a dozen landmarks shown on the map, at various points of the river]] Another way to study Nile water balance be to split basin into smaller basins. Data come from 12 river stations.{{sfn|Senay|2014}} {| class= "wikitable mw-collapsible mw-uncollapsed nowrap defaultright col1left sortable" style="font-size: 85%;" |+ Geographic basin water balance (annual)<ref name=HydroData>{{harvnb|Senay|2014|loc=Tables 3,4,5 and 6; Sec 3.5.5 (Source/Sink)}}.</ref> ! scope="col" | Basin's<br />downstream<br />station ! scope="col" | Source/Sink<br />(water bal km{{sup|3}}) ! scope="col" | Basin<br />Area km{{sup|2}} ! scope="col" | Precip km{{sup|3}} ! scope="col" | Evap km{{sup|3}} ! scope="col" | Runoff km{{sup|3}} |- ! scope="row" | 1 [[Lake Victoria]] outlet | {{D-P|Source}} (74) || 264,259 || 353 || 279 || 57 |- ! scope="row" | 2 [[Murchison Falls]] | {{D-P|Source}} (15) || 85,513 || 109 || 94 || 9 |- ! scope="row" |3 Mongalla | {{D-W|Neutral}} (1) || 131,691 || 159 || 158 || 5 |- ! scope="row" | 4 Malakal | {{D-N|Sink}} (−159) || 925,160|| 798 || 957 || 150 |- ! scope="row" |5 Khartoum |{{D-N|Sink}} (−40) || 257,130 || 134 || 174 || 14 |- ! scope="row" | 6 Dam | {{D-P|Source}} (105) || 188,296|| 246 || 142 || 70 |- ! scope="row" |7 Khartoum | {{D-W|Neutral}} (10) || 118,651|| 96 || 72 || 9 |- ! scope="row" |8 Khashm el Girba | {{D-P|Source}} (30) || 100,318|| 95 || 66 || 10 |- ! scope="row" | 9 Mouth of Atbarah River | {{D-W|Neutral}} (−3) || 104,051 || 22 || 25 || 1 |- ! scope="row" | 11 Aswan Dam | {{D-N|Sink}} (−10) || 188,011||2 || 13 || 0 |- ! scope="row" |12 Cairo/Delta | {{D-N|Sink}} (−10) || 145,293||3 || 12 || 0 |} ===Nilometers=== Measurement of Nile flow always important for Egypt to manage farming and flood safety. Simple gauges called nilometers don dey use for thousands of years to check river level.<ref name=nilometer>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=340,361}}. |{{harvnb|Talling|2009|p=25}}. |{{harvnb|Bunbury|2023|p=68}}. |{{harvnb|Collins|2002|pp=15-20}}. }}</ref> Ideal flood for Egypt be moderate—about 6 m rise above normal level. If e too high, e fit destroy communities; if e too low, crops no go get fertile silt.<ref name=nilometer/> One important nilometer dey Roda Island since 622 CE. Egyptians dey record flood levels from am till 1921. Modern river gauges start from 1860s, and later systems for measuring flow start from 1900s.{{sfn|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=340,361}} == Ecology == ===Animals=== {{Easy CSS image crop |image =Hippos in their Natural Habitat in Kazinga Channel 10.jpg |desired_width = 260 |crop_left_perc = 20 |crop_right_perc = 0 |crop_top_perc = 10 |crop_bottom_perc = 0 |align = right |alt= A hippopotamus standing on the grassy shore of a lake, with bushes in the background. |caption= A Hippopotamus amphibius near Lake Edward, one of di lakes wey dey feed Nile }} Di total number of fish species wey dem fit find for Nile Basin dey over 800. For di river alone, dem find 128 species, wey belong to 27 families.<ref name=fish/> Most of di species dey come from four main families: Cichlidae (cichlids), Cyprinidae (carp), Mormyridae (elephantfish), and Mochokidae (catfish).{{sfn|Witte|2009|p=647 }} Plenty Cichlid species dey di African Great Lakes.<ref name=fish>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Witte|2009|pp=647, 651–652 }}. |{{harvnb| Green|2009|p=205}}. }}</ref> Apart from fish, animals wey sometimes dey live inside Nile water include hippos, Nile crocodiles, and African buffalo. Other water animals include molluscs, crabs (Potamonautes), and shrimp (Caridina nilotica).<ref name=animals/> Many animals dey live for ecosystem along di river banks like elephants, antelope, and giraffes.<ref name=animals/> Snails wey dey Nile lakes dey carry parasitic flatworms—dem dey call am blood flukes—wey cause schistosomiasis wey dey affect humans and livestock.{{sfn| Green|2009|p=205}} Birds wey dey live near Nile include herons, kingfishers, ospreys, and different kinds of storks—including shoebills.<ref name=animals>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=189}}. |{{harvnb|Hurst|2025}}. |{{harvnb|Van Damme|Bocxlaer |2009|pp=585}}. |{{harvnb|Dumont |2009|pp=10–11}}. |{{harvnb|Green|El-Moghraby|2009|pp=193,196–197,201–202}}. }}</ref> Some bird species be endemic for Nile Basin (like blue-winged goose), while others dey everywhere for world (like moorhen and osprey).{{sfn|Green|2009a|p=705}} Many herons, ducks, geese, and egrets dey stay there whole year, and 14 species of ducks and geese dey come only for winter.{{sfn|Green|2009a|p=705}} Most gulls and terns dey migrate. For past thousand years, some species range don reduce because of human activities.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Green|2009a|p=705}}. |{{harvnb|Bunbury|2023|pp=53-55,58,70}}. }}</ref> ===Plants=== [[File:Nymphaea lotus1XMATT.jpg|thumb|alt= A white flower and green leaves floating on the top of water.|Di white Egyptian lotus dey native for calm water inside Nile Basin.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb| Green|2009|pp=205,207}}. |{{harvnb| Vijverberg|2009|p=166}}. }}</ref>]] Di Great Lakes region for Nile Basin get plants like water lily, papyrus, and water hyacinth. Water hyacinth be invasive species, and e don spoil native plants population for Lake Kyoga.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb| Green|2009|p=205}}. |{{harvnb| Dumont|2009|p=13}}. }}</ref> Plants wey common for Sudd swamp include Vossia, hippo grass, reed mace, ambatch, and papyrus. Sudd also get plants wey fit survive shallow flood like Oryza, antelope grass, and Phragmites.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Sutcliffe|2009|p=350}}. |{{harvnb|Hurst|2025}}. }}</ref> ===Pollution=== Before-before, Nile water dey clean and people fit drink am direct, but by late 20th century, water quality don reduce for some areas.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Dumont|2009|p=18}}. |{{harvnb|Talling|2009a|p=368}}. }}</ref>{{efn|Jack Talling talk say Nile water get good quality for drinking and irrigation, and e dey carry high silt seasonally.{{sfn|Talling|2009a|p=368}} }} Pollution strong pass for Lake Tana, near big cities, and for Nile Delta.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Dumont|2009|p=18}}. |{{harvnb|El-Sheekh|2009|pp=395–396}}. }}</ref> Sources of pollution include farming waste, industrial waste, and household waste. 36 industries dey discharge waste direct into Nile, and 41 dey discharge into irrigation canals. These industries include chemical, electrical, engineering, fertilizers, food, metal, mining, oil and soap, pulp and paper, textile and wood industries. Over 90 agricultural drains dey also release waste into Nile, including industrial wastewater.{{sfn|"Nile Basin National Water Quality", ''Nile Basin Initiative''|pp=12-22}} Pollution dey worst between Aswan and Mediterranean Sea. E dey come from human activities, farming runoff, and industrial waste. As river dey flow down, pollutant concentration dey increase because everything dey accumulate.<ref name=delta>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Hegab|2025}}. |{{harvnb|Hamza|2009|p=75}}. |{{harvnb|Bunbury|2023|pp=53,59,69}}. }}</ref> Delta area dey suffer more because water no dey flush well, and river bed dey flat with heavy silt.{{sfn|Abotalib|2023}} For late 20th century, Lake Victoria experience eutrophication (too much nutrients for water wey make algae and plants grow too much and reduce oxygen). This one dey come from human activity, deforestation, and bad farming. E cause algal blooms and spread of water hyacinth wey don disturb ecosystem.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Witte|2009a|p=733}}. |{{harvnb|El-Sheekh|2009|p=395}}. |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=18}}. }}</ref> ===Conservation and human impact === [[File:Murchison Falls, Uganda (23475021234).jpg|thumb|Murchison Falls for White Nile|alt=A large waterfall, with dense foliage on both sides.]] Nile Basin used to be wet and humid between 15,000 and 5,000 years ago, and that time support beginning of agriculture around 5,000 years ago.<ref name=Humid/> Agriculture growth don cause deforestation and soil erosion.{{sfn|Williams |2009a|p=771}} Dry conditions around 4,000 years ago make matter worse, causing famine and environmental change.{{sfn|Williams |2009a|p=771}} Some animal species don go extinct because of human activities. Sacred ibis, wey important for ancient Egyptian religion, disappear from Egypt by late 19th century but still dey other parts of Africa.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Green|2009a|p=718 }}. |{{harvnb|Bunbury|2023|pp=53,55}} }}</ref> For Egypt, population increase and Aswan High Dam construction cause loss of many plants and animals.{{sfn|Bunbury|2023|pp=53-55,58,70}} Nile perch, wey originally come from other African rivers, dem introduce am into Lake Victoria in 1950s. This fish cause extinction of over 500 cichlid species inside lake.<ref name=perch/> E also increase deforestation because people need firewood to process fish.{{sfn|Witte|2009a|p=735}} Small satellite lakes around Lake Kyoga still important for conservation because dem still get many native fish species and never get Nile perch invasion.{{sfn|Green|2009|p=205}} ===Climate and climate change=== {{further|Climate change in Egypt}} {{Easy CSS image crop |image =Climate Africa Koppen with legend.svg |desired_width = 360 |crop_left_perc = 36 |crop_right_perc = 13 |crop_top_perc = 11 |crop_bottom_perc = 38 |align = right |alt=Map of northeast Africa, dividing the land into various regions, each with climate indicators. |caption=This map show Köppen climate zones for Nile Basin. North side be hot desert, while south side be wetter and cooler.{{sfn|Beck|2018}} }} Nile Basin climate dey change from very dry north (Egypt and Sudan) go wet south area.{{sfn|Camberlin|2009|p=307}} Basin get nine rainfall zones: north dey dry whole year; middle area like Ethiopia get heavy summer rain; south near Lake Victoria get two rainy seasons.{{sfn|Camberlin|2009|pp=314-315}} Most rain dey come from summer monsoon.{{sfn|Camberlin|2009|pp=307-310}} Climate change dey affect Nile Basin because greenhouse gases dey increase. Temperature fit rise by 2 to 4°C this century. Models show more drought, irregular rainfall, and stronger climate extremes for North Africa and Middle East.{{sfn|Driouech |2020}} Nile Delta dey very vulnerable because sea level rise and lack of sediment fit make one-third of delta disappear in future.<ref>{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=52–53}}.</ref> == Geological history== {{see|East African Rift}} [[File:Geological map of Egypt accessible.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|alt= A map of northeast Africa, where various areas are shaded different colors indicating the geological ages of rocks found in each region. | Geological data dey help scientists understand ancient river systems.{{sfn|Abdelsalam|2018|p=743}}]] Nile river, like many rivers, evolve from old river systems wey change course over millions of years due to tectonic movements. Current Nile shape form about 15,000 years ago.<ref name=geologOverview>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Abdelsalam|2018|p=742}}. |{{harvnb| Embabi|2018|pp=39–40}}. |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=4}}. |{{harvnb| Said|1993|pp=32–52}}. }}</ref> * About 20 million years ago, East African Rift uplift start separate African Great Lakes region from Congo basin. Nile for Egypt be short river wey dey flow north to Mediterranean. Lake Victoria never exist yet.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Abdelsalam|2018|pp=742,768-770|loc=Figure 30A }}. |{{harvnb|Hamza|2009|pp=77–78}}. }}</ref> * Between 6–5.4 million years ago, Lake Tana and big paleolakes form. Mediterranean Sea dry during Messinian salinity crisis, and Nile cut deep canyon for Egypt. Later sea refill am.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Abdelsalam|2018|pp=742,763-764,770|loc=Figure 30B }}. }}</ref> * Around 2.5 million years ago, Ethiopian rivers connect to Egyptian Nile. Lake Victoria start form.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Abdelsalam|2018|pp=742,770|loc=Figure 30C }}. }}</ref> * Around 0.5 million years ago, Lake Victoria reach near modern shape and river flow north start stabilize.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Abdelsalam|2018|pp=742,770|loc=Figure 30D }}. }}</ref> * Around 15,000 years ago, modern Nile system establish fully, with strong flow from Great Lakes region.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Abdelsalam|2018|pp=767,770}}. }}</ref> ==Human history== ===Prehistory=== [[File:The Nile River flows into the Mediterranean Sea (iss071e405499).jpg | thumb | Nile flow through Egypt desert wey before-before be wet during African humid period.<ref name=Humid/> |alt=A satellite photo of Egypt, showing mostly sandy ground, with a dark river flowing through sand into sea. ]] Early human ancestors live near Nile Basin. Australopithecus afarensis fossil Lucy dey near basin boundary. Olduvai Gorge dey south of basin.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|pp=246,346}} Nyayanga site near Lake Victoria get tools from 2.6 million years ago.{{Sfn|Plummer |2023 }} Human settlement for Nile banks dey between 12,000–20,000 years ago near Qurta (Egypt), where people carve rock art showing animals.{{sfn|Bunbury|2023|p=53}} During African humid period, Sahara area be wet, so people dey do pastoral farming. When climate dry around 3,900 BCE, people move enter Nile Valley, forming Nubian and Ancient Egyptian cultures.<ref name=Humid/> ===Ancient Egyptian civilization === [[File:Journey to Abydos, Tomb of Pairy MET DT10886.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|alt=A painting on a wall of a boat on a river, with Ancient Egyptians rowing it|Ancient Egyptians dey use boats for transport.<ref name=ancientTransport/>]] Nile be central to Egyptian life. E dey give food through farming and also cause famine when drought happen.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=9–10}}. |{{harvnb|Bunbury|2023 |pp=49,63,69}}. }}</ref> Egyptian calendar depend on Nile flood cycle. Year get three seasons: Akhet (flood), Peret (planting), Shemu (harvest).<ref name="Seasons">{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Allen|2000|p=103}}. |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021 |p=355}}. |{{harvnb|Bunbury|2023 |p=62}}. }}</ref> Nile also influence language and direction system: same word fit mean north/south or east/west depending on context.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Allen|2000|p=21}}. |{{harvnb|Bunbury|2023|p=61}}. }}</ref> Ancient Egypt get Upper and Lower Egypt, shaped by Nile geography. First cataract near Elephantine Island mark southern boundary. Egyptians no know river source beyond far south.<ref name=unknown/> They even build early dam system called Sadd el-Kafara around 2600 BCE to control flood.<ref>{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|pp=11-12}}</ref> ===Nubian, Ethiopian, and Nilotic cultures=== [[File:Rulers of Kush, Kerma Museum.jpg|thumb|Kings of Kush (Black Pharaohs).<ref name=Kushite/>]] South of Nile cataract dey Nubia, home of ancient cultures in modern Sudan.<ref name=Kerma/> Kerma culture (2600–1500 BCE) start as cattle society then move into farming.<ref name=Kerma/> Kushite Empire rise around 780 BCE and even rule Egypt for some time.<ref name=Kushite/> Later Christian kingdoms like Nobatia and Makuria form for region. Aksum Kingdom (Ethiopia/Eritrea area) control trade routes. Funj Sultanate and later Ethiopian Empire also develop around Nile region. Nilotic peoples like Dinka and Nuer migrate across Nile region as cattle herders following flood cycles.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=138–144}}. |{{harvnb|Collins|2002|pp=70-77}}. |{{harvnb|Shoup|2017|loc=Articles: "Sudd", "Dinka", "Nuer"}} }}</ref> ===Egypt from Roman era to colonial era=== [[File:Mahmoudiyah Canal.jpg|thumb|Mahmoudiyah Canal built by Muhammad Ali.<ref name=ali/>]] Roman Empire depend heavily on Egyptian grain from Nile irrigation. Later canals and irrigation systems continue under Fatimids, Mamluks, and Ottomans.<ref name=ali/> Modern dams start during Muhammad Ali rule (1805–1848), including canals like Mahmoudiyah Canal and later Ibrahimiya Canal.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Beaumont|1993|p=249}}. |{{harvnb|Shoup|2017|loc=Article: "Khedive Isma'il 1830-1895"}}. }}</ref> === Search for the source of the Nile=== {{further|European exploration of Africa}} Since ancient Greek time, people dey curious about Nile source.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=2}}. |{{harvnb|Warburg|2007|p=475}}. }}</ref> Herodotus visit Egypt in 457 BCE and wonder why Nile flood during dry season.<ref>{{sfn|Williams|2009|p=70}}</ref> Europeans and Arabs speculate say lakes for central Africa be source. Blue Nile source confirm by Jesuit Pedro Páez in Ethiopia around early 1600s. White Nile source harder to trace. Lake Victoria finally confirm in 19th century by John Hanning Speke, though debate continue.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=173-174}}. |{{harvnb|Collins|2002|p=36}}. }}</ref> Later scientific work refine exact source to Kagera River tributaries in Nyungwe Forest, with satellite confirmation in 2009.<ref name=SourceCite/> ==Economy == ===Hydropower=== [[File:Nile River Hydropower Stations.svg|thumb|Sam hydropower stations on de Nile. "GERD" be de Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam.|alt=A map of northeast Africa. The Nile is shown as a blue line. Along the Nile, locations of about ten hydropower stations are indicated.]] {| class= "wikitable defaultright col2center col5center sortable" |+ Major hydropower stations insyd de Nile Basin ! scope="col" | Hydropower<br>station ! scope="col" | Nearby<br>landmark ! scope="col" | Year<br>dem plete ! scope="col" | Power<br>(MW, insyd 2025) ! scope="col" | Tributary |- ! scope="row" | Aswan Low Dam | Aswan, Egypt ||1902, 1912, 1933, 1985|| 550{{sfn|"Aswan Low Dam", ''Egypt MOEE'' }} || Main Nile |- ! scope="row" | Aswan High Dam | Aswan, Egypt || 1970 || 2,100{{sfn|El-Shabrawy|2009|p=149}} || Main Nile |- ! scope="row" | Merowe Dam | Merowe, Sudan|| 2009 || 1,250{{sfn|"Merowe Dam - Sudan", '' Abu Dhabi Fund for Development''}} || Main Nile |- ! scope="row" | Upper Atbara and Setit | Showak, Sudan|| 2017 || 320{{sfn|"Upper Atbara Dam", ''OPEC Fund for International Development''}} || [[Atbarah River|Atbarah]] den Tekezé |- ! scope="row" | Roseires Dam | Er Roseires, Sudan || 1966, 2013 || 280{{sfn|"Roseires Dam", ''IHA''}} || Blue Nile |- ! scope="row" | Tana Beles | Lake Tana, Ethiopia || 2010 || 460{{sfn|Hailu|2022 |loc=Table 4}} || Beles River, Blue Nile |- ! scope="row" | Tekezé Dam | Tekezé River, Ethiopia || 2009 || 300{{sfn|Hailu|2022 |loc=Table 4}} || Tekezé, [[Atbarah River|Atbarah]] |- ! scope="row" | Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam | Bameza, Ethiopia|| 2020 || 5,150{{sfn|Endeshaw|2025}} || Blue Nile |- ! scope="row" | Fincha | Fincha'a, Ethiopia || 1973|| 134{{sfn|Hailu|2022 |loc=Table 4}} || Blue Nile (Chomen Lake) |- ! scope="row" | Karuma | Karuma Falls, Uganda || 2024 || 600{{sfn|"Karuma", ''Uganda Radio Network''}} || Victoria Nile |- ! scope="row" | Isimba | Kamuli District, Uganda|| 2019 || 183{{sfn|"Isimba Power Station", ''UEGCL''}} || Victoria Nile |- ! scope="row" | Bujagali | Bujagali Falls, Uganda|| 2012|| 250{{sfn|Griffin|2018}} || Victoria Nile |- ! scope="row" | Kiira | Kimaka, Uganda|| 2003 || 200{{sfn|Angurini|2021}} || Victoria Nile |- ! scope="row" | Nalubaale | Jinja, Uganda || 1954|| 180{{Sfn|Tumwesigye|2011|p=10}} || Victoria Nile |} == References == <references /> == External links == {{Subject bar|auto=yes|wikt=yes|}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Nile| ]] [[Category:Ancient Egyptian religion]] [[Category:Geography of ancient Egypt]] [[Category:Hebrew Bible rivers]] [[Category:International rivers of Africa]] [[Category:National parks of Egypt]] [[Category:Nile basin|*]] [[Category:Rivers insyd art]] [[Category:Rivers of Burundi]] [[Category:Rivers of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:Rivers of Egypt]] [[Category:Rivers of Eritrea]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Rivers of Kenya]] [[Category:Rivers of Rwanda]] [[Category:Rivers of South Sudan]] [[Category:Rivers of Sudan]] [[Category:Rivers of Tanzania]] [[Category:Rivers of Uganda]] [[Category:Water transport insyd Egypt]] 0ve5q17afyz4zl0us1mijkzyqj927pg 102935 102934 2026-06-15T08:58:35Z Achiri Bitamsimli 64 /* Economy */ added more content 102935 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Nile''' be a major north-flowing river insyd northeast [[Africa]] wich dey empty into de Mediterranean Sea. At 7,088 kilometers (4,404 mi) long, e be de longest river insyd de world, although de volume of water e dey carry be much smaller dan oda major rivers such as de Amazon anaa de Congo. De Nile play a central role insyd de environmental, economic, den cultural history of Africa for millennia. De Nile get two major tributaries: de [[White Nile]] den de [[Blue Nile]]. De White Nile be longer wey be considered to be de headwaters, yet de Blue Nile dey contribute over twice de volume of de White Nile. De White Nile dey begin near Lake Victoria den dey flow thru [[Uganda]] den [[South Sudan]]; while de Blue Nile dey begin near Lake Tana insyd [[Ethiopia]] den dey flow into [[Sudan]] from de southeast. De two rivers dey meet at de Sudanese capital of Khartoum. From der, de Nile dey flow north thru de Nubian Desert to Egypt ein capital, Cairo, den finally dey empty into de Mediterranean Sea near Alexandria, wer e form a large river delta. Geologically, de Nile be a young river wey e follow ein present course for about 15,000 years. Ein drainage basin dey extend across eleven countries. Chaw of de water insyd de Nile dey cam from rainfall insyd de upstream countries [[Ethiopia]], [[Kenya]], [[Tanzania]], den [[Uganda]]. Downstream countries – [[Egypt]], [[Sudan]], den [[South Sudan]] – be primarily desert, den withdraw river water for irrigation. Oda countries wey lie wholly anaa partly insyd de Nile Basin be [[Burundi]], de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Eritrea]], den [[Rwanda]]. De Nile be de foundation of de Ancient Egyptian civilization, wich rely on de river for nearly every aspect of life. De annual flooding of de river deposit nutrient-rich silt along de riverbanks. Dis soil support crops wey enable a sophisticated society to thrive insyd an otherwise inhospitable desert. De Nile facilitate trade, communication, transportation, den governance. South (upstream) of de second Nile cataract lay Nubia, de historical home of de ancient Kerma culture den de Kushite Empire. Na chaw Europeans be fascinated by de Nile, den dema explorations around Lake Victoria insyd de late 19th century locate de source of de river. Among de cultures wey live along de Nile insyd de modern era be de Nilotic peoples, semi-nomadic cattle herders wey practice nomadic pastoralism, wey dey move dema cattle seasonally in response to de Nile ein floods. Insyd de modern era, de Nile dey play a critical role insyd de economies of Egypt den Sudan, wich dey rely on am to irrigate extensive croplands. Since de late 20th century, na dem build over a dozen dams insyd de Nile Basin to provide for irrigation den to generate electricity. De dams alter de river ein annual flood cycle wey e restrict de transport of silt downstream, wey dey cause de Nile Delta to shrink. Sam dams – such as de Aswan High Dam den Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam – be de source of international political disputes about water scarcity, safety, food security, den forced displacement of peoples. == Names den etymology == De English word "Nile" be derived from de Latin Nilus den de Ancient Greek Νεῖλος (Neilos), wich possibly originate from de Semitic term ''naḥal'', wey dey mean 'river'.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} Several tributaries (smaller rivers wey merge into de Nile) den segments of de river incorporate "Nile" insyd dema names, wey dey include: * Albert Nile{{snd}}Segment of de White Nile wey dey flow north from Lake Albert to Nimule * Black Nile{{snd}}An alternate name give de [[Atbarah River]] * [[Blue Nile]]{{snd}}One of de two major tributaries of de Nile * Kyoga Nile{{snd}}Segment of White Nile from Lake Kyoga to Lake Albert{{sfn|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=338,345}} * Main Nile{{snd}}Segment of de Nile downstream from de confluence of Blue Nile den White Nile{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=4}} * Mountain Nile{{snd}}Segment of de White Nile from de mountains of Uganda to de plains of South Sudan{{sfn|Talling|2009|p=390}}<!-- {{efn|The Mountain Nile is also called ''Baḥr al-Jabal'' or ''Baḥr el-Jebel'' in Arabic. }} --> * Victoria Nile{{snd}}Segment of White Nile from [[Lake Victoria]] to Lake Kyoga{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=5}} * [[White Nile]]{{snd}}One of de two major tributaries of de Nile * Yellow Nile{{snd}}De Wadi Howar, remnant of an ancient tributary wey dry up several thousand years ago{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=4}} == Names and etymology == Di English word "Nile" come from di {{lang|la|Nilus}} for Latin and {{lang|grc|Νεῖλος}} (Neilos) for Ancient Greek, wey fit originate from Semitic term ''naḥal'', wey mean 'river'.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} {{Quote box|align=right|width=30|Egyptian hieroglyphs for {{lang|egy-latn|jtrw}},<br>di word for 'river' or 'Nile':{{sfn|Gardiner|1964|pp=43,623}}{{efn|Other hieroglyphs for 'river' dey presented in {{harvnb|Faulkner|1964|p=33}} and {{harvnb|Allen|2000|pp=21,101}}. }} <hiero>M17-X1:D21-G43-N35:N35:N35</hiero> }} For ancient Egyptian language, di same word dem dey use for 'Nile' and 'river': {{lang|egy-latn|jtrw}}.{{sfn|Allen|2000|pp=21,101}} Dem Egyptians dey call dem country {{lang|egy-latn|kmt}} meaning 'black', wey dey refer to di dark colour of Nile flood water wey carry soil from upstream.{{sfn|Allen|2000|p=339, 470}} Di English name "Blue Nile" na translation of Arabic name ''Al-Baḥr Al-Azraq''.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} For modern time, di river get different names inside Nile Basin. For Egypt, dem dey call am ''Al-Nīl'', ''Baḥr Al-Nīl'' or ''Nahr Al-Nīl''.<ref name=Barh>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Badawi|2003 |p=717}}. |{{harvnb|Hurst|2025}}. }}</ref> For South Sudan, dem sometimes dey call am Arabic ''Baḥr el-Jebel'', {{lang|ar|بحر الجبل}}, wey mean 'Mountain River'.{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=6}} For Uganda, Luganda speakers dey use name ''Kiyira''.{{sfn|Hamilton |2016|p=66}} Some Nubian people for Egypt and Sudan dey use Nobiin name ''Áman Dawū'' ('Great Water').{{sfn|Murray|1923|p=8}} Some tributaries and river sections even carry "Nile" inside their names, including: * Albert Nile—section of White Nile wey dey flow north from Lake Albert go Nimule<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Dumont|2009|pp=5,6,40}}. |{{harvnb|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=338,345}}. }}</ref> * Black Nile—another name for Atbarah River<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Haupt|1926|p=305}}. |{{harvnb|Ranjan|2024|p=24}}. }}</ref> * Blue Nile—one of di two main tributaries of Nile * Kyoga Nile—section of White Nile from Lake Kyoga go Lake Albert{{sfn|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=338,345}} * Main Nile—section after Blue Nile and White Nile join{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=4}} * Mountain Nile—section of White Nile from Uganda mountains go South Sudan plains{{sfn|Talling|2009|p=390}} * Victoria Nile—section from Lake Victoria go Lake Kyoga{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=5}} * White Nile—one of di two main tributaries of Nile * Yellow Nile—Wadi Howar, old river wey don dry up thousands of years ago{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=4}} == Sources == [[File:Nile River Sources.svg|thumb|alt= A map of northeast Africa. The Nile is visible as a meandering blue line, running vertically. The river starts at the bottom in green forested area, and goes upward then ends in a blue sea at the top.| Di Nile get six cataracts{{efn|Some cataracts don enter man-made reservoirs.}} and several sources.]] Di source of Nile dey come from tributary of Rukarara River for Nyungwe National Park, Rwanda, at {{Coord|2|19|35|S|29|21|30|E}}, for elevation of about {{convert|2,539|m|ft|sp=us}}.<ref name=SourceCite>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Liu|2009}}. |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=277–278}}. }}</ref> Di highest sources of Nile dey for slopes of Rwenzori Mountains for Uganda.<ref name=Rwenz/> Dem sometimes dey call these mountains “Mountains of the Moon”, as Greek astronomer Ptolemy describe am, and dem dey associate am with Rwenzori.<ref name=Rwenz>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Eggermont|2009|pp=243–246}}. |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=282}}. }}</ref> Di southernmost source of Nile dey for Burundi at one branch of Ruvyironza River, wey join Kagera River.<ref name=southSource/> Burkhart Waldecker build monument near am for 1937 around Rutovu, near Mount Kikizi.<ref name=southSource>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Collins|2002|pp=27-29}}. |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=300–301}}. |{{harvnb|Hughes|1992|pp=97,119,198}}. |{{harvnb|Warburg|2007|pp=475,483-484}}. |{{harvnb|"Source Du Nil", ''Google Maps''}}. }}</ref> Lake Victoria—wey Tanzania, Uganda and Kenya share—sometimes dem dey call am source because White Nile dey start from where e dey flow out for Jinja, Uganda.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|p=6}} But some people dey even suggest say real source na rain clouds over Lake Victoria because dem dey supply most of di water.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=340-341}}. |{{harvnb|Camberlin|2009|pp=312-314}}. }}</ref> Di source of Blue Nile dey near Gish Abay town, south of Lake Tana.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|pp=323–324}} == Geography== [[File:Nile River Landmarks.svg|thumb|The waters of the Nile originate as rainfall in the mountains in the south and east regions of the Nile Basin.|alt=A map of northeast Africa, showing the location of several cities and tourist sights on the river]] Nile na big river wey dey Northeast Africa wey go enter Mediterranean Sea. The Nile Basin na all di land wey water dey drain go inside Nile, and e cover about 2,927,843 km{{super|2}}{{snd}}which be around 10% of Africa continent (see di map wey dey side).<ref name=basinSize/> Eleven countries dey inside di basin fully or partly: Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania, and Uganda.{{sfn|Allan|2009|p=753}}{{efn| In 2011, South Sudan break comot from Sudan, becoming di eleventh country for Nile Basin.{{sfn|Ranjan|2024|p=18}}}} Di basin get different-different climate, ecosystems, and landforms{{snd}}from dry sandy desert for north side, go reach flat swamp wetlands for middle, then rainy forest mountains for south side.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=335-340}}. |{{harvnb|Collins|2002|p=5}}. }}</ref> Di basin fit divide into seven regions; five of dem follow di longest route of Nile. If we follow di river from downstream direction, these five regions be: African Great Lakes, Mountain Nile, White Nile, main Nile, and Nile Delta. Two extra regions dey cover important tributaries: Blue Nile and Atbarah River.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} ===African Great Lakes=== African Great Lakes region na where Nile start from, and e get plenty big lakes wey dey part of di river system: Lake Victoria, Lake Albert, Lake George, and Lake Edward.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Eggermont |2009|p=255}}. |{{harvnb|Collins|2002|pp=27-46}}. Overview of African Great Lakes. }}</ref> Di real source of Nile na Rukarara River for Rwanda Nyungwe National Park,<ref name=SourceCite/> and e go join Kagera River wey go enter Lake Victoria.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}}{{efn|name=sourceRivSequence|Di source of Nile go pass Rukarara River, then Mwogo River, wey join Mbirurume River form Nyabarongo River, wey later enter Kagera River, wey go Lake Victoria.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=260,263,277–278}}. Furthest source. |{{harvnb|Hughes|1992|pp=97,119,198}}. Southernmost source. }}</ref> }} Even though Lake Victoria big pass, e still shallow, average depth be {{convert|40|m|ft|sp=us}}.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|p=214}} Nile first get name “Nile” for where Lake Victoria dey pour water for north side; from there reach Lake Albert dem dey call am Victoria Nile.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} Two waterfalls{{snd}}Ripon Falls and Owen Falls{{snd}}dey where Nile comot from Lake Victoria, but Nalubaale dam don cover dem. After Bujagali Falls and Bujagali Power Station, Victoria Nile enter Lake Kyoga. After e comot from Lake Kyoga, River Kafu join am, then e pass Murchison Falls enter Lake Albert. Lake Albert different from Lake Victoria because e deep and mountain surround am. River comot from north side of Lake Albert, where dem call am Albert Nile; this part calm and wide, and boat fit travel am easy with steamboat.<ref name=phys>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Hurst|2025}}. |{{harvnb|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=336–339}}. }}</ref> ===Mountain Nile=== Second region of Nile Basin, if we dey go downstream, na Mountain Nile ({{langx|ar-latn|Bahr al Jabal}}).<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Hurst|2025}}. |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=5. Arabic translation.}} }}</ref> This place start near Nimule town, reach Lake No, and e dey fully inside South Sudan. After Nimule, river pass Fula Rapids go Juba{{snd}}capital of South Sudan. After Juba, Nile pass Bor town, then e enter Sudd swamp wey big well well and dey flat land.<ref>{{harvnb|Collins|2002|pp=47-69}}. Overview of Sudd.</ref> Di land slope for Sudd be very small, about 1:13,000 rise over run, so river slow and spread wide. Plenty plants like sedges, papyrus, and water hyacinth (wey be invasive species) dey block water path and make navigation hard. For north side of Sudd, Nile pass Lake No small lake where Bahr el Ghazal River (meaning ‘gazelle river’) join am from west side.<ref name=phys/> One big tributary for Mountain Nile be Bahr el Ghazal wey come from western Sudan and join White Nile for Lake No. Di basin of this river big reach about 860,000 square km{{sfn|"Baḥr al-Ghazāl" ''Britannica''}} but even though rain plenty, e contribute small water to Nile compared to other tributaries.{{efn|Most rainwater for Bahr el Ghazal basin go loss through evaporation before e reach Nile.<ref name=Ghazal/>}} E basin get Lake Kundi and Lake Keilak. Bahr el Ghazal pass through Wau town, South Sudan: east side of Wau na permanent stream, but west side na seasonal stream.<ref name=Ghazal>{{multiref |{{harvnb|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=352–354}}. |{{harvnb|Dumont|2009|p=6}}. }}</ref> ===White Nile region=== [[File:Whiteandblueniles.jpg|thumb|alt=Aerial photograph of Khartoum, showing two rivers joining, each with a distinct coloration of its water|Di different colours of White Nile (left) and Blue Nile (right) show where dem meet form main Nile (top left).]] If we continue downstream, third region be White Nile region{{efn|White Nile region here cover only small part of di big White Nile River.}} wey get about {{convert|800 |km|mi|sp=us}} river stretch from near Malakal reach Khartoum, capital of Sudan. For there, Blue Nile join am. This part of river be wide, calm, and get swamp edges for both sides. Water here shallow and plenty of am dey lost through evaporation.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} Where White Nile meet Blue Nile, dem colour no be same. White Nile light because e carry sediment like quartz and feldspar. Blue Nile carry dark clay sediment from Ethiopia basalt rocks.{{sfn|Bunbury|2023|pp=44-45}} Sobat River na tributary wey join White Nile near Malakal (after Bahr el Ghazal join, before Blue Nile). E basin{{snd}}wey include Machar Marshes{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=6}} cover about 225,000 square km.{{sfn|Shahin|2002|p=276}} Sobat dey flood between July and December.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} ===Main Nile=== [[File:Assuan-Hochdamm 15.JPG|thumb|Aswan High Dam dey for main Nile near Egypt and Sudan border. E fit produce 2.1 gigawatts electricity.{{sfn|El-Shabrawy|2009| p= 149}}|alt=A large concrete building next to a placid lake. Many large power transmission towers are next to the building.]] Fourth region na main Nile{{snd}}wey be the part from Khartoum go Cairo, Egypt capital.<ref name=phys/> This section get almost same width and depth: about {{convert|500|m|ft|sp=us}} wide and {{convert|10|m|ft|sp=us}} deep for deepest part when no flood.{{sfn|Bunbury|2023|p=45}} After Khartoum, river enter Sabaloka Game Reserve and pass strong rapids wey boat no fit pass. This na sixth cataract of Nile. Atbarah River{{snd}}big tributary{{snd}}join here, then river bend S-shape go west. Four more cataracts (5, 4, 3, 2) dey inside this curve and dem make navigation hard. River later enter Lake Nasser reservoir. This lake{{snd}}second largest artificial lake for world{{snd}}come from Aswan High Dam, and e cover about {{convert|480 |km|mi|sp=us}} Nile stretch. Aswan Low Dam dey under High Dam near first cataract area (now submerged). From there, Nile flow about {{convert|800|km|mi|sp=us}} through limestone land with plenty farm irrigation reach Cairo.<ref name=phys/> ===Nile Delta=== {{main|Nile Delta}} [[File:Nile River and delta from orbit.jpg|thumb|Nile Delta na di big triangle green area for top of this picture where river enter Mediterranean Sea.|alt=A photograph of north Egypt, taken from space. The Nile terminates by flowing into the Mediterranean Sea, forming a large, triangular area of land.]] Fifth and last region na Nile Delta, big triangle river delta (about 22,000 km{{super|2}}){{sfn|Hamza|2009|p=75}} wey stretch from Cairo reach Mediterranean Sea.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} River split into two main distributaries for delta: Rosetta branch and Damietta branch. Total size of delta (including underwater part) be about 150,000 km{{super|3}}. Delta form over millions of years from sediment wey river carry come from upstream.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Hurst|2025}}. |{{harvnb|Talbot|Williams|2009|pp=37–40, 57}}. }}</ref> Since Aswan High Dam finish for 1970, delta start shrink because sea erosion dey remove land. Before, new sediment from river dey balance am, but dam block sediment so e no reach delta again.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Hamza|2009|p=93}}. |{{harvnb|Bunbury|2023|pp=45-46}}. }}</ref> === Blue Nile tributary === {{main|Blue Nile}} [[File:Lower Aber river and tributaries.png|thumb|Blue Nile source na Gish Abay for bottom of bright line. River go north reach Lake Tana for top.|alt=A map of Ethiopia, showing a part of the Blue Nile and Lake Tana.]] Longest Nile route{{snd}}including White Nile tributary{{snd}}get other tributaries too. Blue Nile and Atbarah basin form last two regions of Nile Basin.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} Blue Nile start from Ethiopian hills as small stream called Abay near Gish Abay: Gish mean ‘source’ for Amharic, and Abay na di river name.<ref>{{multiref |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=323–324}}. |{{harvnb|McKenna|2025}}. |{{harvnb|Collins|2002|pp=88-104}}. Overview of Blue Nile. }}</ref> E go enter Lake Tana, and from there e continue as Blue Nile. River bend south first, then west through deep gorge about {{convert|2 |km|ft|sp=us}} deep, then north pass South Sudan enter Sudan, where e join White Nile for Khartoum to form main Nile.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|McKenna|2025}}. |{{harvnb|Dumont|2009}}. }}</ref> Along di route, Blue Nile generate electricity for hydro plants like Tis Abay hydropower project at Blue Nile Falls, Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam near Ethiopia–South Sudan border, Roseires Dam near Ad Damazin, and Sennar Dam.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=274, 339}}. Blue Nile Falls. |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=116,135}}. Roseires Dam. |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=341}}. Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam. |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=118, 131, 348}}. Sennar Dam. }}</ref> Blue Nile drainage basin cover over 306,000 square km.{{sfn|Senay|2014|p=8639|loc=Table 3}} === Atbarah tributary=== {{main|Atbarah River}} Atbarah River na tributary of Nile wey start from northern Ethiopia, and e join Nile about {{convert|320|km|mi|sp=us}} north of Khartoum.<ref name=Atbarah/> E basin cover over 204,000 square km.{{sfn|Senay|2014|p=8639|loc=Table 3}} Atbarah flow strong during monsoon season (summer and fall), but fit dry for winter and spring. Even though e no steady, e still give more than 10% of Nile total yearly water.<ref name=Atbarah>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Hurst|2025}}. |{{harvnb|Dumont|2009|p=7}}. |{{harvnb|Sutcliffe|2009|p=339}}. }}</ref> Dams for Atbarah include Khashm el-Girba Dam, Upper Atbara and Setit Dam Complex, and Tekezé Dam (wey dey Tekezé River tributary).<ref>{{multiref |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=321,336–337}}. Tekezé Dam. |{{harvnb|Sutcliffe|2009|p=359}}. Khashm el-Girba Dam. |{{harvnb|Hafez |2024}}. Upper Atbara and Setit Dam Complex. }}</ref> ==Hydrology== {{Nile River routemap}} [[File:Monthly variations of the flow of the Nile River.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|alt=Chart showing monthly flow of the Nile in cubic meters per second. Values (January to December) are 1285.7, 1006.0, 831.3, 881.7, 828.7, 845.2, 1930.3, 6984.0, 7866.5, 4895.2, 2510.8, 1596.9.|The flow of the Nile River dey change plenty through di year. Rates (m{{super|3}}/sec) dem measure am for Dongola on top di main Nile.{{sfn|"Nile Basin Dongola", ''Global Runoff Data Center''}}{{efn|name=exclGERD}} ]] ===Flow and floods=== {{further|Flooding of the Nile}} Even though Nile be di longest river for world, e no get di biggest water flow. Di amount wey e dey carry—about 87 km{{super|3}} per year—be small pass many big rivers. Di Nile flow be only about 1% of Amazon, 6% of Congo, and 12% of Yangtze.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=4}}. |{{harvnb|Sutcliffe|2009|p=340}}. |{{harvnb|Collins|2002|p=11}}. }}</ref>{{efn|Comparisons are using discharge of the Nile as measured at Aswan. The Nile's discharge into the Mediterranean Sea is far less.{{efn|name=discharge}} }} Di yearly water wey come from di three main tributaries be: 54% from Blue Nile, 32% from White Nile (including Bahr el Ghazal and Sobat), and 14% from Atbarah.{{sfn|Senay|2014|p=8639|loc= Table 4. Based on annual discharge figures: Blue Nile 48 km{{sup|3}}; White Nile 28 km{{sup|3}}; Atbarah 12 km{{sup|3}} }} Both White Nile highlands and Blue Nile highlands dey get seasonal rain, but White Nile flow dey more steady pass Blue Nile.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} Dis be because plenty lakes and wetlands for White Nile dey control the water flow.{{sfn|Sutcliffe|2009|p=357}} As White Nile dey pass Sudd swamp, almost half of di water dey lost through evaporation.{{sfn|Sutcliffe|2009|p=346}} But Blue Nile flow dey change plenty through di year. E dey flood from July go October because of summer monsoon rain.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} During dis time, Blue Nile water so strong say e dey push White Nile back for di junction.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=5}}. |{{harvnb|Ghabbour|2009|pp=503–504}}. }}</ref> For peak flood time, di Nile water contribution be about 70% Blue Nile, 20% Atbarah, and 10% White Nile.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} At di highest point, water wey dey enter Lake Nasser fit reach about 0.71 km{{sup|3}} per day, wey be almost three times normal average.{{ref}} Before dams come, Nile for Egypt dey rise for summer/fall and drop for winter/spring.{{efn|Flood size fit change for different years, even last for many years.}} But after Aswan High Dam build, water flow down go Egypt don become more steady all year round.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|El-Shabrawy|2009|p=125}}. |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=5}}. |{{harvnb|Bunbury|2023|p=45}}. }}</ref> === Sediment transport === Nile dey carry soil and rock particles go downstream. Dis sediment dey move either as suspended load (wey dey float inside water) or bedload (wey dey roll for river bottom).{{sfn|Lemma |2019|p=1}} About 97% of sediment wey Nile dey carry come from Atbarah and Blue Nile, both wey start for Ethiopia.{{sfn|Talbot|Williams|2009|p=38}} Most erosion happen only during rainy season for Ethiopian Highlands.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} Soil for Nile Delta actually come from Ethiopian rocks. For about 30 million years, erosion from Ethiopia create about 102,000 km{{super|3}} of material, almost same as delta size of 150,000 km{{super|3}}.{{sfn|Talbot|Williams|2009|p=37}} Sediment wey enter dam fit settle inside and reduce dam capacity. Dis don already happen for Sennar Dam, Roseires Dam, and Khashm el Girba Dam.{{sfn|Sutcliffe|2009|p=359}} Annual sediment data for some places: * Gilgel Abay, Ethiopia : 7.6 million tonnes suspended, plus 0.7% bedload * El Deim (Ethiopia–Sudan border): 140 million tonnes{{sfn|Sutcliffe|2009|p=359}} * Aswan, Egypt: 0.14 million tonnes suspended, plus 28% bedload * Beni Sweif, Egypt: 0.5 million tonnes suspended, plus 20% bedload * Qena, Egypt: 0.27 million tonnes suspended, plus 27% bedload * Sohag, Egypt: 1.5 million tonnes suspended, plus 13% bedload ===Water sources and sinks=== [[File:Surface water cycle.svg|thumb|right| Water balance for Nile Basin dey show how hydrology dey work: rain, evaporation, soil, and river flow.|alt=A schematic diagram shows water movements around a piece of ground. Arrows show water moving upward due to evaporation and transpiration; other arrows show water moving downward into groundwater recharge.]] As river dey move downstream, some places dey add water (source), while some dey remove water (sink).{{sfn|Senay|2014|p=8631|loc= Equation (4)}} Upstream areas like Ethiopian Highlands and African Great Lakes be water sources. Downstream areas like South Sudan, Sudan, and Egypt dey act as sinks.{{sfn|Senay|2014|pp=8641,8648|loc=Figure 7; Sections 3.5.5, 4; Tables 3,4,5 and 6}} Hydrologists dey use water balance method to check source and sink. Water balance mean say: water wey enter area must equal water wey leave area.{{sfn|Healy|2007|pp=5-6}} ====Sources and sinks: countries==== {| class="wikitable" |+ Key for "Source/Sink" columns |- | {{D-P|Source}} || Country be major water source |- | {{D-N|Sink}} || Country be major water sink |- | {{D-W|Neutral}} || Country no be strong source or sink |} {| class= "wikitable mw-collapsible nowrap defaultright col1left sortable" style="font-size: 85%;" |+ Country water balance (annual){{sfn|Senay|2014|p=8640|loc=Table 5}}{{efn|name=exclGERD|Data does not include impacts of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam, completed in 2025}}{{efn|name=TableLegend}} ! scope="col" | Country ! scope="col" | Source/Sink<br />(water bal km{{sup|3}}) ! scope="col" | Basin<br />Area km{{sup|2}}{{efn|Basin area is the Nile Basin within the country.}} ! scope="col" | Precip km{{sup|3}} ! scope="col" | Evap km{{sup|3}} ! scope="col" | Runoff km{{sup|3}} |- ! scope="row" | [[Burundi]] | {{D-W|Neutral}} (2) || 13,240|| 14 || 13 || 3 |- ! scope="row" |[[DR Congo]] | {{D-W|Neutral}} (0) || 19,919|| 23 || 23 || 0 |- ! scope="row" |[[Egypt]] | {{D-N|Sink}} (−39) || 235,108 || 4 || 44 || 0 |- ! scope="row" | [[Eritrea]] | {{D-W|Neutral}} (2) || 24,427 || 14 || 12 || 0 |- ! scope="row" |[[Ethiopia]] | {{D-P|Source}} (164) || 363,775 || 459 || 295 || 138 |- ! scope="row" |[[Kenya]] | {{D-P|Source}} (27) || 49,513 || 76 || 49 || 23 |- ! scope="row" | [[Rwanda]] | {{D-W|Neutral}} (1) || 20,676 || 21 || 20 || 4 |- ! scope="row" |[[South Sudan]] | {{D-N|Sink}} (−146) || 617,256 || 612 || 757 ||92 |- ! scope="row" |[[Sudan]] | {{D-N|Sink}} (−81) || 1,226,660 || 364 || 445 ||23 |- ! scope="row" |[[Tanzania]] | {{D-P|Source}} (38) || 120,506 || 160 || 122 || 18 |- ! scope="row" | [[Uganda]] | {{D-P|Source}} (25) || 236,763 || 301 || 276 ||22 |- ! scope="row" | Total | || 2,927,843 || 2,048 || 2,056 || 324 |} ====Sources and sinks: geographic basins==== [[File:Nile River discharge flow gauge locations.svg|thumb|Map show di 12 measurement stations wey dem use for water balance study.|alt=A map of northeast Africa. The Nile River is drawn, and there are a dozen landmarks shown on the map, at various points of the river]] Another way to study Nile water balance be to split basin into smaller basins. Data come from 12 river stations.{{sfn|Senay|2014}} {| class= "wikitable mw-collapsible mw-uncollapsed nowrap defaultright col1left sortable" style="font-size: 85%;" |+ Geographic basin water balance (annual)<ref name=HydroData>{{harvnb|Senay|2014|loc=Tables 3,4,5 and 6; Sec 3.5.5 (Source/Sink)}}.</ref> ! scope="col" | Basin's<br />downstream<br />station ! scope="col" | Source/Sink<br />(water bal km{{sup|3}}) ! scope="col" | Basin<br />Area km{{sup|2}} ! scope="col" | Precip km{{sup|3}} ! scope="col" | Evap km{{sup|3}} ! scope="col" | Runoff km{{sup|3}} |- ! scope="row" | 1 [[Lake Victoria]] outlet | {{D-P|Source}} (74) || 264,259 || 353 || 279 || 57 |- ! scope="row" | 2 [[Murchison Falls]] | {{D-P|Source}} (15) || 85,513 || 109 || 94 || 9 |- ! scope="row" |3 Mongalla | {{D-W|Neutral}} (1) || 131,691 || 159 || 158 || 5 |- ! scope="row" | 4 Malakal | {{D-N|Sink}} (−159) || 925,160|| 798 || 957 || 150 |- ! scope="row" |5 Khartoum |{{D-N|Sink}} (−40) || 257,130 || 134 || 174 || 14 |- ! scope="row" | 6 Dam | {{D-P|Source}} (105) || 188,296|| 246 || 142 || 70 |- ! scope="row" |7 Khartoum | {{D-W|Neutral}} (10) || 118,651|| 96 || 72 || 9 |- ! scope="row" |8 Khashm el Girba | {{D-P|Source}} (30) || 100,318|| 95 || 66 || 10 |- ! scope="row" | 9 Mouth of Atbarah River | {{D-W|Neutral}} (−3) || 104,051 || 22 || 25 || 1 |- ! scope="row" | 11 Aswan Dam | {{D-N|Sink}} (−10) || 188,011||2 || 13 || 0 |- ! scope="row" |12 Cairo/Delta | {{D-N|Sink}} (−10) || 145,293||3 || 12 || 0 |} ===Nilometers=== Measurement of Nile flow always important for Egypt to manage farming and flood safety. Simple gauges called nilometers don dey use for thousands of years to check river level.<ref name=nilometer>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=340,361}}. |{{harvnb|Talling|2009|p=25}}. |{{harvnb|Bunbury|2023|p=68}}. |{{harvnb|Collins|2002|pp=15-20}}. }}</ref> Ideal flood for Egypt be moderate—about 6 m rise above normal level. If e too high, e fit destroy communities; if e too low, crops no go get fertile silt.<ref name=nilometer/> One important nilometer dey Roda Island since 622 CE. Egyptians dey record flood levels from am till 1921. Modern river gauges start from 1860s, and later systems for measuring flow start from 1900s.{{sfn|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=340,361}} == Ecology == ===Animals=== {{Easy CSS image crop |image =Hippos in their Natural Habitat in Kazinga Channel 10.jpg |desired_width = 260 |crop_left_perc = 20 |crop_right_perc = 0 |crop_top_perc = 10 |crop_bottom_perc = 0 |align = right |alt= A hippopotamus standing on the grassy shore of a lake, with bushes in the background. |caption= A Hippopotamus amphibius near Lake Edward, one of di lakes wey dey feed Nile }} Di total number of fish species wey dem fit find for Nile Basin dey over 800. For di river alone, dem find 128 species, wey belong to 27 families.<ref name=fish/> Most of di species dey come from four main families: Cichlidae (cichlids), Cyprinidae (carp), Mormyridae (elephantfish), and Mochokidae (catfish).{{sfn|Witte|2009|p=647 }} Plenty Cichlid species dey di African Great Lakes.<ref name=fish>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Witte|2009|pp=647, 651–652 }}. |{{harvnb| Green|2009|p=205}}. }}</ref> Apart from fish, animals wey sometimes dey live inside Nile water include hippos, Nile crocodiles, and African buffalo. Other water animals include molluscs, crabs (Potamonautes), and shrimp (Caridina nilotica).<ref name=animals/> Many animals dey live for ecosystem along di river banks like elephants, antelope, and giraffes.<ref name=animals/> Snails wey dey Nile lakes dey carry parasitic flatworms—dem dey call am blood flukes—wey cause schistosomiasis wey dey affect humans and livestock.{{sfn| Green|2009|p=205}} Birds wey dey live near Nile include herons, kingfishers, ospreys, and different kinds of storks—including shoebills.<ref name=animals>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=189}}. |{{harvnb|Hurst|2025}}. |{{harvnb|Van Damme|Bocxlaer |2009|pp=585}}. |{{harvnb|Dumont |2009|pp=10–11}}. |{{harvnb|Green|El-Moghraby|2009|pp=193,196–197,201–202}}. }}</ref> Some bird species be endemic for Nile Basin (like blue-winged goose), while others dey everywhere for world (like moorhen and osprey).{{sfn|Green|2009a|p=705}} Many herons, ducks, geese, and egrets dey stay there whole year, and 14 species of ducks and geese dey come only for winter.{{sfn|Green|2009a|p=705}} Most gulls and terns dey migrate. For past thousand years, some species range don reduce because of human activities.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Green|2009a|p=705}}. |{{harvnb|Bunbury|2023|pp=53-55,58,70}}. }}</ref> ===Plants=== [[File:Nymphaea lotus1XMATT.jpg|thumb|alt= A white flower and green leaves floating on the top of water.|Di white Egyptian lotus dey native for calm water inside Nile Basin.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb| Green|2009|pp=205,207}}. |{{harvnb| Vijverberg|2009|p=166}}. }}</ref>]] Di Great Lakes region for Nile Basin get plants like water lily, papyrus, and water hyacinth. Water hyacinth be invasive species, and e don spoil native plants population for Lake Kyoga.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb| Green|2009|p=205}}. |{{harvnb| Dumont|2009|p=13}}. }}</ref> Plants wey common for Sudd swamp include Vossia, hippo grass, reed mace, ambatch, and papyrus. Sudd also get plants wey fit survive shallow flood like Oryza, antelope grass, and Phragmites.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Sutcliffe|2009|p=350}}. |{{harvnb|Hurst|2025}}. }}</ref> ===Pollution=== Before-before, Nile water dey clean and people fit drink am direct, but by late 20th century, water quality don reduce for some areas.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Dumont|2009|p=18}}. |{{harvnb|Talling|2009a|p=368}}. }}</ref>{{efn|Jack Talling talk say Nile water get good quality for drinking and irrigation, and e dey carry high silt seasonally.{{sfn|Talling|2009a|p=368}} }} Pollution strong pass for Lake Tana, near big cities, and for Nile Delta.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Dumont|2009|p=18}}. |{{harvnb|El-Sheekh|2009|pp=395–396}}. }}</ref> Sources of pollution include farming waste, industrial waste, and household waste. 36 industries dey discharge waste direct into Nile, and 41 dey discharge into irrigation canals. These industries include chemical, electrical, engineering, fertilizers, food, metal, mining, oil and soap, pulp and paper, textile and wood industries. Over 90 agricultural drains dey also release waste into Nile, including industrial wastewater.{{sfn|"Nile Basin National Water Quality", ''Nile Basin Initiative''|pp=12-22}} Pollution dey worst between Aswan and Mediterranean Sea. E dey come from human activities, farming runoff, and industrial waste. As river dey flow down, pollutant concentration dey increase because everything dey accumulate.<ref name=delta>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Hegab|2025}}. |{{harvnb|Hamza|2009|p=75}}. |{{harvnb|Bunbury|2023|pp=53,59,69}}. }}</ref> Delta area dey suffer more because water no dey flush well, and river bed dey flat with heavy silt.{{sfn|Abotalib|2023}} For late 20th century, Lake Victoria experience eutrophication (too much nutrients for water wey make algae and plants grow too much and reduce oxygen). This one dey come from human activity, deforestation, and bad farming. E cause algal blooms and spread of water hyacinth wey don disturb ecosystem.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Witte|2009a|p=733}}. |{{harvnb|El-Sheekh|2009|p=395}}. |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=18}}. }}</ref> ===Conservation and human impact === [[File:Murchison Falls, Uganda (23475021234).jpg|thumb|Murchison Falls for White Nile|alt=A large waterfall, with dense foliage on both sides.]] Nile Basin used to be wet and humid between 15,000 and 5,000 years ago, and that time support beginning of agriculture around 5,000 years ago.<ref name=Humid/> Agriculture growth don cause deforestation and soil erosion.{{sfn|Williams |2009a|p=771}} Dry conditions around 4,000 years ago make matter worse, causing famine and environmental change.{{sfn|Williams |2009a|p=771}} Some animal species don go extinct because of human activities. Sacred ibis, wey important for ancient Egyptian religion, disappear from Egypt by late 19th century but still dey other parts of Africa.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Green|2009a|p=718 }}. |{{harvnb|Bunbury|2023|pp=53,55}} }}</ref> For Egypt, population increase and Aswan High Dam construction cause loss of many plants and animals.{{sfn|Bunbury|2023|pp=53-55,58,70}} Nile perch, wey originally come from other African rivers, dem introduce am into Lake Victoria in 1950s. This fish cause extinction of over 500 cichlid species inside lake.<ref name=perch/> E also increase deforestation because people need firewood to process fish.{{sfn|Witte|2009a|p=735}} Small satellite lakes around Lake Kyoga still important for conservation because dem still get many native fish species and never get Nile perch invasion.{{sfn|Green|2009|p=205}} ===Climate and climate change=== {{further|Climate change in Egypt}} {{Easy CSS image crop |image =Climate Africa Koppen with legend.svg |desired_width = 360 |crop_left_perc = 36 |crop_right_perc = 13 |crop_top_perc = 11 |crop_bottom_perc = 38 |align = right |alt=Map of northeast Africa, dividing the land into various regions, each with climate indicators. |caption=This map show Köppen climate zones for Nile Basin. North side be hot desert, while south side be wetter and cooler.{{sfn|Beck|2018}} }} Nile Basin climate dey change from very dry north (Egypt and Sudan) go wet south area.{{sfn|Camberlin|2009|p=307}} Basin get nine rainfall zones: north dey dry whole year; middle area like Ethiopia get heavy summer rain; south near Lake Victoria get two rainy seasons.{{sfn|Camberlin|2009|pp=314-315}} Most rain dey come from summer monsoon.{{sfn|Camberlin|2009|pp=307-310}} Climate change dey affect Nile Basin because greenhouse gases dey increase. Temperature fit rise by 2 to 4°C this century. Models show more drought, irregular rainfall, and stronger climate extremes for North Africa and Middle East.{{sfn|Driouech |2020}} Nile Delta dey very vulnerable because sea level rise and lack of sediment fit make one-third of delta disappear in future.<ref>{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=52–53}}.</ref> == Geological history== {{see|East African Rift}} [[File:Geological map of Egypt accessible.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|alt= A map of northeast Africa, where various areas are shaded different colors indicating the geological ages of rocks found in each region. | Geological data dey help scientists understand ancient river systems.{{sfn|Abdelsalam|2018|p=743}}]] Nile river, like many rivers, evolve from old river systems wey change course over millions of years due to tectonic movements. Current Nile shape form about 15,000 years ago.<ref name=geologOverview>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Abdelsalam|2018|p=742}}. |{{harvnb| Embabi|2018|pp=39–40}}. |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=4}}. |{{harvnb| Said|1993|pp=32–52}}. }}</ref> * About 20 million years ago, East African Rift uplift start separate African Great Lakes region from Congo basin. Nile for Egypt be short river wey dey flow north to Mediterranean. Lake Victoria never exist yet.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Abdelsalam|2018|pp=742,768-770|loc=Figure 30A }}. |{{harvnb|Hamza|2009|pp=77–78}}. }}</ref> * Between 6–5.4 million years ago, Lake Tana and big paleolakes form. Mediterranean Sea dry during Messinian salinity crisis, and Nile cut deep canyon for Egypt. Later sea refill am.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Abdelsalam|2018|pp=742,763-764,770|loc=Figure 30B }}. }}</ref> * Around 2.5 million years ago, Ethiopian rivers connect to Egyptian Nile. Lake Victoria start form.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Abdelsalam|2018|pp=742,770|loc=Figure 30C }}. }}</ref> * Around 0.5 million years ago, Lake Victoria reach near modern shape and river flow north start stabilize.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Abdelsalam|2018|pp=742,770|loc=Figure 30D }}. }}</ref> * Around 15,000 years ago, modern Nile system establish fully, with strong flow from Great Lakes region.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Abdelsalam|2018|pp=767,770}}. }}</ref> ==Human history== ===Prehistory=== [[File:The Nile River flows into the Mediterranean Sea (iss071e405499).jpg | thumb | Nile flow through Egypt desert wey before-before be wet during African humid period.<ref name=Humid/> |alt=A satellite photo of Egypt, showing mostly sandy ground, with a dark river flowing through sand into sea. ]] Early human ancestors live near Nile Basin. Australopithecus afarensis fossil Lucy dey near basin boundary. Olduvai Gorge dey south of basin.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|pp=246,346}} Nyayanga site near Lake Victoria get tools from 2.6 million years ago.{{Sfn|Plummer |2023 }} Human settlement for Nile banks dey between 12,000–20,000 years ago near Qurta (Egypt), where people carve rock art showing animals.{{sfn|Bunbury|2023|p=53}} During African humid period, Sahara area be wet, so people dey do pastoral farming. When climate dry around 3,900 BCE, people move enter Nile Valley, forming Nubian and Ancient Egyptian cultures.<ref name=Humid/> ===Ancient Egyptian civilization === [[File:Journey to Abydos, Tomb of Pairy MET DT10886.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|alt=A painting on a wall of a boat on a river, with Ancient Egyptians rowing it|Ancient Egyptians dey use boats for transport.<ref name=ancientTransport/>]] Nile be central to Egyptian life. E dey give food through farming and also cause famine when drought happen.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=9–10}}. |{{harvnb|Bunbury|2023 |pp=49,63,69}}. }}</ref> Egyptian calendar depend on Nile flood cycle. Year get three seasons: Akhet (flood), Peret (planting), Shemu (harvest).<ref name="Seasons">{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Allen|2000|p=103}}. |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021 |p=355}}. |{{harvnb|Bunbury|2023 |p=62}}. }}</ref> Nile also influence language and direction system: same word fit mean north/south or east/west depending on context.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Allen|2000|p=21}}. |{{harvnb|Bunbury|2023|p=61}}. }}</ref> Ancient Egypt get Upper and Lower Egypt, shaped by Nile geography. First cataract near Elephantine Island mark southern boundary. Egyptians no know river source beyond far south.<ref name=unknown/> They even build early dam system called Sadd el-Kafara around 2600 BCE to control flood.<ref>{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|pp=11-12}}</ref> ===Nubian, Ethiopian, and Nilotic cultures=== [[File:Rulers of Kush, Kerma Museum.jpg|thumb|Kings of Kush (Black Pharaohs).<ref name=Kushite/>]] South of Nile cataract dey Nubia, home of ancient cultures in modern Sudan.<ref name=Kerma/> Kerma culture (2600–1500 BCE) start as cattle society then move into farming.<ref name=Kerma/> Kushite Empire rise around 780 BCE and even rule Egypt for some time.<ref name=Kushite/> Later Christian kingdoms like Nobatia and Makuria form for region. Aksum Kingdom (Ethiopia/Eritrea area) control trade routes. Funj Sultanate and later Ethiopian Empire also develop around Nile region. Nilotic peoples like Dinka and Nuer migrate across Nile region as cattle herders following flood cycles.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=138–144}}. |{{harvnb|Collins|2002|pp=70-77}}. |{{harvnb|Shoup|2017|loc=Articles: "Sudd", "Dinka", "Nuer"}} }}</ref> ===Egypt from Roman era to colonial era=== [[File:Mahmoudiyah Canal.jpg|thumb|Mahmoudiyah Canal built by Muhammad Ali.<ref name=ali/>]] Roman Empire depend heavily on Egyptian grain from Nile irrigation. Later canals and irrigation systems continue under Fatimids, Mamluks, and Ottomans.<ref name=ali/> Modern dams start during Muhammad Ali rule (1805–1848), including canals like Mahmoudiyah Canal and later Ibrahimiya Canal.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Beaumont|1993|p=249}}. |{{harvnb|Shoup|2017|loc=Article: "Khedive Isma'il 1830-1895"}}. }}</ref> === Search for the source of the Nile=== {{further|European exploration of Africa}} Since ancient Greek time, people dey curious about Nile source.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=2}}. |{{harvnb|Warburg|2007|p=475}}. }}</ref> Herodotus visit Egypt in 457 BCE and wonder why Nile flood during dry season.<ref>{{sfn|Williams|2009|p=70}}</ref> Europeans and Arabs speculate say lakes for central Africa be source. Blue Nile source confirm by Jesuit Pedro Páez in Ethiopia around early 1600s. White Nile source harder to trace. Lake Victoria finally confirm in 19th century by John Hanning Speke, though debate continue.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=173-174}}. |{{harvnb|Collins|2002|p=36}}. }}</ref> Later scientific work refine exact source to Kagera River tributaries in Nyungwe Forest, with satellite confirmation in 2009.<ref name=SourceCite/> ==Economy == ===Agriculture=== [[File:Desert agriculture in Egypt (Copernicus 2024-02-03).jpg|thumb|alt=An aerial photograph of a yellow sandy desert to the west of the Nile. Over forty green circles are visible, where irrigation water has been used to grow crops.|These crops for Egypt (near the Toshka Lakes) na result of an irrigation system wey dey pump Nile water from Lake Nasser.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|"Desert Agriculture", ''Copernicus Programme''}}. |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|pp=84–85}}. }}</ref> ]] For Nile Basin, e get big difference for farming wey dey happen for north countries (Egypt, Sudan, South Sudan) and south countries (Uganda, Ethiopia etc).{{sfn|Allan|2009|pp=754-758}} North side be mostly desert, but south side dey get plenty rain. So for north, dem dey depend on irrigation to grow crops, while for south dem dey depend on rain wey soil dey hold. North dey get better crop yield because dem dey use fertilizers and pesticides well well, plus dem get big irrigation systems like dams and canals wey government support and international money dey back.{{sfn|Allan|2009|pp=754-758}} For south, dem dey use soil water reach 229 km{{super|3}} every year, wey be more than double the total Nile water flow wey be about 100 km{{super|3}}.{{sfn|Allan|2009|pp=754-755}} But south farmers dey suffer market distance problem, unlike north where farms dey close to riverbanks so transport easy.{{sfn|Allan|2009|p=758}} Egypt no get rain so e dey depend almost 100% on Nile for water.<ref name="Hamza 2009 84">{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Hamza|2009|p=84}}. |{{harvnb|Holt|2026}}. }}</ref> Major crops for Egypt be cotton, wheat, maize, rice, sorghum and fava beans.<ref name="Hamza 2009 84"/> Dem get two main farming seasons: summer (cotton) and winter (grains plus vegetables).{{sfn|Holt|2026}} Since 1950s, Egypt start use modern farming with fertilizers and pesticides to increase output.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Hamza|2009|p=85}}. |{{harvnb|Holt|2026}}. }}</ref> Egypt land be 94% desert and only 3% arable land.{{sfn|Holt|2026}} Most farmland dey inside Nile Delta and small portion dey along riverbanks.{{sfn|Hamza|2009|pp=75, 84}} For Sudan, main crops be groundnut, cotton, sesame, sugarcane and sorghum. Other crops include millet, wheat, maize and barley.{{sfn|Sabr|2026}} Dem dey depend on Blue Nile and White Nile water plus dams like Sennar Dam and Khashm el-Girba Dam.{{sfn|Sabr|2026}} Big irrigation project like Gezira Scheme start for 1920s dey support farming.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Sabr|2026}} |{{harvnb|Tvedt|2021|p=315}}. }}</ref> ===Fisheries=== [[File:Lates niloticus by DaijuAzuma.jpg|thumb|The Nile perch wey dem introduce go Lake Victoria for 1950s to create new fishery.<ref name=perch/>|alt=A grey fish, viewed from the side. Rocks and blue water are in the background.]] Nile River plus its lakes don serve as major food source for people since ancient times.{{sfn|Witte|2009a|pp=723-724}} For 2000, Nile Basin dey produce about 1.4 million tonnes of fish yearly, wey be more than half of Africa freshwater fish total (2.2 million tonnes).{{sfn|Witte|2009a|pp=724-725}} Lake Victoria alone give 1 million tonnes.{{sfn|Witte|2009a|pp=724-725, 742}} Rivers no dey produce fish like lakes; lakes be main source.{{sfn|Witte|2009a|pp=723-724}} Most places inside Nile Basin dey show sign of overfishing except Sudd.{{sfn|Witte|2009a|pp=723–724, 742}} For 1950s, dem introduce Nile perch and Nile tilapia go Lake Victoria to increase fish supply. E work but e reduce native fish species plenty.{{sfn|Witte|2009a|p=723}} Today, most fish wey dem dey catch for Lake Victoria be Nile perch and Silver cyprinid.{{sfn|Witte|2009a|pp=723-724}} Some fish dem dey export go Europe.{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=17}} Fish farming dey happen for some areas inside basin.<ref>{{Multiref |{{harvnb|Dumont|2009|p=17}}. |{{harvnb|El-Shabrawy|Dumont|2009|p=119}}. }}</ref> ===Hydropower=== [[File:Nile River Hydropower Stations.svg|thumb|Hydropower stations for Nile system. GERD na Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam.|alt=A map of northeast Africa. The Nile is shown as a blue line.]] Nile River plus its tributaries dey power plenty hydropower stations, with total capacity over 10 gigawatts (GW).{{efn|Total generation capacity for Nile Basin was computed by summing generation capacity values from table of major hydropower stations.}} Before 2000, dams no dey plenty, but after that countries start build more dams fast fast.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|p=348}} Major hydropower stations include: {| class= "wikitable defaultright col2center col5center sortable" |+ Major hydropower stations in the Nile Basin{{efn|Colors in the "Landmark" column indicate country location.}} ! Hydropower station ! Nearby landmark ! Year completed ! Power (MW, in 2025) ! Tributary |- ! Aswan Low Dam | {{operational|Aswan, Egypt}} ||1902, 1912, 1933, 1985|| 550{{sfn|"Aswan Low Dam", ''Egypt MOEE'' }} || Main Nile |- ! Aswan High Dam | {{operational|Aswan Egypt}} || 1970 || 2,100{{sfn|El-Shabrawy|2009|p=149}} || Main Nile |- ! Merowe Dam | {{WinDL|Merowe, Sudan}}|| 2009 || 1,250{{sfn|"Merowe Dam - Sudan", '' Abu Dhabi Fund for Development''}} || Main Nile |- ! Upper Atbara and Setit | {{WinDL|Showak, Sudan}}|| 2017 || 320{{sfn|"Upper Atbara Dam", ''OPEC Fund for International Development''}} || Atbarah and Tekezé |- ! Roseires Dam | {{WinDL|Er Roseires, Sudan}}|| 1966, 2013 || 280{{sfn|"Roseires Dam", ''IHA''}} || Blue Nile |- ! Tana Beles | {{partial|Lake Tana, Ethiopia}} || 2010 || 460{{sfn|Hailu|2022|loc=Table 4}} || Beles River |- ! Tekezé Dam | {{partial|Tekezé River, Ethiopia}} || 2009 || 300{{sfn|Hailu|2022|loc=Table 4}} || Tekezé |- ! Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam | {{partial|Bameza, Ethiopia}} || 2020 || 5,150{{sfn|Endeshaw|2025}} || Blue Nile |- ! Fincha | {{partial|Fincha'a, Ethiopia}} || 1973 || 134{{sfn|Hailu|2022|loc=Table 4}} || Blue Nile |- ! Karuma | {{nom|Karuma Falls, Uganda}} || 2024 || 600{{sfn|"Karuma", ''Uganda Radio Network''}} || Victoria Nile |- ! Isimba | {{nom|Kamuli District, Uganda}} || 2019 || 183{{sfn|"Isimba Power Station", ''UEGCL''}} || Victoria Nile |- ! Bujagali | {{nom|Bujagali Falls, Uganda}} || 2012 || 250{{sfn|Griffin|2018}} || Victoria Nile |- ! Kiira | {{nom|Kimaka, Uganda}} || 2003 || 200{{sfn|Angurini|2021}} || Victoria Nile |- ! Nalubaale | {{nom|Jinja, Uganda}} || 1954 || 180{{Sfn|Tumwesigye|2011|p=10}} || Victoria Nile |} ===Transportation=== [[File:Nile Barge R08.jpg|thumb|Cargo boat for Nile near Luxor, Egypt.|alt=A cargo boat in a wide river]] North part of Nile (Egypt, Sudan, South Sudan) dey flatter, so navigation easy pass south side.{{sfn|Sutcliffe|2009|p=336}} For Egypt, river between delta and Aswan dey very good for transport. Before steamships even come, people dey use wind and current move boats up and down river.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|p=12}} Blue Nile no dey easy for navigation, so people for Ethiopia use road transport more.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|p=317}} In ancient Egypt, river be main transport route, dem dey use am carry stones, obelisks and goods.{{sfn|Van de Moortel|2007}}{{sfn|Robins|2008|p=126}} Today, Egypt still dey use river transport but small part compared to road and rail. River dey move about 500 million tonnes cargo yearly.{{efn|Data from 2023.{{sfn|"Private Sector in River Transport", ''EnterpriseAM''}}}} Goods include cement, fuel, coal and minerals.<ref>{{Multiref |{{Multiref |{{harvnb|"Private Sector in River Transport", ''EnterpriseAM''}}. |{{harvnb|"Current State of River Transport", ''EnterpriseAM''}}. }}</ref> ===Tourism and recreation=== [[File:Murchison falls National Park.2.jpg|thumb|Tourism boat for Murchison Falls on White Nile.|alt=A boat with tourists on a river]] Nile River especially Egypt side be one of world top tourist places since ancient time.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|p=47}} Giza pyramid complex dey near river and na major attraction.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|p=54}} From 1800s, tourism for Nile increase well well. Thomas Cook & Son start organize Nile tours for 1870s.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|p=77}} After Aswan High Dam construction, river become more stable for cruise tourism.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|pp=85-87}} Places like Luxor, Aswan, Edfu and Philae dey attract tourists. Some national parks like Murchison Falls National Park for Uganda dey also depend on Nile ecosystem.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|p=189}} Other areas like Saluga and Ghazal Protected Area for Egypt dey protect biodiversity. Tourism also include rafting spots like Bujagali Falls before dam construction change am.{{sfn|Tvedt|2021|p=219}} ===Hydropower=== [[File:Nile River Hydropower Stations.svg|thumb|Sam hydropower stations on de Nile. "GERD" be de Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam.|alt=A map of northeast Africa. The Nile is shown as a blue line. Along the Nile, locations of about ten hydropower stations are indicated.]] {| class= "wikitable defaultright col2center col5center sortable" |+ Major hydropower stations insyd de Nile Basin ! scope="col" | Hydropower<br>station ! scope="col" | Nearby<br>landmark ! scope="col" | Year<br>dem plete ! scope="col" | Power<br>(MW, insyd 2025) ! scope="col" | Tributary |- ! scope="row" | Aswan Low Dam | Aswan, Egypt ||1902, 1912, 1933, 1985|| 550{{sfn|"Aswan Low Dam", ''Egypt MOEE'' }} || Main Nile |- ! scope="row" | Aswan High Dam | Aswan, Egypt || 1970 || 2,100{{sfn|El-Shabrawy|2009|p=149}} || Main Nile |- ! scope="row" | Merowe Dam | Merowe, Sudan|| 2009 || 1,250{{sfn|"Merowe Dam - Sudan", '' Abu Dhabi Fund for Development''}} || Main Nile |- ! scope="row" | Upper Atbara and Setit | Showak, Sudan|| 2017 || 320{{sfn|"Upper Atbara Dam", ''OPEC Fund for International Development''}} || [[Atbarah River|Atbarah]] den Tekezé |- ! scope="row" | Roseires Dam | Er Roseires, Sudan || 1966, 2013 || 280{{sfn|"Roseires Dam", ''IHA''}} || Blue Nile |- ! scope="row" | Tana Beles | Lake Tana, Ethiopia || 2010 || 460{{sfn|Hailu|2022 |loc=Table 4}} || Beles River, Blue Nile |- ! scope="row" | Tekezé Dam | Tekezé River, Ethiopia || 2009 || 300{{sfn|Hailu|2022 |loc=Table 4}} || Tekezé, [[Atbarah River|Atbarah]] |- ! scope="row" | Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam | Bameza, Ethiopia|| 2020 || 5,150{{sfn|Endeshaw|2025}} || Blue Nile |- ! scope="row" | Fincha | Fincha'a, Ethiopia || 1973|| 134{{sfn|Hailu|2022 |loc=Table 4}} || Blue Nile (Chomen Lake) |- ! scope="row" | Karuma | Karuma Falls, Uganda || 2024 || 600{{sfn|"Karuma", ''Uganda Radio Network''}} || Victoria Nile |- ! scope="row" | Isimba | Kamuli District, Uganda|| 2019 || 183{{sfn|"Isimba Power Station", ''UEGCL''}} || Victoria Nile |- ! scope="row" | Bujagali | Bujagali Falls, Uganda|| 2012|| 250{{sfn|Griffin|2018}} || Victoria Nile |- ! scope="row" | Kiira | Kimaka, Uganda|| 2003 || 200{{sfn|Angurini|2021}} || Victoria Nile |- ! scope="row" | Nalubaale | Jinja, Uganda || 1954|| 180{{Sfn|Tumwesigye|2011|p=10}} || Victoria Nile |} == References == <references /> == External links == {{Subject bar|auto=yes|wikt=yes|}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Nile| ]] [[Category:Ancient Egyptian religion]] [[Category:Geography of ancient Egypt]] [[Category:Hebrew Bible rivers]] [[Category:International rivers of Africa]] [[Category:National parks of Egypt]] [[Category:Nile basin|*]] [[Category:Rivers insyd art]] [[Category:Rivers of Burundi]] [[Category:Rivers of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:Rivers of Egypt]] [[Category:Rivers of Eritrea]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Rivers of Kenya]] [[Category:Rivers of Rwanda]] [[Category:Rivers of South Sudan]] [[Category:Rivers of Sudan]] [[Category:Rivers of Tanzania]] [[Category:Rivers of Uganda]] [[Category:Water transport insyd Egypt]] b2xc1znmdy13ifnlps3xnjmzgmk0d45 0 27232 102921 100767 2026-06-15T06:40:27Z Achiri Bitamsimli 64 Added more content 102921 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Temperature Bar Chart Africa--1901-2020--2021-07-14.png|thumb|upright=1.33|Graph wey dey show temperature change insyd Africa between 1901 den 2021, plus red colour be warmer den blue being colder dan average (De average temperature during 1971–2000 be taken as de reference point for dese changes.)]] '''Climate change in Africa''' be a serious threat as Africa be one of de most vulnerable regions to de effects of climate change, despite contributing de least to causing am. Climate change be causing increasingly erratic rainfall patterns, more frequent extreme weather events wey dey include droughts, [[Flood|floods]], den rising sea surface temperatures insyd Africa. Dese changes dey threaten chow den water security, biodiversity, public health, den economic development.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781009325844/type/book |title=Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |date=2023-06-22 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-32584-4 |edition=1 |chapter=Africa |pages=1285–1456 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=United Nations |first=UNEP |date=2017 |title=Responding to climate change |url=http://www.unep.org/regions/africa/regional-initiatives/responding-climate-change |access-date=2022-07-01 |website=UNEP – UN Environment Programme |language=en}}</ref> Africa be currently warming faster dan de rest of de world on average.<ref>{{Cite web |last=World Meterological Organization |date=2024-09-02 |title=Africa faces disproportionate burden from climate change and adaptation costs |url=https://wmo.int/news/media-centre/africa-faces-disproportionate-burden-from-climate-change-and-adaptation-costs |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=World Meteorological Organization |language=en}}</ref> Na Climate change dey intensify existing socioeconomic vulnerabilities. Large segments of de African population depend on climate-sensitive livelihoods such as agriculture (55 - 62% of de workforce insyd sub-Saharan Africa)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781009325844/type/book |title=Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |date=2023-06-22 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-32584-4 |edition=1 |pages=1289 |chapter=Africa |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011}}</ref> den already live insyd poverty, wey dey heighten dema exposure to shocks. Health outcomes worsen as heat stress, vector borne - diseases (such as [[malaria]] den [[Dengue fever|dengue]]), den [[malnutrition]] becam more prevalent. Over half (56%) of de over 2,000 recorded public health incidents insyd Africa between 2001 den 2021 dey connect to climate change.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Africa CDC |url=https://africacdc.org/download/climate-change-and-health-strategic-framework-2025/ |title=Climate Change and Health: Strategic Framework 2025 |date=7 July 2025 |pages=vii}}</ref> Resources scarcity dey contribute to displacement den conflict, particularly insyd fragile regions. Urban areas, often be characterized by informal settlements, face heightened risks from flooding den extreme heat.<ref name=":02" /> Agriculture be one of de most vulnerable sectors, as most African farmers rely on rainfed crops. Reduced den unpredictable rainfall, combined plus higher temperatures, drives soil moisture loss, desertification (especially insyd de Sahara) den shifts suitable growing areas. Dese changes lower yields of staple crops, wey dey undermine food security den worsening hunger. Livestock health be increasingly compromised by heat stress den shifting disease patterns. Coastal den marine ecosystems face warming seas den rising levels, wich threaten fisheries den densely populated coastal settlements.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fonjong |first1=Lotsmart |last2=Matose |first2=Frank |last3=Sonnenfeld |first3=David A. |date=2024-12-01 |title=Climate change in Africa: Impacts, adaptation, and policy responses |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S095937802400116X |journal=Global Environmental Change |volume=89 |article-number=102912 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2024.102912 |bibcode=2024GEC....8902912F |issn=0959-3780}}</ref> De economic toll of climate change be severe. On average African countries face climate-related losses wey dey amount to 2-5% of GDP annually, while adaptation costs insyd sub-Saharan Africa be projected at USD 30-50 billion per year over de next decade. Dis dey threaten development gains den places pressure on governments den international institutions to mobilise [[climate finance]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=World Meteorological Organization |url=https://uneca.org/sites/default/files/ACPC/publication/State-of-the-Climate-in-Africa-2023_en.pdf |title=State of the Climate in Africa: 2023 |date=2024 |isbn=978-92-63-11360-3 |location=Geneva}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=European Investment Bank |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/finance-in-africa-navigating-the-financial-landscape-in-turbulent-times |title=Finance in Africa - Navigating the financial landscape in turbulent times |date=2022-10-19 |publisher=European Investment Bank |isbn=978-92-861-5382-2 |language=EN}}</ref> Africa ein climate change adaptation strategies dey focus on building resilience thru climate - smart agriculture, sustainable water management, ecosystem conservation, den strengthening health den infrastructure systems. Dese approaches prioritise enhancing governance, mobilising [[climate finance]] den investment, den fostering community participation to address vulnerability holistically.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tadesse |first=Debay |date=1 December 2010 |title=The impact of climate change in Africa |url=https://issafrica.org/research/papers/the-impact-of-climate-change-in-africa |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=ISS Africa |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Badji |first1=Arfang |last2=Ibanda |first2=Angele |last3=Akello |first3=Sarah |last4=Ekwamu |first4=Adipala |date=2022 |title=Climate change impacts and adaptation strategies in Africa: Selected case studies |url=https://afjrdev.org/index.php/jos/article/view/410 |journal=African Journal of Rural Development |language=en |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=209–274 |issn=2415-2838}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ngongolo |first1=Kelvin |last2=Gayo |first2=Leopody |date=2025-05-21 |title=Climate change impacts and mitigation strategies in Sub-Saharan Africa's livestock production sector. A brief review |journal=Pastoralism: Research, Policy and Practice |language=English |volume=15 |article-number=14225 |doi=10.3389/past.2025.14225 |bibcode=2025PRPP...1514225N |doi-access=free |issn=2041-7136}}</ref> Continental den national frameworks emphasise multi-sectoral coordination, technology adoption, den capacity building to support sustainable development den reduce climate risk.<ref>{{Cite book |last=African Union |url=https://au.int/en/documents/20220628/african-union-climate-change-and-resilient-development-strategy-and-action-plan |title=African Union Climate Change and Resilient Development Strategy and Action Plan (2022-2032) |date=28 June 2022 |publisher=African Union}}</ref> ==Greenhouse gas emissions== Africa ein per person greenhouse gas emissions be low compared to oda continents.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/outreach/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FactSheet_Africa.pdf|title=Fact sheet - Africa|accessdate=4 August 2024}}</ref> Emissions from land use change be uncertain, especially insyd [[Central Africa]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Mostefaoui |first1=Mounia |last2=Ciais |first2=Philippe |last3=McGrath |first3=Matthew J. |last4=Peylin |first4=Philippe |last5=Patra |first5=Prabir K. |last6=Ernst |first6=Yolandi |date=2024-01-11 |title=Greenhouse gas emissions and their trends over the last 3 decades across Africa |url=https://essd.copernicus.org/articles/16/245/2024/ |journal=Earth System Science Data |language=en |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=245–275 |doi=10.5194/essd-16-245-2024 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2024ESSD...16..245M |issn=1866-3516}}</ref> De main source of uncertainty dey cam from carbon dioxide fluxes insyd de LULUCF sector (dis acronym dey stand for land use, land-use change, den forestry).<ref name=":0" /> == Impacts == ===Temperature den weather changes=== {{multiple image | align = right | direction = vertical | total_width = 300 | image1 = Koppen-Geiger Map v2 Africa 1991–2020.svg | caption1 = Köppen climate classification map for Africa for 1991–2020 | image2 = Koppen-Geiger Map Africa future.svg | caption2 = 2071–2100 map under de most intense climate change scenario. Mid-range scenarios are currently considered more likely.<ref name="HausfatherPeters2020">{{cite journal|last1=Hausfather|first1=Zeke|last2=Peters|first2=Glen|title=Emissions – the 'business as usual' story is misleading|journal=Nature|date=29 January 2020|volume=577|issue=7792|pages=618–20|doi=10.1038/d41586-020-00177-3|pmid=31996825|bibcode=2020Natur.577..618H|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Schuur2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Schuur |first1=Edward A.G. |last2=Abbott |first2=Benjamin W. |last3=Commane |first3=Roisin |last4=Ernakovich |first4=Jessica |last5=Euskirchen |first5=Eugenie |last6=Hugelius |first6=Gustaf |last7=Grosse |first7=Guido |last8=Jones |first8=Miriam |last9=Koven |first9=Charlie |last10=Leshyk |first10=Victor |last11=Lawrence |first11=David |last12=Loranty |first12=Michael M. |last13=Mauritz |first13=Marguerite |last14=Olefeldt |first14=David |last15=Natali |first15=Susan |last16=Rodenhizer |first16=Heidi |last17=Salmon |first17=Verity |last18=Schädel |first18=Christina |last19=Strauss |first19=Jens |last20=Treat |first20=Claire |last21=Turetsky |first21=Merritt |year=2022 |title=Permafrost and Climate Change: Carbon Cycle Feedbacks From the Warming Arctic |journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources |volume=47 |pages=343–371 |doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-012220-011847 |quote="Medium-range estimates of Arctic carbon emissions could result from moderate climate emission mitigation policies that keep global warming below 3°C (e.g., RCP4.5). This global warming level most closely matches country emissions reduction pledges made for the Paris Climate Agreement..." |doi-access=free |bibcode=2022ARER...47..343S }}</ref><ref name="Phiddian2022">{{Cite web |last=Phiddian |first=Ellen |date=5 April 2022 |title=Explainer: IPCC Scenarios |url=https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/explainer-ipcc-scenarios/ |website=[[Cosmos (magazine)|Cosmos]] |access-date=30 September 2023 |quote="The IPCC doesn't make projections about which of these scenarios is more likely, but other researchers and modellers can. [[The Australian Academy of Science]], for instance, released a report last year stating that our current emissions trajectory had us headed for a 3°C warmer world, roughly in line with the middle scenario. [[Climate Action Tracker]] predicts 2.5 to 2.9°C of warming based on current policies and action, with pledges and government agreements taking this to 2.1°C. |archive-date=20 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230920224129/https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/explainer-ipcc-scenarios/ |url-status=live }}</ref> }} Observed surface temperatures generally increase over Africa since de late 19th century to de early 21st century by about 1°C, buh locally as much as 3°C for minimum temperature insyd de Sahel at de end of de dry season.<ref name="IRD-2017">{{Cite book |title=Rural societies in the face of climatic and environmental changes in West Africa |date=2017 |publisher=IRD éditions |isbn=978-2-7099-2424-5 |location=Marseille |oclc=1034784045 |id=Impr. Jouve}}</ref> De warming of Africa increase by +0.3 C from 1991 to 2021 versus +0.2 during 1961 to 1910. E be estimated dat by 2030, de people of Africa go be exposed to a rise insyd sea level secof an increase insyd temperature. Na dis go then cause agricultural productivity to decrease<ref>{{Cite book |last=Engel |first=Ulf |title=Yearbook on the African Union Volume 3 (2022) |date=2024 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-68308-2 |editor-last=Engel |editor-first=Ulf |location=Erscheinungsort nicht ermittelbar}}</ref>.Observed precipitation trends dey indicate spatial den temporal discrepancies as expected.<ref name="Collins-2011">{{cite journal |last1=Collins |first1=Jennifer M. |date=15 July 2011 |title=Temperature Variability over Africa |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=24 |issue=14 |pages=3649–3666 |bibcode=2011JCli...24.3649C |doi=10.1175/2011JCLI3753.1 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Niang-2014">Niang, I.; O. C. Ruppel; M. A. Abdrabo; A. Essel; C. Lennard; J. Padgham, and P. Urquhart, 2014: Africa. In: ''Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability''. [https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/WGIIAR5-Chap22_FINAL.pdf Part B: Regional Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change] [Barros, V. R.; C. B. Field; D. J. Dokken et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1199–1265.</ref> De observed changes insyd temperature den [[precipitation]] vary regionally.<ref name="Conway-2009">{{cite journal |last1=Conway |first1=Declan |last2=Persechino |first2=Aurelie |last3=Ardoin-Bardin |first3=Sandra |last4=Hamandawana |first4=Hamisai |last5=Dieulin |first5=Claudine |last6=Mahé |first6=Gil |date=February 2009 |title=Rainfall and Water Resources Variability in Sub-Saharan Africa during the Twentieth Century |journal=Journal of Hydrometeorology |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=41–59 |bibcode=2009JHyMe..10...41C |doi=10.1175/2008JHM1004.1 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Collins-2011" /> Current climate models (as dem summarise insyd de IPCC Sixth Assessment Report) predict increases insyd frequency den intensity of drought den heavy rainfall events.<ref name="Armstrong-2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Armstrong |first1=Andrew |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Koehler |first3=Johanna |last4=Hope |first4=Rob |date=2022 |title=Intra-seasonal rainfall and piped water revenue variability in rural Africa |journal=Global Environmental Change |language=en |volume=76 |article-number=102592 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2022.102592|doi-access=free|bibcode=2022GEC....7602592A }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref> Dem sanso predict decreases insyd mean precipitation almost everywhere insyd Africa, plus medium to high confidence. However, local rainfall trends den socio-climatic interactions be likely to manifest insyd mixed patterns. Therefore, de converging impacts of climate change go vary across de continent. Insyd rural areas, rainfall patterns influence water usage.<ref name="Armstrong-2022" /> A study insyd 2019 dey predict increased dry spell length during wet seasons den increased extreme rainfall rates insyd Africa.<ref name="Kendon-2019">{{Cite journal |last1=Kendon |first1=Elizabeth J. |last2=Stratton |first2=Rachel A. |last3=Tucker |first3=Simon |last4=Marsham |first4=John H. |last5=Berthou |first5=Ségolène |last6=Rowell |first6=David P. |last7=Senior |first7=Catherine A. |date=2019 |title=Enhanced future changes in wet and dry extremes over Africa at convection-permitting scale |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |bibcode=2019NatCo..10.1794K |doi=10.1038/s41467-019-09776-9 |pmc=6478940 |pmid=31015416 |article-number=1794}}</ref> Insyd other words: "both ends of Africa's weather extremes fi get more severe".<ref name="Weather Channel-2022">{{Cite news |title=More Extreme Weather in Africa's Future, Study Says |url=https://weather.com/news/climate/news/2019-06-18-africa-extreme-weather-drought-flood |access-date=2022-07-01 |work=The Weather Channel |language=en-US}}</ref> De research find say most climate models no go be able to capture de extent of dese changes secof dem no be conviction-permitting at dema coarse grid scales.<ref name="Kendon-2019" /> === Sea level rise === [[File:Dar es Salaam (Aerial).jpg|thumb|Aerial view of de Tanzanian capital Dar es Salaam]] Insyd [[Africa]], future population growth dey amplify risks from sea level rise. Sam 54.2million people dey live insyd de highly exposed low elevation coastal zones (LECZ) around 2000. Dis number fi effectively double to around 110 million people by 2030. By 2060 e fi be around 185 to 230million people, wey dey depend on de extent of population growth. De average regional sea level rise go be around 21cm by 2060. At dat point climate change scenarios go make little difference. Buh local geography den population trends interact to increase de exposure to hazards like 100-year floods insyd a complex way.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter9">Trisos, C. H., I. O. Adelekan, E. Totin, A. Ayanlade, J. Efitre, A. Gemeda, K. Kalaba, C. Lennard, C. Masao, Y. Mgaya, G. Ngaruiya, D. Olago, N. P. Simpson, and S. Zakieldeen 2022: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter09.pdf Chapter 9: Africa]. In [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/ Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability] [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E. S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, New York, US, pp. 2043–2121 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011.</ref> [[File:Abidjan des Lagune.jpg|thumb|Abidjan, de economic powerhouse of Ivory Coast]] {| class="wikitable" |+Populations within 100-year floodplains.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter9" /> !|Country !|2000 !|2030 !|2060 !|Growth 2000–2060 |- |[[Egypt]] || 7.4 || 13.8 || 20.7 || 0.28 |- |[[Nigeria]] || 0.1 || 0.3 || 0.9 || 0.84 |- |[[Senegal]] || 0.4 || 1.1 || 2.7 || 0.76 |- |[[Benin]] || 0.1 || 0.6 || 1.6 || 1.12 |- |[[Tanzania]] || 0.2 || 0.9 || 4.3 || 2.3 |- |[[Somalia]] || 0.2 || 0.6 || 2.7 || 1.7 |- |[[Ivory Coast|Côte d'Ivoire]]|| 0.1 || 0.3 || 0.7 || 0.65 |- |[[Mozambique]] || 0.7 || 1.4 || 2.5 || 0.36 |} {{reflist|group=T1}} [[File:ANKOMAH 20221122-009.jpg|thumb|A man de look go outside over di beach from top of building wey high tides don destroy for Chorkor, one suburb for Accra. Sunny day flooding wey come from sea level rise dey increase coastal erosion wey dey spoil houses, infrastructure and natural ecosystems. Plenty communities for Coastal Ghana don already dey feel di changing tides.]] For near future, one of di biggest displacement wey go happen dey expected for East Africa region. At least 750,000 people for dat area fit dey forced comot from coastal areas between 2020 and 2050. Scientific studies estimate say 12 major African cities go suffer total damage reach US$65 billion under “moderate” climate change scenario RCP4.5 by 2050. Di cities be Abidjan, Alexandria, Algiers, Cape Town, Casablanca, Dakar, Dar es Salaam, Durban, Lagos, Lomé, Luanda and Maputo. Under high-emission scenario RCP8.5, di damage go reach US$86.5 billion. If we add extra impact from serious ice sheet instability for di high-emission scenario, e fit reach up to US$137.5 billion damage. If we include “low-probability, high-damage events” join di three scenarios, di damage fit rise go US$187 billion, US$206 billion and US$397 billion respectively.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter9" /> For these estimates, Alexandria for Egypt alone dey account for around half of di total figure.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter9" /> Hundreds of thousands of people wey dey low-lying areas for dia fit already need relocation within next decade.<ref name="Michaelson-2018">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2018/aug/29/alexandria-little-venice-egypt-climate-change-frontline|title=Houses claimed by the canal: life on Egypt's climate change frontline| last=Michaelson| first=Ruth|date=25 August 2018|work=[[The Guardian]]|access-date=30 August 2018}}</ref> Across sub-Saharan Africa as whole, damage from sea level rise fit reach 2–4% of GDP by 2050. But this one depend on how economy go grow and how adaptation go happen.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter9">Trisos, C. H., I. O. Adelekan, E. Totin, A. Ayanlade, J. Efitre, A. Gemeda, K. Kalaba, C. Lennard, C. Masao, Y. Mgaya, G. Ngaruiya, D. Olago, N. P. Simpson, and S. Zakieldeen 2022: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter09.pdf Chapter 9: Africa]. In [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/ Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability] [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E. S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, New York, US, pp. 2043–2121 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011.</ref> [[File:Leptis Magna amphitheatre - panoramio.jpg|thumb|left|Di remains of Leptis Magna amphitheater, with sea dey show for background]] For long term, Egypt, Mozambique and Tanzania dey likely get di highest number of people wey go dey affected by yearly flooding among all African countries. This projection assume say global warming go reach 4°C by end of century. Dat level dey linked to RCP8.5 scenario. Under RCP8.5, 10 important cultural sites dey at risk of flooding and erosion by end of century. Dem be Casbah of Algiers, Carthage Archaeological site, Kerkouane, Leptis Magna Archaeological site, Medina of Sousse, Medina of Tunis, Sabratha Archaeological site, Robben Island, Island of Saint-Louis and Tipasa. Total of 15 Ramsar sites and other natural heritage sites too go face similar risk. These ones include Bao Bolong Wetland Reserve, Delta du Saloum National Park, Diawling National Park, Golfe de Boughrara, Kalissaye, Lagune de Ghar el Melh et Delta de la Mejerda, Marromeu Game Reserve, Parc Naturel des Mangroves du Fleuve Cacheu, Seal Ledges Provincial Nature Reserve, Sebkhet Halk Elmanzel et Oued Essed, Sebkhet Soliman, Réserve Naturelle d'Intérêt Communautaire de la Somone, Songor Biosphere Reserve, Tanbi Wetland Complex and Watamu Marine National Park.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter9" /> == Socioeconomic impacts == [[File:Access_to_wood_and_water_appears_to_be_severely_impacted_by_climate_change_in_Kenya_and_Cameroon.png|thumb|Survey results from 2022 show say access to wood and water dey badly affected by climate change for Kenya and Cameroon.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment Bank |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/20230098-eib-climate-survey-africa-and-middle-east |title=The EIB Climate Survey: Africa and the Middle East |date=2023-06-05 |publisher=European Investment Bank |isbn=978-92-861-5534-5 |language=EN}}</ref>]] Climate change go continue affect Africa well-well because of plenty factors. These impacts don already start show and dem go increase if nothing serious no happen to reduce global carbon emissions. The impacts include higher temperatures, drought, changing rainfall patterns, and more climate variability. These conditions dey affect energy production and consumption. Recent droughts for many African countries wey people link to climate change don spoil energy security and economic growth across di continent. Africa go be one of di regions wey climate change go hit pass others.<ref name=":0r">{{Cite book|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/WGIIAR5-Chap22_FINAL.pdf|title=Africa. In: Climate change 2014: impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.|year=2014}}</ref> Di reasons be say many countries get low ability to adapt, poor access to technology and information wey fit help adaptation, plus heavy dependence on farming ecosystems for survival.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Welborn|first=Lily|title=Africa and climate change: Projecting vulnerability and adaptive capacity|publisher=Institute for Security Studies|year=2018}}</ref> Many African countries dey classified as Least Developed Countries (LDCs) with weak socio-economic conditions, so dem face serious challenges for dealing with climate change effects.<ref>{{Cite book|last=UNDP/GEF|url=https://www.thegef.org/sites/default/files/publications/CCA-Africa-Final.pdf|title=Climate Change Adaptation in Africa UNDP: Synthesis of Experiences and Recommendations|publisher=UNDP/GEF|year=2018}}</ref> IPCC Fifth Assessment Report highlight say Africa dey face high risks for ecosystems, water availability, and agriculture, which dey affect food security.<ref name=":0r" /> For 2022, over 6,000 people from 10 African countries take part for climate survey wey European Investment Bank do.<ref name="EIB-2022a"/> Survey show say 88% of respondents believe climate change dey already affect their daily life, while 61% say environmental destruction don affect their income or livelihood.<ref>{{Cite web |title=EIB Climate Survey: 88% of African respondents believe that climate change is already affecting their everyday life. |url=https://www.eib.org/en/press/all/2022-554-eib-climate-survey-88-of-african-respondents-believe-that-climate-change-is-already-affecting-their-everyday-life |access-date=2023-02-28 |website=European Investment Bank |language=en}}</ref> These losses usually come from serious drought, rising sea levels, coastal erosion, or extreme weather like floods and storms.<ref name="EIB-2022a">{{Cite web |title=2022-2023 EIB Climate Survey, part 1 of 2: 88% of respondents believe that climate change is already affecting their everyday life |url=https://www.eib.org/en/surveys/climate-survey/5th-climate-survey/africa.htm |access-date=2023-02-28 |website=EIB.org |language=en}}</ref> More than half of African respondents (57%) say dem or people wey dem know don already take steps to adapt to climate change. Some of these actions include buying water-saving devices to reduce drought effects and clearing drains before floods.<ref name="EIB-2022a" /> 34% say climate change be one of di most serious problems wey their country dey face, along with issues like inflation and access to healthcare.<ref name="EIB-2022a"/> === Economic impacts === Africa dey warm pass most parts of di world. Large parts of di continent fit become hard to live in if warming continue. Africa GDP fit drop by 2% if global temperature rise by 1°C, and fit drop by 12% if e rise by 4°C. Crop production go reduce sharply because of heat, and heavy rainfall go become more frequent and intense across di continent, increasing flood risk.{{sfn|European Investment Bank|2022c}}<ref name="WMO-2021">{{Cite web |date=2021-10-18 |title=Climate change triggers mounting food insecurity, poverty and displacement in Africa |url=https://wmo.int/news/media-centre/climate-change-triggers-mounting-food-insecurity-poverty-and-displacement-africa |access-date=2022-07-26 |website=public.wmo.int |language=en }}</ref><ref name="Africa Renewal-2018">{{Cite web |date=2018-12-07 |title=Global warming: severe consequences for Africa |url=https://www.un.org/africarenewal/magazine/december-2018-march-2019/global-warming-severe-consequences-africa |access-date=2022-07-26 |website=Africa Renewal |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-10-27 |title=Climate Change Is an Increasing Threat to Africa |url=https://unfccc.int/news/climate-change-is-an-increasing-threat-to-africa |access-date=2022-07-26 |website=United Nations Climate Change News}}</ref> Africa dey lose between $7 billion and $15 billion every year because of climate change, and e fit reach $50 billion by 2030.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Rathi |first1=Akshat |last2=Rao |first2=Mythili |date=2024-05-02 |title=One Bank Is Turning Africa's Climate Vulnerability Into Opportunity |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2024-05-02/inside-the-bank-financing-africa-s-green-growth |access-date=2024-05-11 |website=www.bloomberg.com}}</ref> ==== Agriculture ==== Agriculture be very important sector for Africa, because plenty people depend on am for food and income. Many people rely on climate-sensitive resources. E dey expected say crop production go reduce across Sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Engel |first=Ulf |title=Yearbook on the African Union Volume 3 (2022) |date=2024 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-68308-2 |editor-last=Engel |editor-first=Ulf |location=Erscheinungsort nicht ermittelbar}}</ref> On average, agriculture for Sub-Saharan Africa contribute about 15% of total GDP.<ref name="OECD/FAO">{{Cite book |last=OECD/FAO |url=http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5778e.pdf |title=OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2016-2025 |publisher=OECD Publishing |year=2016 |isbn= 978-92-64-25323-0 |pages=59–61}}</ref> Africa geography make am very vulnerable, and 70% of people depend on rain-fed farming for survival.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Läderach |first1=Peter |last2=Martinez-Valle |first2=Armando |last3=Bourgoin |first3=Clement |last4=Parker |first4=Louis |date=27 March 2019 |title= Vulnerability of the agricultural sector to climate change: The development of a pan-tropical Climate Risk Vulnerability Assessment to inform sub-national decision making |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=14 |issue=3 |article-number=e0213641 |bibcode=2019PLoSO..1413641P |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0213641 |pmc=6436735 |pmid=30917146 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Smallholder farms dey cover about 80% of farmland for Sub-Saharan Africa.<ref name="OECD/FAO" /> IPCC for 2007 project say climate change go seriously affect agriculture productivity and food access.<ref name="ar4 summary of regional impacts">{{cite book |title=Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2007 |editor=Parry, M. L. |display-editors=et al. |chapter=Summary for Policymakers: C. Current knowledge about future impacts |chapter-url=http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/spmsspm-c.html |access-date=13 December 2023 |archive-date=2 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181102223635/http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/spmsspm-c.html }}</ref>{{rp|13}} This one get high confidence. Crop, livestock and fisheries go face more pests and diseases because of climate change.<ref name="Dhanush" /> Crop pests already cause about one-sixth of farm losses.<ref name="Dhanush" /> Climate change go make pests and diseases increase, plus more serious outbreaks.<ref name="Dhanush" /> This go affect food security and how people dey live. Poor nutrition fit cause deficiency like vitamin A and iron, especially during drought periods when food no dey enough.{{cn|date=May 2026}} Between 2014 and 2018, Africa get highest level of food insecurity for the world.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.fao.org/state-of-food-security-nutrition/en/ |title=SOFI 2019 – The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |year=2021 |isbn=978-92-5-134325-8 |language=en |doi=10.4060/CB4474EN |s2cid=241785130}}</ref> Heavy dependence on rain-fed farming and low use of climate-smart agriculture make the sector more vulnerable. Poor access to climate data too dey worsen adaptation efforts.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Dinku|first=Tufa|title=Overcoming challenges in the availability and use of climate data in Africa|url=https://ictupdate.cta.int/en/article/overcoming-challenges-in-the-availability-and-use-of-climate-data-in-africa-sid06fd8a811-e179-4fa5-9c8f-806bd2f27c3e|website=ICT Update CTA|access-date=13 December 2023|archive-date=1 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101070648/https://ictupdate.cta.int/en/article/overcoming-challenges-in-the-availability-and-use-of-climate-data-in-africa-sid06fd8a811-e179-4fa5-9c8f-806bd2f27c3e}}</ref> Changes in rainfall go shorten farming seasons and reduce yield for many places in Africa. Smallholder farmers no get enough technology and support to adapt.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Supporting Sub-Saharan Africa's Farmers – Bayer – Crop Science |url=https://www.cropscience.bayer.com:443/en/stories/2018/supporting-sub-saharan-africas-farmers-closing-the-gap |access-date=2019-08-15 |website=www.cropscience.bayer.com}}</ref> Climate variability don already cause big changes in food production across developing countries wey depend on rain.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Thornton |first1=Philip K |last2=Ericksen |first2=Polly J |last3=Herrero |first3=Mario |last4=Challinor |first4=Andrew J |title=Climate variability and vulnerability to climate change: a review |journal=Global Change Biology |date=November 2014 |volume=20 |issue=11 |pages=3313–3328 |doi=10.1111/gcb.12581 |bibcode=2014GCBio..20.3313T |pmc=4258067 |pmid=24668802 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=HU|first1=Tongxi|last2=Zhang|first2=Xuesong|last3=Khanal|first3=Sami|last4=Wilson|first4=Robyn|last5=Leng|first5=Guoyong|last6=Toman|first6=Elizabeth|last7=Wang|first7=Xuhui|last8=Zhao|first8=Kaiguang|date=2024-06-19|title=Climate change impacts on crop yields: A review of empirical findings, statistical crop models, and machine learning methods|url=https://bpb-us-w2.wpmucdn.com/u.osu.edu/dist/7/24705/files/2024/09/review-climate-impact-crop-yield-machine-learning.pdf|journal=Environmental Modelling & Software|volume=179|issue=106119 |article-number=106119 |doi=10.1016/j.envsoft.2024.106119 |bibcode=2024EnvMS.17906119H }}</ref> Agriculture dey sensitive to climate changes, especially rainfall, temperature, and extreme events like drought and flood. These events go increase for future and go affect farming serious.<ref name="Sabiiti et al 2018 Adapting Agriculture to Climate Change">{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-64599-5_10 |chapter=Adapting Agriculture to Climate Change: Suitability of Banana Crop Production to Future Climate Change over Uganda |title=Limits to Climate Change Adaptation |series=Climate Change Management |date=2018 |last1=Sabiiti |first1=Geoffrey |last2=Ininda |first2=Joseph Mwalichi |last3=Ogallo |first3=Laban Ayieko |last4=Ouma |first4=Jully |last5=Artan |first5=Guleid |last6=Basalirwa |first6=Charles |last7=Opijah |first7=Franklin |last8=Nimusiima |first8=Alex |last9=Ddumba |first9=Saul Daniel |last10=Mwesigwa |first10=Jasper Batureine |last11=Otieno |first11=George |last12=Nanteza |first12=Jamiat |pages=175–190 |isbn=978-3-319-64598-8 }}</ref> This go affect food prices, food security, and land use decisions.<ref>{{Cite book |section=A1 – 1 Sustainability, food security and climate change: three intertwined challenges |title=Climate-Smart Agriculture Sourcebook |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|url=http://www.fao.org/climate-smart-agriculture-sourcebook/concept/module-a1-introducing-csa/chapter-a1-1/en/|access-date=2019-08-15}}</ref> Yield from rain-fed farming fit reduce reach up to 50% by 2020.<ref name="Sabiiti et al 2018 Adapting Agriculture to Climate Change" /> To reduce future impact, African countries need strong policies and planning to manage food systems under climate variability. Dem need proper understanding of how climate affect different crops before making decisions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Shah |first1=Hassnain |last2=Hellegers |first2=Petra |last3=Siderius |first3=Christian |date=2021-01-01 |title=Climate risk to agriculture: A synthesis to define different types of critical moments |journal=Climate Risk Management |volume=34 |article-number=100378 |doi=10.1016/j.crm.2021.100378 |bibcode=2021CliRM..3400378S |issn=2212-0963|doi-access=free }}</ref> This one important especially during 2020 locust invasion for East Africa wey spoil agriculture.<ref name="Rosane-2020">{{cite news|last1=Rosane|first1=Olivia|date=27 January 2020|title=Worst Locust Swarm to Hit East Africa in Decades Linked to Climate Crisis|agency=Ecowatch|url=https://www.ecowatch.com/locust-swarm-east-africa-2644928358.html|access-date=6 February 2020}}</ref> For East Africa, climate change go make drought and flood happen more often and more strong, which go affect farming badly. Some research from International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) show say maize yield fit increase for some parts of East Africa, but go reduce for Ethiopia, DRC, Tanzania and northern Uganda.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013 |title=East African agriculture and climate change: A comprehensive analysis |url=http://www.ifpri.org/publication/east-african-agriculture-and-climate-change-comprehensive-analysis |access-date=21 September 2019 |website=[[International Food Policy Research Institute]] (IFPRI) |language=en}}</ref> Climate change also go reduce quality and quantity of land wey dey available for farming.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2008/09/11/000158349_20080911163038/Rendered/PDF/WPS4717.pdf |title=How Will Climate Change Shift Agro-Ecological Zones And Impact African Agriculture? |author1=Kurukulasuriya, P. |author2=Mendelsohn, R. |date=25 September 2008 |publisher=The World Bank |series=Policy Research Working Papers |doi=10.1596/1813-9450-4717 |hdl=10986/6994 |s2cid=129416028}}</ref> Climate change for Kenya go seriously affect agriculture sector wey depend mostly on rain.<ref name="NCCAP-2018">{{Cite web |last=Ministry of Environment and Forestry |title=National Climate Change Action Plan (NCCAP) 2018–2022. Volume I |url=http://www.environment.go.ke/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/NCCAP-2018-2022-v2.pdf |access-date=13 December 2023 |archive-date=2 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220402131336/http://www.environment.go.ke/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/NCCAP-2018-2022-v2.pdf }}</ref> Livestock for arid and semi-arid lands dey especially at risk. For these areas, over 70% of livestock deaths happen because of drought.<ref name="NCCAP-2018" /> Within next 10 years, 52% of cattle for these regions dey at risk because of extreme heat stress.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kenya Markets Trust |date=2019 |title=Contextualising Pathways to Resilience in Kenya's ASALs under the Big Four Agenda |url=https://www.kenyamarkets.org/contextualising-pathways-to-resilience-in-kenyas-asals-under-the-big-four-agenda/ |access-date=13 December 2023 |archive-date=16 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230216210136/https://www.kenyamarkets.org/contextualising-pathways-to-resilience-in-kenyas-asals-under-the-big-four-agenda/ }}</ref> For Southern Africa, climate change go worsen farming challenges wey already dey there because of weak infrastructure and low technology. Maize cover almost half of farmland, but yields fit reduce by 30% under future climate conditions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Overview [in Southern African Agriculture and Climate Change] |url=http://www.ifpri.org/publication/overview-southern-african-agriculture-and-climate-change |access-date=8 August 2019 |website=www.ifpri.org}}</ref> Rising temperatures also go increase weeds and pests spread.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hachigonta |first1=Sepo |url=https://cdm15738.contentdm.oclc.org/utils/getfile/collection/p15738coll2/id/127787/filename/127998.pdf |title=Southern African Agriculture and Climate Change: A Comprehensive Analysis |last2=Nelson |first2=Gerald C. |last3=Thomas |first3=Timothy S. |last4=Sibanda |first4=Lindiwe Majele |publisher=International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-89629-208-6 |pages=1–24 |chapter=Overview}}</ref> For West Africa, climate change go affect farming by making food production more unstable, affecting access and availability.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brown |first1=Molly E. |last2=Hintermann |first2=B. |last3=Higgins |first3=N. |date=January 2009 |title=Markets, Climate Change and Food Security in West Africa |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20090027893.pdf |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |volume=43 |issue=21 |pages=8016–8020 |bibcode=2009EnST...43.8016B |doi=10.1021/es901162d |pmid=19924916|hdl=2060/20090027893 |s2cid=9412710 }}</ref> For Central Africa, heavy rain, long dry periods and high heat go reduce cassava, maize and bean production.<ref name="Climatelinks-2020">{{Cite web |title=Climate Risks in the Central Africa Regional Program for the Environment (CARPE) and Congo Basin |url=https://www.climatelinks.org/file/4614/download?token=rlgPz1eX |website=Climatelinks |access-date=13 December 2023 |archive-date=28 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728153008/https://www.climatelinks.org/file/4614/download?token=rlgPz1eX }}</ref> Floods and erosion go spoil transport infrastructure, leading to post-harvest losses. Export crops like coffee and cocoa dey increase but dem still dey very vulnerable to climate change.<ref name="Climatelinks-2020" /> Political instability and conflict also dey affect agriculture contribution to GDP, and climate risk go make am worse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013 |title=Agriculture in Africa |url=https://www.un.org/en/africa/osaa/pdf/pubs/2013africanagricultures.pdf |website=United Nations}}</ref> Africa GDP fit drop by 2% if temperature rise by 1°C, and by 12% if e rise by 4°C. Crop yields go drop because of heat, and drought go increase across di continent. Heavy rain too go become more frequent, increasing flood risk.{{sfn|European Investment Bank|2022c}}<ref name="public.wmo.int">{{Cite web |date=18 October 2021 |title=Climate change triggers mounting food insecurity, poverty and displacement in Africa |url=https://wmo.int/news/media-centre/climate-change-triggers-mounting-food-insecurity-poverty-and-displacement-africa |access-date=2022-07-26 |website=public.wmo.int |language=en}}</ref><ref name="un.org">{{Cite web |date=7 December 2018 |title=Global warming: severe consequences for Africa |url=https://www.un.org/africarenewal/magazine/december-2018-march-2019/global-warming-severe-consequences-africa |access-date=2022-07-26 |website=Africa Renewal |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Climate Change Is an Increasing Threat to Africa |url=https://unfccc.int/news/climate-change-is-an-increasing-threat-to-africa |access-date=2022-07-26 |website=unfccc.int}}</ref> ==== Energy ==== [[File:M-Power solar in Tanzania (1080).jpg|thumb|Solar lighting and electricity wey install for house of one Tanzanian woman.]] As population dey grow and energy demand dey increase, energy security become very important for sustainable development. Climate change don already affect energy sector for Africa because many countries dey depend on hydropower. Reduced rainfall and drought don reduce water level for dams, which don affect electricity generation. This one cause low power supply, high electricity cost, and power cuts or load shedding for some countries like Ghana, Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} * [https://futureclimateafrica.org/ Future Climate For Africa programme] * [https://www.uneca.org/acpc African Climate Policy Centre] (ACCP) goal is to contribute to poverty reduction through successful mitigation and adaptation to climate change in Africa and to improve the capacity of African countries to participate effectively in multilateral climate negotiations. * [https://www.amma2050.org/ African Monsoon Multidisciplinary Analysis 2050] (AMMA-2050) aim to address the challenges of understanding how the monsoon will change in future decades, to 2050, and how this information can be most effectively used to support climate-compatible development in the region. * (CARIAA) builds resilience by supporting collaborative research on climate change adaptation to inform adaptation policy and practice. * [https://wascal.org/ West African Science Service Center on Climate Change and Adapted Land Use] (WASCAL) is a research-focused Climate Service Centre designed to help tackle this challenge and thereby enhance the resilience of human and environmental systems to climate change and increased variability in West Africa. [[Category:Climate change by continent|Africa]] [[Category:Environment of Africa]] [[Category:Climate change insyd Africa]] fb1kurdykgbtzj21fog9qrokv5l48n2 102924 102921 2026-06-15T06:53:03Z Achiri Bitamsimli 64 Added more content 102924 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Temperature Bar Chart Africa--1901-2020--2021-07-14.png|thumb|upright=1.33|Graph wey dey show temperature change insyd Africa between 1901 den 2021, plus red colour be warmer den blue being colder dan average (De average temperature during 1971–2000 be taken as de reference point for dese changes.)]] '''Climate change in Africa''' be a serious threat as Africa be one of de most vulnerable regions to de effects of climate change, despite contributing de least to causing am. Climate change be causing increasingly erratic rainfall patterns, more frequent extreme weather events wey dey include droughts, [[Flood|floods]], den rising sea surface temperatures insyd Africa. Dese changes dey threaten chow den water security, biodiversity, public health, den economic development.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781009325844/type/book |title=Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |date=2023-06-22 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-32584-4 |edition=1 |chapter=Africa |pages=1285–1456 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=United Nations |first=UNEP |date=2017 |title=Responding to climate change |url=http://www.unep.org/regions/africa/regional-initiatives/responding-climate-change |access-date=2022-07-01 |website=UNEP – UN Environment Programme |language=en}}</ref> Africa be currently warming faster dan de rest of de world on average.<ref>{{Cite web |last=World Meterological Organization |date=2024-09-02 |title=Africa faces disproportionate burden from climate change and adaptation costs |url=https://wmo.int/news/media-centre/africa-faces-disproportionate-burden-from-climate-change-and-adaptation-costs |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=World Meteorological Organization |language=en}}</ref> Na Climate change dey intensify existing socioeconomic vulnerabilities. Large segments of de African population depend on climate-sensitive livelihoods such as agriculture (55 - 62% of de workforce insyd sub-Saharan Africa)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781009325844/type/book |title=Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |date=2023-06-22 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-32584-4 |edition=1 |pages=1289 |chapter=Africa |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011}}</ref> den already live insyd poverty, wey dey heighten dema exposure to shocks. Health outcomes worsen as heat stress, vector borne - diseases (such as [[malaria]] den [[Dengue fever|dengue]]), den [[malnutrition]] becam more prevalent. Over half (56%) of de over 2,000 recorded public health incidents insyd Africa between 2001 den 2021 dey connect to climate change.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Africa CDC |url=https://africacdc.org/download/climate-change-and-health-strategic-framework-2025/ |title=Climate Change and Health: Strategic Framework 2025 |date=7 July 2025 |pages=vii}}</ref> Resources scarcity dey contribute to displacement den conflict, particularly insyd fragile regions. Urban areas, often be characterized by informal settlements, face heightened risks from flooding den extreme heat.<ref name=":02" /> Agriculture be one of de most vulnerable sectors, as most African farmers rely on rainfed crops. Reduced den unpredictable rainfall, combined plus higher temperatures, drives soil moisture loss, desertification (especially insyd de Sahara) den shifts suitable growing areas. Dese changes lower yields of staple crops, wey dey undermine food security den worsening hunger. Livestock health be increasingly compromised by heat stress den shifting disease patterns. Coastal den marine ecosystems face warming seas den rising levels, wich threaten fisheries den densely populated coastal settlements.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fonjong |first1=Lotsmart |last2=Matose |first2=Frank |last3=Sonnenfeld |first3=David A. |date=2024-12-01 |title=Climate change in Africa: Impacts, adaptation, and policy responses |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S095937802400116X |journal=Global Environmental Change |volume=89 |article-number=102912 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2024.102912 |bibcode=2024GEC....8902912F |issn=0959-3780}}</ref> De economic toll of climate change be severe. On average African countries face climate-related losses wey dey amount to 2-5% of GDP annually, while adaptation costs insyd sub-Saharan Africa be projected at USD 30-50 billion per year over de next decade. Dis dey threaten development gains den places pressure on governments den international institutions to mobilise [[climate finance]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=World Meteorological Organization |url=https://uneca.org/sites/default/files/ACPC/publication/State-of-the-Climate-in-Africa-2023_en.pdf |title=State of the Climate in Africa: 2023 |date=2024 |isbn=978-92-63-11360-3 |location=Geneva}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=European Investment Bank |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/finance-in-africa-navigating-the-financial-landscape-in-turbulent-times |title=Finance in Africa - Navigating the financial landscape in turbulent times |date=2022-10-19 |publisher=European Investment Bank |isbn=978-92-861-5382-2 |language=EN}}</ref> Africa ein climate change adaptation strategies dey focus on building resilience thru climate - smart agriculture, sustainable water management, ecosystem conservation, den strengthening health den infrastructure systems. Dese approaches prioritise enhancing governance, mobilising [[climate finance]] den investment, den fostering community participation to address vulnerability holistically.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tadesse |first=Debay |date=1 December 2010 |title=The impact of climate change in Africa |url=https://issafrica.org/research/papers/the-impact-of-climate-change-in-africa |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=ISS Africa |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Badji |first1=Arfang |last2=Ibanda |first2=Angele |last3=Akello |first3=Sarah |last4=Ekwamu |first4=Adipala |date=2022 |title=Climate change impacts and adaptation strategies in Africa: Selected case studies |url=https://afjrdev.org/index.php/jos/article/view/410 |journal=African Journal of Rural Development |language=en |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=209–274 |issn=2415-2838}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ngongolo |first1=Kelvin |last2=Gayo |first2=Leopody |date=2025-05-21 |title=Climate change impacts and mitigation strategies in Sub-Saharan Africa's livestock production sector. A brief review |journal=Pastoralism: Research, Policy and Practice |language=English |volume=15 |article-number=14225 |doi=10.3389/past.2025.14225 |bibcode=2025PRPP...1514225N |doi-access=free |issn=2041-7136}}</ref> Continental den national frameworks emphasise multi-sectoral coordination, technology adoption, den capacity building to support sustainable development den reduce climate risk.<ref>{{Cite book |last=African Union |url=https://au.int/en/documents/20220628/african-union-climate-change-and-resilient-development-strategy-and-action-plan |title=African Union Climate Change and Resilient Development Strategy and Action Plan (2022-2032) |date=28 June 2022 |publisher=African Union}}</ref> ==Greenhouse gas emissions== Africa ein per person greenhouse gas emissions be low compared to oda continents.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/outreach/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FactSheet_Africa.pdf|title=Fact sheet - Africa|accessdate=4 August 2024}}</ref> Emissions from land use change be uncertain, especially insyd [[Central Africa]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Mostefaoui |first1=Mounia |last2=Ciais |first2=Philippe |last3=McGrath |first3=Matthew J. |last4=Peylin |first4=Philippe |last5=Patra |first5=Prabir K. |last6=Ernst |first6=Yolandi |date=2024-01-11 |title=Greenhouse gas emissions and their trends over the last 3 decades across Africa |url=https://essd.copernicus.org/articles/16/245/2024/ |journal=Earth System Science Data |language=en |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=245–275 |doi=10.5194/essd-16-245-2024 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2024ESSD...16..245M |issn=1866-3516}}</ref> De main source of uncertainty dey cam from carbon dioxide fluxes insyd de LULUCF sector (dis acronym dey stand for land use, land-use change, den forestry).<ref name=":0" /> == Impacts == ===Temperature den weather changes=== {{multiple image | align = right | direction = vertical | total_width = 300 | image1 = Koppen-Geiger Map v2 Africa 1991–2020.svg | caption1 = Köppen climate classification map for Africa for 1991–2020 | image2 = Koppen-Geiger Map Africa future.svg | caption2 = 2071–2100 map under de most intense climate change scenario. Mid-range scenarios are currently considered more likely.<ref name="HausfatherPeters2020">{{cite journal|last1=Hausfather|first1=Zeke|last2=Peters|first2=Glen|title=Emissions – the 'business as usual' story is misleading|journal=Nature|date=29 January 2020|volume=577|issue=7792|pages=618–20|doi=10.1038/d41586-020-00177-3|pmid=31996825|bibcode=2020Natur.577..618H|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Schuur2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Schuur |first1=Edward A.G. |last2=Abbott |first2=Benjamin W. |last3=Commane |first3=Roisin |last4=Ernakovich |first4=Jessica |last5=Euskirchen |first5=Eugenie |last6=Hugelius |first6=Gustaf |last7=Grosse |first7=Guido |last8=Jones |first8=Miriam |last9=Koven |first9=Charlie |last10=Leshyk |first10=Victor |last11=Lawrence |first11=David |last12=Loranty |first12=Michael M. |last13=Mauritz |first13=Marguerite |last14=Olefeldt |first14=David |last15=Natali |first15=Susan |last16=Rodenhizer |first16=Heidi |last17=Salmon |first17=Verity |last18=Schädel |first18=Christina |last19=Strauss |first19=Jens |last20=Treat |first20=Claire |last21=Turetsky |first21=Merritt |year=2022 |title=Permafrost and Climate Change: Carbon Cycle Feedbacks From the Warming Arctic |journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources |volume=47 |pages=343–371 |doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-012220-011847 |quote="Medium-range estimates of Arctic carbon emissions could result from moderate climate emission mitigation policies that keep global warming below 3°C (e.g., RCP4.5). This global warming level most closely matches country emissions reduction pledges made for the Paris Climate Agreement..." |doi-access=free |bibcode=2022ARER...47..343S }}</ref><ref name="Phiddian2022">{{Cite web |last=Phiddian |first=Ellen |date=5 April 2022 |title=Explainer: IPCC Scenarios |url=https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/explainer-ipcc-scenarios/ |website=[[Cosmos (magazine)|Cosmos]] |access-date=30 September 2023 |quote="The IPCC doesn't make projections about which of these scenarios is more likely, but other researchers and modellers can. [[The Australian Academy of Science]], for instance, released a report last year stating that our current emissions trajectory had us headed for a 3°C warmer world, roughly in line with the middle scenario. [[Climate Action Tracker]] predicts 2.5 to 2.9°C of warming based on current policies and action, with pledges and government agreements taking this to 2.1°C. |archive-date=20 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230920224129/https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/explainer-ipcc-scenarios/ |url-status=live }}</ref> }} Observed surface temperatures generally increase over Africa since de late 19th century to de early 21st century by about 1°C, buh locally as much as 3°C for minimum temperature insyd de Sahel at de end of de dry season.<ref name="IRD-2017">{{Cite book |title=Rural societies in the face of climatic and environmental changes in West Africa |date=2017 |publisher=IRD éditions |isbn=978-2-7099-2424-5 |location=Marseille |oclc=1034784045 |id=Impr. Jouve}}</ref> De warming of Africa increase by +0.3 C from 1991 to 2021 versus +0.2 during 1961 to 1910. E be estimated dat by 2030, de people of Africa go be exposed to a rise insyd sea level secof an increase insyd temperature. Na dis go then cause agricultural productivity to decrease<ref>{{Cite book |last=Engel |first=Ulf |title=Yearbook on the African Union Volume 3 (2022) |date=2024 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-68308-2 |editor-last=Engel |editor-first=Ulf |location=Erscheinungsort nicht ermittelbar}}</ref>.Observed precipitation trends dey indicate spatial den temporal discrepancies as expected.<ref name="Collins-2011">{{cite journal |last1=Collins |first1=Jennifer M. |date=15 July 2011 |title=Temperature Variability over Africa |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=24 |issue=14 |pages=3649–3666 |bibcode=2011JCli...24.3649C |doi=10.1175/2011JCLI3753.1 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Niang-2014">Niang, I.; O. C. Ruppel; M. A. Abdrabo; A. Essel; C. Lennard; J. Padgham, and P. Urquhart, 2014: Africa. In: ''Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability''. [https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/WGIIAR5-Chap22_FINAL.pdf Part B: Regional Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change] [Barros, V. R.; C. B. Field; D. J. Dokken et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1199–1265.</ref> De observed changes insyd temperature den [[precipitation]] vary regionally.<ref name="Conway-2009">{{cite journal |last1=Conway |first1=Declan |last2=Persechino |first2=Aurelie |last3=Ardoin-Bardin |first3=Sandra |last4=Hamandawana |first4=Hamisai |last5=Dieulin |first5=Claudine |last6=Mahé |first6=Gil |date=February 2009 |title=Rainfall and Water Resources Variability in Sub-Saharan Africa during the Twentieth Century |journal=Journal of Hydrometeorology |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=41–59 |bibcode=2009JHyMe..10...41C |doi=10.1175/2008JHM1004.1 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Collins-2011" /> Current climate models (as dem summarise insyd de IPCC Sixth Assessment Report) predict increases insyd frequency den intensity of drought den heavy rainfall events.<ref name="Armstrong-2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Armstrong |first1=Andrew |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Koehler |first3=Johanna |last4=Hope |first4=Rob |date=2022 |title=Intra-seasonal rainfall and piped water revenue variability in rural Africa |journal=Global Environmental Change |language=en |volume=76 |article-number=102592 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2022.102592|doi-access=free|bibcode=2022GEC....7602592A }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref> Dem sanso predict decreases insyd mean precipitation almost everywhere insyd Africa, plus medium to high confidence. However, local rainfall trends den socio-climatic interactions be likely to manifest insyd mixed patterns. Therefore, de converging impacts of climate change go vary across de continent. Insyd rural areas, rainfall patterns influence water usage.<ref name="Armstrong-2022" /> A study insyd 2019 dey predict increased dry spell length during wet seasons den increased extreme rainfall rates insyd Africa.<ref name="Kendon-2019">{{Cite journal |last1=Kendon |first1=Elizabeth J. |last2=Stratton |first2=Rachel A. |last3=Tucker |first3=Simon |last4=Marsham |first4=John H. |last5=Berthou |first5=Ségolène |last6=Rowell |first6=David P. |last7=Senior |first7=Catherine A. |date=2019 |title=Enhanced future changes in wet and dry extremes over Africa at convection-permitting scale |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |bibcode=2019NatCo..10.1794K |doi=10.1038/s41467-019-09776-9 |pmc=6478940 |pmid=31015416 |article-number=1794}}</ref> Insyd other words: "both ends of Africa's weather extremes fi get more severe".<ref name="Weather Channel-2022">{{Cite news |title=More Extreme Weather in Africa's Future, Study Says |url=https://weather.com/news/climate/news/2019-06-18-africa-extreme-weather-drought-flood |access-date=2022-07-01 |work=The Weather Channel |language=en-US}}</ref> De research find say most climate models no go be able to capture de extent of dese changes secof dem no be conviction-permitting at dema coarse grid scales.<ref name="Kendon-2019" /> === Sea level rise === [[File:Dar es Salaam (Aerial).jpg|thumb|Aerial view of de Tanzanian capital Dar es Salaam]] Insyd [[Africa]], future population growth dey amplify risks from sea level rise. Sam 54.2million people dey live insyd de highly exposed low elevation coastal zones (LECZ) around 2000. Dis number fi effectively double to around 110 million people by 2030. By 2060 e fi be around 185 to 230million people, wey dey depend on de extent of population growth. De average regional sea level rise go be around 21cm by 2060. At dat point climate change scenarios go make little difference. Buh local geography den population trends interact to increase de exposure to hazards like 100-year floods insyd a complex way.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter9">Trisos, C. H., I. O. Adelekan, E. Totin, A. Ayanlade, J. Efitre, A. Gemeda, K. Kalaba, C. Lennard, C. Masao, Y. Mgaya, G. Ngaruiya, D. Olago, N. P. Simpson, and S. Zakieldeen 2022: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter09.pdf Chapter 9: Africa]. In [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/ Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability] [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E. S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, New York, US, pp. 2043–2121 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011.</ref> [[File:Abidjan des Lagune.jpg|thumb|Abidjan, de economic powerhouse of Ivory Coast]] {| class="wikitable" |+Populations within 100-year floodplains.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter9" /> !|Country !|2000 !|2030 !|2060 !|Growth 2000–2060 |- |[[Egypt]] || 7.4 || 13.8 || 20.7 || 0.28 |- |[[Nigeria]] || 0.1 || 0.3 || 0.9 || 0.84 |- |[[Senegal]] || 0.4 || 1.1 || 2.7 || 0.76 |- |[[Benin]] || 0.1 || 0.6 || 1.6 || 1.12 |- |[[Tanzania]] || 0.2 || 0.9 || 4.3 || 2.3 |- |[[Somalia]] || 0.2 || 0.6 || 2.7 || 1.7 |- |[[Ivory Coast|Côte d'Ivoire]]|| 0.1 || 0.3 || 0.7 || 0.65 |- |[[Mozambique]] || 0.7 || 1.4 || 2.5 || 0.36 |} {{reflist|group=T1}} [[File:ANKOMAH 20221122-009.jpg|thumb|A man de look go outside over di beach from top of building wey high tides don destroy for Chorkor, one suburb for Accra. Sunny day flooding wey come from sea level rise dey increase coastal erosion wey dey spoil houses, infrastructure and natural ecosystems. Plenty communities for Coastal Ghana don already dey feel di changing tides.]] For near future, one of di biggest displacement wey go happen dey expected for East Africa region. At least 750,000 people for dat area fit dey forced comot from coastal areas between 2020 and 2050. Scientific studies estimate say 12 major African cities go suffer total damage reach US$65 billion under “moderate” climate change scenario RCP4.5 by 2050. Di cities be Abidjan, Alexandria, Algiers, Cape Town, Casablanca, Dakar, Dar es Salaam, Durban, Lagos, Lomé, Luanda and Maputo. Under high-emission scenario RCP8.5, di damage go reach US$86.5 billion. If we add extra impact from serious ice sheet instability for di high-emission scenario, e fit reach up to US$137.5 billion damage. If we include “low-probability, high-damage events” join di three scenarios, di damage fit rise go US$187 billion, US$206 billion and US$397 billion respectively.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter9" /> For these estimates, Alexandria for Egypt alone dey account for around half of di total figure.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter9" /> Hundreds of thousands of people wey dey low-lying areas for dia fit already need relocation within next decade.<ref name="Michaelson-2018">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2018/aug/29/alexandria-little-venice-egypt-climate-change-frontline|title=Houses claimed by the canal: life on Egypt's climate change frontline| last=Michaelson| first=Ruth|date=25 August 2018|work=[[The Guardian]]|access-date=30 August 2018}}</ref> Across sub-Saharan Africa as whole, damage from sea level rise fit reach 2–4% of GDP by 2050. But this one depend on how economy go grow and how adaptation go happen.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter9">Trisos, C. H., I. O. Adelekan, E. Totin, A. Ayanlade, J. Efitre, A. Gemeda, K. Kalaba, C. Lennard, C. Masao, Y. Mgaya, G. Ngaruiya, D. Olago, N. P. Simpson, and S. Zakieldeen 2022: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter09.pdf Chapter 9: Africa]. In [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/ Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability] [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E. S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, New York, US, pp. 2043–2121 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011.</ref> [[File:Leptis Magna amphitheatre - panoramio.jpg|thumb|left|Di remains of Leptis Magna amphitheater, with sea dey show for background]] For long term, Egypt, Mozambique and Tanzania dey likely get di highest number of people wey go dey affected by yearly flooding among all African countries. This projection assume say global warming go reach 4°C by end of century. Dat level dey linked to RCP8.5 scenario. Under RCP8.5, 10 important cultural sites dey at risk of flooding and erosion by end of century. Dem be Casbah of Algiers, Carthage Archaeological site, Kerkouane, Leptis Magna Archaeological site, Medina of Sousse, Medina of Tunis, Sabratha Archaeological site, Robben Island, Island of Saint-Louis and Tipasa. Total of 15 Ramsar sites and other natural heritage sites too go face similar risk. These ones include Bao Bolong Wetland Reserve, Delta du Saloum National Park, Diawling National Park, Golfe de Boughrara, Kalissaye, Lagune de Ghar el Melh et Delta de la Mejerda, Marromeu Game Reserve, Parc Naturel des Mangroves du Fleuve Cacheu, Seal Ledges Provincial Nature Reserve, Sebkhet Halk Elmanzel et Oued Essed, Sebkhet Soliman, Réserve Naturelle d'Intérêt Communautaire de la Somone, Songor Biosphere Reserve, Tanbi Wetland Complex and Watamu Marine National Park.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter9" /> == Socioeconomic impacts == [[File:Access_to_wood_and_water_appears_to_be_severely_impacted_by_climate_change_in_Kenya_and_Cameroon.png|thumb|Survey results from 2022 show say access to wood and water dey badly affected by climate change for Kenya and Cameroon.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment Bank |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/20230098-eib-climate-survey-africa-and-middle-east |title=The EIB Climate Survey: Africa and the Middle East |date=2023-06-05 |publisher=European Investment Bank |isbn=978-92-861-5534-5 |language=EN}}</ref>]] Climate change go continue affect Africa well-well because of plenty factors. These impacts don already start show and dem go increase if nothing serious no happen to reduce global carbon emissions. The impacts include higher temperatures, drought, changing rainfall patterns, and more climate variability. These conditions dey affect energy production and consumption. Recent droughts for many African countries wey people link to climate change don spoil energy security and economic growth across di continent. Africa go be one of di regions wey climate change go hit pass others.<ref name=":0r">{{Cite book|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/WGIIAR5-Chap22_FINAL.pdf|title=Africa. In: Climate change 2014: impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.|year=2014}}</ref> Di reasons be say many countries get low ability to adapt, poor access to technology and information wey fit help adaptation, plus heavy dependence on farming ecosystems for survival.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Welborn|first=Lily|title=Africa and climate change: Projecting vulnerability and adaptive capacity|publisher=Institute for Security Studies|year=2018}}</ref> Many African countries dey classified as Least Developed Countries (LDCs) with weak socio-economic conditions, so dem face serious challenges for dealing with climate change effects.<ref>{{Cite book|last=UNDP/GEF|url=https://www.thegef.org/sites/default/files/publications/CCA-Africa-Final.pdf|title=Climate Change Adaptation in Africa UNDP: Synthesis of Experiences and Recommendations|publisher=UNDP/GEF|year=2018}}</ref> IPCC Fifth Assessment Report highlight say Africa dey face high risks for ecosystems, water availability, and agriculture, which dey affect food security.<ref name=":0r" /> For 2022, over 6,000 people from 10 African countries take part for climate survey wey European Investment Bank do.<ref name="EIB-2022a"/> Survey show say 88% of respondents believe climate change dey already affect their daily life, while 61% say environmental destruction don affect their income or livelihood.<ref>{{Cite web |title=EIB Climate Survey: 88% of African respondents believe that climate change is already affecting their everyday life. |url=https://www.eib.org/en/press/all/2022-554-eib-climate-survey-88-of-african-respondents-believe-that-climate-change-is-already-affecting-their-everyday-life |access-date=2023-02-28 |website=European Investment Bank |language=en}}</ref> These losses usually come from serious drought, rising sea levels, coastal erosion, or extreme weather like floods and storms.<ref name="EIB-2022a">{{Cite web |title=2022-2023 EIB Climate Survey, part 1 of 2: 88% of respondents believe that climate change is already affecting their everyday life |url=https://www.eib.org/en/surveys/climate-survey/5th-climate-survey/africa.htm |access-date=2023-02-28 |website=EIB.org |language=en}}</ref> More than half of African respondents (57%) say dem or people wey dem know don already take steps to adapt to climate change. Some of these actions include buying water-saving devices to reduce drought effects and clearing drains before floods.<ref name="EIB-2022a" /> 34% say climate change be one of di most serious problems wey their country dey face, along with issues like inflation and access to healthcare.<ref name="EIB-2022a"/> === Economic impacts === Africa dey warm pass most parts of di world. Large parts of di continent fit become hard to live in if warming continue. Africa GDP fit drop by 2% if global temperature rise by 1°C, and fit drop by 12% if e rise by 4°C. Crop production go reduce sharply because of heat, and heavy rainfall go become more frequent and intense across di continent, increasing flood risk.{{sfn|European Investment Bank|2022c}}<ref name="WMO-2021">{{Cite web |date=2021-10-18 |title=Climate change triggers mounting food insecurity, poverty and displacement in Africa |url=https://wmo.int/news/media-centre/climate-change-triggers-mounting-food-insecurity-poverty-and-displacement-africa |access-date=2022-07-26 |website=public.wmo.int |language=en }}</ref><ref name="Africa Renewal-2018">{{Cite web |date=2018-12-07 |title=Global warming: severe consequences for Africa |url=https://www.un.org/africarenewal/magazine/december-2018-march-2019/global-warming-severe-consequences-africa |access-date=2022-07-26 |website=Africa Renewal |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-10-27 |title=Climate Change Is an Increasing Threat to Africa |url=https://unfccc.int/news/climate-change-is-an-increasing-threat-to-africa |access-date=2022-07-26 |website=United Nations Climate Change News}}</ref> Africa dey lose between $7 billion and $15 billion every year because of climate change, and e fit reach $50 billion by 2030.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Rathi |first1=Akshat |last2=Rao |first2=Mythili |date=2024-05-02 |title=One Bank Is Turning Africa's Climate Vulnerability Into Opportunity |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2024-05-02/inside-the-bank-financing-africa-s-green-growth |access-date=2024-05-11 |website=www.bloomberg.com}}</ref> ==== Agriculture ==== Agriculture be very important sector for Africa, because plenty people depend on am for food and income. Many people rely on climate-sensitive resources. E dey expected say crop production go reduce across Sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Engel |first=Ulf |title=Yearbook on the African Union Volume 3 (2022) |date=2024 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-68308-2 |editor-last=Engel |editor-first=Ulf |location=Erscheinungsort nicht ermittelbar}}</ref> On average, agriculture for Sub-Saharan Africa contribute about 15% of total GDP.<ref name="OECD/FAO">{{Cite book |last=OECD/FAO |url=http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5778e.pdf |title=OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2016-2025 |publisher=OECD Publishing |year=2016 |isbn= 978-92-64-25323-0 |pages=59–61}}</ref> Africa geography make am very vulnerable, and 70% of people depend on rain-fed farming for survival.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Läderach |first1=Peter |last2=Martinez-Valle |first2=Armando |last3=Bourgoin |first3=Clement |last4=Parker |first4=Louis |date=27 March 2019 |title= Vulnerability of the agricultural sector to climate change: The development of a pan-tropical Climate Risk Vulnerability Assessment to inform sub-national decision making |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=14 |issue=3 |article-number=e0213641 |bibcode=2019PLoSO..1413641P |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0213641 |pmc=6436735 |pmid=30917146 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Smallholder farms dey cover about 80% of farmland for Sub-Saharan Africa.<ref name="OECD/FAO" /> IPCC for 2007 project say climate change go seriously affect agriculture productivity and food access.<ref name="ar4 summary of regional impacts">{{cite book |title=Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2007 |editor=Parry, M. L. |display-editors=et al. |chapter=Summary for Policymakers: C. Current knowledge about future impacts |chapter-url=http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/spmsspm-c.html |access-date=13 December 2023 |archive-date=2 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181102223635/http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/spmsspm-c.html }}</ref>{{rp|13}} This one get high confidence. Crop, livestock and fisheries go face more pests and diseases because of climate change.<ref name="Dhanush" /> Crop pests already cause about one-sixth of farm losses.<ref name="Dhanush" /> Climate change go make pests and diseases increase, plus more serious outbreaks.<ref name="Dhanush" /> This go affect food security and how people dey live. Poor nutrition fit cause deficiency like vitamin A and iron, especially during drought periods when food no dey enough.{{cn|date=May 2026}} Between 2014 and 2018, Africa get highest level of food insecurity for the world.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.fao.org/state-of-food-security-nutrition/en/ |title=SOFI 2019 – The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |year=2021 |isbn=978-92-5-134325-8 |language=en |doi=10.4060/CB4474EN |s2cid=241785130}}</ref> Heavy dependence on rain-fed farming and low use of climate-smart agriculture make the sector more vulnerable. Poor access to climate data too dey worsen adaptation efforts.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Dinku|first=Tufa|title=Overcoming challenges in the availability and use of climate data in Africa|url=https://ictupdate.cta.int/en/article/overcoming-challenges-in-the-availability-and-use-of-climate-data-in-africa-sid06fd8a811-e179-4fa5-9c8f-806bd2f27c3e|website=ICT Update CTA|access-date=13 December 2023|archive-date=1 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101070648/https://ictupdate.cta.int/en/article/overcoming-challenges-in-the-availability-and-use-of-climate-data-in-africa-sid06fd8a811-e179-4fa5-9c8f-806bd2f27c3e}}</ref> Changes in rainfall go shorten farming seasons and reduce yield for many places in Africa. Smallholder farmers no get enough technology and support to adapt.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Supporting Sub-Saharan Africa's Farmers – Bayer – Crop Science |url=https://www.cropscience.bayer.com:443/en/stories/2018/supporting-sub-saharan-africas-farmers-closing-the-gap |access-date=2019-08-15 |website=www.cropscience.bayer.com}}</ref> Climate variability don already cause big changes in food production across developing countries wey depend on rain.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Thornton |first1=Philip K |last2=Ericksen |first2=Polly J |last3=Herrero |first3=Mario |last4=Challinor |first4=Andrew J |title=Climate variability and vulnerability to climate change: a review |journal=Global Change Biology |date=November 2014 |volume=20 |issue=11 |pages=3313–3328 |doi=10.1111/gcb.12581 |bibcode=2014GCBio..20.3313T |pmc=4258067 |pmid=24668802 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=HU|first1=Tongxi|last2=Zhang|first2=Xuesong|last3=Khanal|first3=Sami|last4=Wilson|first4=Robyn|last5=Leng|first5=Guoyong|last6=Toman|first6=Elizabeth|last7=Wang|first7=Xuhui|last8=Zhao|first8=Kaiguang|date=2024-06-19|title=Climate change impacts on crop yields: A review of empirical findings, statistical crop models, and machine learning methods|url=https://bpb-us-w2.wpmucdn.com/u.osu.edu/dist/7/24705/files/2024/09/review-climate-impact-crop-yield-machine-learning.pdf|journal=Environmental Modelling & Software|volume=179|issue=106119 |article-number=106119 |doi=10.1016/j.envsoft.2024.106119 |bibcode=2024EnvMS.17906119H }}</ref> Agriculture dey sensitive to climate changes, especially rainfall, temperature, and extreme events like drought and flood. These events go increase for future and go affect farming serious.<ref name="Sabiiti et al 2018 Adapting Agriculture to Climate Change">{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-64599-5_10 |chapter=Adapting Agriculture to Climate Change: Suitability of Banana Crop Production to Future Climate Change over Uganda |title=Limits to Climate Change Adaptation |series=Climate Change Management |date=2018 |last1=Sabiiti |first1=Geoffrey |last2=Ininda |first2=Joseph Mwalichi |last3=Ogallo |first3=Laban Ayieko |last4=Ouma |first4=Jully |last5=Artan |first5=Guleid |last6=Basalirwa |first6=Charles |last7=Opijah |first7=Franklin |last8=Nimusiima |first8=Alex |last9=Ddumba |first9=Saul Daniel |last10=Mwesigwa |first10=Jasper Batureine |last11=Otieno |first11=George |last12=Nanteza |first12=Jamiat |pages=175–190 |isbn=978-3-319-64598-8 }}</ref> This go affect food prices, food security, and land use decisions.<ref>{{Cite book |section=A1 – 1 Sustainability, food security and climate change: three intertwined challenges |title=Climate-Smart Agriculture Sourcebook |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|url=http://www.fao.org/climate-smart-agriculture-sourcebook/concept/module-a1-introducing-csa/chapter-a1-1/en/|access-date=2019-08-15}}</ref> Yield from rain-fed farming fit reduce reach up to 50% by 2020.<ref name="Sabiiti et al 2018 Adapting Agriculture to Climate Change" /> To reduce future impact, African countries need strong policies and planning to manage food systems under climate variability. Dem need proper understanding of how climate affect different crops before making decisions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Shah |first1=Hassnain |last2=Hellegers |first2=Petra |last3=Siderius |first3=Christian |date=2021-01-01 |title=Climate risk to agriculture: A synthesis to define different types of critical moments |journal=Climate Risk Management |volume=34 |article-number=100378 |doi=10.1016/j.crm.2021.100378 |bibcode=2021CliRM..3400378S |issn=2212-0963|doi-access=free }}</ref> This one important especially during 2020 locust invasion for East Africa wey spoil agriculture.<ref name="Rosane-2020">{{cite news|last1=Rosane|first1=Olivia|date=27 January 2020|title=Worst Locust Swarm to Hit East Africa in Decades Linked to Climate Crisis|agency=Ecowatch|url=https://www.ecowatch.com/locust-swarm-east-africa-2644928358.html|access-date=6 February 2020}}</ref> For East Africa, climate change go make drought and flood happen more often and more strong, which go affect farming badly. Some research from International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) show say maize yield fit increase for some parts of East Africa, but go reduce for Ethiopia, DRC, Tanzania and northern Uganda.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013 |title=East African agriculture and climate change: A comprehensive analysis |url=http://www.ifpri.org/publication/east-african-agriculture-and-climate-change-comprehensive-analysis |access-date=21 September 2019 |website=[[International Food Policy Research Institute]] (IFPRI) |language=en}}</ref> Climate change also go reduce quality and quantity of land wey dey available for farming.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2008/09/11/000158349_20080911163038/Rendered/PDF/WPS4717.pdf |title=How Will Climate Change Shift Agro-Ecological Zones And Impact African Agriculture? |author1=Kurukulasuriya, P. |author2=Mendelsohn, R. |date=25 September 2008 |publisher=The World Bank |series=Policy Research Working Papers |doi=10.1596/1813-9450-4717 |hdl=10986/6994 |s2cid=129416028}}</ref> Climate change for Kenya go seriously affect agriculture sector wey depend mostly on rain.<ref name="NCCAP-2018">{{Cite web |last=Ministry of Environment and Forestry |title=National Climate Change Action Plan (NCCAP) 2018–2022. Volume I |url=http://www.environment.go.ke/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/NCCAP-2018-2022-v2.pdf |access-date=13 December 2023 |archive-date=2 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220402131336/http://www.environment.go.ke/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/NCCAP-2018-2022-v2.pdf }}</ref> Livestock for arid and semi-arid lands dey especially at risk. For these areas, over 70% of livestock deaths happen because of drought.<ref name="NCCAP-2018" /> Within next 10 years, 52% of cattle for these regions dey at risk because of extreme heat stress.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kenya Markets Trust |date=2019 |title=Contextualising Pathways to Resilience in Kenya's ASALs under the Big Four Agenda |url=https://www.kenyamarkets.org/contextualising-pathways-to-resilience-in-kenyas-asals-under-the-big-four-agenda/ |access-date=13 December 2023 |archive-date=16 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230216210136/https://www.kenyamarkets.org/contextualising-pathways-to-resilience-in-kenyas-asals-under-the-big-four-agenda/ }}</ref> For Southern Africa, climate change go worsen farming challenges wey already dey there because of weak infrastructure and low technology. Maize cover almost half of farmland, but yields fit reduce by 30% under future climate conditions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Overview [in Southern African Agriculture and Climate Change] |url=http://www.ifpri.org/publication/overview-southern-african-agriculture-and-climate-change |access-date=8 August 2019 |website=www.ifpri.org}}</ref> Rising temperatures also go increase weeds and pests spread.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hachigonta |first1=Sepo |url=https://cdm15738.contentdm.oclc.org/utils/getfile/collection/p15738coll2/id/127787/filename/127998.pdf |title=Southern African Agriculture and Climate Change: A Comprehensive Analysis |last2=Nelson |first2=Gerald C. |last3=Thomas |first3=Timothy S. |last4=Sibanda |first4=Lindiwe Majele |publisher=International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-89629-208-6 |pages=1–24 |chapter=Overview}}</ref> For West Africa, climate change go affect farming by making food production more unstable, affecting access and availability.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brown |first1=Molly E. |last2=Hintermann |first2=B. |last3=Higgins |first3=N. |date=January 2009 |title=Markets, Climate Change and Food Security in West Africa |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20090027893.pdf |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |volume=43 |issue=21 |pages=8016–8020 |bibcode=2009EnST...43.8016B |doi=10.1021/es901162d |pmid=19924916|hdl=2060/20090027893 |s2cid=9412710 }}</ref> For Central Africa, heavy rain, long dry periods and high heat go reduce cassava, maize and bean production.<ref name="Climatelinks-2020">{{Cite web |title=Climate Risks in the Central Africa Regional Program for the Environment (CARPE) and Congo Basin |url=https://www.climatelinks.org/file/4614/download?token=rlgPz1eX |website=Climatelinks |access-date=13 December 2023 |archive-date=28 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728153008/https://www.climatelinks.org/file/4614/download?token=rlgPz1eX }}</ref> Floods and erosion go spoil transport infrastructure, leading to post-harvest losses. Export crops like coffee and cocoa dey increase but dem still dey very vulnerable to climate change.<ref name="Climatelinks-2020" /> Political instability and conflict also dey affect agriculture contribution to GDP, and climate risk go make am worse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013 |title=Agriculture in Africa |url=https://www.un.org/en/africa/osaa/pdf/pubs/2013africanagricultures.pdf |website=United Nations}}</ref> Africa GDP fit drop by 2% if temperature rise by 1°C, and by 12% if e rise by 4°C. Crop yields go drop because of heat, and drought go increase across di continent. Heavy rain too go become more frequent, increasing flood risk.{{sfn|European Investment Bank|2022c}}<ref name="public.wmo.int">{{Cite web |date=18 October 2021 |title=Climate change triggers mounting food insecurity, poverty and displacement in Africa |url=https://wmo.int/news/media-centre/climate-change-triggers-mounting-food-insecurity-poverty-and-displacement-africa |access-date=2022-07-26 |website=public.wmo.int |language=en}}</ref><ref name="un.org">{{Cite web |date=7 December 2018 |title=Global warming: severe consequences for Africa |url=https://www.un.org/africarenewal/magazine/december-2018-march-2019/global-warming-severe-consequences-africa |access-date=2022-07-26 |website=Africa Renewal |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Climate Change Is an Increasing Threat to Africa |url=https://unfccc.int/news/climate-change-is-an-increasing-threat-to-africa |access-date=2022-07-26 |website=unfccc.int}}</ref> ==== Energy ==== [[File:M-Power solar in Tanzania (1080).jpg|thumb|Solar lighting and electricity wey install for house of one Tanzanian woman.]] As population dey grow and energy demand dey increase, energy security become very important for sustainable development. Climate change don already affect energy sector for Africa because many countries dey depend on hydropower. Reduced rainfall and drought don reduce water level for dams, which don affect electricity generation. This one cause low power supply, high electricity cost, and power cuts or load shedding for some countries like Ghana, Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania. == Water scarcity == [[File:Water Shortage in Ethiopia (935).jpg|thumb|Water shortage for Ethiopia.]] Water quality and how water dey available don spoil for most areas inside Africa, especially because of climate change.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rankoana |first=Sejabaledi Agnes |date=1 January 2020 |title=Climate change impacts on water resources in a rural community in Limpopo province, South Africa: a community-based adaptation to water insecurity |journal=International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management |volume=12 |issue=5 |pages=587–598 |doi=10.1108/IJCCSM-04-2020-0033 |bibcode=2020IJCCS..12..587R |doi-access=free }}</ref> Water resources dey very vulnerable, and climate change fit affect am plenty, wey go bring serious effects for human society.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Climate Change and Water — IPCC |url=https://www.ipcc.ch/publication/climate-change-and-water-2/ |access-date=2019-08-08}}</ref> IPCC dey predict say millions of people for Africa go continuously face serious water stress because of changes in climate and how weather dey vary (IPCC 2013). Changes in rain pattern dey directly affect surface runoff and how water dey available.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fowler |first1=H. J. |last2=Blenkinsop |first2=S. |last3=Tebaldi |first3=C. |date=October 2007 |title=Linking climate change modelling to impacts studies: recent advances in downscaling techniques for hydrological modelling |journal=International Journal of Climatology |volume=27 |issue=12 |pages=1547–1578 |bibcode=2007IJCli..27.1547F |doi=10.1002/joc.1556 |s2cid=53472608}}</ref> Climate change likely go make water-stress areas for Africa worse—example be Rufiji basin for Tanzania<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Conway |first1=Declan |last2=Geressu |first2=Robel |last3=Harou |first3=Julien |last4=Kashaigili |first4=Japhet |last5=Pettinotti |first5=L. |last6=Siderius |first6=Christian |date=2019 |title=Designing a process for assessing climate resilience in Tanzania's Rufiji basin |url=https://futureclimateafrica.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/tanzania_rufiji_river_basin_brief.pdf |journal=FCFA Country Brief}}</ref>—because of different land use and complex political and social issues. Climate change for Africa don seriously change hydrological cycle (water cycle) by disturbing rainfall patterns, increase flood and drought, reduce reliability of surface water and ground water, and also increase evaporation rate. All these changes dey affect water availability for home use, farming, and also energy production since many African countries dey depend on water for electricity generation. Ecosystem balance too dey affected.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Water Security in Africa in the Age of Global Climate Change |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/355000708_Water_Security_in_Africa_in_the_Age_of_Global_Climate_Change}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.uneca.org/sites/default/files/PublicationFiles/policy_brief_4_climate_change_and_water_in_africa_challenges_opportunities_and_recommendations.pdf |title=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=News |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/transboundary-waters/news |access-date=2026-06-12 |website=World Bank |language=en}}</ref> === Key Climate Threats to African Water Security === Erratic Rainfall: Rain no dey fall regularly again for Africa. Sometimes e dey delay, sometimes e dey fall heavy in short time. This dey disturb farming because many farmers dey depend on normal rainy season to plant crops. E fit reduce harvest and also dry underground water faster.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Climate change stressors affecting household food security among Kimandi-Wanyaga smallholder farmers in Murang’a County, Kenya |url=https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/opag-2021-0042/html?srsltid=AfmBOorEOnBGaZqgX15b1hSPcNAUiOvu0wK5fm8cclJLF5EMswne2RxW}}</ref> Extreme Weather Events: Climate change dey bring more serious weather events for Africa. Long dry season dey cause water shortage, while heavy rain dey cause flood wey dey destroy houses and also increase diseases wey water dey carry. Transboundary Tensions: When water no dey enough for shared rivers and basins, countries wey dey depend on the same water fit begin compete. This fit cause misunderstanding or tension. For example, Volta Basin for West Africa dey shared by many countries. If one country build dam or take too much water, others fit suffer shortage. Same thing apply for River Nile wey plenty countries dey share.<ref name=":3" /> === Health impacts === {{Further|Effects of climate change on human health}} African countries get some of the weakest health systems for the world.<ref name="WHO-2014">World Health Organization. (2014). ''The health of the people: what works: the African Regional Health Report 2014''. World Health Organization.</ref> Diseases like malaria, schistosomiasis, dengue fever, and meningitis—wey climate fit affect—dey very common for Sub-Saharan Africa. For example, over 90% of malaria cases worldwide dey Africa.<ref name="WHO-2014" /> Climate change fit change how these diseases dey spread and how people dey catch am. According to IPCC Sixth Assessment Report, climate change dey pose serious danger to health of millions of Africans because of heat stress, extreme weather, and increase spread of infectious diseases.<ref>{{cite book |type=Final Draft |chapter=Chapter 9:Africa |title=IPCC WGII Sixth Assessment Report |url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FinalDraft_Chapter09.pdf}}</ref> Climate change dey also increase temperature, storms, droughts, and sea level rise, all of which dey affect how diseases dey spread globally.<ref name="Beard-2016">Beard, C. B.; Eisen, R. J.; Barker, C. M.; Garofalo, J. F.; Hahn, M.; Hayden, M.; Schramm, P. J. (2016). [https://web.archive.org/web/20160607130925/https://health2016.globalchange.gov/vectorborne-diseases "Vector-Borne Diseases".] Retrieved 15 February 2017.</ref> For July 2021, World Food Programme (WFP) talk say the food crisis for southern Madagascar be mainly because of climate change, not war or conflict. Dem even describe am as first famine wey climate change alone cause.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Baker |first1=Aryn |title=Climate, Not Conflict. Madagascar's Famine is the First in Modern History to be Solely Caused by Global Warming |url=https://time.com/6081919/famine-climate-change-madagascar/ |access-date=24 July 2021 |magazine=Time |date=20 July 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Rodrigues |first1=Charlene |title=Madagascar famine becomes first in history to be caused solely by climate crisis |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/climate-change/madagascar-famine-climate-crisis-b1888058.html |access-date=24 July 2021 |work=[[The Independent]] |date=22 July 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Harding|first=Andrew|date=24 August 2021|title=Madagascar on the brink of climate change-induced famine|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-58303792|access-date=2021-09-10}}</ref> ==== Malaria ==== {{Main|Climate change and infectious diseases#Malaria}} Malaria still dey cause serious health problem for Africa. As climate change dey continue, areas wey get high malaria risk all year round fit shift from coastal West Africa go areas between Democratic Republic of the Congo and Uganda (African Highlands).<ref name="Ryan-2015">{{cite journal|last1=Ryan|first1=Sadie J.|last2=McNally|first2=Amy|last3=Johnson|first3=Leah R.|last4=Mordecai|first4=Erin A.|last5=Ben-Horin|first5=Tal|last6=Paaijmans|first6=Krijn|last7=Lafferty|first7=Kevin D.|year=2015|title=Mapping Physiological Suitability Limits for Malaria in Africa Under Climate Change|journal=Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases|volume=15|issue=12|pages=718–725|doi=10.1089/vbz.2015.1822|pmc=4700390|pmid=26579951|bibcode=2015VBZD...15..718R }}</ref> Rising temperature, change in rainfall, deforestation, and more humidity dey help mosquitoes wey carry malaria parasite to survive and reproduce. The main parasite be Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax, carried by Anopheles mosquito. Plasmodium falciparum no fit survive well if temperature no reach about 20°C, so warming dey increase risk.<ref name="CDC-2018">{{cite web |date=14 November 2018 |title=Where Malaria Occurs |url=https://www.cdc.gov/malaria/about/distribution.html |access-date=27 February 2020 |website=Center for Disease Control and Prevention}}</ref> Studies show say climate change fit increase malaria risk for more places, including highlands wey normally no get malaria.<ref name="Caminade-2014">{{cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Caminade C, Kovats S, Rocklov J, Tompkins AM, Morse AP, Colón-González FJ, Stenlund H, Martens P, Lloyd SJ |date=March 2014 |title=Impact of climate change on global malaria distribution |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=111 |issue=9 |pages=3286–3291 |bibcode=2014PNAS..111.3286C |doi=10.1073/pnas.1302089111 |pmc=3948226 |pmid=24596427 |doi-access=free}}</ref> === Impacts on conflicts and migration === United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) do environmental assessment for Sudan after conflict in 2007.<ref name="UNEP_2007_a">{{citation |author=UNEP |title=Sudan Post-Conflict Environmental Assessment |date=June 2007 |url=http://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/sudan/00_fwd.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304003632/http://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/sudan/00_fwd.pdf |location=Nairobi, Kenya |publisher=UNEP |isbn=978-92-807-2702-9 |access-date=2022-01-18 |archive-date=2016-03-04 }}</ref> Report show say environmental stress for Sudan dey link with social, economic and political problems like displacement of people and competition for natural resources. Reduced rainfall due to climate change be one factor wey contribute to conflict in Darfur. UNEP recommend say international community should help Sudan adapt to climate change.<ref name="UNEP_2007_b">{{citation |title=Natural Disasters and Desertification |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100602041622/http://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/sudan/03_disasters.pdf |chapter=Ch 3. Natural Disasters |chapter-url=http://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/sudan/03_disasters.pdf |access-date=2022-01-18 |archive-date=2010-06-02 }} in {{harvnb|UNEP|2007|p=69}}</ref> ==Impacts by region== ===Central Africa=== {{Further|Climate change in the Democratic Republic of the Congo|Climate change in São Tomé and Príncipe}} Central Africa mostly be landlocked area and e dey very vulnerable to climate change. Because rain dey depend on seasons and farming too depend on rain, the region dey expect longer heatwaves and more extreme wet conditions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Diedhiou |first1=Arona |last2=Bichet |first2=Adeline |last3=Wartenburger |first3=Richard |last4=Seneviratne |first4=Sonia I |last5=Rowell |first5=David P |last6=Sylla |first6=Mouhamadou B |last7=Diallo |first7=Ismaila |last8=Todzo |first8=Stella |last9=Touré |first9=N'datchoh E |last10=Camara |first10=Moctar |last11=Ngatchah |first11=Benjamin Ngounou |last12=Kane |first12=Ndjido A |last13=Tall |first13=Laure |last14=Affholder |first14=François |title=Changes in climate extremes over West and Central Africa at 1.5 °C and 2 °C global warming |journal=Environmental Research Letters |date=June 2018 |volume=13 |issue=6 |article-number=065020 |doi=10.1088/1748-9326/aac3e5 |bibcode=2018ERL....13f5020D |doi-access=free |hdl=20.500.11850/274346 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Temperature for the region fit increase by about 1.5°C to 2°C.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Seneviratne |first1=Sonia I. |last2=Donat |first2=Markus G. |last3=Pitman |first3=Andy J. |last4=Knutti |first4=Reto |last5=Wilby |first5=Robert L. |title=Allowable CO2 emissions based on regional and impact-related climate targets |journal=Nature |date=28 January 2016 |volume=529 |issue=7587 |pages=477–483 |doi=10.1038/nature16542 |pmid=26789252 |s2cid=205247437 |url=https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/9482219 }}</ref> Forest for Congo Basin wey dey absorb CO₂ don reduce because of heat and drought wey dey slow tree growth. Even forest wey nobody cut dey affected. By around 2030, forest fit absorb 14% less CO₂ and by 2035 e fit stop to absorb am.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Grossman |first1=Daniel |date=4 March 2020 |title=The Congo rainforest is losing ability to absorb carbon dioxide. That's bad for climate change. |language=en |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-environment/the-congo-rainforest-is-losing-its-ability-to-absorb-carbon-dioxide-thats-bad-for-climate-change/2020/03/03/3363d218-5ca9-11ea-9055-5fa12981bbbf_story.html |access-date=6 March 2020}}</ref> ===Eastern Africa=== {{Further|Climate change in Kenya|Climate change in Tanzania|Climate change in Ethiopia|Climate change in South Sudan}} Eastern Africa dey inside tropics, and rainfall dey controlled by seasonal movement of tropical rain belt. Rain pattern for the region no regular because of geography like highlands, lakes (example Lake Victoria), and influence from Indian and Atlantic Oceans. Some places get one rainy season, others get two. Rain timing fit change because of ocean temperature changes and weather systems like Madden–Julian Oscillation (MJO) and tropical cyclones. Long rains season dey very important for farming but e dey unpredictable. Some studies show say rainfall don reduce since 1980s during March–May, even though some recovery dey recent years.<ref name="Bernhofer 1–9">{{Cite journal |last1=Bernhofer |first1=Christian |last2=Hülsmann |first2= Stephan |last3=Gebrechorkos |first3=Solomon H. |date=6 August 2019 |title=Long-term trends in rainfall and temperature using high-resolution climate datasets in East Africa |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=9 |issue=1 |article-number=11376 |bibcode=2019NatSR...911376G |doi=10.1038/s41598-019-47933-8 |pmc=6684806 |pmid=31388068 }}</ref> Temperature for East Africa fit rise about 2–5°C by end of century depending on emissions.<ref name= "Bornemann 365–384">{{Cite journal |last1=Bornemann |first1=F. Jorge |last2=Rowell |first2=David P. |last3=Evans |first3=Barbara |last4=Lapworth |first4=Dan J. |last5=Lwiza |first5=Kamazima |last6= Macdonald |first6=David M.J. |last7=Marsham |first7=John H. |last8=Tesfaye |first8=Kindie |last9=Ascott |first9=Matthew J. |last10=Way |first10=Celia |date=1 October 2019 |title=Future changes and uncertainty in decision-relevant measures of East African climate |journal=Climatic Change |language=en |volume=156 |issue=3 |pages=365–384 |bibcode=2019ClCh..156..365B |doi=10.1007/s10584-019-02499-2 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Kenya dey very vulnerable. Drought and flood go increase as rainfall dey become more intense and less predictable. Urban heat for Nairobi too dey worsen because of building materials and lack of green space.<ref name="World_Bank" /> ===North Africa=== {{Excerpt|Climate change in the Middle East and North Africa|paragraphs=1,2|file=no}} {{Further|Climate change in Algeria|Climate change in Morocco}} ===West Africa and the Sahel=== {{Further|Climate change in Ghana|Climate change in Nigeria|Climate change in Senegal|Climate change in the Gambia|Climate change in Mali}} West Africa get four climate zones: Guinea Coast, Soudano-Sahel, Sahel, and Sahara. Rain mainly dey controlled by movement of Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), wey dey mix moist monsoon wind and dry Harmattan wind. Sahel region don experience wet period (1950s–1960s), then long dry period (1970s–1990s), and partial recovery from 1990s onward. Even though rain don increase small recently, total rainfall still less than 1950s level.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Panthou |first1=G |last2=Lebel |first2=T |last3=Vischel |first3=T |last4=Quantin |first4=G |last5=Sane |first5=Y |last6=Ba |first6=A |last7=Ndiaye |first7=O |last8=Diongue-Niang |first8=A |last9=Diopkane |first9=M |title=Rainfall intensification in tropical semi-arid regions: the Sahelian case |journal=Environmental Research Letters |date=June 2018 |volume=13 |issue=6 |article-number=064013 |doi=10.1088/1748-9326/aac334 |bibcode=2018ERL....13f4013P |doi-access=free }}</ref> Some people call am recovery period, others call am hydrological intensification because rain dey fall in heavy bursts wey cause flooding instead of steady rain. Sahel don also face serious floods and droughts, and many people don affected multiple times. In 2012, severe drought happen and governments respond quickly.<ref>{{cite web |last=Fominyen |first=George |title=Coming weeks critical to tackle Sahel hunger – U.N. humanitarian chief |url=http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/coming-weeks-critical-to-tackle-sahel-hunger-un-humanitarian-chief |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120603231542/http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/coming-weeks-critical-to-tackle-sahel-hunger-un-humanitarian-chief/ |archive-date=3 June 2012 |access-date=10 June 2012 |publisher=Thomson Reuters Foundation}}</ref> Climate models dey show say western Sahel fit get decrease in rainfall while central and eastern Sahel fit get increase, but uncertainty still dey. Heavy storms go likely increase and this go make flooding worse.<ref name=sb/><ref name="Kendon-2019"/> === Southern Africa === {{Further|Climate change in South Africa|Climate change in Mozambique|Climate change in Madagascar}} == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} * [https://futureclimateafrica.org/ Future Climate For Africa programme] * [https://www.uneca.org/acpc African Climate Policy Centre] (ACCP) goal is to contribute to poverty reduction through successful mitigation and adaptation to climate change in Africa and to improve the capacity of African countries to participate effectively in multilateral climate negotiations. * [https://www.amma2050.org/ African Monsoon Multidisciplinary Analysis 2050] (AMMA-2050) aim to address the challenges of understanding how the monsoon will change in future decades, to 2050, and how this information can be most effectively used to support climate-compatible development in the region. * (CARIAA) builds resilience by supporting collaborative research on climate change adaptation to inform adaptation policy and practice. * [https://wascal.org/ West African Science Service Center on Climate Change and Adapted Land Use] (WASCAL) is a research-focused Climate Service Centre designed to help tackle this challenge and thereby enhance the resilience of human and environmental systems to climate change and increased variability in West Africa. [[Category:Climate change by continent|Africa]] [[Category:Environment of Africa]] [[Category:Climate change insyd Africa]] qgpwa0c16px3vsiu76nr7t308vdq0a1 102925 102924 2026-06-15T06:55:47Z Achiri Bitamsimli 64 Correction of sections 102925 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Temperature Bar Chart Africa--1901-2020--2021-07-14.png|thumb|upright=1.33|Graph wey dey show temperature change insyd Africa between 1901 den 2021, plus red colour be warmer den blue being colder dan average (De average temperature during 1971–2000 be taken as de reference point for dese changes.)]] '''Climate change in Africa''' be a serious threat as Africa be one of de most vulnerable regions to de effects of climate change, despite contributing de least to causing am. Climate change be causing increasingly erratic rainfall patterns, more frequent extreme weather events wey dey include droughts, [[Flood|floods]], den rising sea surface temperatures insyd Africa. Dese changes dey threaten chow den water security, biodiversity, public health, den economic development.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781009325844/type/book |title=Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |date=2023-06-22 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-32584-4 |edition=1 |chapter=Africa |pages=1285–1456 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=United Nations |first=UNEP |date=2017 |title=Responding to climate change |url=http://www.unep.org/regions/africa/regional-initiatives/responding-climate-change |access-date=2022-07-01 |website=UNEP – UN Environment Programme |language=en}}</ref> Africa be currently warming faster dan de rest of de world on average.<ref>{{Cite web |last=World Meterological Organization |date=2024-09-02 |title=Africa faces disproportionate burden from climate change and adaptation costs |url=https://wmo.int/news/media-centre/africa-faces-disproportionate-burden-from-climate-change-and-adaptation-costs |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=World Meteorological Organization |language=en}}</ref> Na Climate change dey intensify existing socioeconomic vulnerabilities. Large segments of de African population depend on climate-sensitive livelihoods such as agriculture (55 - 62% of de workforce insyd sub-Saharan Africa)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781009325844/type/book |title=Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |date=2023-06-22 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-32584-4 |edition=1 |pages=1289 |chapter=Africa |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011}}</ref> den already live insyd poverty, wey dey heighten dema exposure to shocks. Health outcomes worsen as heat stress, vector borne - diseases (such as [[malaria]] den [[Dengue fever|dengue]]), den [[malnutrition]] becam more prevalent. Over half (56%) of de over 2,000 recorded public health incidents insyd Africa between 2001 den 2021 dey connect to climate change.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Africa CDC |url=https://africacdc.org/download/climate-change-and-health-strategic-framework-2025/ |title=Climate Change and Health: Strategic Framework 2025 |date=7 July 2025 |pages=vii}}</ref> Resources scarcity dey contribute to displacement den conflict, particularly insyd fragile regions. Urban areas, often be characterized by informal settlements, face heightened risks from flooding den extreme heat.<ref name=":02" /> Agriculture be one of de most vulnerable sectors, as most African farmers rely on rainfed crops. Reduced den unpredictable rainfall, combined plus higher temperatures, drives soil moisture loss, desertification (especially insyd de Sahara) den shifts suitable growing areas. Dese changes lower yields of staple crops, wey dey undermine food security den worsening hunger. Livestock health be increasingly compromised by heat stress den shifting disease patterns. Coastal den marine ecosystems face warming seas den rising levels, wich threaten fisheries den densely populated coastal settlements.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fonjong |first1=Lotsmart |last2=Matose |first2=Frank |last3=Sonnenfeld |first3=David A. |date=2024-12-01 |title=Climate change in Africa: Impacts, adaptation, and policy responses |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S095937802400116X |journal=Global Environmental Change |volume=89 |article-number=102912 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2024.102912 |bibcode=2024GEC....8902912F |issn=0959-3780}}</ref> De economic toll of climate change be severe. On average African countries face climate-related losses wey dey amount to 2-5% of GDP annually, while adaptation costs insyd sub-Saharan Africa be projected at USD 30-50 billion per year over de next decade. Dis dey threaten development gains den places pressure on governments den international institutions to mobilise [[climate finance]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=World Meteorological Organization |url=https://uneca.org/sites/default/files/ACPC/publication/State-of-the-Climate-in-Africa-2023_en.pdf |title=State of the Climate in Africa: 2023 |date=2024 |isbn=978-92-63-11360-3 |location=Geneva}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=European Investment Bank |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/finance-in-africa-navigating-the-financial-landscape-in-turbulent-times |title=Finance in Africa - Navigating the financial landscape in turbulent times |date=2022-10-19 |publisher=European Investment Bank |isbn=978-92-861-5382-2 |language=EN}}</ref> Africa ein climate change adaptation strategies dey focus on building resilience thru climate - smart agriculture, sustainable water management, ecosystem conservation, den strengthening health den infrastructure systems. Dese approaches prioritise enhancing governance, mobilising [[climate finance]] den investment, den fostering community participation to address vulnerability holistically.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tadesse |first=Debay |date=1 December 2010 |title=The impact of climate change in Africa |url=https://issafrica.org/research/papers/the-impact-of-climate-change-in-africa |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=ISS Africa |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Badji |first1=Arfang |last2=Ibanda |first2=Angele |last3=Akello |first3=Sarah |last4=Ekwamu |first4=Adipala |date=2022 |title=Climate change impacts and adaptation strategies in Africa: Selected case studies |url=https://afjrdev.org/index.php/jos/article/view/410 |journal=African Journal of Rural Development |language=en |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=209–274 |issn=2415-2838}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ngongolo |first1=Kelvin |last2=Gayo |first2=Leopody |date=2025-05-21 |title=Climate change impacts and mitigation strategies in Sub-Saharan Africa's livestock production sector. A brief review |journal=Pastoralism: Research, Policy and Practice |language=English |volume=15 |article-number=14225 |doi=10.3389/past.2025.14225 |bibcode=2025PRPP...1514225N |doi-access=free |issn=2041-7136}}</ref> Continental den national frameworks emphasise multi-sectoral coordination, technology adoption, den capacity building to support sustainable development den reduce climate risk.<ref>{{Cite book |last=African Union |url=https://au.int/en/documents/20220628/african-union-climate-change-and-resilient-development-strategy-and-action-plan |title=African Union Climate Change and Resilient Development Strategy and Action Plan (2022-2032) |date=28 June 2022 |publisher=African Union}}</ref> ==Greenhouse gas emissions== Africa ein per person greenhouse gas emissions be low compared to oda continents.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/outreach/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FactSheet_Africa.pdf|title=Fact sheet - Africa|accessdate=4 August 2024}}</ref> Emissions from land use change be uncertain, especially insyd [[Central Africa]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Mostefaoui |first1=Mounia |last2=Ciais |first2=Philippe |last3=McGrath |first3=Matthew J. |last4=Peylin |first4=Philippe |last5=Patra |first5=Prabir K. |last6=Ernst |first6=Yolandi |date=2024-01-11 |title=Greenhouse gas emissions and their trends over the last 3 decades across Africa |url=https://essd.copernicus.org/articles/16/245/2024/ |journal=Earth System Science Data |language=en |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=245–275 |doi=10.5194/essd-16-245-2024 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2024ESSD...16..245M |issn=1866-3516}}</ref> De main source of uncertainty dey cam from carbon dioxide fluxes insyd de LULUCF sector (dis acronym dey stand for land use, land-use change, den forestry).<ref name=":0" /> == Impacts == ===Temperature den weather changes=== {{multiple image | align = right | direction = vertical | total_width = 300 | image1 = Koppen-Geiger Map v2 Africa 1991–2020.svg | caption1 = Köppen climate classification map for Africa for 1991–2020 | image2 = Koppen-Geiger Map Africa future.svg | caption2 = 2071–2100 map under de most intense climate change scenario. Mid-range scenarios are currently considered more likely.<ref name="HausfatherPeters2020">{{cite journal|last1=Hausfather|first1=Zeke|last2=Peters|first2=Glen|title=Emissions – the 'business as usual' story is misleading|journal=Nature|date=29 January 2020|volume=577|issue=7792|pages=618–20|doi=10.1038/d41586-020-00177-3|pmid=31996825|bibcode=2020Natur.577..618H|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Schuur2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Schuur |first1=Edward A.G. |last2=Abbott |first2=Benjamin W. |last3=Commane |first3=Roisin |last4=Ernakovich |first4=Jessica |last5=Euskirchen |first5=Eugenie |last6=Hugelius |first6=Gustaf |last7=Grosse |first7=Guido |last8=Jones |first8=Miriam |last9=Koven |first9=Charlie |last10=Leshyk |first10=Victor |last11=Lawrence |first11=David |last12=Loranty |first12=Michael M. |last13=Mauritz |first13=Marguerite |last14=Olefeldt |first14=David |last15=Natali |first15=Susan |last16=Rodenhizer |first16=Heidi |last17=Salmon |first17=Verity |last18=Schädel |first18=Christina |last19=Strauss |first19=Jens |last20=Treat |first20=Claire |last21=Turetsky |first21=Merritt |year=2022 |title=Permafrost and Climate Change: Carbon Cycle Feedbacks From the Warming Arctic |journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources |volume=47 |pages=343–371 |doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-012220-011847 |quote="Medium-range estimates of Arctic carbon emissions could result from moderate climate emission mitigation policies that keep global warming below 3°C (e.g., RCP4.5). This global warming level most closely matches country emissions reduction pledges made for the Paris Climate Agreement..." |doi-access=free |bibcode=2022ARER...47..343S }}</ref><ref name="Phiddian2022">{{Cite web |last=Phiddian |first=Ellen |date=5 April 2022 |title=Explainer: IPCC Scenarios |url=https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/explainer-ipcc-scenarios/ |website=[[Cosmos (magazine)|Cosmos]] |access-date=30 September 2023 |quote="The IPCC doesn't make projections about which of these scenarios is more likely, but other researchers and modellers can. [[The Australian Academy of Science]], for instance, released a report last year stating that our current emissions trajectory had us headed for a 3°C warmer world, roughly in line with the middle scenario. [[Climate Action Tracker]] predicts 2.5 to 2.9°C of warming based on current policies and action, with pledges and government agreements taking this to 2.1°C. |archive-date=20 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230920224129/https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/explainer-ipcc-scenarios/ |url-status=live }}</ref> }} Observed surface temperatures generally increase over Africa since de late 19th century to de early 21st century by about 1°C, buh locally as much as 3°C for minimum temperature insyd de Sahel at de end of de dry season.<ref name="IRD-2017">{{Cite book |title=Rural societies in the face of climatic and environmental changes in West Africa |date=2017 |publisher=IRD éditions |isbn=978-2-7099-2424-5 |location=Marseille |oclc=1034784045 |id=Impr. Jouve}}</ref> De warming of Africa increase by +0.3 C from 1991 to 2021 versus +0.2 during 1961 to 1910. E be estimated dat by 2030, de people of Africa go be exposed to a rise insyd sea level secof an increase insyd temperature. Na dis go then cause agricultural productivity to decrease<ref>{{Cite book |last=Engel |first=Ulf |title=Yearbook on the African Union Volume 3 (2022) |date=2024 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-68308-2 |editor-last=Engel |editor-first=Ulf |location=Erscheinungsort nicht ermittelbar}}</ref>.Observed precipitation trends dey indicate spatial den temporal discrepancies as expected.<ref name="Collins-2011">{{cite journal |last1=Collins |first1=Jennifer M. |date=15 July 2011 |title=Temperature Variability over Africa |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=24 |issue=14 |pages=3649–3666 |bibcode=2011JCli...24.3649C |doi=10.1175/2011JCLI3753.1 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Niang-2014">Niang, I.; O. C. Ruppel; M. A. Abdrabo; A. Essel; C. Lennard; J. Padgham, and P. Urquhart, 2014: Africa. In: ''Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability''. [https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/WGIIAR5-Chap22_FINAL.pdf Part B: Regional Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change] [Barros, V. R.; C. B. Field; D. J. Dokken et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1199–1265.</ref> De observed changes insyd temperature den [[precipitation]] vary regionally.<ref name="Conway-2009">{{cite journal |last1=Conway |first1=Declan |last2=Persechino |first2=Aurelie |last3=Ardoin-Bardin |first3=Sandra |last4=Hamandawana |first4=Hamisai |last5=Dieulin |first5=Claudine |last6=Mahé |first6=Gil |date=February 2009 |title=Rainfall and Water Resources Variability in Sub-Saharan Africa during the Twentieth Century |journal=Journal of Hydrometeorology |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=41–59 |bibcode=2009JHyMe..10...41C |doi=10.1175/2008JHM1004.1 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Collins-2011" /> Current climate models (as dem summarise insyd de IPCC Sixth Assessment Report) predict increases insyd frequency den intensity of drought den heavy rainfall events.<ref name="Armstrong-2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Armstrong |first1=Andrew |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Koehler |first3=Johanna |last4=Hope |first4=Rob |date=2022 |title=Intra-seasonal rainfall and piped water revenue variability in rural Africa |journal=Global Environmental Change |language=en |volume=76 |article-number=102592 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2022.102592|doi-access=free|bibcode=2022GEC....7602592A }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref> Dem sanso predict decreases insyd mean precipitation almost everywhere insyd Africa, plus medium to high confidence. However, local rainfall trends den socio-climatic interactions be likely to manifest insyd mixed patterns. Therefore, de converging impacts of climate change go vary across de continent. Insyd rural areas, rainfall patterns influence water usage.<ref name="Armstrong-2022" /> A study insyd 2019 dey predict increased dry spell length during wet seasons den increased extreme rainfall rates insyd Africa.<ref name="Kendon-2019">{{Cite journal |last1=Kendon |first1=Elizabeth J. |last2=Stratton |first2=Rachel A. |last3=Tucker |first3=Simon |last4=Marsham |first4=John H. |last5=Berthou |first5=Ségolène |last6=Rowell |first6=David P. |last7=Senior |first7=Catherine A. |date=2019 |title=Enhanced future changes in wet and dry extremes over Africa at convection-permitting scale |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |bibcode=2019NatCo..10.1794K |doi=10.1038/s41467-019-09776-9 |pmc=6478940 |pmid=31015416 |article-number=1794}}</ref> Insyd other words: "both ends of Africa's weather extremes fi get more severe".<ref name="Weather Channel-2022">{{Cite news |title=More Extreme Weather in Africa's Future, Study Says |url=https://weather.com/news/climate/news/2019-06-18-africa-extreme-weather-drought-flood |access-date=2022-07-01 |work=The Weather Channel |language=en-US}}</ref> De research find say most climate models no go be able to capture de extent of dese changes secof dem no be conviction-permitting at dema coarse grid scales.<ref name="Kendon-2019" /> === Sea level rise === [[File:Dar es Salaam (Aerial).jpg|thumb|Aerial view of de Tanzanian capital Dar es Salaam]] Insyd [[Africa]], future population growth dey amplify risks from sea level rise. Sam 54.2million people dey live insyd de highly exposed low elevation coastal zones (LECZ) around 2000. Dis number fi effectively double to around 110 million people by 2030. By 2060 e fi be around 185 to 230million people, wey dey depend on de extent of population growth. De average regional sea level rise go be around 21cm by 2060. At dat point climate change scenarios go make little difference. Buh local geography den population trends interact to increase de exposure to hazards like 100-year floods insyd a complex way.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter9">Trisos, C. H., I. O. Adelekan, E. Totin, A. Ayanlade, J. Efitre, A. Gemeda, K. Kalaba, C. Lennard, C. Masao, Y. Mgaya, G. Ngaruiya, D. Olago, N. P. Simpson, and S. Zakieldeen 2022: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter09.pdf Chapter 9: Africa]. In [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/ Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability] [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E. S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, New York, US, pp. 2043–2121 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011.</ref> [[File:Abidjan des Lagune.jpg|thumb|Abidjan, de economic powerhouse of Ivory Coast]] {| class="wikitable" |+Populations within 100-year floodplains.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter9" /> !|Country !|2000 !|2030 !|2060 !|Growth 2000–2060 |- |[[Egypt]] || 7.4 || 13.8 || 20.7 || 0.28 |- |[[Nigeria]] || 0.1 || 0.3 || 0.9 || 0.84 |- |[[Senegal]] || 0.4 || 1.1 || 2.7 || 0.76 |- |[[Benin]] || 0.1 || 0.6 || 1.6 || 1.12 |- |[[Tanzania]] || 0.2 || 0.9 || 4.3 || 2.3 |- |[[Somalia]] || 0.2 || 0.6 || 2.7 || 1.7 |- |[[Ivory Coast|Côte d'Ivoire]]|| 0.1 || 0.3 || 0.7 || 0.65 |- |[[Mozambique]] || 0.7 || 1.4 || 2.5 || 0.36 |} {{reflist|group=T1}} [[File:ANKOMAH 20221122-009.jpg|thumb|A man de look go outside over di beach from top of building wey high tides don destroy for Chorkor, one suburb for Accra. Sunny day flooding wey come from sea level rise dey increase coastal erosion wey dey spoil houses, infrastructure and natural ecosystems. Plenty communities for Coastal Ghana don already dey feel di changing tides.]] For near future, one of di biggest displacement wey go happen dey expected for East Africa region. At least 750,000 people for dat area fit dey forced comot from coastal areas between 2020 and 2050. Scientific studies estimate say 12 major African cities go suffer total damage reach US$65 billion under “moderate” climate change scenario RCP4.5 by 2050. Di cities be Abidjan, Alexandria, Algiers, Cape Town, Casablanca, Dakar, Dar es Salaam, Durban, Lagos, Lomé, Luanda and Maputo. Under high-emission scenario RCP8.5, di damage go reach US$86.5 billion. If we add extra impact from serious ice sheet instability for di high-emission scenario, e fit reach up to US$137.5 billion damage. If we include “low-probability, high-damage events” join di three scenarios, di damage fit rise go US$187 billion, US$206 billion and US$397 billion respectively.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter9" /> For these estimates, Alexandria for Egypt alone dey account for around half of di total figure.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter9" /> Hundreds of thousands of people wey dey low-lying areas for dia fit already need relocation within next decade.<ref name="Michaelson-2018">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2018/aug/29/alexandria-little-venice-egypt-climate-change-frontline|title=Houses claimed by the canal: life on Egypt's climate change frontline| last=Michaelson| first=Ruth|date=25 August 2018|work=[[The Guardian]]|access-date=30 August 2018}}</ref> Across sub-Saharan Africa as whole, damage from sea level rise fit reach 2–4% of GDP by 2050. But this one depend on how economy go grow and how adaptation go happen.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter9">Trisos, C. H., I. O. Adelekan, E. Totin, A. Ayanlade, J. Efitre, A. Gemeda, K. Kalaba, C. Lennard, C. Masao, Y. Mgaya, G. Ngaruiya, D. Olago, N. P. Simpson, and S. Zakieldeen 2022: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter09.pdf Chapter 9: Africa]. In [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/ Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability] [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E. S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, New York, US, pp. 2043–2121 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011.</ref> [[File:Leptis Magna amphitheatre - panoramio.jpg|thumb|left|Di remains of Leptis Magna amphitheater, with sea dey show for background]] For long term, Egypt, Mozambique and Tanzania dey likely get di highest number of people wey go dey affected by yearly flooding among all African countries. This projection assume say global warming go reach 4°C by end of century. Dat level dey linked to RCP8.5 scenario. Under RCP8.5, 10 important cultural sites dey at risk of flooding and erosion by end of century. Dem be Casbah of Algiers, Carthage Archaeological site, Kerkouane, Leptis Magna Archaeological site, Medina of Sousse, Medina of Tunis, Sabratha Archaeological site, Robben Island, Island of Saint-Louis and Tipasa. Total of 15 Ramsar sites and other natural heritage sites too go face similar risk. These ones include Bao Bolong Wetland Reserve, Delta du Saloum National Park, Diawling National Park, Golfe de Boughrara, Kalissaye, Lagune de Ghar el Melh et Delta de la Mejerda, Marromeu Game Reserve, Parc Naturel des Mangroves du Fleuve Cacheu, Seal Ledges Provincial Nature Reserve, Sebkhet Halk Elmanzel et Oued Essed, Sebkhet Soliman, Réserve Naturelle d'Intérêt Communautaire de la Somone, Songor Biosphere Reserve, Tanbi Wetland Complex and Watamu Marine National Park.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter9" /> == Socioeconomic impacts == [[File:Access_to_wood_and_water_appears_to_be_severely_impacted_by_climate_change_in_Kenya_and_Cameroon.png|thumb|Survey results from 2022 show say access to wood and water dey badly affected by climate change for Kenya and Cameroon.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment Bank |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/20230098-eib-climate-survey-africa-and-middle-east |title=The EIB Climate Survey: Africa and the Middle East |date=2023-06-05 |publisher=European Investment Bank |isbn=978-92-861-5534-5 |language=EN}}</ref>]] Climate change go continue affect Africa well-well because of plenty factors. These impacts don already start show and dem go increase if nothing serious no happen to reduce global carbon emissions. The impacts include higher temperatures, drought, changing rainfall patterns, and more climate variability. These conditions dey affect energy production and consumption. Recent droughts for many African countries wey people link to climate change don spoil energy security and economic growth across di continent. Africa go be one of di regions wey climate change go hit pass others.<ref name=":0r">{{Cite book|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/WGIIAR5-Chap22_FINAL.pdf|title=Africa. In: Climate change 2014: impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.|year=2014}}</ref> Di reasons be say many countries get low ability to adapt, poor access to technology and information wey fit help adaptation, plus heavy dependence on farming ecosystems for survival.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Welborn|first=Lily|title=Africa and climate change: Projecting vulnerability and adaptive capacity|publisher=Institute for Security Studies|year=2018}}</ref> Many African countries dey classified as Least Developed Countries (LDCs) with weak socio-economic conditions, so dem face serious challenges for dealing with climate change effects.<ref>{{Cite book|last=UNDP/GEF|url=https://www.thegef.org/sites/default/files/publications/CCA-Africa-Final.pdf|title=Climate Change Adaptation in Africa UNDP: Synthesis of Experiences and Recommendations|publisher=UNDP/GEF|year=2018}}</ref> IPCC Fifth Assessment Report highlight say Africa dey face high risks for ecosystems, water availability, and agriculture, which dey affect food security.<ref name=":0r" /> For 2022, over 6,000 people from 10 African countries take part for climate survey wey European Investment Bank do.<ref name="EIB-2022a"/> Survey show say 88% of respondents believe climate change dey already affect their daily life, while 61% say environmental destruction don affect their income or livelihood.<ref>{{Cite web |title=EIB Climate Survey: 88% of African respondents believe that climate change is already affecting their everyday life. |url=https://www.eib.org/en/press/all/2022-554-eib-climate-survey-88-of-african-respondents-believe-that-climate-change-is-already-affecting-their-everyday-life |access-date=2023-02-28 |website=European Investment Bank |language=en}}</ref> These losses usually come from serious drought, rising sea levels, coastal erosion, or extreme weather like floods and storms.<ref name="EIB-2022a">{{Cite web |title=2022-2023 EIB Climate Survey, part 1 of 2: 88% of respondents believe that climate change is already affecting their everyday life |url=https://www.eib.org/en/surveys/climate-survey/5th-climate-survey/africa.htm |access-date=2023-02-28 |website=EIB.org |language=en}}</ref> More than half of African respondents (57%) say dem or people wey dem know don already take steps to adapt to climate change. Some of these actions include buying water-saving devices to reduce drought effects and clearing drains before floods.<ref name="EIB-2022a" /> 34% say climate change be one of di most serious problems wey their country dey face, along with issues like inflation and access to healthcare.<ref name="EIB-2022a"/> === Economic impacts === Africa dey warm pass most parts of di world. Large parts of di continent fit become hard to live in if warming continue. Africa GDP fit drop by 2% if global temperature rise by 1°C, and fit drop by 12% if e rise by 4°C. Crop production go reduce sharply because of heat, and heavy rainfall go become more frequent and intense across di continent, increasing flood risk.{{sfn|European Investment Bank|2022c}}<ref name="WMO-2021">{{Cite web |date=2021-10-18 |title=Climate change triggers mounting food insecurity, poverty and displacement in Africa |url=https://wmo.int/news/media-centre/climate-change-triggers-mounting-food-insecurity-poverty-and-displacement-africa |access-date=2022-07-26 |website=public.wmo.int |language=en }}</ref><ref name="Africa Renewal-2018">{{Cite web |date=2018-12-07 |title=Global warming: severe consequences for Africa |url=https://www.un.org/africarenewal/magazine/december-2018-march-2019/global-warming-severe-consequences-africa |access-date=2022-07-26 |website=Africa Renewal |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-10-27 |title=Climate Change Is an Increasing Threat to Africa |url=https://unfccc.int/news/climate-change-is-an-increasing-threat-to-africa |access-date=2022-07-26 |website=United Nations Climate Change News}}</ref> Africa dey lose between $7 billion and $15 billion every year because of climate change, and e fit reach $50 billion by 2030.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Rathi |first1=Akshat |last2=Rao |first2=Mythili |date=2024-05-02 |title=One Bank Is Turning Africa's Climate Vulnerability Into Opportunity |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2024-05-02/inside-the-bank-financing-africa-s-green-growth |access-date=2024-05-11 |website=www.bloomberg.com}}</ref> ==== Agriculture ==== Agriculture be very important sector for Africa, because plenty people depend on am for food and income. Many people rely on climate-sensitive resources. E dey expected say crop production go reduce across Sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Engel |first=Ulf |title=Yearbook on the African Union Volume 3 (2022) |date=2024 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-68308-2 |editor-last=Engel |editor-first=Ulf |location=Erscheinungsort nicht ermittelbar}}</ref> On average, agriculture for Sub-Saharan Africa contribute about 15% of total GDP.<ref name="OECD/FAO">{{Cite book |last=OECD/FAO |url=http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5778e.pdf |title=OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2016-2025 |publisher=OECD Publishing |year=2016 |isbn= 978-92-64-25323-0 |pages=59–61}}</ref> Africa geography make am very vulnerable, and 70% of people depend on rain-fed farming for survival.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Läderach |first1=Peter |last2=Martinez-Valle |first2=Armando |last3=Bourgoin |first3=Clement |last4=Parker |first4=Louis |date=27 March 2019 |title= Vulnerability of the agricultural sector to climate change: The development of a pan-tropical Climate Risk Vulnerability Assessment to inform sub-national decision making |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=14 |issue=3 |article-number=e0213641 |bibcode=2019PLoSO..1413641P |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0213641 |pmc=6436735 |pmid=30917146 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Smallholder farms dey cover about 80% of farmland for Sub-Saharan Africa.<ref name="OECD/FAO" /> IPCC for 2007 project say climate change go seriously affect agriculture productivity and food access.<ref name="ar4 summary of regional impacts">{{cite book |title=Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2007 |editor=Parry, M. L. |display-editors=et al. |chapter=Summary for Policymakers: C. Current knowledge about future impacts |chapter-url=http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/spmsspm-c.html |access-date=13 December 2023 |archive-date=2 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181102223635/http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/spmsspm-c.html }}</ref>{{rp|13}} This one get high confidence. Crop, livestock and fisheries go face more pests and diseases because of climate change.<ref name="Dhanush" /> Crop pests already cause about one-sixth of farm losses.<ref name="Dhanush" /> Climate change go make pests and diseases increase, plus more serious outbreaks.<ref name="Dhanush" /> This go affect food security and how people dey live. Poor nutrition fit cause deficiency like vitamin A and iron, especially during drought periods when food no dey enough.{{cn|date=May 2026}} Between 2014 and 2018, Africa get highest level of food insecurity for the world.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.fao.org/state-of-food-security-nutrition/en/ |title=SOFI 2019 – The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |year=2021 |isbn=978-92-5-134325-8 |language=en |doi=10.4060/CB4474EN |s2cid=241785130}}</ref> Heavy dependence on rain-fed farming and low use of climate-smart agriculture make the sector more vulnerable. Poor access to climate data too dey worsen adaptation efforts.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Dinku|first=Tufa|title=Overcoming challenges in the availability and use of climate data in Africa|url=https://ictupdate.cta.int/en/article/overcoming-challenges-in-the-availability-and-use-of-climate-data-in-africa-sid06fd8a811-e179-4fa5-9c8f-806bd2f27c3e|website=ICT Update CTA|access-date=13 December 2023|archive-date=1 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101070648/https://ictupdate.cta.int/en/article/overcoming-challenges-in-the-availability-and-use-of-climate-data-in-africa-sid06fd8a811-e179-4fa5-9c8f-806bd2f27c3e}}</ref> Changes in rainfall go shorten farming seasons and reduce yield for many places in Africa. Smallholder farmers no get enough technology and support to adapt.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Supporting Sub-Saharan Africa's Farmers – Bayer – Crop Science |url=https://www.cropscience.bayer.com:443/en/stories/2018/supporting-sub-saharan-africas-farmers-closing-the-gap |access-date=2019-08-15 |website=www.cropscience.bayer.com}}</ref> Climate variability don already cause big changes in food production across developing countries wey depend on rain.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Thornton |first1=Philip K |last2=Ericksen |first2=Polly J |last3=Herrero |first3=Mario |last4=Challinor |first4=Andrew J |title=Climate variability and vulnerability to climate change: a review |journal=Global Change Biology |date=November 2014 |volume=20 |issue=11 |pages=3313–3328 |doi=10.1111/gcb.12581 |bibcode=2014GCBio..20.3313T |pmc=4258067 |pmid=24668802 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=HU|first1=Tongxi|last2=Zhang|first2=Xuesong|last3=Khanal|first3=Sami|last4=Wilson|first4=Robyn|last5=Leng|first5=Guoyong|last6=Toman|first6=Elizabeth|last7=Wang|first7=Xuhui|last8=Zhao|first8=Kaiguang|date=2024-06-19|title=Climate change impacts on crop yields: A review of empirical findings, statistical crop models, and machine learning methods|url=https://bpb-us-w2.wpmucdn.com/u.osu.edu/dist/7/24705/files/2024/09/review-climate-impact-crop-yield-machine-learning.pdf|journal=Environmental Modelling & Software|volume=179|issue=106119 |article-number=106119 |doi=10.1016/j.envsoft.2024.106119 |bibcode=2024EnvMS.17906119H }}</ref> Agriculture dey sensitive to climate changes, especially rainfall, temperature, and extreme events like drought and flood. These events go increase for future and go affect farming serious.<ref name="Sabiiti et al 2018 Adapting Agriculture to Climate Change">{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-64599-5_10 |chapter=Adapting Agriculture to Climate Change: Suitability of Banana Crop Production to Future Climate Change over Uganda |title=Limits to Climate Change Adaptation |series=Climate Change Management |date=2018 |last1=Sabiiti |first1=Geoffrey |last2=Ininda |first2=Joseph Mwalichi |last3=Ogallo |first3=Laban Ayieko |last4=Ouma |first4=Jully |last5=Artan |first5=Guleid |last6=Basalirwa |first6=Charles |last7=Opijah |first7=Franklin |last8=Nimusiima |first8=Alex |last9=Ddumba |first9=Saul Daniel |last10=Mwesigwa |first10=Jasper Batureine |last11=Otieno |first11=George |last12=Nanteza |first12=Jamiat |pages=175–190 |isbn=978-3-319-64598-8 }}</ref> This go affect food prices, food security, and land use decisions.<ref>{{Cite book |section=A1 – 1 Sustainability, food security and climate change: three intertwined challenges |title=Climate-Smart Agriculture Sourcebook |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|url=http://www.fao.org/climate-smart-agriculture-sourcebook/concept/module-a1-introducing-csa/chapter-a1-1/en/|access-date=2019-08-15}}</ref> Yield from rain-fed farming fit reduce reach up to 50% by 2020.<ref name="Sabiiti et al 2018 Adapting Agriculture to Climate Change" /> To reduce future impact, African countries need strong policies and planning to manage food systems under climate variability. Dem need proper understanding of how climate affect different crops before making decisions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Shah |first1=Hassnain |last2=Hellegers |first2=Petra |last3=Siderius |first3=Christian |date=2021-01-01 |title=Climate risk to agriculture: A synthesis to define different types of critical moments |journal=Climate Risk Management |volume=34 |article-number=100378 |doi=10.1016/j.crm.2021.100378 |bibcode=2021CliRM..3400378S |issn=2212-0963|doi-access=free }}</ref> This one important especially during 2020 locust invasion for East Africa wey spoil agriculture.<ref name="Rosane-2020">{{cite news|last1=Rosane|first1=Olivia|date=27 January 2020|title=Worst Locust Swarm to Hit East Africa in Decades Linked to Climate Crisis|agency=Ecowatch|url=https://www.ecowatch.com/locust-swarm-east-africa-2644928358.html|access-date=6 February 2020}}</ref> For East Africa, climate change go make drought and flood happen more often and more strong, which go affect farming badly. Some research from International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) show say maize yield fit increase for some parts of East Africa, but go reduce for Ethiopia, DRC, Tanzania and northern Uganda.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013 |title=East African agriculture and climate change: A comprehensive analysis |url=http://www.ifpri.org/publication/east-african-agriculture-and-climate-change-comprehensive-analysis |access-date=21 September 2019 |website=[[International Food Policy Research Institute]] (IFPRI) |language=en}}</ref> Climate change also go reduce quality and quantity of land wey dey available for farming.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2008/09/11/000158349_20080911163038/Rendered/PDF/WPS4717.pdf |title=How Will Climate Change Shift Agro-Ecological Zones And Impact African Agriculture? |author1=Kurukulasuriya, P. |author2=Mendelsohn, R. |date=25 September 2008 |publisher=The World Bank |series=Policy Research Working Papers |doi=10.1596/1813-9450-4717 |hdl=10986/6994 |s2cid=129416028}}</ref> Climate change for Kenya go seriously affect agriculture sector wey depend mostly on rain.<ref name="NCCAP-2018">{{Cite web |last=Ministry of Environment and Forestry |title=National Climate Change Action Plan (NCCAP) 2018–2022. Volume I |url=http://www.environment.go.ke/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/NCCAP-2018-2022-v2.pdf |access-date=13 December 2023 |archive-date=2 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220402131336/http://www.environment.go.ke/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/NCCAP-2018-2022-v2.pdf }}</ref> Livestock for arid and semi-arid lands dey especially at risk. For these areas, over 70% of livestock deaths happen because of drought.<ref name="NCCAP-2018" /> Within next 10 years, 52% of cattle for these regions dey at risk because of extreme heat stress.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kenya Markets Trust |date=2019 |title=Contextualising Pathways to Resilience in Kenya's ASALs under the Big Four Agenda |url=https://www.kenyamarkets.org/contextualising-pathways-to-resilience-in-kenyas-asals-under-the-big-four-agenda/ |access-date=13 December 2023 |archive-date=16 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230216210136/https://www.kenyamarkets.org/contextualising-pathways-to-resilience-in-kenyas-asals-under-the-big-four-agenda/ }}</ref> For Southern Africa, climate change go worsen farming challenges wey already dey there because of weak infrastructure and low technology. Maize cover almost half of farmland, but yields fit reduce by 30% under future climate conditions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Overview [in Southern African Agriculture and Climate Change] |url=http://www.ifpri.org/publication/overview-southern-african-agriculture-and-climate-change |access-date=8 August 2019 |website=www.ifpri.org}}</ref> Rising temperatures also go increase weeds and pests spread.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hachigonta |first1=Sepo |url=https://cdm15738.contentdm.oclc.org/utils/getfile/collection/p15738coll2/id/127787/filename/127998.pdf |title=Southern African Agriculture and Climate Change: A Comprehensive Analysis |last2=Nelson |first2=Gerald C. |last3=Thomas |first3=Timothy S. |last4=Sibanda |first4=Lindiwe Majele |publisher=International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-89629-208-6 |pages=1–24 |chapter=Overview}}</ref> For West Africa, climate change go affect farming by making food production more unstable, affecting access and availability.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brown |first1=Molly E. |last2=Hintermann |first2=B. |last3=Higgins |first3=N. |date=January 2009 |title=Markets, Climate Change and Food Security in West Africa |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20090027893.pdf |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |volume=43 |issue=21 |pages=8016–8020 |bibcode=2009EnST...43.8016B |doi=10.1021/es901162d |pmid=19924916|hdl=2060/20090027893 |s2cid=9412710 }}</ref> For Central Africa, heavy rain, long dry periods and high heat go reduce cassava, maize and bean production.<ref name="Climatelinks-2020">{{Cite web |title=Climate Risks in the Central Africa Regional Program for the Environment (CARPE) and Congo Basin |url=https://www.climatelinks.org/file/4614/download?token=rlgPz1eX |website=Climatelinks |access-date=13 December 2023 |archive-date=28 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728153008/https://www.climatelinks.org/file/4614/download?token=rlgPz1eX }}</ref> Floods and erosion go spoil transport infrastructure, leading to post-harvest losses. Export crops like coffee and cocoa dey increase but dem still dey very vulnerable to climate change.<ref name="Climatelinks-2020" /> Political instability and conflict also dey affect agriculture contribution to GDP, and climate risk go make am worse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013 |title=Agriculture in Africa |url=https://www.un.org/en/africa/osaa/pdf/pubs/2013africanagricultures.pdf |website=United Nations}}</ref> Africa GDP fit drop by 2% if temperature rise by 1°C, and by 12% if e rise by 4°C. Crop yields go drop because of heat, and drought go increase across di continent. Heavy rain too go become more frequent, increasing flood risk.{{sfn|European Investment Bank|2022c}}<ref name="public.wmo.int">{{Cite web |date=18 October 2021 |title=Climate change triggers mounting food insecurity, poverty and displacement in Africa |url=https://wmo.int/news/media-centre/climate-change-triggers-mounting-food-insecurity-poverty-and-displacement-africa |access-date=2022-07-26 |website=public.wmo.int |language=en}}</ref><ref name="un.org">{{Cite web |date=7 December 2018 |title=Global warming: severe consequences for Africa |url=https://www.un.org/africarenewal/magazine/december-2018-march-2019/global-warming-severe-consequences-africa |access-date=2022-07-26 |website=Africa Renewal |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Climate Change Is an Increasing Threat to Africa |url=https://unfccc.int/news/climate-change-is-an-increasing-threat-to-africa |access-date=2022-07-26 |website=unfccc.int}}</ref> ==== Energy ==== [[File:M-Power solar in Tanzania (1080).jpg|thumb|Solar lighting and electricity wey install for house of one Tanzanian woman.]] As population dey grow and energy demand dey increase, energy security become very important for sustainable development. Climate change don already affect energy sector for Africa because many countries dey depend on hydropower. Reduced rainfall and drought don reduce water level for dams, which don affect electricity generation. This one cause low power supply, high electricity cost, and power cuts or load shedding for some countries like Ghana, Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania. == Water scarcity == [[File:Water Shortage in Ethiopia (935).jpg|thumb|Water shortage for Ethiopia.]] Water quality and how water dey available don spoil for most areas inside Africa, especially because of climate change.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rankoana |first=Sejabaledi Agnes |date=1 January 2020 |title=Climate change impacts on water resources in a rural community in Limpopo province, South Africa: a community-based adaptation to water insecurity |journal=International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management |volume=12 |issue=5 |pages=587–598 |doi=10.1108/IJCCSM-04-2020-0033 |bibcode=2020IJCCS..12..587R |doi-access=free }}</ref> Water resources dey very vulnerable, and climate change fit affect am plenty, wey go bring serious effects for human society.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Climate Change and Water — IPCC |url=https://www.ipcc.ch/publication/climate-change-and-water-2/ |access-date=2019-08-08}}</ref> IPCC dey predict say millions of people for Africa go continuously face serious water stress because of changes in climate and how weather dey vary (IPCC 2013). Changes in rain pattern dey directly affect surface runoff and how water dey available.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fowler |first1=H. J. |last2=Blenkinsop |first2=S. |last3=Tebaldi |first3=C. |date=October 2007 |title=Linking climate change modelling to impacts studies: recent advances in downscaling techniques for hydrological modelling |journal=International Journal of Climatology |volume=27 |issue=12 |pages=1547–1578 |bibcode=2007IJCli..27.1547F |doi=10.1002/joc.1556 |s2cid=53472608}}</ref> Climate change likely go make water-stress areas for Africa worse—example be Rufiji basin for Tanzania<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Conway |first1=Declan |last2=Geressu |first2=Robel |last3=Harou |first3=Julien |last4=Kashaigili |first4=Japhet |last5=Pettinotti |first5=L. |last6=Siderius |first6=Christian |date=2019 |title=Designing a process for assessing climate resilience in Tanzania's Rufiji basin |url=https://futureclimateafrica.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/tanzania_rufiji_river_basin_brief.pdf |journal=FCFA Country Brief}}</ref>—because of different land use and complex political and social issues. Climate change for Africa don seriously change hydrological cycle (water cycle) by disturbing rainfall patterns, increase flood and drought, reduce reliability of surface water and ground water, and also increase evaporation rate. All these changes dey affect water availability for home use, farming, and also energy production since many African countries dey depend on water for electricity generation. Ecosystem balance too dey affected.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Water Security in Africa in the Age of Global Climate Change |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/355000708_Water_Security_in_Africa_in_the_Age_of_Global_Climate_Change}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.uneca.org/sites/default/files/PublicationFiles/policy_brief_4_climate_change_and_water_in_africa_challenges_opportunities_and_recommendations.pdf |title=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=News |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/transboundary-waters/news |access-date=2026-06-12 |website=World Bank |language=en}}</ref> === Key Climate Threats to African Water Security === Erratic Rainfall: Rain no dey fall regularly again for Africa. Sometimes e dey delay, sometimes e dey fall heavy in short time. This dey disturb farming because many farmers dey depend on normal rainy season to plant crops. E fit reduce harvest and also dry underground water faster.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Climate change stressors affecting household food security among Kimandi-Wanyaga smallholder farmers in Murang’a County, Kenya |url=https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/opag-2021-0042/html?srsltid=AfmBOorEOnBGaZqgX15b1hSPcNAUiOvu0wK5fm8cclJLF5EMswne2RxW}}</ref> Extreme Weather Events: Climate change dey bring more serious weather events for Africa. Long dry season dey cause water shortage, while heavy rain dey cause flood wey dey destroy houses and also increase diseases wey water dey carry. Transboundary Tensions: When water no dey enough for shared rivers and basins, countries wey dey depend on the same water fit begin compete. This fit cause misunderstanding or tension. For example, Volta Basin for West Africa dey shared by many countries. If one country build dam or take too much water, others fit suffer shortage. Same thing apply for River Nile wey plenty countries dey share.<ref name=":3" /> === Health impacts === {{Further|Effects of climate change on human health}} African countries get some of the weakest health systems for the world.<ref name="WHO-2014">World Health Organization. (2014). ''The health of the people: what works: the African Regional Health Report 2014''. World Health Organization.</ref> Diseases like malaria, schistosomiasis, dengue fever, and meningitis—wey climate fit affect—dey very common for Sub-Saharan Africa. For example, over 90% of malaria cases worldwide dey Africa.<ref name="WHO-2014" /> Climate change fit change how these diseases dey spread and how people dey catch am. According to IPCC Sixth Assessment Report, climate change dey pose serious danger to health of millions of Africans because of heat stress, extreme weather, and increase spread of infectious diseases.<ref>{{cite book |type=Final Draft |chapter=Chapter 9:Africa |title=IPCC WGII Sixth Assessment Report |url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FinalDraft_Chapter09.pdf}}</ref> Climate change dey also increase temperature, storms, droughts, and sea level rise, all of which dey affect how diseases dey spread globally.<ref name="Beard-2016">Beard, C. B.; Eisen, R. J.; Barker, C. M.; Garofalo, J. F.; Hahn, M.; Hayden, M.; Schramm, P. J. (2016). [https://web.archive.org/web/20160607130925/https://health2016.globalchange.gov/vectorborne-diseases "Vector-Borne Diseases".] Retrieved 15 February 2017.</ref> For July 2021, World Food Programme (WFP) talk say the food crisis for southern Madagascar be mainly because of climate change, not war or conflict. Dem even describe am as first famine wey climate change alone cause.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Baker |first1=Aryn |title=Climate, Not Conflict. Madagascar's Famine is the First in Modern History to be Solely Caused by Global Warming |url=https://time.com/6081919/famine-climate-change-madagascar/ |access-date=24 July 2021 |magazine=Time |date=20 July 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Rodrigues |first1=Charlene |title=Madagascar famine becomes first in history to be caused solely by climate crisis |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/climate-change/madagascar-famine-climate-crisis-b1888058.html |access-date=24 July 2021 |work=[[The Independent]] |date=22 July 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Harding|first=Andrew|date=24 August 2021|title=Madagascar on the brink of climate change-induced famine|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-58303792|access-date=2021-09-10}}</ref> ==== Malaria ==== {{Main|Climate change and infectious diseases#Malaria}} Malaria still dey cause serious health problem for Africa. As climate change dey continue, areas wey get high malaria risk all year round fit shift from coastal West Africa go areas between Democratic Republic of the Congo and Uganda (African Highlands).<ref name="Ryan-2015">{{cite journal|last1=Ryan|first1=Sadie J.|last2=McNally|first2=Amy|last3=Johnson|first3=Leah R.|last4=Mordecai|first4=Erin A.|last5=Ben-Horin|first5=Tal|last6=Paaijmans|first6=Krijn|last7=Lafferty|first7=Kevin D.|year=2015|title=Mapping Physiological Suitability Limits for Malaria in Africa Under Climate Change|journal=Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases|volume=15|issue=12|pages=718–725|doi=10.1089/vbz.2015.1822|pmc=4700390|pmid=26579951|bibcode=2015VBZD...15..718R }}</ref> Rising temperature, change in rainfall, deforestation, and more humidity dey help mosquitoes wey carry malaria parasite to survive and reproduce. The main parasite be Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax, carried by Anopheles mosquito. Plasmodium falciparum no fit survive well if temperature no reach about 20°C, so warming dey increase risk.<ref name="CDC-2018">{{cite web |date=14 November 2018 |title=Where Malaria Occurs |url=https://www.cdc.gov/malaria/about/distribution.html |access-date=27 February 2020 |website=Center for Disease Control and Prevention}}</ref> Studies show say climate change fit increase malaria risk for more places, including highlands wey normally no get malaria.<ref name="Caminade-2014">{{cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Caminade C, Kovats S, Rocklov J, Tompkins AM, Morse AP, Colón-González FJ, Stenlund H, Martens P, Lloyd SJ |date=March 2014 |title=Impact of climate change on global malaria distribution |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=111 |issue=9 |pages=3286–3291 |bibcode=2014PNAS..111.3286C |doi=10.1073/pnas.1302089111 |pmc=3948226 |pmid=24596427 |doi-access=free}}</ref> === Impacts on conflicts and migration === United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) do environmental assessment for Sudan after conflict in 2007.<ref name="UNEP_2007_a">{{citation |author=UNEP |title=Sudan Post-Conflict Environmental Assessment |date=June 2007 |url=http://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/sudan/00_fwd.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304003632/http://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/sudan/00_fwd.pdf |location=Nairobi, Kenya |publisher=UNEP |isbn=978-92-807-2702-9 |access-date=2022-01-18 |archive-date=2016-03-04 }}</ref> Report show say environmental stress for Sudan dey link with social, economic and political problems like displacement of people and competition for natural resources. Reduced rainfall due to climate change be one factor wey contribute to conflict in Darfur. UNEP recommend say international community should help Sudan adapt to climate change.<ref name="UNEP_2007_b">{{citation |title=Natural Disasters and Desertification |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100602041622/http://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/sudan/03_disasters.pdf |chapter=Ch 3. Natural Disasters |chapter-url=http://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/sudan/03_disasters.pdf |access-date=2022-01-18 |archive-date=2010-06-02 }} in {{harvnb|UNEP|2007|p=69}}</ref> ==Impacts by region== ===Central Africa=== {{Further|Climate change in the Democratic Republic of the Congo|Climate change in São Tomé and Príncipe}} Central Africa mostly be landlocked area and e dey very vulnerable to climate change. Because rain dey depend on seasons and farming too depend on rain, the region dey expect longer heatwaves and more extreme wet conditions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Diedhiou |first1=Arona |last2=Bichet |first2=Adeline |last3=Wartenburger |first3=Richard |last4=Seneviratne |first4=Sonia I |last5=Rowell |first5=David P |last6=Sylla |first6=Mouhamadou B |last7=Diallo |first7=Ismaila |last8=Todzo |first8=Stella |last9=Touré |first9=N'datchoh E |last10=Camara |first10=Moctar |last11=Ngatchah |first11=Benjamin Ngounou |last12=Kane |first12=Ndjido A |last13=Tall |first13=Laure |last14=Affholder |first14=François |title=Changes in climate extremes over West and Central Africa at 1.5 °C and 2 °C global warming |journal=Environmental Research Letters |date=June 2018 |volume=13 |issue=6 |article-number=065020 |doi=10.1088/1748-9326/aac3e5 |bibcode=2018ERL....13f5020D |doi-access=free |hdl=20.500.11850/274346 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Temperature for the region fit increase by about 1.5°C to 2°C.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Seneviratne |first1=Sonia I. |last2=Donat |first2=Markus G. |last3=Pitman |first3=Andy J. |last4=Knutti |first4=Reto |last5=Wilby |first5=Robert L. |title=Allowable CO2 emissions based on regional and impact-related climate targets |journal=Nature |date=28 January 2016 |volume=529 |issue=7587 |pages=477–483 |doi=10.1038/nature16542 |pmid=26789252 |s2cid=205247437 |url=https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/9482219 }}</ref> Forest for Congo Basin wey dey absorb CO₂ don reduce because of heat and drought wey dey slow tree growth. Even forest wey nobody cut dey affected. By around 2030, forest fit absorb 14% less CO₂ and by 2035 e fit stop to absorb am.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Grossman |first1=Daniel |date=4 March 2020 |title=The Congo rainforest is losing ability to absorb carbon dioxide. That's bad for climate change. |language=en |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-environment/the-congo-rainforest-is-losing-its-ability-to-absorb-carbon-dioxide-thats-bad-for-climate-change/2020/03/03/3363d218-5ca9-11ea-9055-5fa12981bbbf_story.html |access-date=6 March 2020}}</ref> ===Eastern Africa=== {{Further|Climate change in Kenya|Climate change in Tanzania|Climate change in Ethiopia|Climate change in South Sudan}} Eastern Africa dey inside tropics, and rainfall dey controlled by seasonal movement of tropical rain belt. Rain pattern for the region no regular because of geography like highlands, lakes (example Lake Victoria), and influence from Indian and Atlantic Oceans. Some places get one rainy season, others get two. Rain timing fit change because of ocean temperature changes and weather systems like Madden–Julian Oscillation (MJO) and tropical cyclones. Long rains season dey very important for farming but e dey unpredictable. Some studies show say rainfall don reduce since 1980s during March–May, even though some recovery dey recent years.<ref name="Bernhofer 1–9">{{Cite journal |last1=Bernhofer |first1=Christian |last2=Hülsmann |first2= Stephan |last3=Gebrechorkos |first3=Solomon H. |date=6 August 2019 |title=Long-term trends in rainfall and temperature using high-resolution climate datasets in East Africa |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=9 |issue=1 |article-number=11376 |bibcode=2019NatSR...911376G |doi=10.1038/s41598-019-47933-8 |pmc=6684806 |pmid=31388068 }}</ref> Temperature for East Africa fit rise about 2–5°C by end of century depending on emissions.<ref name= "Bornemann 365–384">{{Cite journal |last1=Bornemann |first1=F. Jorge |last2=Rowell |first2=David P. |last3=Evans |first3=Barbara |last4=Lapworth |first4=Dan J. |last5=Lwiza |first5=Kamazima |last6= Macdonald |first6=David M.J. |last7=Marsham |first7=John H. |last8=Tesfaye |first8=Kindie |last9=Ascott |first9=Matthew J. |last10=Way |first10=Celia |date=1 October 2019 |title=Future changes and uncertainty in decision-relevant measures of East African climate |journal=Climatic Change |language=en |volume=156 |issue=3 |pages=365–384 |bibcode=2019ClCh..156..365B |doi=10.1007/s10584-019-02499-2 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Kenya dey very vulnerable. Drought and flood go increase as rainfall dey become more intense and less predictable. Urban heat for Nairobi too dey worsen because of building materials and lack of green space.<ref name="World_Bank" /> ===North Africa=== {{Excerpt|Climate change in the Middle East and North Africa|paragraphs=1,2|file=no}} {{Further|Climate change in Algeria|Climate change in Morocco}} ===West Africa and the Sahel=== {{Further|Climate change in Ghana|Climate change in Nigeria|Climate change in Senegal|Climate change in the Gambia|Climate change in Mali}} West Africa get four climate zones: Guinea Coast, Soudano-Sahel, Sahel, and Sahara. Rain mainly dey controlled by movement of Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), wey dey mix moist monsoon wind and dry Harmattan wind. Sahel region don experience wet period (1950s–1960s), then long dry period (1970s–1990s), and partial recovery from 1990s onward. Even though rain don increase small recently, total rainfall still less than 1950s level.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Panthou |first1=G |last2=Lebel |first2=T |last3=Vischel |first3=T |last4=Quantin |first4=G |last5=Sane |first5=Y |last6=Ba |first6=A |last7=Ndiaye |first7=O |last8=Diongue-Niang |first8=A |last9=Diopkane |first9=M |title=Rainfall intensification in tropical semi-arid regions: the Sahelian case |journal=Environmental Research Letters |date=June 2018 |volume=13 |issue=6 |article-number=064013 |doi=10.1088/1748-9326/aac334 |bibcode=2018ERL....13f4013P |doi-access=free }}</ref> Some people call am recovery period, others call am hydrological intensification because rain dey fall in heavy bursts wey cause flooding instead of steady rain. Sahel don also face serious floods and droughts, and many people don affected multiple times. In 2012, severe drought happen and governments respond quickly.<ref>{{cite web |last=Fominyen |first=George |title=Coming weeks critical to tackle Sahel hunger – U.N. humanitarian chief |url=http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/coming-weeks-critical-to-tackle-sahel-hunger-un-humanitarian-chief |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120603231542/http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/coming-weeks-critical-to-tackle-sahel-hunger-un-humanitarian-chief/ |archive-date=3 June 2012 |access-date=10 June 2012 |publisher=Thomson Reuters Foundation}}</ref> Climate models dey show say western Sahel fit get decrease in rainfall while central and eastern Sahel fit get increase, but uncertainty still dey. Heavy storms go likely increase and this go make flooding worse.<ref name=sb/><ref name="Kendon-2019"/> === Southern Africa === {{Further|Climate change in South Africa|Climate change in Mozambique|Climate change in Madagascar}} == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} * [https://futureclimateafrica.org/ Future Climate For Africa programme] * [https://www.uneca.org/acpc African Climate Policy Centre] (ACCP) goal is to contribute to poverty reduction through successful mitigation and adaptation to climate change in Africa and to improve the capacity of African countries to participate effectively in multilateral climate negotiations. * [https://www.amma2050.org/ African Monsoon Multidisciplinary Analysis 2050] (AMMA-2050) aim to address the challenges of understanding how the monsoon will change in future decades, to 2050, and how this information can be most effectively used to support climate-compatible development in the region. * (CARIAA) builds resilience by supporting collaborative research on climate change adaptation to inform adaptation policy and practice. * [https://wascal.org/ West African Science Service Center on Climate Change and Adapted Land Use] (WASCAL) is a research-focused Climate Service Centre designed to help tackle this challenge and thereby enhance the resilience of human and environmental systems to climate change and increased variability in West Africa. [[Category:Climate change by continent|Africa]] [[Category:Environment of Africa]] [[Category:Climate change insyd Africa]] ja6ly566opb3nkeb63z7l9xqu0o2l7e 102926 102925 2026-06-15T06:59:05Z Achiri Bitamsimli 64 Correction of sections 102926 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Temperature Bar Chart Africa--1901-2020--2021-07-14.png|thumb|upright=1.33|Graph wey dey show temperature change insyd Africa between 1901 den 2021, plus red colour be warmer den blue being colder dan average (De average temperature during 1971–2000 be taken as de reference point for dese changes.)]] '''Climate change in Africa''' be a serious threat as Africa be one of de most vulnerable regions to de effects of climate change, despite contributing de least to causing am. Climate change be causing increasingly erratic rainfall patterns, more frequent extreme weather events wey dey include droughts, [[Flood|floods]], den rising sea surface temperatures insyd Africa. Dese changes dey threaten chow den water security, biodiversity, public health, den economic development.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781009325844/type/book |title=Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |date=2023-06-22 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-32584-4 |edition=1 |chapter=Africa |pages=1285–1456 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=United Nations |first=UNEP |date=2017 |title=Responding to climate change |url=http://www.unep.org/regions/africa/regional-initiatives/responding-climate-change |access-date=2022-07-01 |website=UNEP – UN Environment Programme |language=en}}</ref> Africa be currently warming faster dan de rest of de world on average.<ref>{{Cite web |last=World Meterological Organization |date=2024-09-02 |title=Africa faces disproportionate burden from climate change and adaptation costs |url=https://wmo.int/news/media-centre/africa-faces-disproportionate-burden-from-climate-change-and-adaptation-costs |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=World Meteorological Organization |language=en}}</ref> Na Climate change dey intensify existing socioeconomic vulnerabilities. Large segments of de African population depend on climate-sensitive livelihoods such as agriculture (55 - 62% of de workforce insyd sub-Saharan Africa)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781009325844/type/book |title=Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |date=2023-06-22 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-32584-4 |edition=1 |pages=1289 |chapter=Africa |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011}}</ref> den already live insyd poverty, wey dey heighten dema exposure to shocks. Health outcomes worsen as heat stress, vector borne - diseases (such as [[malaria]] den [[Dengue fever|dengue]]), den [[malnutrition]] becam more prevalent. Over half (56%) of de over 2,000 recorded public health incidents insyd Africa between 2001 den 2021 dey connect to climate change.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Africa CDC |url=https://africacdc.org/download/climate-change-and-health-strategic-framework-2025/ |title=Climate Change and Health: Strategic Framework 2025 |date=7 July 2025 |pages=vii}}</ref> Resources scarcity dey contribute to displacement den conflict, particularly insyd fragile regions. Urban areas, often be characterized by informal settlements, face heightened risks from flooding den extreme heat.<ref name=":02" /> Agriculture be one of de most vulnerable sectors, as most African farmers rely on rainfed crops. Reduced den unpredictable rainfall, combined plus higher temperatures, drives soil moisture loss, desertification (especially insyd de Sahara) den shifts suitable growing areas. Dese changes lower yields of staple crops, wey dey undermine food security den worsening hunger. Livestock health be increasingly compromised by heat stress den shifting disease patterns. Coastal den marine ecosystems face warming seas den rising levels, wich threaten fisheries den densely populated coastal settlements.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fonjong |first1=Lotsmart |last2=Matose |first2=Frank |last3=Sonnenfeld |first3=David A. |date=2024-12-01 |title=Climate change in Africa: Impacts, adaptation, and policy responses |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S095937802400116X |journal=Global Environmental Change |volume=89 |article-number=102912 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2024.102912 |bibcode=2024GEC....8902912F |issn=0959-3780}}</ref> De economic toll of climate change be severe. On average African countries face climate-related losses wey dey amount to 2-5% of GDP annually, while adaptation costs insyd sub-Saharan Africa be projected at USD 30-50 billion per year over de next decade. Dis dey threaten development gains den places pressure on governments den international institutions to mobilise [[climate finance]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=World Meteorological Organization |url=https://uneca.org/sites/default/files/ACPC/publication/State-of-the-Climate-in-Africa-2023_en.pdf |title=State of the Climate in Africa: 2023 |date=2024 |isbn=978-92-63-11360-3 |location=Geneva}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=European Investment Bank |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/finance-in-africa-navigating-the-financial-landscape-in-turbulent-times |title=Finance in Africa - Navigating the financial landscape in turbulent times |date=2022-10-19 |publisher=European Investment Bank |isbn=978-92-861-5382-2 |language=EN}}</ref> Africa ein climate change adaptation strategies dey focus on building resilience thru climate - smart agriculture, sustainable water management, ecosystem conservation, den strengthening health den infrastructure systems. Dese approaches prioritise enhancing governance, mobilising [[climate finance]] den investment, den fostering community participation to address vulnerability holistically.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tadesse |first=Debay |date=1 December 2010 |title=The impact of climate change in Africa |url=https://issafrica.org/research/papers/the-impact-of-climate-change-in-africa |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=ISS Africa |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Badji |first1=Arfang |last2=Ibanda |first2=Angele |last3=Akello |first3=Sarah |last4=Ekwamu |first4=Adipala |date=2022 |title=Climate change impacts and adaptation strategies in Africa: Selected case studies |url=https://afjrdev.org/index.php/jos/article/view/410 |journal=African Journal of Rural Development |language=en |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=209–274 |issn=2415-2838}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ngongolo |first1=Kelvin |last2=Gayo |first2=Leopody |date=2025-05-21 |title=Climate change impacts and mitigation strategies in Sub-Saharan Africa's livestock production sector. A brief review |journal=Pastoralism: Research, Policy and Practice |language=English |volume=15 |article-number=14225 |doi=10.3389/past.2025.14225 |bibcode=2025PRPP...1514225N |doi-access=free |issn=2041-7136}}</ref> Continental den national frameworks emphasise multi-sectoral coordination, technology adoption, den capacity building to support sustainable development den reduce climate risk.<ref>{{Cite book |last=African Union |url=https://au.int/en/documents/20220628/african-union-climate-change-and-resilient-development-strategy-and-action-plan |title=African Union Climate Change and Resilient Development Strategy and Action Plan (2022-2032) |date=28 June 2022 |publisher=African Union}}</ref> ==Greenhouse gas emissions== Africa ein per person greenhouse gas emissions be low compared to oda continents.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/outreach/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FactSheet_Africa.pdf|title=Fact sheet - Africa|accessdate=4 August 2024}}</ref> Emissions from land use change be uncertain, especially insyd [[Central Africa]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Mostefaoui |first1=Mounia |last2=Ciais |first2=Philippe |last3=McGrath |first3=Matthew J. |last4=Peylin |first4=Philippe |last5=Patra |first5=Prabir K. |last6=Ernst |first6=Yolandi |date=2024-01-11 |title=Greenhouse gas emissions and their trends over the last 3 decades across Africa |url=https://essd.copernicus.org/articles/16/245/2024/ |journal=Earth System Science Data |language=en |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=245–275 |doi=10.5194/essd-16-245-2024 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2024ESSD...16..245M |issn=1866-3516}}</ref> De main source of uncertainty dey cam from carbon dioxide fluxes insyd de LULUCF sector (dis acronym dey stand for land use, land-use change, den forestry).<ref name=":0" /> == Impacts == ===Temperature den weather changes=== {{multiple image | align = right | direction = vertical | total_width = 300 | image1 = Koppen-Geiger Map v2 Africa 1991–2020.svg | caption1 = Köppen climate classification map for Africa for 1991–2020 | image2 = Koppen-Geiger Map Africa future.svg | caption2 = 2071–2100 map under de most intense climate change scenario. Mid-range scenarios are currently considered more likely.<ref name="HausfatherPeters2020">{{cite journal|last1=Hausfather|first1=Zeke|last2=Peters|first2=Glen|title=Emissions – the 'business as usual' story is misleading|journal=Nature|date=29 January 2020|volume=577|issue=7792|pages=618–20|doi=10.1038/d41586-020-00177-3|pmid=31996825|bibcode=2020Natur.577..618H|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Schuur2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Schuur |first1=Edward A.G. |last2=Abbott |first2=Benjamin W. |last3=Commane |first3=Roisin |last4=Ernakovich |first4=Jessica |last5=Euskirchen |first5=Eugenie |last6=Hugelius |first6=Gustaf |last7=Grosse |first7=Guido |last8=Jones |first8=Miriam |last9=Koven |first9=Charlie |last10=Leshyk |first10=Victor |last11=Lawrence |first11=David |last12=Loranty |first12=Michael M. |last13=Mauritz |first13=Marguerite |last14=Olefeldt |first14=David |last15=Natali |first15=Susan |last16=Rodenhizer |first16=Heidi |last17=Salmon |first17=Verity |last18=Schädel |first18=Christina |last19=Strauss |first19=Jens |last20=Treat |first20=Claire |last21=Turetsky |first21=Merritt |year=2022 |title=Permafrost and Climate Change: Carbon Cycle Feedbacks From the Warming Arctic |journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources |volume=47 |pages=343–371 |doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-012220-011847 |quote="Medium-range estimates of Arctic carbon emissions could result from moderate climate emission mitigation policies that keep global warming below 3°C (e.g., RCP4.5). This global warming level most closely matches country emissions reduction pledges made for the Paris Climate Agreement..." |doi-access=free |bibcode=2022ARER...47..343S }}</ref><ref name="Phiddian2022">{{Cite web |last=Phiddian |first=Ellen |date=5 April 2022 |title=Explainer: IPCC Scenarios |url=https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/explainer-ipcc-scenarios/ |website=[[Cosmos (magazine)|Cosmos]] |access-date=30 September 2023 |quote="The IPCC doesn't make projections about which of these scenarios is more likely, but other researchers and modellers can. [[The Australian Academy of Science]], for instance, released a report last year stating that our current emissions trajectory had us headed for a 3°C warmer world, roughly in line with the middle scenario. [[Climate Action Tracker]] predicts 2.5 to 2.9°C of warming based on current policies and action, with pledges and government agreements taking this to 2.1°C. |archive-date=20 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230920224129/https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/explainer-ipcc-scenarios/ |url-status=live }}</ref> }} Observed surface temperatures generally increase over Africa since de late 19th century to de early 21st century by about 1°C, buh locally as much as 3°C for minimum temperature insyd de Sahel at de end of de dry season.<ref name="IRD-2017">{{Cite book |title=Rural societies in the face of climatic and environmental changes in West Africa |date=2017 |publisher=IRD éditions |isbn=978-2-7099-2424-5 |location=Marseille |oclc=1034784045 |id=Impr. Jouve}}</ref> De warming of Africa increase by +0.3 C from 1991 to 2021 versus +0.2 during 1961 to 1910. E be estimated dat by 2030, de people of Africa go be exposed to a rise insyd sea level secof an increase insyd temperature. Na dis go then cause agricultural productivity to decrease<ref>{{Cite book |last=Engel |first=Ulf |title=Yearbook on the African Union Volume 3 (2022) |date=2024 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-68308-2 |editor-last=Engel |editor-first=Ulf |location=Erscheinungsort nicht ermittelbar}}</ref>.Observed precipitation trends dey indicate spatial den temporal discrepancies as expected.<ref name="Collins-2011">{{cite journal |last1=Collins |first1=Jennifer M. |date=15 July 2011 |title=Temperature Variability over Africa |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=24 |issue=14 |pages=3649–3666 |bibcode=2011JCli...24.3649C |doi=10.1175/2011JCLI3753.1 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Niang-2014">Niang, I.; O. C. Ruppel; M. A. Abdrabo; A. Essel; C. Lennard; J. Padgham, and P. Urquhart, 2014: Africa. In: ''Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability''. [https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/WGIIAR5-Chap22_FINAL.pdf Part B: Regional Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change] [Barros, V. R.; C. B. Field; D. J. Dokken et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1199–1265.</ref> De observed changes insyd temperature den [[precipitation]] vary regionally.<ref name="Conway-2009">{{cite journal |last1=Conway |first1=Declan |last2=Persechino |first2=Aurelie |last3=Ardoin-Bardin |first3=Sandra |last4=Hamandawana |first4=Hamisai |last5=Dieulin |first5=Claudine |last6=Mahé |first6=Gil |date=February 2009 |title=Rainfall and Water Resources Variability in Sub-Saharan Africa during the Twentieth Century |journal=Journal of Hydrometeorology |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=41–59 |bibcode=2009JHyMe..10...41C |doi=10.1175/2008JHM1004.1 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Collins-2011" /> Current climate models (as dem summarise insyd de IPCC Sixth Assessment Report) predict increases insyd frequency den intensity of drought den heavy rainfall events.<ref name="Armstrong-2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Armstrong |first1=Andrew |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Koehler |first3=Johanna |last4=Hope |first4=Rob |date=2022 |title=Intra-seasonal rainfall and piped water revenue variability in rural Africa |journal=Global Environmental Change |language=en |volume=76 |article-number=102592 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2022.102592|doi-access=free|bibcode=2022GEC....7602592A }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref> Dem sanso predict decreases insyd mean precipitation almost everywhere insyd Africa, plus medium to high confidence. However, local rainfall trends den socio-climatic interactions be likely to manifest insyd mixed patterns. Therefore, de converging impacts of climate change go vary across de continent. Insyd rural areas, rainfall patterns influence water usage.<ref name="Armstrong-2022" /> A study insyd 2019 dey predict increased dry spell length during wet seasons den increased extreme rainfall rates insyd Africa.<ref name="Kendon-2019">{{Cite journal |last1=Kendon |first1=Elizabeth J. |last2=Stratton |first2=Rachel A. |last3=Tucker |first3=Simon |last4=Marsham |first4=John H. |last5=Berthou |first5=Ségolène |last6=Rowell |first6=David P. |last7=Senior |first7=Catherine A. |date=2019 |title=Enhanced future changes in wet and dry extremes over Africa at convection-permitting scale |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |bibcode=2019NatCo..10.1794K |doi=10.1038/s41467-019-09776-9 |pmc=6478940 |pmid=31015416 |article-number=1794}}</ref> Insyd other words: "both ends of Africa's weather extremes fi get more severe".<ref name="Weather Channel-2022">{{Cite news |title=More Extreme Weather in Africa's Future, Study Says |url=https://weather.com/news/climate/news/2019-06-18-africa-extreme-weather-drought-flood |access-date=2022-07-01 |work=The Weather Channel |language=en-US}}</ref> De research find say most climate models no go be able to capture de extent of dese changes secof dem no be conviction-permitting at dema coarse grid scales.<ref name="Kendon-2019" /> === Sea level rise === [[File:Dar es Salaam (Aerial).jpg|thumb|Aerial view of de Tanzanian capital Dar es Salaam]] Insyd [[Africa]], future population growth dey amplify risks from sea level rise. Sam 54.2million people dey live insyd de highly exposed low elevation coastal zones (LECZ) around 2000. Dis number fi effectively double to around 110 million people by 2030. By 2060 e fi be around 185 to 230million people, wey dey depend on de extent of population growth. De average regional sea level rise go be around 21cm by 2060. At dat point climate change scenarios go make little difference. Buh local geography den population trends interact to increase de exposure to hazards like 100-year floods insyd a complex way.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter9">Trisos, C. H., I. O. Adelekan, E. Totin, A. Ayanlade, J. Efitre, A. Gemeda, K. Kalaba, C. Lennard, C. Masao, Y. Mgaya, G. Ngaruiya, D. Olago, N. P. Simpson, and S. Zakieldeen 2022: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter09.pdf Chapter 9: Africa]. In [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/ Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability] [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E. S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, New York, US, pp. 2043–2121 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011.</ref> [[File:Abidjan des Lagune.jpg|thumb|Abidjan, de economic powerhouse of Ivory Coast]] {| class="wikitable" |+Populations within 100-year floodplains.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter9" /> !|Country !|2000 !|2030 !|2060 !|Growth 2000–2060 |- |[[Egypt]] || 7.4 || 13.8 || 20.7 || 0.28 |- |[[Nigeria]] || 0.1 || 0.3 || 0.9 || 0.84 |- |[[Senegal]] || 0.4 || 1.1 || 2.7 || 0.76 |- |[[Benin]] || 0.1 || 0.6 || 1.6 || 1.12 |- |[[Tanzania]] || 0.2 || 0.9 || 4.3 || 2.3 |- |[[Somalia]] || 0.2 || 0.6 || 2.7 || 1.7 |- |[[Ivory Coast|Côte d'Ivoire]]|| 0.1 || 0.3 || 0.7 || 0.65 |- |[[Mozambique]] || 0.7 || 1.4 || 2.5 || 0.36 |} {{reflist|group=T1}} [[File:ANKOMAH 20221122-009.jpg|thumb|A man de look go outside over di beach from top of building wey high tides don destroy for Chorkor, one suburb for Accra. Sunny day flooding wey come from sea level rise dey increase coastal erosion wey dey spoil houses, infrastructure and natural ecosystems. Plenty communities for Coastal Ghana don already dey feel di changing tides.]] For near future, one of di biggest displacement wey go happen dey expected for East Africa region. At least 750,000 people for dat area fit dey forced comot from coastal areas between 2020 and 2050. Scientific studies estimate say 12 major African cities go suffer total damage reach US$65 billion under “moderate” climate change scenario RCP4.5 by 2050. Di cities be Abidjan, Alexandria, Algiers, Cape Town, Casablanca, Dakar, Dar es Salaam, Durban, Lagos, Lomé, Luanda and Maputo. Under high-emission scenario RCP8.5, di damage go reach US$86.5 billion. If we add extra impact from serious ice sheet instability for di high-emission scenario, e fit reach up to US$137.5 billion damage. If we include “low-probability, high-damage events” join di three scenarios, di damage fit rise go US$187 billion, US$206 billion and US$397 billion respectively.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter9" /> For these estimates, Alexandria for Egypt alone dey account for around half of di total figure.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter9" /> Hundreds of thousands of people wey dey low-lying areas for dia fit already need relocation within next decade.<ref name="Michaelson-2018">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2018/aug/29/alexandria-little-venice-egypt-climate-change-frontline|title=Houses claimed by the canal: life on Egypt's climate change frontline| last=Michaelson| first=Ruth|date=25 August 2018|work=[[The Guardian]]|access-date=30 August 2018}}</ref> Across sub-Saharan Africa as whole, damage from sea level rise fit reach 2–4% of GDP by 2050. But this one depend on how economy go grow and how adaptation go happen.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter9">Trisos, C. H., I. O. Adelekan, E. Totin, A. Ayanlade, J. Efitre, A. Gemeda, K. Kalaba, C. Lennard, C. Masao, Y. Mgaya, G. Ngaruiya, D. Olago, N. P. Simpson, and S. Zakieldeen 2022: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter09.pdf Chapter 9: Africa]. In [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/ Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability] [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E. S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, New York, US, pp. 2043–2121 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011.</ref> [[File:Leptis Magna amphitheatre - panoramio.jpg|thumb|left|Di remains of Leptis Magna amphitheater, with sea dey show for background]] For long term, Egypt, Mozambique and Tanzania dey likely get di highest number of people wey go dey affected by yearly flooding among all African countries. This projection assume say global warming go reach 4°C by end of century. Dat level dey linked to RCP8.5 scenario. Under RCP8.5, 10 important cultural sites dey at risk of flooding and erosion by end of century. Dem be Casbah of Algiers, Carthage Archaeological site, Kerkouane, Leptis Magna Archaeological site, Medina of Sousse, Medina of Tunis, Sabratha Archaeological site, Robben Island, Island of Saint-Louis and Tipasa. Total of 15 Ramsar sites and other natural heritage sites too go face similar risk. These ones include Bao Bolong Wetland Reserve, Delta du Saloum National Park, Diawling National Park, Golfe de Boughrara, Kalissaye, Lagune de Ghar el Melh et Delta de la Mejerda, Marromeu Game Reserve, Parc Naturel des Mangroves du Fleuve Cacheu, Seal Ledges Provincial Nature Reserve, Sebkhet Halk Elmanzel et Oued Essed, Sebkhet Soliman, Réserve Naturelle d'Intérêt Communautaire de la Somone, Songor Biosphere Reserve, Tanbi Wetland Complex and Watamu Marine National Park.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter9" /> == Socioeconomic impacts == [[File:Access_to_wood_and_water_appears_to_be_severely_impacted_by_climate_change_in_Kenya_and_Cameroon.png|thumb|Survey results from 2022 show say access to wood and water dey badly affected by climate change for Kenya and Cameroon.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment Bank |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/20230098-eib-climate-survey-africa-and-middle-east |title=The EIB Climate Survey: Africa and the Middle East |date=2023-06-05 |publisher=European Investment Bank |isbn=978-92-861-5534-5 |language=EN}}</ref>]] Climate change go continue affect Africa well-well because of plenty factors. These impacts don already start show and dem go increase if nothing serious no happen to reduce global carbon emissions. The impacts include higher temperatures, drought, changing rainfall patterns, and more climate variability. These conditions dey affect energy production and consumption. Recent droughts for many African countries wey people link to climate change don spoil energy security and economic growth across di continent. Africa go be one of di regions wey climate change go hit pass others.<ref name=":0r">{{Cite book|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/WGIIAR5-Chap22_FINAL.pdf|title=Africa. In: Climate change 2014: impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.|year=2014}}</ref> Di reasons be say many countries get low ability to adapt, poor access to technology and information wey fit help adaptation, plus heavy dependence on farming ecosystems for survival.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Welborn|first=Lily|title=Africa and climate change: Projecting vulnerability and adaptive capacity|publisher=Institute for Security Studies|year=2018}}</ref> Many African countries dey classified as Least Developed Countries (LDCs) with weak socio-economic conditions, so dem face serious challenges for dealing with climate change effects.<ref>{{Cite book|last=UNDP/GEF|url=https://www.thegef.org/sites/default/files/publications/CCA-Africa-Final.pdf|title=Climate Change Adaptation in Africa UNDP: Synthesis of Experiences and Recommendations|publisher=UNDP/GEF|year=2018}}</ref> IPCC Fifth Assessment Report highlight say Africa dey face high risks for ecosystems, water availability, and agriculture, which dey affect food security.<ref name=":0r" /> For 2022, over 6,000 people from 10 African countries take part for climate survey wey European Investment Bank do.<ref name="EIB-2022a"/> Survey show say 88% of respondents believe climate change dey already affect their daily life, while 61% say environmental destruction don affect their income or livelihood.<ref>{{Cite web |title=EIB Climate Survey: 88% of African respondents believe that climate change is already affecting their everyday life. |url=https://www.eib.org/en/press/all/2022-554-eib-climate-survey-88-of-african-respondents-believe-that-climate-change-is-already-affecting-their-everyday-life |access-date=2023-02-28 |website=European Investment Bank |language=en}}</ref> These losses usually come from serious drought, rising sea levels, coastal erosion, or extreme weather like floods and storms.<ref name="EIB-2022a">{{Cite web |title=2022-2023 EIB Climate Survey, part 1 of 2: 88% of respondents believe that climate change is already affecting their everyday life |url=https://www.eib.org/en/surveys/climate-survey/5th-climate-survey/africa.htm |access-date=2023-02-28 |website=EIB.org |language=en}}</ref> More than half of African respondents (57%) say dem or people wey dem know don already take steps to adapt to climate change. Some of these actions include buying water-saving devices to reduce drought effects and clearing drains before floods.<ref name="EIB-2022a" /> 34% say climate change be one of di most serious problems wey their country dey face, along with issues like inflation and access to healthcare.<ref name="EIB-2022a"/> === Economic impacts === Africa dey warm pass most parts of di world. Large parts of di continent fit become hard to live in if warming continue. Africa GDP fit drop by 2% if global temperature rise by 1°C, and fit drop by 12% if e rise by 4°C. Crop production go reduce sharply because of heat, and heavy rainfall go become more frequent and intense across di continent, increasing flood risk.{{sfn|European Investment Bank|2022c}}<ref name="WMO-2021">{{Cite web |date=2021-10-18 |title=Climate change triggers mounting food insecurity, poverty and displacement in Africa |url=https://wmo.int/news/media-centre/climate-change-triggers-mounting-food-insecurity-poverty-and-displacement-africa |access-date=2022-07-26 |website=public.wmo.int |language=en }}</ref><ref name="Africa Renewal-2018">{{Cite web |date=2018-12-07 |title=Global warming: severe consequences for Africa |url=https://www.un.org/africarenewal/magazine/december-2018-march-2019/global-warming-severe-consequences-africa |access-date=2022-07-26 |website=Africa Renewal |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-10-27 |title=Climate Change Is an Increasing Threat to Africa |url=https://unfccc.int/news/climate-change-is-an-increasing-threat-to-africa |access-date=2022-07-26 |website=United Nations Climate Change News}}</ref> Africa dey lose between $7 billion and $15 billion every year because of climate change, and e fit reach $50 billion by 2030.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Rathi |first1=Akshat |last2=Rao |first2=Mythili |date=2024-05-02 |title=One Bank Is Turning Africa's Climate Vulnerability Into Opportunity |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2024-05-02/inside-the-bank-financing-africa-s-green-growth |access-date=2024-05-11 |website=www.bloomberg.com}}</ref> ==== Agriculture ==== Agriculture be very important sector for Africa, because plenty people depend on am for food and income. Many people rely on climate-sensitive resources. E dey expected say crop production go reduce across Sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Engel |first=Ulf |title=Yearbook on the African Union Volume 3 (2022) |date=2024 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-68308-2 |editor-last=Engel |editor-first=Ulf |location=Erscheinungsort nicht ermittelbar}}</ref> On average, agriculture for Sub-Saharan Africa contribute about 15% of total GDP.<ref name="OECD/FAO">{{Cite book |last=OECD/FAO |url=http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5778e.pdf |title=OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2016-2025 |publisher=OECD Publishing |year=2016 |isbn= 978-92-64-25323-0 |pages=59–61}}</ref> Africa geography make am very vulnerable, and 70% of people depend on rain-fed farming for survival.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Läderach |first1=Peter |last2=Martinez-Valle |first2=Armando |last3=Bourgoin |first3=Clement |last4=Parker |first4=Louis |date=27 March 2019 |title= Vulnerability of the agricultural sector to climate change: The development of a pan-tropical Climate Risk Vulnerability Assessment to inform sub-national decision making |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=14 |issue=3 |article-number=e0213641 |bibcode=2019PLoSO..1413641P |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0213641 |pmc=6436735 |pmid=30917146 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Smallholder farms dey cover about 80% of farmland for Sub-Saharan Africa.<ref name="OECD/FAO" /> IPCC for 2007 project say climate change go seriously affect agriculture productivity and food access.<ref name="ar4 summary of regional impacts">{{cite book |title=Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2007 |editor=Parry, M. L. |display-editors=et al. |chapter=Summary for Policymakers: C. Current knowledge about future impacts |chapter-url=http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/spmsspm-c.html |access-date=13 December 2023 |archive-date=2 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181102223635/http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/spmsspm-c.html }}</ref>{{rp|13}} This one get high confidence. Crop, livestock and fisheries go face more pests and diseases because of climate change.<ref name="Dhanush" /> Crop pests already cause about one-sixth of farm losses.<ref name="Dhanush" /> Climate change go make pests and diseases increase, plus more serious outbreaks.<ref name="Dhanush" /> This go affect food security and how people dey live. Poor nutrition fit cause deficiency like vitamin A and iron, especially during drought periods when food no dey enough.{{cn|date=May 2026}} Between 2014 and 2018, Africa get highest level of food insecurity for the world.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.fao.org/state-of-food-security-nutrition/en/ |title=SOFI 2019 – The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |year=2021 |isbn=978-92-5-134325-8 |language=en |doi=10.4060/CB4474EN |s2cid=241785130}}</ref> Heavy dependence on rain-fed farming and low use of climate-smart agriculture make the sector more vulnerable. Poor access to climate data too dey worsen adaptation efforts.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Dinku|first=Tufa|title=Overcoming challenges in the availability and use of climate data in Africa|url=https://ictupdate.cta.int/en/article/overcoming-challenges-in-the-availability-and-use-of-climate-data-in-africa-sid06fd8a811-e179-4fa5-9c8f-806bd2f27c3e|website=ICT Update CTA|access-date=13 December 2023|archive-date=1 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101070648/https://ictupdate.cta.int/en/article/overcoming-challenges-in-the-availability-and-use-of-climate-data-in-africa-sid06fd8a811-e179-4fa5-9c8f-806bd2f27c3e}}</ref> Changes in rainfall go shorten farming seasons and reduce yield for many places in Africa. Smallholder farmers no get enough technology and support to adapt.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Supporting Sub-Saharan Africa's Farmers – Bayer – Crop Science |url=https://www.cropscience.bayer.com:443/en/stories/2018/supporting-sub-saharan-africas-farmers-closing-the-gap |access-date=2019-08-15 |website=www.cropscience.bayer.com}}</ref> Climate variability don already cause big changes in food production across developing countries wey depend on rain.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Thornton |first1=Philip K |last2=Ericksen |first2=Polly J |last3=Herrero |first3=Mario |last4=Challinor |first4=Andrew J |title=Climate variability and vulnerability to climate change: a review |journal=Global Change Biology |date=November 2014 |volume=20 |issue=11 |pages=3313–3328 |doi=10.1111/gcb.12581 |bibcode=2014GCBio..20.3313T |pmc=4258067 |pmid=24668802 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=HU|first1=Tongxi|last2=Zhang|first2=Xuesong|last3=Khanal|first3=Sami|last4=Wilson|first4=Robyn|last5=Leng|first5=Guoyong|last6=Toman|first6=Elizabeth|last7=Wang|first7=Xuhui|last8=Zhao|first8=Kaiguang|date=2024-06-19|title=Climate change impacts on crop yields: A review of empirical findings, statistical crop models, and machine learning methods|url=https://bpb-us-w2.wpmucdn.com/u.osu.edu/dist/7/24705/files/2024/09/review-climate-impact-crop-yield-machine-learning.pdf|journal=Environmental Modelling & Software|volume=179|issue=106119 |article-number=106119 |doi=10.1016/j.envsoft.2024.106119 |bibcode=2024EnvMS.17906119H }}</ref> Agriculture dey sensitive to climate changes, especially rainfall, temperature, and extreme events like drought and flood. These events go increase for future and go affect farming serious.<ref name="Sabiiti et al 2018 Adapting Agriculture to Climate Change">{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-64599-5_10 |chapter=Adapting Agriculture to Climate Change: Suitability of Banana Crop Production to Future Climate Change over Uganda |title=Limits to Climate Change Adaptation |series=Climate Change Management |date=2018 |last1=Sabiiti |first1=Geoffrey |last2=Ininda |first2=Joseph Mwalichi |last3=Ogallo |first3=Laban Ayieko |last4=Ouma |first4=Jully |last5=Artan |first5=Guleid |last6=Basalirwa |first6=Charles |last7=Opijah |first7=Franklin |last8=Nimusiima |first8=Alex |last9=Ddumba |first9=Saul Daniel |last10=Mwesigwa |first10=Jasper Batureine |last11=Otieno |first11=George |last12=Nanteza |first12=Jamiat |pages=175–190 |isbn=978-3-319-64598-8 }}</ref> This go affect food prices, food security, and land use decisions.<ref>{{Cite book |section=A1 – 1 Sustainability, food security and climate change: three intertwined challenges |title=Climate-Smart Agriculture Sourcebook |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|url=http://www.fao.org/climate-smart-agriculture-sourcebook/concept/module-a1-introducing-csa/chapter-a1-1/en/|access-date=2019-08-15}}</ref> Yield from rain-fed farming fit reduce reach up to 50% by 2020.<ref name="Sabiiti et al 2018 Adapting Agriculture to Climate Change" /> To reduce future impact, African countries need strong policies and planning to manage food systems under climate variability. Dem need proper understanding of how climate affect different crops before making decisions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Shah |first1=Hassnain |last2=Hellegers |first2=Petra |last3=Siderius |first3=Christian |date=2021-01-01 |title=Climate risk to agriculture: A synthesis to define different types of critical moments |journal=Climate Risk Management |volume=34 |article-number=100378 |doi=10.1016/j.crm.2021.100378 |bibcode=2021CliRM..3400378S |issn=2212-0963|doi-access=free }}</ref> This one important especially during 2020 locust invasion for East Africa wey spoil agriculture.<ref name="Rosane-2020">{{cite news|last1=Rosane|first1=Olivia|date=27 January 2020|title=Worst Locust Swarm to Hit East Africa in Decades Linked to Climate Crisis|agency=Ecowatch|url=https://www.ecowatch.com/locust-swarm-east-africa-2644928358.html|access-date=6 February 2020}}</ref> For East Africa, climate change go make drought and flood happen more often and more strong, which go affect farming badly. Some research from International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) show say maize yield fit increase for some parts of East Africa, but go reduce for Ethiopia, DRC, Tanzania and northern Uganda.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013 |title=East African agriculture and climate change: A comprehensive analysis |url=http://www.ifpri.org/publication/east-african-agriculture-and-climate-change-comprehensive-analysis |access-date=21 September 2019 |website=[[International Food Policy Research Institute]] (IFPRI) |language=en}}</ref> Climate change also go reduce quality and quantity of land wey dey available for farming.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2008/09/11/000158349_20080911163038/Rendered/PDF/WPS4717.pdf |title=How Will Climate Change Shift Agro-Ecological Zones And Impact African Agriculture? |author1=Kurukulasuriya, P. |author2=Mendelsohn, R. |date=25 September 2008 |publisher=The World Bank |series=Policy Research Working Papers |doi=10.1596/1813-9450-4717 |hdl=10986/6994 |s2cid=129416028}}</ref> Climate change for Kenya go seriously affect agriculture sector wey depend mostly on rain.<ref name="NCCAP-2018">{{Cite web |last=Ministry of Environment and Forestry |title=National Climate Change Action Plan (NCCAP) 2018–2022. Volume I |url=http://www.environment.go.ke/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/NCCAP-2018-2022-v2.pdf |access-date=13 December 2023 |archive-date=2 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220402131336/http://www.environment.go.ke/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/NCCAP-2018-2022-v2.pdf }}</ref> Livestock for arid and semi-arid lands dey especially at risk. For these areas, over 70% of livestock deaths happen because of drought.<ref name="NCCAP-2018" /> Within next 10 years, 52% of cattle for these regions dey at risk because of extreme heat stress.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kenya Markets Trust |date=2019 |title=Contextualising Pathways to Resilience in Kenya's ASALs under the Big Four Agenda |url=https://www.kenyamarkets.org/contextualising-pathways-to-resilience-in-kenyas-asals-under-the-big-four-agenda/ |access-date=13 December 2023 |archive-date=16 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230216210136/https://www.kenyamarkets.org/contextualising-pathways-to-resilience-in-kenyas-asals-under-the-big-four-agenda/ }}</ref> For Southern Africa, climate change go worsen farming challenges wey already dey there because of weak infrastructure and low technology. Maize cover almost half of farmland, but yields fit reduce by 30% under future climate conditions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Overview [in Southern African Agriculture and Climate Change] |url=http://www.ifpri.org/publication/overview-southern-african-agriculture-and-climate-change |access-date=8 August 2019 |website=www.ifpri.org}}</ref> Rising temperatures also go increase weeds and pests spread.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hachigonta |first1=Sepo |url=https://cdm15738.contentdm.oclc.org/utils/getfile/collection/p15738coll2/id/127787/filename/127998.pdf |title=Southern African Agriculture and Climate Change: A Comprehensive Analysis |last2=Nelson |first2=Gerald C. |last3=Thomas |first3=Timothy S. |last4=Sibanda |first4=Lindiwe Majele |publisher=International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-89629-208-6 |pages=1–24 |chapter=Overview}}</ref> For West Africa, climate change go affect farming by making food production more unstable, affecting access and availability.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brown |first1=Molly E. |last2=Hintermann |first2=B. |last3=Higgins |first3=N. |date=January 2009 |title=Markets, Climate Change and Food Security in West Africa |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20090027893.pdf |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |volume=43 |issue=21 |pages=8016–8020 |bibcode=2009EnST...43.8016B |doi=10.1021/es901162d |pmid=19924916|hdl=2060/20090027893 |s2cid=9412710 }}</ref> For Central Africa, heavy rain, long dry periods and high heat go reduce cassava, maize and bean production.<ref name="Climatelinks-2020">{{Cite web |title=Climate Risks in the Central Africa Regional Program for the Environment (CARPE) and Congo Basin |url=https://www.climatelinks.org/file/4614/download?token=rlgPz1eX |website=Climatelinks |access-date=13 December 2023 |archive-date=28 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728153008/https://www.climatelinks.org/file/4614/download?token=rlgPz1eX }}</ref> Floods and erosion go spoil transport infrastructure, leading to post-harvest losses. Export crops like coffee and cocoa dey increase but dem still dey very vulnerable to climate change.<ref name="Climatelinks-2020" /> Political instability and conflict also dey affect agriculture contribution to GDP, and climate risk go make am worse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013 |title=Agriculture in Africa |url=https://www.un.org/en/africa/osaa/pdf/pubs/2013africanagricultures.pdf |website=United Nations}}</ref> Africa GDP fit drop by 2% if temperature rise by 1°C, and by 12% if e rise by 4°C. Crop yields go drop because of heat, and drought go increase across di continent. Heavy rain too go become more frequent, increasing flood risk.{{sfn|European Investment Bank|2022c}}<ref name="public.wmo.int">{{Cite web |date=18 October 2021 |title=Climate change triggers mounting food insecurity, poverty and displacement in Africa |url=https://wmo.int/news/media-centre/climate-change-triggers-mounting-food-insecurity-poverty-and-displacement-africa |access-date=2022-07-26 |website=public.wmo.int |language=en}}</ref><ref name="un.org">{{Cite web |date=7 December 2018 |title=Global warming: severe consequences for Africa |url=https://www.un.org/africarenewal/magazine/december-2018-march-2019/global-warming-severe-consequences-africa |access-date=2022-07-26 |website=Africa Renewal |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Climate Change Is an Increasing Threat to Africa |url=https://unfccc.int/news/climate-change-is-an-increasing-threat-to-africa |access-date=2022-07-26 |website=unfccc.int}}</ref> ==== Energy ==== [[File:M-Power solar in Tanzania (1080).jpg|thumb|Solar lighting and electricity wey install for house of one Tanzanian woman.]] As population dey grow and energy demand dey increase, energy security become very important for sustainable development. Climate change don already affect energy sector for Africa because many countries dey depend on hydropower. Reduced rainfall and drought don reduce water level for dams, which don affect electricity generation. This one cause low power supply, high electricity cost, and power cuts or load shedding for some countries like Ghana, Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania. == Water scarcity == [[File:Water Shortage in Ethiopia (935).jpg|thumb|Water shortage for Ethiopia.]] Water quality and how water dey available don spoil for most areas inside Africa, especially because of climate change.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rankoana |first=Sejabaledi Agnes |date=1 January 2020 |title=Climate change impacts on water resources in a rural community in Limpopo province, South Africa: a community-based adaptation to water insecurity |journal=International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management |volume=12 |issue=5 |pages=587–598 |doi=10.1108/IJCCSM-04-2020-0033 |bibcode=2020IJCCS..12..587R |doi-access=free }}</ref> Water resources dey very vulnerable, and climate change fit affect am plenty, wey go bring serious effects for human society.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Climate Change and Water — IPCC |url=https://www.ipcc.ch/publication/climate-change-and-water-2/ |access-date=2019-08-08}}</ref> IPCC dey predict say millions of people for Africa go continuously face serious water stress because of changes in climate and how weather dey vary (IPCC 2013). Changes in rain pattern dey directly affect surface runoff and how water dey available.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fowler |first1=H. J. |last2=Blenkinsop |first2=S. |last3=Tebaldi |first3=C. |date=October 2007 |title=Linking climate change modelling to impacts studies: recent advances in downscaling techniques for hydrological modelling |journal=International Journal of Climatology |volume=27 |issue=12 |pages=1547–1578 |bibcode=2007IJCli..27.1547F |doi=10.1002/joc.1556 |s2cid=53472608}}</ref> Climate change likely go make water-stress areas for Africa worse—example be Rufiji basin for Tanzania<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Conway |first1=Declan |last2=Geressu |first2=Robel |last3=Harou |first3=Julien |last4=Kashaigili |first4=Japhet |last5=Pettinotti |first5=L. |last6=Siderius |first6=Christian |date=2019 |title=Designing a process for assessing climate resilience in Tanzania's Rufiji basin |url=https://futureclimateafrica.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/tanzania_rufiji_river_basin_brief.pdf |journal=FCFA Country Brief}}</ref>—because of different land use and complex political and social issues. Climate change for Africa don seriously change hydrological cycle (water cycle) by disturbing rainfall patterns, increase flood and drought, reduce reliability of surface water and ground water, and also increase evaporation rate. All these changes dey affect water availability for home use, farming, and also energy production since many African countries dey depend on water for electricity generation. Ecosystem balance too dey affected.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Water Security in Africa in the Age of Global Climate Change |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/355000708_Water_Security_in_Africa_in_the_Age_of_Global_Climate_Change}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.uneca.org/sites/default/files/PublicationFiles/policy_brief_4_climate_change_and_water_in_africa_challenges_opportunities_and_recommendations.pdf |title=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=News |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/transboundary-waters/news |access-date=2026-06-12 |website=World Bank |language=en}}</ref> === Key Climate Threats to African Water Security === Erratic Rainfall: Rain no dey fall regularly again for Africa. Sometimes e dey delay, sometimes e dey fall heavy in short time. This dey disturb farming because many farmers dey depend on normal rainy season to plant crops. E fit reduce harvest and also dry underground water faster.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Climate change stressors affecting household food security among Kimandi-Wanyaga smallholder farmers in Murang’a County, Kenya |url=https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/opag-2021-0042/html?srsltid=AfmBOorEOnBGaZqgX15b1hSPcNAUiOvu0wK5fm8cclJLF5EMswne2RxW}}</ref> Extreme Weather Events: Climate change dey bring more serious weather events for Africa. Long dry season dey cause water shortage, while heavy rain dey cause flood wey dey destroy houses and also increase diseases wey water dey carry. Transboundary Tensions: When water no dey enough for shared rivers and basins, countries wey dey depend on the same water fit begin compete. This fit cause misunderstanding or tension. For example, Volta Basin for West Africa dey shared by many countries. If one country build dam or take too much water, others fit suffer shortage. Same thing apply for River Nile wey plenty countries dey share.<ref name=":3" /> === Health impacts === {{Further|Effects of climate change on human health}} African countries get some of the weakest health systems for the world.<ref name="WHO-2014">World Health Organization. (2014). ''The health of the people: what works: the African Regional Health Report 2014''. World Health Organization.</ref> Diseases like malaria, schistosomiasis, dengue fever, and meningitis—wey climate fit affect—dey very common for Sub-Saharan Africa. For example, over 90% of malaria cases worldwide dey Africa.<ref name="WHO-2014" /> Climate change fit change how these diseases dey spread and how people dey catch am. According to IPCC Sixth Assessment Report, climate change dey pose serious danger to health of millions of Africans because of heat stress, extreme weather, and increase spread of infectious diseases.<ref>{{cite book |type=Final Draft |chapter=Chapter 9:Africa |title=IPCC WGII Sixth Assessment Report |url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FinalDraft_Chapter09.pdf}}</ref> Climate change dey also increase temperature, storms, droughts, and sea level rise, all of which dey affect how diseases dey spread globally.<ref name="Beard-2016">Beard, C. B.; Eisen, R. J.; Barker, C. M.; Garofalo, J. F.; Hahn, M.; Hayden, M.; Schramm, P. J. (2016). [https://web.archive.org/web/20160607130925/https://health2016.globalchange.gov/vectorborne-diseases "Vector-Borne Diseases".] Retrieved 15 February 2017.</ref> For July 2021, World Food Programme (WFP) talk say the food crisis for southern Madagascar be mainly because of climate change, not war or conflict. Dem even describe am as first famine wey climate change alone cause.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Baker |first1=Aryn |title=Climate, Not Conflict. Madagascar's Famine is the First in Modern History to be Solely Caused by Global Warming |url=https://time.com/6081919/famine-climate-change-madagascar/ |access-date=24 July 2021 |magazine=Time |date=20 July 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Rodrigues |first1=Charlene |title=Madagascar famine becomes first in history to be caused solely by climate crisis |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/climate-change/madagascar-famine-climate-crisis-b1888058.html |access-date=24 July 2021 |work=[[The Independent]] |date=22 July 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Harding|first=Andrew|date=24 August 2021|title=Madagascar on the brink of climate change-induced famine|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-58303792|access-date=2021-09-10}}</ref> ==== Malaria ==== {{Main|Climate change and infectious diseases#Malaria}} Malaria still dey cause serious health problem for Africa. As climate change dey continue, areas wey get high malaria risk all year round fit shift from coastal West Africa go areas between Democratic Republic of the Congo and Uganda (African Highlands).<ref name="Ryan-2015">{{cite journal|last1=Ryan|first1=Sadie J.|last2=McNally|first2=Amy|last3=Johnson|first3=Leah R.|last4=Mordecai|first4=Erin A.|last5=Ben-Horin|first5=Tal|last6=Paaijmans|first6=Krijn|last7=Lafferty|first7=Kevin D.|year=2015|title=Mapping Physiological Suitability Limits for Malaria in Africa Under Climate Change|journal=Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases|volume=15|issue=12|pages=718–725|doi=10.1089/vbz.2015.1822|pmc=4700390|pmid=26579951|bibcode=2015VBZD...15..718R }}</ref> Rising temperature, change in rainfall, deforestation, and more humidity dey help mosquitoes wey carry malaria parasite to survive and reproduce. The main parasite be Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax, carried by Anopheles mosquito. Plasmodium falciparum no fit survive well if temperature no reach about 20°C, so warming dey increase risk.<ref name="CDC-2018">{{cite web |date=14 November 2018 |title=Where Malaria Occurs |url=https://www.cdc.gov/malaria/about/distribution.html |access-date=27 February 2020 |website=Center for Disease Control and Prevention}}</ref> Studies show say climate change fit increase malaria risk for more places, including highlands wey normally no get malaria.<ref name="Caminade-2014">{{cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Caminade C, Kovats S, Rocklov J, Tompkins AM, Morse AP, Colón-González FJ, Stenlund H, Martens P, Lloyd SJ |date=March 2014 |title=Impact of climate change on global malaria distribution |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=111 |issue=9 |pages=3286–3291 |bibcode=2014PNAS..111.3286C |doi=10.1073/pnas.1302089111 |pmc=3948226 |pmid=24596427 |doi-access=free}}</ref> === Impacts on conflicts and migration === United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) do environmental assessment for Sudan after conflict in 2007.<ref name="UNEP_2007_a">{{citation |author=UNEP |title=Sudan Post-Conflict Environmental Assessment |date=June 2007 |url=http://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/sudan/00_fwd.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304003632/http://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/sudan/00_fwd.pdf |location=Nairobi, Kenya |publisher=UNEP |isbn=978-92-807-2702-9 |access-date=2022-01-18 |archive-date=2016-03-04 }}</ref> Report show say environmental stress for Sudan dey link with social, economic and political problems like displacement of people and competition for natural resources. Reduced rainfall due to climate change be one factor wey contribute to conflict in Darfur. UNEP recommend say international community should help Sudan adapt to climate change.<ref name="UNEP_2007_b">{{citation |title=Natural Disasters and Desertification |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100602041622/http://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/sudan/03_disasters.pdf |chapter=Ch 3. Natural Disasters |chapter-url=http://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/sudan/03_disasters.pdf |access-date=2022-01-18 |archive-date=2010-06-02 }} in {{harvnb|UNEP|2007|p=69}}</ref> ==Impacts by region== ===Central Africa=== {{Further|Climate change in the Democratic Republic of the Congo|Climate change in São Tomé and Príncipe}} Central Africa mostly be landlocked area and e dey very vulnerable to climate change. Because rain dey depend on seasons and farming too depend on rain, the region dey expect longer heatwaves and more extreme wet conditions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Diedhiou |first1=Arona |last2=Bichet |first2=Adeline |last3=Wartenburger |first3=Richard |last4=Seneviratne |first4=Sonia I |last5=Rowell |first5=David P |last6=Sylla |first6=Mouhamadou B |last7=Diallo |first7=Ismaila |last8=Todzo |first8=Stella |last9=Touré |first9=N'datchoh E |last10=Camara |first10=Moctar |last11=Ngatchah |first11=Benjamin Ngounou |last12=Kane |first12=Ndjido A |last13=Tall |first13=Laure |last14=Affholder |first14=François |title=Changes in climate extremes over West and Central Africa at 1.5 °C and 2 °C global warming |journal=Environmental Research Letters |date=June 2018 |volume=13 |issue=6 |article-number=065020 |doi=10.1088/1748-9326/aac3e5 |bibcode=2018ERL....13f5020D |doi-access=free |hdl=20.500.11850/274346 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Temperature for the region fit increase by about 1.5°C to 2°C.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Seneviratne |first1=Sonia I. |last2=Donat |first2=Markus G. |last3=Pitman |first3=Andy J. |last4=Knutti |first4=Reto |last5=Wilby |first5=Robert L. |title=Allowable CO2 emissions based on regional and impact-related climate targets |journal=Nature |date=28 January 2016 |volume=529 |issue=7587 |pages=477–483 |doi=10.1038/nature16542 |pmid=26789252 |s2cid=205247437 |url=https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/9482219 }}</ref> Forest for Congo Basin wey dey absorb CO₂ don reduce because of heat and drought wey dey slow tree growth. Even forest wey nobody cut dey affected. By around 2030, forest fit absorb 14% less CO₂ and by 2035 e fit stop to absorb am.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Grossman |first1=Daniel |date=4 March 2020 |title=The Congo rainforest is losing ability to absorb carbon dioxide. That's bad for climate change. |language=en |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-environment/the-congo-rainforest-is-losing-its-ability-to-absorb-carbon-dioxide-thats-bad-for-climate-change/2020/03/03/3363d218-5ca9-11ea-9055-5fa12981bbbf_story.html |access-date=6 March 2020}}</ref> ===Eastern Africa=== {{Further|Climate change in Kenya|Climate change in Tanzania|Climate change in Ethiopia|Climate change in South Sudan}} Eastern Africa dey inside tropics, and rainfall dey controlled by seasonal movement of tropical rain belt. Rain pattern for the region no regular because of geography like highlands, lakes (example Lake Victoria), and influence from Indian and Atlantic Oceans. Some places get one rainy season, others get two. Rain timing fit change because of ocean temperature changes and weather systems like Madden–Julian Oscillation (MJO) and tropical cyclones. Long rains season dey very important for farming but e dey unpredictable. Some studies show say rainfall don reduce since 1980s during March–May, even though some recovery dey recent years.<ref name="Bernhofer 1–9">{{Cite journal |last1=Bernhofer |first1=Christian |last2=Hülsmann |first2= Stephan |last3=Gebrechorkos |first3=Solomon H. |date=6 August 2019 |title=Long-term trends in rainfall and temperature using high-resolution climate datasets in East Africa |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=9 |issue=1 |article-number=11376 |bibcode=2019NatSR...911376G |doi=10.1038/s41598-019-47933-8 |pmc=6684806 |pmid=31388068 }}</ref> Temperature for East Africa fit rise about 2–5°C by end of century depending on emissions.<ref name= "Bornemann 365–384">{{Cite journal |last1=Bornemann |first1=F. Jorge |last2=Rowell |first2=David P. |last3=Evans |first3=Barbara |last4=Lapworth |first4=Dan J. |last5=Lwiza |first5=Kamazima |last6= Macdonald |first6=David M.J. |last7=Marsham |first7=John H. |last8=Tesfaye |first8=Kindie |last9=Ascott |first9=Matthew J. |last10=Way |first10=Celia |date=1 October 2019 |title=Future changes and uncertainty in decision-relevant measures of East African climate |journal=Climatic Change |language=en |volume=156 |issue=3 |pages=365–384 |bibcode=2019ClCh..156..365B |doi=10.1007/s10584-019-02499-2 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Kenya dey very vulnerable. Drought and flood go increase as rainfall dey become more intense and less predictable. Urban heat for Nairobi too dey worsen because of building materials and lack of green space.<ref name="World_Bank" /> ===North Africa=== {{Excerpt|Climate change in the Middle East and North Africa|paragraphs=1,2|file=no}} {{Further|Climate change in Algeria|Climate change in Morocco}} ===West Africa and the Sahel=== {{Further|Climate change in Ghana|Climate change in Nigeria|Climate change in Senegal|Climate change in the Gambia|Climate change in Mali}} West Africa get four climate zones: Guinea Coast, Soudano-Sahel, Sahel, and Sahara. Rain mainly dey controlled by movement of Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), wey dey mix moist monsoon wind and dry Harmattan wind. Sahel region don experience wet period (1950s–1960s), then long dry period (1970s–1990s), and partial recovery from 1990s onward. Even though rain don increase small recently, total rainfall still less than 1950s level.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Panthou |first1=G |last2=Lebel |first2=T |last3=Vischel |first3=T |last4=Quantin |first4=G |last5=Sane |first5=Y |last6=Ba |first6=A |last7=Ndiaye |first7=O |last8=Diongue-Niang |first8=A |last9=Diopkane |first9=M |title=Rainfall intensification in tropical semi-arid regions: the Sahelian case |journal=Environmental Research Letters |date=June 2018 |volume=13 |issue=6 |article-number=064013 |doi=10.1088/1748-9326/aac334 |bibcode=2018ERL....13f4013P |doi-access=free }}</ref> Some people call am recovery period, others call am hydrological intensification because rain dey fall in heavy bursts wey cause flooding instead of steady rain. Sahel don also face serious floods and droughts, and many people don affected multiple times. In 2012, severe drought happen and governments respond quickly.<ref>{{cite web |last=Fominyen |first=George |title=Coming weeks critical to tackle Sahel hunger – U.N. humanitarian chief |url=http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/coming-weeks-critical-to-tackle-sahel-hunger-un-humanitarian-chief |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120603231542/http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/coming-weeks-critical-to-tackle-sahel-hunger-un-humanitarian-chief/ |archive-date=3 June 2012 |access-date=10 June 2012 |publisher=Thomson Reuters Foundation}}</ref> Climate models dey show say western Sahel fit get decrease in rainfall while central and eastern Sahel fit get increase, but uncertainty still dey. Heavy storms go likely increase and this go make flooding worse.<ref name=sb/><ref name="Kendon-2019"/> === Southern Africa === {{Further|Climate change in South Africa|Climate change in Mozambique|Climate change in Madagascar}} == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} * [https://futureclimateafrica.org/ Future Climate For Africa programme] * [https://www.uneca.org/acpc African Climate Policy Centre] (ACCP) goal is to contribute to poverty reduction through successful mitigation and adaptation to climate change in Africa and to improve the capacity of African countries to participate effectively in multilateral climate negotiations. * [https://www.amma2050.org/ African Monsoon Multidisciplinary Analysis 2050] (AMMA-2050) aim to address the challenges of understanding how the monsoon will change in future decades, to 2050, and how this information can be most effectively used to support climate-compatible development in the region. * (CARIAA) builds resilience by supporting collaborative research on climate change adaptation to inform adaptation policy and practice. * [https://wascal.org/ West African Science Service Center on Climate Change and Adapted Land Use] (WASCAL) is a research-focused Climate Service Centre designed to help tackle this challenge and thereby enhance the resilience of human and environmental systems to climate change and increased variability in West Africa. [[Category:Climate change by continent|Africa]] [[Category:Environment of Africa]] [[Category:Climate change insyd Africa]] 1ift4tpb6b3i1u6pmt4fbd15a1vkrmz 102927 102926 2026-06-15T07:20:29Z Achiri Bitamsimli 64 Added more content 102927 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Temperature Bar Chart Africa--1901-2020--2021-07-14.png|thumb|upright=1.33|Graph wey dey show temperature change insyd Africa between 1901 den 2021, plus red colour be warmer den blue being colder dan average (De average temperature during 1971–2000 be taken as de reference point for dese changes.)]] '''Climate change in Africa''' be a serious threat as Africa be one of de most vulnerable regions to de effects of climate change, despite contributing de least to causing am. Climate change be causing increasingly erratic rainfall patterns, more frequent extreme weather events wey dey include droughts, [[Flood|floods]], den rising sea surface temperatures insyd Africa. Dese changes dey threaten chow den water security, biodiversity, public health, den economic development.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781009325844/type/book |title=Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |date=2023-06-22 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-32584-4 |edition=1 |chapter=Africa |pages=1285–1456 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=United Nations |first=UNEP |date=2017 |title=Responding to climate change |url=http://www.unep.org/regions/africa/regional-initiatives/responding-climate-change |access-date=2022-07-01 |website=UNEP – UN Environment Programme |language=en}}</ref> Africa be currently warming faster dan de rest of de world on average.<ref>{{Cite web |last=World Meterological Organization |date=2024-09-02 |title=Africa faces disproportionate burden from climate change and adaptation costs |url=https://wmo.int/news/media-centre/africa-faces-disproportionate-burden-from-climate-change-and-adaptation-costs |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=World Meteorological Organization |language=en}}</ref> Na Climate change dey intensify existing socioeconomic vulnerabilities. Large segments of de African population depend on climate-sensitive livelihoods such as agriculture (55 - 62% of de workforce insyd sub-Saharan Africa)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781009325844/type/book |title=Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |date=2023-06-22 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-32584-4 |edition=1 |pages=1289 |chapter=Africa |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011}}</ref> den already live insyd poverty, wey dey heighten dema exposure to shocks. Health outcomes worsen as heat stress, vector borne - diseases (such as [[malaria]] den [[Dengue fever|dengue]]), den [[malnutrition]] becam more prevalent. Over half (56%) of de over 2,000 recorded public health incidents insyd Africa between 2001 den 2021 dey connect to climate change.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Africa CDC |url=https://africacdc.org/download/climate-change-and-health-strategic-framework-2025/ |title=Climate Change and Health: Strategic Framework 2025 |date=7 July 2025 |pages=vii}}</ref> Resources scarcity dey contribute to displacement den conflict, particularly insyd fragile regions. Urban areas, often be characterized by informal settlements, face heightened risks from flooding den extreme heat.<ref name=":02" /> Agriculture be one of de most vulnerable sectors, as most African farmers rely on rainfed crops. Reduced den unpredictable rainfall, combined plus higher temperatures, drives soil moisture loss, desertification (especially insyd de Sahara) den shifts suitable growing areas. Dese changes lower yields of staple crops, wey dey undermine food security den worsening hunger. Livestock health be increasingly compromised by heat stress den shifting disease patterns. Coastal den marine ecosystems face warming seas den rising levels, wich threaten fisheries den densely populated coastal settlements.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fonjong |first1=Lotsmart |last2=Matose |first2=Frank |last3=Sonnenfeld |first3=David A. |date=2024-12-01 |title=Climate change in Africa: Impacts, adaptation, and policy responses |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S095937802400116X |journal=Global Environmental Change |volume=89 |article-number=102912 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2024.102912 |bibcode=2024GEC....8902912F |issn=0959-3780}}</ref> De economic toll of climate change be severe. On average African countries face climate-related losses wey dey amount to 2-5% of GDP annually, while adaptation costs insyd sub-Saharan Africa be projected at USD 30-50 billion per year over de next decade. Dis dey threaten development gains den places pressure on governments den international institutions to mobilise [[climate finance]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=World Meteorological Organization |url=https://uneca.org/sites/default/files/ACPC/publication/State-of-the-Climate-in-Africa-2023_en.pdf |title=State of the Climate in Africa: 2023 |date=2024 |isbn=978-92-63-11360-3 |location=Geneva}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=European Investment Bank |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/finance-in-africa-navigating-the-financial-landscape-in-turbulent-times |title=Finance in Africa - Navigating the financial landscape in turbulent times |date=2022-10-19 |publisher=European Investment Bank |isbn=978-92-861-5382-2 |language=EN}}</ref> Africa ein climate change adaptation strategies dey focus on building resilience thru climate - smart agriculture, sustainable water management, ecosystem conservation, den strengthening health den infrastructure systems. Dese approaches prioritise enhancing governance, mobilising [[climate finance]] den investment, den fostering community participation to address vulnerability holistically.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tadesse |first=Debay |date=1 December 2010 |title=The impact of climate change in Africa |url=https://issafrica.org/research/papers/the-impact-of-climate-change-in-africa |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=ISS Africa |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Badji |first1=Arfang |last2=Ibanda |first2=Angele |last3=Akello |first3=Sarah |last4=Ekwamu |first4=Adipala |date=2022 |title=Climate change impacts and adaptation strategies in Africa: Selected case studies |url=https://afjrdev.org/index.php/jos/article/view/410 |journal=African Journal of Rural Development |language=en |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=209–274 |issn=2415-2838}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ngongolo |first1=Kelvin |last2=Gayo |first2=Leopody |date=2025-05-21 |title=Climate change impacts and mitigation strategies in Sub-Saharan Africa's livestock production sector. A brief review |journal=Pastoralism: Research, Policy and Practice |language=English |volume=15 |article-number=14225 |doi=10.3389/past.2025.14225 |bibcode=2025PRPP...1514225N |doi-access=free |issn=2041-7136}}</ref> Continental den national frameworks emphasise multi-sectoral coordination, technology adoption, den capacity building to support sustainable development den reduce climate risk.<ref>{{Cite book |last=African Union |url=https://au.int/en/documents/20220628/african-union-climate-change-and-resilient-development-strategy-and-action-plan |title=African Union Climate Change and Resilient Development Strategy and Action Plan (2022-2032) |date=28 June 2022 |publisher=African Union}}</ref> ==Greenhouse gas emissions== Africa ein per person greenhouse gas emissions be low compared to oda continents.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/outreach/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FactSheet_Africa.pdf|title=Fact sheet - Africa|accessdate=4 August 2024}}</ref> Emissions from land use change be uncertain, especially insyd [[Central Africa]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Mostefaoui |first1=Mounia |last2=Ciais |first2=Philippe |last3=McGrath |first3=Matthew J. |last4=Peylin |first4=Philippe |last5=Patra |first5=Prabir K. |last6=Ernst |first6=Yolandi |date=2024-01-11 |title=Greenhouse gas emissions and their trends over the last 3 decades across Africa |url=https://essd.copernicus.org/articles/16/245/2024/ |journal=Earth System Science Data |language=en |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=245–275 |doi=10.5194/essd-16-245-2024 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2024ESSD...16..245M |issn=1866-3516}}</ref> De main source of uncertainty dey cam from carbon dioxide fluxes insyd de LULUCF sector (dis acronym dey stand for land use, land-use change, den forestry).<ref name=":0" /> == Impacts == ===Temperature den weather changes=== {{multiple image | align = right | direction = vertical | total_width = 300 | image1 = Koppen-Geiger Map v2 Africa 1991–2020.svg | caption1 = Köppen climate classification map for Africa for 1991–2020 | image2 = Koppen-Geiger Map Africa future.svg | caption2 = 2071–2100 map under de most intense climate change scenario. Mid-range scenarios are currently considered more likely.<ref name="HausfatherPeters2020">{{cite journal|last1=Hausfather|first1=Zeke|last2=Peters|first2=Glen|title=Emissions – the 'business as usual' story is misleading|journal=Nature|date=29 January 2020|volume=577|issue=7792|pages=618–20|doi=10.1038/d41586-020-00177-3|pmid=31996825|bibcode=2020Natur.577..618H|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Schuur2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Schuur |first1=Edward A.G. |last2=Abbott |first2=Benjamin W. |last3=Commane |first3=Roisin |last4=Ernakovich |first4=Jessica |last5=Euskirchen |first5=Eugenie |last6=Hugelius |first6=Gustaf |last7=Grosse |first7=Guido |last8=Jones |first8=Miriam |last9=Koven |first9=Charlie |last10=Leshyk |first10=Victor |last11=Lawrence |first11=David |last12=Loranty |first12=Michael M. |last13=Mauritz |first13=Marguerite |last14=Olefeldt |first14=David |last15=Natali |first15=Susan |last16=Rodenhizer |first16=Heidi |last17=Salmon |first17=Verity |last18=Schädel |first18=Christina |last19=Strauss |first19=Jens |last20=Treat |first20=Claire |last21=Turetsky |first21=Merritt |year=2022 |title=Permafrost and Climate Change: Carbon Cycle Feedbacks From the Warming Arctic |journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources |volume=47 |pages=343–371 |doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-012220-011847 |quote="Medium-range estimates of Arctic carbon emissions could result from moderate climate emission mitigation policies that keep global warming below 3°C (e.g., RCP4.5). This global warming level most closely matches country emissions reduction pledges made for the Paris Climate Agreement..." |doi-access=free |bibcode=2022ARER...47..343S }}</ref><ref name="Phiddian2022">{{Cite web |last=Phiddian |first=Ellen |date=5 April 2022 |title=Explainer: IPCC Scenarios |url=https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/explainer-ipcc-scenarios/ |website=[[Cosmos (magazine)|Cosmos]] |access-date=30 September 2023 |quote="The IPCC doesn't make projections about which of these scenarios is more likely, but other researchers and modellers can. [[The Australian Academy of Science]], for instance, released a report last year stating that our current emissions trajectory had us headed for a 3°C warmer world, roughly in line with the middle scenario. [[Climate Action Tracker]] predicts 2.5 to 2.9°C of warming based on current policies and action, with pledges and government agreements taking this to 2.1°C. |archive-date=20 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230920224129/https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/explainer-ipcc-scenarios/ |url-status=live }}</ref> }} Observed surface temperatures generally increase over Africa since de late 19th century to de early 21st century by about 1°C, buh locally as much as 3°C for minimum temperature insyd de Sahel at de end of de dry season.<ref name="IRD-2017">{{Cite book |title=Rural societies in the face of climatic and environmental changes in West Africa |date=2017 |publisher=IRD éditions |isbn=978-2-7099-2424-5 |location=Marseille |oclc=1034784045 |id=Impr. Jouve}}</ref> De warming of Africa increase by +0.3 C from 1991 to 2021 versus +0.2 during 1961 to 1910. E be estimated dat by 2030, de people of Africa go be exposed to a rise insyd sea level secof an increase insyd temperature. Na dis go then cause agricultural productivity to decrease<ref>{{Cite book |last=Engel |first=Ulf |title=Yearbook on the African Union Volume 3 (2022) |date=2024 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-68308-2 |editor-last=Engel |editor-first=Ulf |location=Erscheinungsort nicht ermittelbar}}</ref>.Observed precipitation trends dey indicate spatial den temporal discrepancies as expected.<ref name="Collins-2011">{{cite journal |last1=Collins |first1=Jennifer M. |date=15 July 2011 |title=Temperature Variability over Africa |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=24 |issue=14 |pages=3649–3666 |bibcode=2011JCli...24.3649C |doi=10.1175/2011JCLI3753.1 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Niang-2014">Niang, I.; O. C. Ruppel; M. A. Abdrabo; A. Essel; C. Lennard; J. Padgham, and P. Urquhart, 2014: Africa. In: ''Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability''. [https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/WGIIAR5-Chap22_FINAL.pdf Part B: Regional Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change] [Barros, V. R.; C. B. Field; D. J. Dokken et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1199–1265.</ref> De observed changes insyd temperature den [[precipitation]] vary regionally.<ref name="Conway-2009">{{cite journal |last1=Conway |first1=Declan |last2=Persechino |first2=Aurelie |last3=Ardoin-Bardin |first3=Sandra |last4=Hamandawana |first4=Hamisai |last5=Dieulin |first5=Claudine |last6=Mahé |first6=Gil |date=February 2009 |title=Rainfall and Water Resources Variability in Sub-Saharan Africa during the Twentieth Century |journal=Journal of Hydrometeorology |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=41–59 |bibcode=2009JHyMe..10...41C |doi=10.1175/2008JHM1004.1 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Collins-2011" /> Current climate models (as dem summarise insyd de IPCC Sixth Assessment Report) predict increases insyd frequency den intensity of drought den heavy rainfall events.<ref name="Armstrong-2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Armstrong |first1=Andrew |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Koehler |first3=Johanna |last4=Hope |first4=Rob |date=2022 |title=Intra-seasonal rainfall and piped water revenue variability in rural Africa |journal=Global Environmental Change |language=en |volume=76 |article-number=102592 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2022.102592|doi-access=free|bibcode=2022GEC....7602592A }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref> Dem sanso predict decreases insyd mean precipitation almost everywhere insyd Africa, plus medium to high confidence. However, local rainfall trends den socio-climatic interactions be likely to manifest insyd mixed patterns. Therefore, de converging impacts of climate change go vary across de continent. Insyd rural areas, rainfall patterns influence water usage.<ref name="Armstrong-2022" /> A study insyd 2019 dey predict increased dry spell length during wet seasons den increased extreme rainfall rates insyd Africa.<ref name="Kendon-2019">{{Cite journal |last1=Kendon |first1=Elizabeth J. |last2=Stratton |first2=Rachel A. |last3=Tucker |first3=Simon |last4=Marsham |first4=John H. |last5=Berthou |first5=Ségolène |last6=Rowell |first6=David P. |last7=Senior |first7=Catherine A. |date=2019 |title=Enhanced future changes in wet and dry extremes over Africa at convection-permitting scale |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |bibcode=2019NatCo..10.1794K |doi=10.1038/s41467-019-09776-9 |pmc=6478940 |pmid=31015416 |article-number=1794}}</ref> Insyd other words: "both ends of Africa's weather extremes fi get more severe".<ref name="Weather Channel-2022">{{Cite news |title=More Extreme Weather in Africa's Future, Study Says |url=https://weather.com/news/climate/news/2019-06-18-africa-extreme-weather-drought-flood |access-date=2022-07-01 |work=The Weather Channel |language=en-US}}</ref> De research find say most climate models no go be able to capture de extent of dese changes secof dem no be conviction-permitting at dema coarse grid scales.<ref name="Kendon-2019" /> === Sea level rise === [[File:Dar es Salaam (Aerial).jpg|thumb|Aerial view of de Tanzanian capital Dar es Salaam]] Insyd [[Africa]], future population growth dey amplify risks from sea level rise. Sam 54.2million people dey live insyd de highly exposed low elevation coastal zones (LECZ) around 2000. Dis number fi effectively double to around 110 million people by 2030. By 2060 e fi be around 185 to 230million people, wey dey depend on de extent of population growth. De average regional sea level rise go be around 21cm by 2060. At dat point climate change scenarios go make little difference. Buh local geography den population trends interact to increase de exposure to hazards like 100-year floods insyd a complex way.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter9">Trisos, C. H., I. O. Adelekan, E. Totin, A. Ayanlade, J. Efitre, A. Gemeda, K. Kalaba, C. Lennard, C. Masao, Y. Mgaya, G. Ngaruiya, D. Olago, N. P. Simpson, and S. Zakieldeen 2022: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter09.pdf Chapter 9: Africa]. In [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/ Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability] [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E. S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, New York, US, pp. 2043–2121 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011.</ref> [[File:Abidjan des Lagune.jpg|thumb|Abidjan, de economic powerhouse of Ivory Coast]] {| class="wikitable" |+Populations within 100-year floodplains.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter9" /> !|Country !|2000 !|2030 !|2060 !|Growth 2000–2060 |- |[[Egypt]] || 7.4 || 13.8 || 20.7 || 0.28 |- |[[Nigeria]] || 0.1 || 0.3 || 0.9 || 0.84 |- |[[Senegal]] || 0.4 || 1.1 || 2.7 || 0.76 |- |[[Benin]] || 0.1 || 0.6 || 1.6 || 1.12 |- |[[Tanzania]] || 0.2 || 0.9 || 4.3 || 2.3 |- |[[Somalia]] || 0.2 || 0.6 || 2.7 || 1.7 |- |[[Ivory Coast|Côte d'Ivoire]]|| 0.1 || 0.3 || 0.7 || 0.65 |- |[[Mozambique]] || 0.7 || 1.4 || 2.5 || 0.36 |} {{reflist|group=T1}} [[File:ANKOMAH 20221122-009.jpg|thumb|A man de look go outside over di beach from top of building wey high tides don destroy for Chorkor, one suburb for Accra. Sunny day flooding wey come from sea level rise dey increase coastal erosion wey dey spoil houses, infrastructure and natural ecosystems. Plenty communities for Coastal Ghana don already dey feel di changing tides.]] For near future, one of di biggest displacement wey go happen dey expected for East Africa region. At least 750,000 people for dat area fit dey forced comot from coastal areas between 2020 and 2050. Scientific studies estimate say 12 major African cities go suffer total damage reach US$65 billion under “moderate” climate change scenario RCP4.5 by 2050. Di cities be Abidjan, Alexandria, Algiers, Cape Town, Casablanca, Dakar, Dar es Salaam, Durban, Lagos, Lomé, Luanda and Maputo. Under high-emission scenario RCP8.5, di damage go reach US$86.5 billion. If we add extra impact from serious ice sheet instability for di high-emission scenario, e fit reach up to US$137.5 billion damage. If we include “low-probability, high-damage events” join di three scenarios, di damage fit rise go US$187 billion, US$206 billion and US$397 billion respectively.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter9" /> For these estimates, Alexandria for Egypt alone dey account for around half of di total figure.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter9" /> Hundreds of thousands of people wey dey low-lying areas for dia fit already need relocation within next decade.<ref name="Michaelson-2018">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2018/aug/29/alexandria-little-venice-egypt-climate-change-frontline|title=Houses claimed by the canal: life on Egypt's climate change frontline| last=Michaelson| first=Ruth|date=25 August 2018|work=[[The Guardian]]|access-date=30 August 2018}}</ref> Across sub-Saharan Africa as whole, damage from sea level rise fit reach 2–4% of GDP by 2050. But this one depend on how economy go grow and how adaptation go happen.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter9">Trisos, C. H., I. O. Adelekan, E. Totin, A. Ayanlade, J. Efitre, A. Gemeda, K. Kalaba, C. Lennard, C. Masao, Y. Mgaya, G. Ngaruiya, D. Olago, N. P. Simpson, and S. Zakieldeen 2022: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter09.pdf Chapter 9: Africa]. In [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/ Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability] [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E. S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, New York, US, pp. 2043–2121 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011.</ref> [[File:Leptis Magna amphitheatre - panoramio.jpg|thumb|left|Di remains of Leptis Magna amphitheater, with sea dey show for background]] For long term, Egypt, Mozambique and Tanzania dey likely get di highest number of people wey go dey affected by yearly flooding among all African countries. This projection assume say global warming go reach 4°C by end of century. Dat level dey linked to RCP8.5 scenario. Under RCP8.5, 10 important cultural sites dey at risk of flooding and erosion by end of century. Dem be Casbah of Algiers, Carthage Archaeological site, Kerkouane, Leptis Magna Archaeological site, Medina of Sousse, Medina of Tunis, Sabratha Archaeological site, Robben Island, Island of Saint-Louis and Tipasa. Total of 15 Ramsar sites and other natural heritage sites too go face similar risk. These ones include Bao Bolong Wetland Reserve, Delta du Saloum National Park, Diawling National Park, Golfe de Boughrara, Kalissaye, Lagune de Ghar el Melh et Delta de la Mejerda, Marromeu Game Reserve, Parc Naturel des Mangroves du Fleuve Cacheu, Seal Ledges Provincial Nature Reserve, Sebkhet Halk Elmanzel et Oued Essed, Sebkhet Soliman, Réserve Naturelle d'Intérêt Communautaire de la Somone, Songor Biosphere Reserve, Tanbi Wetland Complex and Watamu Marine National Park.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter9" /> == Socioeconomic impacts == [[File:Access_to_wood_and_water_appears_to_be_severely_impacted_by_climate_change_in_Kenya_and_Cameroon.png|thumb|Survey results from 2022 show say access to wood and water dey badly affected by climate change for Kenya and Cameroon.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment Bank |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/20230098-eib-climate-survey-africa-and-middle-east |title=The EIB Climate Survey: Africa and the Middle East |date=2023-06-05 |publisher=European Investment Bank |isbn=978-92-861-5534-5 |language=EN}}</ref>]] Climate change go continue affect Africa well-well because of plenty factors. These impacts don already start show and dem go increase if nothing serious no happen to reduce global carbon emissions. The impacts include higher temperatures, drought, changing rainfall patterns, and more climate variability. These conditions dey affect energy production and consumption. Recent droughts for many African countries wey people link to climate change don spoil energy security and economic growth across di continent. Africa go be one of di regions wey climate change go hit pass others.<ref name=":0r">{{Cite book|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/WGIIAR5-Chap22_FINAL.pdf|title=Africa. In: Climate change 2014: impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.|year=2014}}</ref> Di reasons be say many countries get low ability to adapt, poor access to technology and information wey fit help adaptation, plus heavy dependence on farming ecosystems for survival.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Welborn|first=Lily|title=Africa and climate change: Projecting vulnerability and adaptive capacity|publisher=Institute for Security Studies|year=2018}}</ref> Many African countries dey classified as Least Developed Countries (LDCs) with weak socio-economic conditions, so dem face serious challenges for dealing with climate change effects.<ref>{{Cite book|last=UNDP/GEF|url=https://www.thegef.org/sites/default/files/publications/CCA-Africa-Final.pdf|title=Climate Change Adaptation in Africa UNDP: Synthesis of Experiences and Recommendations|publisher=UNDP/GEF|year=2018}}</ref> IPCC Fifth Assessment Report highlight say Africa dey face high risks for ecosystems, water availability, and agriculture, which dey affect food security.<ref name=":0r" /> For 2022, over 6,000 people from 10 African countries take part for climate survey wey European Investment Bank do.<ref name="EIB-2022a"/> Survey show say 88% of respondents believe climate change dey already affect their daily life, while 61% say environmental destruction don affect their income or livelihood.<ref>{{Cite web |title=EIB Climate Survey: 88% of African respondents believe that climate change is already affecting their everyday life. |url=https://www.eib.org/en/press/all/2022-554-eib-climate-survey-88-of-african-respondents-believe-that-climate-change-is-already-affecting-their-everyday-life |access-date=2023-02-28 |website=European Investment Bank |language=en}}</ref> These losses usually come from serious drought, rising sea levels, coastal erosion, or extreme weather like floods and storms.<ref name="EIB-2022a">{{Cite web |title=2022-2023 EIB Climate Survey, part 1 of 2: 88% of respondents believe that climate change is already affecting their everyday life |url=https://www.eib.org/en/surveys/climate-survey/5th-climate-survey/africa.htm |access-date=2023-02-28 |website=EIB.org |language=en}}</ref> More than half of African respondents (57%) say dem or people wey dem know don already take steps to adapt to climate change. Some of these actions include buying water-saving devices to reduce drought effects and clearing drains before floods.<ref name="EIB-2022a" /> 34% say climate change be one of di most serious problems wey their country dey face, along with issues like inflation and access to healthcare.<ref name="EIB-2022a"/> === Economic impacts === Africa dey warm pass most parts of di world. Large parts of di continent fit become hard to live in if warming continue. Africa GDP fit drop by 2% if global temperature rise by 1°C, and fit drop by 12% if e rise by 4°C. Crop production go reduce sharply because of heat, and heavy rainfall go become more frequent and intense across di continent, increasing flood risk.{{sfn|European Investment Bank|2022c}}<ref name="WMO-2021">{{Cite web |date=2021-10-18 |title=Climate change triggers mounting food insecurity, poverty and displacement in Africa |url=https://wmo.int/news/media-centre/climate-change-triggers-mounting-food-insecurity-poverty-and-displacement-africa |access-date=2022-07-26 |website=public.wmo.int |language=en }}</ref><ref name="Africa Renewal-2018">{{Cite web |date=2018-12-07 |title=Global warming: severe consequences for Africa |url=https://www.un.org/africarenewal/magazine/december-2018-march-2019/global-warming-severe-consequences-africa |access-date=2022-07-26 |website=Africa Renewal |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-10-27 |title=Climate Change Is an Increasing Threat to Africa |url=https://unfccc.int/news/climate-change-is-an-increasing-threat-to-africa |access-date=2022-07-26 |website=United Nations Climate Change News}}</ref> Africa dey lose between $7 billion and $15 billion every year because of climate change, and e fit reach $50 billion by 2030.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Rathi |first1=Akshat |last2=Rao |first2=Mythili |date=2024-05-02 |title=One Bank Is Turning Africa's Climate Vulnerability Into Opportunity |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2024-05-02/inside-the-bank-financing-africa-s-green-growth |access-date=2024-05-11 |website=www.bloomberg.com}}</ref> ==== Agriculture ==== Agriculture be very important sector for Africa, because plenty people depend on am for food and income. Many people rely on climate-sensitive resources. E dey expected say crop production go reduce across Sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Engel |first=Ulf |title=Yearbook on the African Union Volume 3 (2022) |date=2024 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-68308-2 |editor-last=Engel |editor-first=Ulf |location=Erscheinungsort nicht ermittelbar}}</ref> On average, agriculture for Sub-Saharan Africa contribute about 15% of total GDP.<ref name="OECD/FAO">{{Cite book |last=OECD/FAO |url=http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5778e.pdf |title=OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2016-2025 |publisher=OECD Publishing |year=2016 |isbn= 978-92-64-25323-0 |pages=59–61}}</ref> Africa geography make am very vulnerable, and 70% of people depend on rain-fed farming for survival.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Läderach |first1=Peter |last2=Martinez-Valle |first2=Armando |last3=Bourgoin |first3=Clement |last4=Parker |first4=Louis |date=27 March 2019 |title= Vulnerability of the agricultural sector to climate change: The development of a pan-tropical Climate Risk Vulnerability Assessment to inform sub-national decision making |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=14 |issue=3 |article-number=e0213641 |bibcode=2019PLoSO..1413641P |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0213641 |pmc=6436735 |pmid=30917146 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Smallholder farms dey cover about 80% of farmland for Sub-Saharan Africa.<ref name="OECD/FAO" /> IPCC for 2007 project say climate change go seriously affect agriculture productivity and food access.<ref name="ar4 summary of regional impacts">{{cite book |title=Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2007 |editor=Parry, M. L. |display-editors=et al. |chapter=Summary for Policymakers: C. Current knowledge about future impacts |chapter-url=http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/spmsspm-c.html |access-date=13 December 2023 |archive-date=2 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181102223635/http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/spmsspm-c.html }}</ref>{{rp|13}} This one get high confidence. Crop, livestock and fisheries go face more pests and diseases because of climate change.<ref name="Dhanush" /> Crop pests already cause about one-sixth of farm losses.<ref name="Dhanush" /> Climate change go make pests and diseases increase, plus more serious outbreaks.<ref name="Dhanush" /> This go affect food security and how people dey live. Poor nutrition fit cause deficiency like vitamin A and iron, especially during drought periods when food no dey enough.{{cn|date=May 2026}} Between 2014 and 2018, Africa get highest level of food insecurity for the world.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.fao.org/state-of-food-security-nutrition/en/ |title=SOFI 2019 – The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |year=2021 |isbn=978-92-5-134325-8 |language=en |doi=10.4060/CB4474EN |s2cid=241785130}}</ref> Heavy dependence on rain-fed farming and low use of climate-smart agriculture make the sector more vulnerable. Poor access to climate data too dey worsen adaptation efforts.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Dinku|first=Tufa|title=Overcoming challenges in the availability and use of climate data in Africa|url=https://ictupdate.cta.int/en/article/overcoming-challenges-in-the-availability-and-use-of-climate-data-in-africa-sid06fd8a811-e179-4fa5-9c8f-806bd2f27c3e|website=ICT Update CTA|access-date=13 December 2023|archive-date=1 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101070648/https://ictupdate.cta.int/en/article/overcoming-challenges-in-the-availability-and-use-of-climate-data-in-africa-sid06fd8a811-e179-4fa5-9c8f-806bd2f27c3e}}</ref> Changes in rainfall go shorten farming seasons and reduce yield for many places in Africa. Smallholder farmers no get enough technology and support to adapt.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Supporting Sub-Saharan Africa's Farmers – Bayer – Crop Science |url=https://www.cropscience.bayer.com:443/en/stories/2018/supporting-sub-saharan-africas-farmers-closing-the-gap |access-date=2019-08-15 |website=www.cropscience.bayer.com}}</ref> Climate variability don already cause big changes in food production across developing countries wey depend on rain.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Thornton |first1=Philip K |last2=Ericksen |first2=Polly J |last3=Herrero |first3=Mario |last4=Challinor |first4=Andrew J |title=Climate variability and vulnerability to climate change: a review |journal=Global Change Biology |date=November 2014 |volume=20 |issue=11 |pages=3313–3328 |doi=10.1111/gcb.12581 |bibcode=2014GCBio..20.3313T |pmc=4258067 |pmid=24668802 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=HU|first1=Tongxi|last2=Zhang|first2=Xuesong|last3=Khanal|first3=Sami|last4=Wilson|first4=Robyn|last5=Leng|first5=Guoyong|last6=Toman|first6=Elizabeth|last7=Wang|first7=Xuhui|last8=Zhao|first8=Kaiguang|date=2024-06-19|title=Climate change impacts on crop yields: A review of empirical findings, statistical crop models, and machine learning methods|url=https://bpb-us-w2.wpmucdn.com/u.osu.edu/dist/7/24705/files/2024/09/review-climate-impact-crop-yield-machine-learning.pdf|journal=Environmental Modelling & Software|volume=179|issue=106119 |article-number=106119 |doi=10.1016/j.envsoft.2024.106119 |bibcode=2024EnvMS.17906119H }}</ref> Agriculture dey sensitive to climate changes, especially rainfall, temperature, and extreme events like drought and flood. These events go increase for future and go affect farming serious.<ref name="Sabiiti et al 2018 Adapting Agriculture to Climate Change">{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-64599-5_10 |chapter=Adapting Agriculture to Climate Change: Suitability of Banana Crop Production to Future Climate Change over Uganda |title=Limits to Climate Change Adaptation |series=Climate Change Management |date=2018 |last1=Sabiiti |first1=Geoffrey |last2=Ininda |first2=Joseph Mwalichi |last3=Ogallo |first3=Laban Ayieko |last4=Ouma |first4=Jully |last5=Artan |first5=Guleid |last6=Basalirwa |first6=Charles |last7=Opijah |first7=Franklin |last8=Nimusiima |first8=Alex |last9=Ddumba |first9=Saul Daniel |last10=Mwesigwa |first10=Jasper Batureine |last11=Otieno |first11=George |last12=Nanteza |first12=Jamiat |pages=175–190 |isbn=978-3-319-64598-8 }}</ref> This go affect food prices, food security, and land use decisions.<ref>{{Cite book |section=A1 – 1 Sustainability, food security and climate change: three intertwined challenges |title=Climate-Smart Agriculture Sourcebook |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|url=http://www.fao.org/climate-smart-agriculture-sourcebook/concept/module-a1-introducing-csa/chapter-a1-1/en/|access-date=2019-08-15}}</ref> Yield from rain-fed farming fit reduce reach up to 50% by 2020.<ref name="Sabiiti et al 2018 Adapting Agriculture to Climate Change" /> To reduce future impact, African countries need strong policies and planning to manage food systems under climate variability. Dem need proper understanding of how climate affect different crops before making decisions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Shah |first1=Hassnain |last2=Hellegers |first2=Petra |last3=Siderius |first3=Christian |date=2021-01-01 |title=Climate risk to agriculture: A synthesis to define different types of critical moments |journal=Climate Risk Management |volume=34 |article-number=100378 |doi=10.1016/j.crm.2021.100378 |bibcode=2021CliRM..3400378S |issn=2212-0963|doi-access=free }}</ref> This one important especially during 2020 locust invasion for East Africa wey spoil agriculture.<ref name="Rosane-2020">{{cite news|last1=Rosane|first1=Olivia|date=27 January 2020|title=Worst Locust Swarm to Hit East Africa in Decades Linked to Climate Crisis|agency=Ecowatch|url=https://www.ecowatch.com/locust-swarm-east-africa-2644928358.html|access-date=6 February 2020}}</ref> For East Africa, climate change go make drought and flood happen more often and more strong, which go affect farming badly. Some research from International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) show say maize yield fit increase for some parts of East Africa, but go reduce for Ethiopia, DRC, Tanzania and northern Uganda.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013 |title=East African agriculture and climate change: A comprehensive analysis |url=http://www.ifpri.org/publication/east-african-agriculture-and-climate-change-comprehensive-analysis |access-date=21 September 2019 |website=[[International Food Policy Research Institute]] (IFPRI) |language=en}}</ref> Climate change also go reduce quality and quantity of land wey dey available for farming.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2008/09/11/000158349_20080911163038/Rendered/PDF/WPS4717.pdf |title=How Will Climate Change Shift Agro-Ecological Zones And Impact African Agriculture? |author1=Kurukulasuriya, P. |author2=Mendelsohn, R. |date=25 September 2008 |publisher=The World Bank |series=Policy Research Working Papers |doi=10.1596/1813-9450-4717 |hdl=10986/6994 |s2cid=129416028}}</ref> Climate change for Kenya go seriously affect agriculture sector wey depend mostly on rain.<ref name="NCCAP-2018">{{Cite web |last=Ministry of Environment and Forestry |title=National Climate Change Action Plan (NCCAP) 2018–2022. Volume I |url=http://www.environment.go.ke/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/NCCAP-2018-2022-v2.pdf |access-date=13 December 2023 |archive-date=2 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220402131336/http://www.environment.go.ke/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/NCCAP-2018-2022-v2.pdf }}</ref> Livestock for arid and semi-arid lands dey especially at risk. For these areas, over 70% of livestock deaths happen because of drought.<ref name="NCCAP-2018" /> Within next 10 years, 52% of cattle for these regions dey at risk because of extreme heat stress.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kenya Markets Trust |date=2019 |title=Contextualising Pathways to Resilience in Kenya's ASALs under the Big Four Agenda |url=https://www.kenyamarkets.org/contextualising-pathways-to-resilience-in-kenyas-asals-under-the-big-four-agenda/ |access-date=13 December 2023 |archive-date=16 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230216210136/https://www.kenyamarkets.org/contextualising-pathways-to-resilience-in-kenyas-asals-under-the-big-four-agenda/ }}</ref> For Southern Africa, climate change go worsen farming challenges wey already dey there because of weak infrastructure and low technology. Maize cover almost half of farmland, but yields fit reduce by 30% under future climate conditions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Overview [in Southern African Agriculture and Climate Change] |url=http://www.ifpri.org/publication/overview-southern-african-agriculture-and-climate-change |access-date=8 August 2019 |website=www.ifpri.org}}</ref> Rising temperatures also go increase weeds and pests spread.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hachigonta |first1=Sepo |url=https://cdm15738.contentdm.oclc.org/utils/getfile/collection/p15738coll2/id/127787/filename/127998.pdf |title=Southern African Agriculture and Climate Change: A Comprehensive Analysis |last2=Nelson |first2=Gerald C. |last3=Thomas |first3=Timothy S. |last4=Sibanda |first4=Lindiwe Majele |publisher=International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-89629-208-6 |pages=1–24 |chapter=Overview}}</ref> For West Africa, climate change go affect farming by making food production more unstable, affecting access and availability.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brown |first1=Molly E. |last2=Hintermann |first2=B. |last3=Higgins |first3=N. |date=January 2009 |title=Markets, Climate Change and Food Security in West Africa |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20090027893.pdf |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |volume=43 |issue=21 |pages=8016–8020 |bibcode=2009EnST...43.8016B |doi=10.1021/es901162d |pmid=19924916|hdl=2060/20090027893 |s2cid=9412710 }}</ref> For Central Africa, heavy rain, long dry periods and high heat go reduce cassava, maize and bean production.<ref name="Climatelinks-2020">{{Cite web |title=Climate Risks in the Central Africa Regional Program for the Environment (CARPE) and Congo Basin |url=https://www.climatelinks.org/file/4614/download?token=rlgPz1eX |website=Climatelinks |access-date=13 December 2023 |archive-date=28 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728153008/https://www.climatelinks.org/file/4614/download?token=rlgPz1eX }}</ref> Floods and erosion go spoil transport infrastructure, leading to post-harvest losses. Export crops like coffee and cocoa dey increase but dem still dey very vulnerable to climate change.<ref name="Climatelinks-2020" /> Political instability and conflict also dey affect agriculture contribution to GDP, and climate risk go make am worse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013 |title=Agriculture in Africa |url=https://www.un.org/en/africa/osaa/pdf/pubs/2013africanagricultures.pdf |website=United Nations}}</ref> Africa GDP fit drop by 2% if temperature rise by 1°C, and by 12% if e rise by 4°C. Crop yields go drop because of heat, and drought go increase across di continent. Heavy rain too go become more frequent, increasing flood risk.{{sfn|European Investment Bank|2022c}}<ref name="public.wmo.int">{{Cite web |date=18 October 2021 |title=Climate change triggers mounting food insecurity, poverty and displacement in Africa |url=https://wmo.int/news/media-centre/climate-change-triggers-mounting-food-insecurity-poverty-and-displacement-africa |access-date=2022-07-26 |website=public.wmo.int |language=en}}</ref><ref name="un.org">{{Cite web |date=7 December 2018 |title=Global warming: severe consequences for Africa |url=https://www.un.org/africarenewal/magazine/december-2018-march-2019/global-warming-severe-consequences-africa |access-date=2022-07-26 |website=Africa Renewal |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Climate Change Is an Increasing Threat to Africa |url=https://unfccc.int/news/climate-change-is-an-increasing-threat-to-africa |access-date=2022-07-26 |website=unfccc.int}}</ref> ==== Energy ==== [[File:M-Power solar in Tanzania (1080).jpg|thumb|Solar lighting and electricity wey install for house of one Tanzanian woman.]] As population dey grow and energy demand dey increase, energy security become very important for sustainable development. Climate change don already affect energy sector for Africa because many countries dey depend on hydropower. Reduced rainfall and drought don reduce water level for dams, which don affect electricity generation. This one cause low power supply, high electricity cost, and power cuts or load shedding for some countries like Ghana, Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania. == Water scarcity == [[File:Water Shortage in Ethiopia (935).jpg|thumb|Water shortage for Ethiopia.]] Water quality and how water dey available don spoil for most areas inside Africa, especially because of climate change.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rankoana |first=Sejabaledi Agnes |date=1 January 2020 |title=Climate change impacts on water resources in a rural community in Limpopo province, South Africa: a community-based adaptation to water insecurity |journal=International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management |volume=12 |issue=5 |pages=587–598 |doi=10.1108/IJCCSM-04-2020-0033 |bibcode=2020IJCCS..12..587R |doi-access=free }}</ref> Water resources dey very vulnerable, and climate change fit affect am plenty, wey go bring serious effects for human society.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Climate Change and Water — IPCC |url=https://www.ipcc.ch/publication/climate-change-and-water-2/ |access-date=2019-08-08}}</ref> IPCC dey predict say millions of people for Africa go continuously face serious water stress because of changes in climate and how weather dey vary (IPCC 2013). Changes in rain pattern dey directly affect surface runoff and how water dey available.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fowler |first1=H. J. |last2=Blenkinsop |first2=S. |last3=Tebaldi |first3=C. |date=October 2007 |title=Linking climate change modelling to impacts studies: recent advances in downscaling techniques for hydrological modelling |journal=International Journal of Climatology |volume=27 |issue=12 |pages=1547–1578 |bibcode=2007IJCli..27.1547F |doi=10.1002/joc.1556 |s2cid=53472608}}</ref> Climate change likely go make water-stress areas for Africa worse—example be Rufiji basin for Tanzania<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Conway |first1=Declan |last2=Geressu |first2=Robel |last3=Harou |first3=Julien |last4=Kashaigili |first4=Japhet |last5=Pettinotti |first5=L. |last6=Siderius |first6=Christian |date=2019 |title=Designing a process for assessing climate resilience in Tanzania's Rufiji basin |url=https://futureclimateafrica.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/tanzania_rufiji_river_basin_brief.pdf |journal=FCFA Country Brief}}</ref>—because of different land use and complex political and social issues. Climate change for Africa don seriously change hydrological cycle (water cycle) by disturbing rainfall patterns, increase flood and drought, reduce reliability of surface water and ground water, and also increase evaporation rate. All these changes dey affect water availability for home use, farming, and also energy production since many African countries dey depend on water for electricity generation. Ecosystem balance too dey affected.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Water Security in Africa in the Age of Global Climate Change |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/355000708_Water_Security_in_Africa_in_the_Age_of_Global_Climate_Change}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.uneca.org/sites/default/files/PublicationFiles/policy_brief_4_climate_change_and_water_in_africa_challenges_opportunities_and_recommendations.pdf |title=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=News |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/transboundary-waters/news |access-date=2026-06-12 |website=World Bank |language=en}}</ref> === Key Climate Threats to African Water Security === Erratic Rainfall: Rain no dey fall regularly again for Africa. Sometimes e dey delay, sometimes e dey fall heavy in short time. This dey disturb farming because many farmers dey depend on normal rainy season to plant crops. E fit reduce harvest and also dry underground water faster.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Climate change stressors affecting household food security among Kimandi-Wanyaga smallholder farmers in Murang’a County, Kenya |url=https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/opag-2021-0042/html?srsltid=AfmBOorEOnBGaZqgX15b1hSPcNAUiOvu0wK5fm8cclJLF5EMswne2RxW}}</ref> Extreme Weather Events: Climate change dey bring more serious weather events for Africa. Long dry season dey cause water shortage, while heavy rain dey cause flood wey dey destroy houses and also increase diseases wey water dey carry. Transboundary Tensions: When water no dey enough for shared rivers and basins, countries wey dey depend on the same water fit begin compete. This fit cause misunderstanding or tension. For example, Volta Basin for West Africa dey shared by many countries. If one country build dam or take too much water, others fit suffer shortage. Same thing apply for River Nile wey plenty countries dey share.<ref name=":3" /> === Health impacts === {{Further|Effects of climate change on human health}} African countries get some of the weakest health systems for the world.<ref name="WHO-2014">World Health Organization. (2014). ''The health of the people: what works: the African Regional Health Report 2014''. World Health Organization.</ref> Diseases like malaria, schistosomiasis, dengue fever, and meningitis—wey climate fit affect—dey very common for Sub-Saharan Africa. For example, over 90% of malaria cases worldwide dey Africa.<ref name="WHO-2014" /> Climate change fit change how these diseases dey spread and how people dey catch am. According to IPCC Sixth Assessment Report, climate change dey pose serious danger to health of millions of Africans because of heat stress, extreme weather, and increase spread of infectious diseases.<ref>{{cite book |type=Final Draft |chapter=Chapter 9:Africa |title=IPCC WGII Sixth Assessment Report |url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FinalDraft_Chapter09.pdf}}</ref> Climate change dey also increase temperature, storms, droughts, and sea level rise, all of which dey affect how diseases dey spread globally.<ref name="Beard-2016">Beard, C. B.; Eisen, R. J.; Barker, C. M.; Garofalo, J. F.; Hahn, M.; Hayden, M.; Schramm, P. J. (2016). [https://web.archive.org/web/20160607130925/https://health2016.globalchange.gov/vectorborne-diseases "Vector-Borne Diseases".] Retrieved 15 February 2017.</ref> For July 2021, World Food Programme (WFP) talk say the food crisis for southern Madagascar be mainly because of climate change, not war or conflict. Dem even describe am as first famine wey climate change alone cause.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Baker |first1=Aryn |title=Climate, Not Conflict. Madagascar's Famine is the First in Modern History to be Solely Caused by Global Warming |url=https://time.com/6081919/famine-climate-change-madagascar/ |access-date=24 July 2021 |magazine=Time |date=20 July 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Rodrigues |first1=Charlene |title=Madagascar famine becomes first in history to be caused solely by climate crisis |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/climate-change/madagascar-famine-climate-crisis-b1888058.html |access-date=24 July 2021 |work=[[The Independent]] |date=22 July 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Harding|first=Andrew|date=24 August 2021|title=Madagascar on the brink of climate change-induced famine|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-58303792|access-date=2021-09-10}}</ref> ==== Malaria ==== {{Main|Climate change and infectious diseases#Malaria}} Malaria still dey cause serious health problem for Africa. As climate change dey continue, areas wey get high malaria risk all year round fit shift from coastal West Africa go areas between Democratic Republic of the Congo and Uganda (African Highlands).<ref name="Ryan-2015">{{cite journal|last1=Ryan|first1=Sadie J.|last2=McNally|first2=Amy|last3=Johnson|first3=Leah R.|last4=Mordecai|first4=Erin A.|last5=Ben-Horin|first5=Tal|last6=Paaijmans|first6=Krijn|last7=Lafferty|first7=Kevin D.|year=2015|title=Mapping Physiological Suitability Limits for Malaria in Africa Under Climate Change|journal=Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases|volume=15|issue=12|pages=718–725|doi=10.1089/vbz.2015.1822|pmc=4700390|pmid=26579951|bibcode=2015VBZD...15..718R }}</ref> Rising temperature, change in rainfall, deforestation, and more humidity dey help mosquitoes wey carry malaria parasite to survive and reproduce. The main parasite be Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax, carried by Anopheles mosquito. Plasmodium falciparum no fit survive well if temperature no reach about 20°C, so warming dey increase risk.<ref name="CDC-2018">{{cite web |date=14 November 2018 |title=Where Malaria Occurs |url=https://www.cdc.gov/malaria/about/distribution.html |access-date=27 February 2020 |website=Center for Disease Control and Prevention}}</ref> Studies show say climate change fit increase malaria risk for more places, including highlands wey normally no get malaria.<ref name="Caminade-2014">{{cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Caminade C, Kovats S, Rocklov J, Tompkins AM, Morse AP, Colón-González FJ, Stenlund H, Martens P, Lloyd SJ |date=March 2014 |title=Impact of climate change on global malaria distribution |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=111 |issue=9 |pages=3286–3291 |bibcode=2014PNAS..111.3286C |doi=10.1073/pnas.1302089111 |pmc=3948226 |pmid=24596427 |doi-access=free}}</ref> === Impacts on conflicts and migration === United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) do environmental assessment for Sudan after conflict in 2007.<ref name="UNEP_2007_a">{{citation |author=UNEP |title=Sudan Post-Conflict Environmental Assessment |date=June 2007 |url=http://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/sudan/00_fwd.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304003632/http://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/sudan/00_fwd.pdf |location=Nairobi, Kenya |publisher=UNEP |isbn=978-92-807-2702-9 |access-date=2022-01-18 |archive-date=2016-03-04 }}</ref> Report show say environmental stress for Sudan dey link with social, economic and political problems like displacement of people and competition for natural resources. Reduced rainfall due to climate change be one factor wey contribute to conflict in Darfur. UNEP recommend say international community should help Sudan adapt to climate change.<ref name="UNEP_2007_b">{{citation |title=Natural Disasters and Desertification |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100602041622/http://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/sudan/03_disasters.pdf |chapter=Ch 3. Natural Disasters |chapter-url=http://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/sudan/03_disasters.pdf |access-date=2022-01-18 |archive-date=2010-06-02 }} in {{harvnb|UNEP|2007|p=69}}</ref> ==Impacts by region== ===Central Africa=== {{Further|Climate change in the Democratic Republic of the Congo|Climate change in São Tomé and Príncipe}} Central Africa mostly be landlocked area and e dey very vulnerable to climate change. Because rain dey depend on seasons and farming too depend on rain, the region dey expect longer heatwaves and more extreme wet conditions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Diedhiou |first1=Arona |last2=Bichet |first2=Adeline |last3=Wartenburger |first3=Richard |last4=Seneviratne |first4=Sonia I |last5=Rowell |first5=David P |last6=Sylla |first6=Mouhamadou B |last7=Diallo |first7=Ismaila |last8=Todzo |first8=Stella |last9=Touré |first9=N'datchoh E |last10=Camara |first10=Moctar |last11=Ngatchah |first11=Benjamin Ngounou |last12=Kane |first12=Ndjido A |last13=Tall |first13=Laure |last14=Affholder |first14=François |title=Changes in climate extremes over West and Central Africa at 1.5 °C and 2 °C global warming |journal=Environmental Research Letters |date=June 2018 |volume=13 |issue=6 |article-number=065020 |doi=10.1088/1748-9326/aac3e5 |bibcode=2018ERL....13f5020D |doi-access=free |hdl=20.500.11850/274346 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Temperature for the region fit increase by about 1.5°C to 2°C.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Seneviratne |first1=Sonia I. |last2=Donat |first2=Markus G. |last3=Pitman |first3=Andy J. |last4=Knutti |first4=Reto |last5=Wilby |first5=Robert L. |title=Allowable CO2 emissions based on regional and impact-related climate targets |journal=Nature |date=28 January 2016 |volume=529 |issue=7587 |pages=477–483 |doi=10.1038/nature16542 |pmid=26789252 |s2cid=205247437 |url=https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/9482219 }}</ref> Forest for Congo Basin wey dey absorb CO₂ don reduce because of heat and drought wey dey slow tree growth. Even forest wey nobody cut dey affected. By around 2030, forest fit absorb 14% less CO₂ and by 2035 e fit stop to absorb am.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Grossman |first1=Daniel |date=4 March 2020 |title=The Congo rainforest is losing ability to absorb carbon dioxide. That's bad for climate change. |language=en |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-environment/the-congo-rainforest-is-losing-its-ability-to-absorb-carbon-dioxide-thats-bad-for-climate-change/2020/03/03/3363d218-5ca9-11ea-9055-5fa12981bbbf_story.html |access-date=6 March 2020}}</ref> ===Eastern Africa=== {{Further|Climate change in Kenya|Climate change in Tanzania|Climate change in Ethiopia|Climate change in South Sudan}} Eastern Africa dey inside tropics, and rainfall dey controlled by seasonal movement of tropical rain belt. Rain pattern for the region no regular because of geography like highlands, lakes (example Lake Victoria), and influence from Indian and Atlantic Oceans. Some places get one rainy season, others get two. Rain timing fit change because of ocean temperature changes and weather systems like Madden–Julian Oscillation (MJO) and tropical cyclones. Long rains season dey very important for farming but e dey unpredictable. Some studies show say rainfall don reduce since 1980s during March–May, even though some recovery dey recent years.<ref name="Bernhofer 1–9">{{Cite journal |last1=Bernhofer |first1=Christian |last2=Hülsmann |first2= Stephan |last3=Gebrechorkos |first3=Solomon H. |date=6 August 2019 |title=Long-term trends in rainfall and temperature using high-resolution climate datasets in East Africa |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=9 |issue=1 |article-number=11376 |bibcode=2019NatSR...911376G |doi=10.1038/s41598-019-47933-8 |pmc=6684806 |pmid=31388068 }}</ref> Temperature for East Africa fit rise about 2–5°C by end of century depending on emissions.<ref name= "Bornemann 365–384">{{Cite journal |last1=Bornemann |first1=F. Jorge |last2=Rowell |first2=David P. |last3=Evans |first3=Barbara |last4=Lapworth |first4=Dan J. |last5=Lwiza |first5=Kamazima |last6= Macdonald |first6=David M.J. |last7=Marsham |first7=John H. |last8=Tesfaye |first8=Kindie |last9=Ascott |first9=Matthew J. |last10=Way |first10=Celia |date=1 October 2019 |title=Future changes and uncertainty in decision-relevant measures of East African climate |journal=Climatic Change |language=en |volume=156 |issue=3 |pages=365–384 |bibcode=2019ClCh..156..365B |doi=10.1007/s10584-019-02499-2 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Kenya dey very vulnerable. Drought and flood go increase as rainfall dey become more intense and less predictable. Urban heat for Nairobi too dey worsen because of building materials and lack of green space.<ref name="World_Bank" /> ===North Africa=== {{Excerpt|Climate change in the Middle East and North Africa|paragraphs=1,2|file=no}} {{Further|Climate change in Algeria|Climate change in Morocco}} ===West Africa and the Sahel=== {{Further|Climate change in Ghana|Climate change in Nigeria|Climate change in Senegal|Climate change in the Gambia|Climate change in Mali}} West Africa get four climate zones: Guinea Coast, Soudano-Sahel, Sahel, and Sahara. Rain mainly dey controlled by movement of Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), wey dey mix moist monsoon wind and dry Harmattan wind. Sahel region don experience wet period (1950s–1960s), then long dry period (1970s–1990s), and partial recovery from 1990s onward. Even though rain don increase small recently, total rainfall still less than 1950s level.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Panthou |first1=G |last2=Lebel |first2=T |last3=Vischel |first3=T |last4=Quantin |first4=G |last5=Sane |first5=Y |last6=Ba |first6=A |last7=Ndiaye |first7=O |last8=Diongue-Niang |first8=A |last9=Diopkane |first9=M |title=Rainfall intensification in tropical semi-arid regions: the Sahelian case |journal=Environmental Research Letters |date=June 2018 |volume=13 |issue=6 |article-number=064013 |doi=10.1088/1748-9326/aac334 |bibcode=2018ERL....13f4013P |doi-access=free }}</ref> Some people call am recovery period, others call am hydrological intensification because rain dey fall in heavy bursts wey cause flooding instead of steady rain. Sahel don also face serious floods and droughts, and many people don affected multiple times. In 2012, severe drought happen and governments respond quickly.<ref>{{cite web |last=Fominyen |first=George |title=Coming weeks critical to tackle Sahel hunger – U.N. humanitarian chief |url=http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/coming-weeks-critical-to-tackle-sahel-hunger-un-humanitarian-chief |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120603231542/http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/coming-weeks-critical-to-tackle-sahel-hunger-un-humanitarian-chief/ |archive-date=3 June 2012 |access-date=10 June 2012 |publisher=Thomson Reuters Foundation}}</ref> Climate models dey show say western Sahel fit get decrease in rainfall while central and eastern Sahel fit get increase, but uncertainty still dey. Heavy storms go likely increase and this go make flooding worse.<ref name=sb/><ref name="Kendon-2019"/> === Southern Africa === {{Further|Climate change in South Africa|Climate change in Mozambique|Climate change in Madagascar}} == Adaptation == {{Further|climate change adaptation}} To reduce how climate change dey affect African countries, people need adaptation measures for different levels – from local level go national go regional level.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://climateanalytics.org/media/schaeffer_et_al__2013__africao__s_a_daptation_gap_technical_report.pdf|title=Africa's Adaptation Gap, Technical Report: Climate Change Impacts, Adaptation Challenges, and Costs for Africa|last=Climate Analytics|website=Climate Analytics|access-date=8 March 2021|archive-date=17 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221117055339/https://climateanalytics.org/media/schaeffer_et_al__2013__africao__s_a_daptation_gap_technical_report.pdf}}</ref> First generation of adaptation projects for Africa be mostly small-small, dem dey focus on agriculture and bringing new technology wey go help people take better decisions for adaptation.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Troni |first=Jessica |title=Climate change adaptation in Africa: UNDP synthesis of experiences and recommendations |year=2018 |oclc=1079881730}}</ref> Recently, programs don start shift go bigger and coordinated actions wey dey tackle issues across different sectors. According to 2023 study, 59% of African banks don get climate change policy, while another 22% dey plan to bring one. 65% of banks dey already consider climate risk before dem approve clients or projects, while another 23% go soon start.<ref name="EIB-2023"/> [[File:Green_finance_opportunities_and_products_(%_of_surveyed_African_banks).png|thumb|upright=1.35|Green finance opportunities and products from surveyed banks in the European Investment Bank Banking in Africa survey<ref name="eib.org">{{Cite web|title=Finance in Africa report finds that banks want to move faster into green lending|url=https://www.eib.org/en/essays/africa-green-lending|access-date=2021-12-10|website=European Investment Bank|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Bank">{{Cite book|last=Bank|first=European Investment|url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/economic-report-finance-in-africa-green-smart-inclusive-private-sector-development|title=Finance in Africa: for green, smart and inclusive private sector development|date=18 November 2021|publisher=European Investment Bank|isbn=978-92-861-5063-0|language=EN}}</ref>]] Better weather forecasting technology for sub-Saharan Africa dey very important to help people respond to climate change,<ref name="Youds-2021">{{Cite journal|last1=Youds|first1=L.|last2=Parker|first2=D. J.|last3=Adefisan|first3=E. A.|last4=Antwi-Agyei|first4=P.|last5=Bain|first5=C. L.|last6=Black|first6=E. C. L.|last7=Blyth|first7=A. M.|last8=Dougill|first8=A. J.|last9=Hirons|first9=L. C.|date=13 May 2021|title=GCRF African SWIFT White Paper Policy Brief: The future of African weather forecasting|url=http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/174093/|access-date=2021-05-13|website=eprints.whiterose.ac.uk|language=en|doi=10.5518/100/67}}</ref> so people fit take better decisions for adaptation.<ref name="Youds-2021" /> For the 21st Conference of the Parties (COP) for 2015, African leaders launch Africa Adaptation Initiative (AAI). Steering committee of AAI include African Ministerial Conference on Environment (AMCEN) Bureau and African Group of Negotiators (AGN).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://africaadaptationinitiative.org/|title=AAI|access-date=4 August 2024}}</ref> The Africa Adaptation Initiative also get support from European Union.<ref>{{cite web|url = https://www.africa.undp.org/content/rba/en/home/presscenter/pressreleases/2020/european-union-ramps-up-support-to-africa-adaptation-initiative-.html |title = European Union ramps up support to Africa Adaptation Initiative|website = United Nations Development Programme|date = 22 January 2020}}</ref> European Union don also partner with African Union for promote sustainable resource management, environmental resilience, and climate change mitigation.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://africa-eu-partnership.org/en/strategic-priority-areas/strengthening-resilience-peace-security-and-governance |title=Strengthening Resilience, Peace, Security and Governance |access-date=13 December 2023 |archive-date=10 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210510085847/https://africa-eu-partnership.org/en/strategic-priority-areas/strengthening-resilience-peace-security-and-governance }}</ref> For regional level, policies and actions for adaptation still dey early stage for Africa. IPCC Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) show example of regional climate action plans like those from Southern African Development Community (SADC) and Lake Victoria Basin Committee.<ref name=":0r" /> For national level, early adaptation work mostly come from National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPAs) or National Climate Change Response Strategies (NCCRS). But implementation dey slow and results dey mixed.<ref name = date>{{Cite journal|last1=Pardoe|first1=Joanna|last2=Conway|first2=Declan|last3=Namaganda|first3=Emilinah |last4=Vincent|first4=Katharine|last5=Dougill|first5=Andy|last6=Kashaigili|first6=Japhet|date=2018|title=Climate Change and the Water-Energy-Food Nexus: Policy and Practice in Tanzania.|journal= Climate Policy|volume=18|issue=7|pages=863–877|doi=10.1080/14693062.2017.1386082|doi-access=free}}</ref> For subnational level, many local governments dey also develop their own climate strategies, example be Western Cape Climate Change Response Strategy.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.westerncape.gov.za/text/2015/march/western_cape_climate_change_response_strategy_2014.pdf|title=Western Cape Climate Change Response Strategy|last=Western Cape Government|date=2014|access-date=8 March 2021|archive-date=20 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230220102835/https://www.westerncape.gov.za/text/2015/march/western_cape_climate_change_response_strategy_2014.pdf}}</ref> But technical capacity and resources to implement these plans still low. Community-based adaptation get attention for Africa, and people agree say best way be to start from local adaptive capacity and use indigenous knowledge and practices.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ofoegbu|first1=Chidiebere|last2=Chirwa|first2=Paxie|last3=Francis|first3=Joseph|last4=Babalola|first4=Folaranmi|date=15 May 2017|title=Assessing vulnerability of rural communities to climate change: A review of implications for forest-based livelihoods in South Africa|journal=International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management|volume=9|issue=3|pages=374–386|doi=10.1108/IJCCSM-04-2016-0044 |hdl=2263/61659|hdl-access=free}}</ref> [[File:Climate risk approach (%25 of surveyed African banks).png|thumb|upright=1.35|Results regarding African banks' climate risk approach (% of surveyed banks) from the European Investment Bank's Banking in Africa survey 2021<ref name="eib.org"/><ref name="Bank"/>]] IPCC highlight some successful ways to improve adaptation for Africa: Support autonomous adaptation Give attention to culture, ethics, rights and include women, youth and vulnerable people Mix flexible learning with technology and indigenous knowledge Focus on resilience and low-risk options Build learning systems for institutions World Health Organization report "Adaptation to Climate Change in Africa Plan of Action for the Health Sector 2012–2016"<ref name="WHO-2012">World Health Organization. (2012). Adaptation to climate change in Africa plan of action for the health sector 2012–2016. Retrieved from http://www.afro.who.int/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_download&gid=7699&Itemid=2593</ref> aim to guide health sector response and improve adaptation readiness across African countries.<ref name="WHO-2012" /> According to International Monetary Fund (IMF), Sub-Saharan Africa need $30–$50 billion every year extra to adapt to climate change effects.<ref name="Bank"/><ref>{{Cite web|title=Sub-Saharan Africa: One Planet, Two Worlds, Three Stories|url=https://www.imf.org/en/News/Articles/2021/10/20/pr21306-sub-saharan-africa-one-planet-two-worlds-three-stories|access-date=2021-12-06|website=IMF|language=en}}</ref> Climate financing for Middle East and North Africa be $32.6 billion (2% global total), while Sub-Saharan Africa get $43.8 billion (3% global total).<ref name="EIB-2023"/><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-15 |title=Climate Finance Regional Briefing: Middle East and North Africa (2020) - Climate Funds Update |url=https://climatefundsupdate.org/publications/climate-finance-regional-briefing-middle-east-and-north-africa-2020/ |access-date=2023-10-31 |language=en-US}}</ref> According to European Investment Bank Banking in Africa report, many African banks dey now see climate change as serious risk and opportunity for green finance.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Importer|first=A. P. O.|date=18 November 2021|title=EIB study highlights impact of COVID on African banks and business financing and opportunities for climate finance and digital transformation|url=https://africa.businessinsider.com/apo/eib-study-highlights-impact-of-covid-on-african-banks-and-business-financing-and/205d41n|access-date=2021-12-06|website=Business Insider Africa|language=en}}</ref> Poor and vulnerable people dey suffer most, especially migrants, refugees, and low-income groups. IMF predict say poverty fit increase by millions due to climate crisis. About one-third of African climate funding dey go five countries: Morocco, Nigeria, Kenya, Ethiopia, and South Africa.<ref name="EIB-2023"/> Global greenfield investment don reduce over last decade, and Africa share fall from 12% in 2017 go below 6% in 2021.<ref name="EIB-2023"/><ref>{{Cite web |title=World Investment Report 2023 |url=https://unctad.org/publication/world-investment-report-2023 |access-date=2023-10-31 |website=UNCTAD |language=en}}</ref> === Northern Africa adaptation measures === [[File:Climate change specific personnel (%25 of surveyed African banks).png|thumb|upright=1.35|Climate change specific personnel in surveyed African banks]] Key adaptation for Northern Africa relate to water shortage due to climate change and increasing demand. Water scarcity plus heat dey affect wheat farming and disease spread like leishmaniasis.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hegazy|first1=A. K.|last2=Medany|first2=M. A.|last3=Kabiel|first3=H. F.|last4=Maez|first4=M. M.|date=2008|title=Spatial and temporal projected distribution of four crop plants in Egypt|journal=Natural Resources Forum|volume=32|issue=4|pages=316–326|doi=10.1111/j.1477-8947.2008.00205.x |bibcode=2008NRF....32..316H }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Drine|first=I.|date=May 2011|title=Climate Change Compounding Risks in North Africa |url=https://www.wider.unu.edu/publication/climate-change-compounding-risks-north-africa|website=United Nations University-World Institute for Development Economics Research (UNU-WIDER) |type=Working Paper No. 32}}</ref> Government responses mostly focus on water supply solutions like desalination, dams, and water transfer between basins.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sowers |first1=Jeannie |last2=Vengosh |first2=Avner |last3=Weinthal |first3=Erika |title=Climate change, water resources, and the politics of adaptation in the Middle East and North Africa |journal=Climatic Change |date=February 2011 |volume=104 |issue=3–4 |pages=599–627 |doi=10.1007/s10584-010-9835-4 |bibcode=2011ClCh..104..599S |hdl=10161/6460 |s2cid=37329318 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Migration also dey serve as adaptation strategy for some people.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Scheffran |first1=Jürgen |last2=Marmer |first2=Elina |last3=Sow |first3=Papa |title=Migration as a contribution to resilience and innovation in climate adaptation: Social networks and co-development in Northwest Africa |journal=Applied Geography |date=April 2012 |volume=33 |pages=119–127 |doi=10.1016/j.apgeog.2011.10.002 |bibcode=2012AppGe..33..119S }}</ref> But overall, documented adaptation actions from North Africa still few compared to other regions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Berrang-Ford|first1=Lea|last2=Ford|first2=James D.|last3=Peterson|first3=Jaclyn|date=2011|title=Are we adapting to climate change?|doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2010.09.012|journal=Global Environmental Change|volume=21|issue=1 |pages=25–33|bibcode=2011GEC....21...25B }}</ref> === Western Africa adaptation measures === {{Further|Climate change adaptation in Ghana}} Water shortage be big risk for West Africa, where drought fit cause hunger, migration, conflict and food insecurity. Adaptation dey include environmental, farming, and economic strategies.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shaibu |first1=M. T. |last2=Alhassan |first2=S. I. |last3=Panyan |first3=E. K. |last4=Avornyo |first4=F. K. |last5=Konlan |first5=S. P. |last6=Salifu |first6=S. |title=An Assessment of Institutional Importance of Climate Change Adaptation in the Volta River Basin of Northern Ghana |journal=West African Journal of Applied Ecology |date=2018 |volume=26 |pages=27–40 |url=https://www.ajol.info/index.php/wajae/article/view/182464 }}</ref> Farmers dey use many adaptation strategies supported by research stations.<ref name=":6r">{{Cite journal |last1=Kuwornu |first1=John K. M. |last2=Al-Hassan |first2=Ramatu M. |last3=Etwire |first3=Prince Maxwell |last4=Osei-Owusu |first4=Yaw |date=2013 |title=Adaptation strategies of smallholder farmers to climate change and variability: Evidence from northern Ghana |journal=Information Management and Business Review |volume=5 |issue=5 |pages=233–239 |doi=10.22610/imbr.v5i5.1047 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Indigenous farming methods in northern Ghana include crop, soil and cultural practices.<ref name=":6r" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Alhassan |first1=S. I. |last2=Shaibu |first2=M. T. |last3=Kuwornu |first3=J. K. M. |last4=Damba |first4=O. T. |title=Factors Influencing Farmers' Awareness and Choice of Indigenous Practices in Adapting to Climate Change and Variability in Northern Ghana |journal=West African Journal of Applied Ecology |date=2018 |volume=26 |pages=1–13 |url=https://www.ajol.info/index.php/wajae/article/view/182462 }}</ref> Livestock adaptation include feeding management, feed storage, traditional medicine from tree bark, and use of local breeds wey already adapt to climate.<ref>{{Cite book|chapter=Perceptions and Determinants of the Adoption of Indigenous Strategies for Adaptation to Climate Change: Evidence from Smallholder Livestock Farmers, North-West Ghana |editor= Kuwornu, J. K. M. |title=Climate Change in Sub-saharan Africa: The vulnerability and adaptation of food supply chains actors |author1=Shaibu, M. T. |author2=Alhassan, I. S. |author3=Avornyo, F. K. |author4=Lawson, E. T. |author5=Mensah, A. |author6=Gordon, C.|publisher=Vernon Press|year=2019|pages=223–240}}</ref> Adoption of adaptation strategies depend on factors like age, education, income, farm size, and knowledge of climate options.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Apata, T. G.|date=2011|title=Factors influencing the perception and choice of adaptation measures to climate change among farmers in Nigeria. Evidence from farm households in Southwest Nigeria|journal=Environmental Economics|volume=2|issue=4|pages=74–83}}</ref> ===Eastern Africa adaptation measures=== For East Africa, adaptation include better use of climate information, agriculture improvements, livestock strategies, and water management. Better weather information help farmers and planners take timely decisions.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Snow|first1=John|url=https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/librarypage/climate-and-disaster-resilience-/weather-and-climate-systems---africa.html|title=A New Vision for Weather and Climate Services in Africa|date=28 October 2016|publisher=UNDP}}</ref> Indigenous people also dey use environmental signs like bird movement and insects to predict weather. Agricultural adaptation include manure use, resistant crops, and early maturing crops.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.epa.gov/regulatory-information-sector/agriculture-sectors-crop-naics-111-and-animal-naics-112|title=Agriculture Sectors: Crop (NAICS 111) and Animal (NAICS 112)|date=22 February 2013}}</ref> Irrigation systems like drip irrigation dey help save water. Countries like Kenya and Rwanda dey invest in irrigation and water systems from rivers.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Republic of Rwanda|title=NAPA-RWANDA|url=https://unfccc.int/resource/docs/napa/rwa01e.pdf}}</ref> To reduce flooding and erosion, communities dey plant trees and protect water catchment areas.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Abuya|first1=Robina|last2=Said|first2=Mohammed|last3=Atela|first3=Joanes|last4=Muhwanga|first4=Joseph|last5=Moiko|first5=Stephen|last6=Atieno|first6=Fred|last7=Ndiritu|first7=Simon|year=2019|title=Contexualising Pathways to Resilience in Kenya's ASALs under the Big Four Agenda|url=http://www.kenyamarkets.org/publications/kmt-prise-project/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190808104609/http://www.kenyamarkets.org/publications/kmt-prise-project/|archive-date=8 August 2019|access-date=8 August 2019|website=Kenya Markets Trust}}</ref> For livestock, adaptation include pasture management, hay production, and commercialization of livestock systems.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Political Economy Analysis of Kenya's Livestock Sector (Abridged Version)|url=http://www.kenyamarkets.org/publications/political-economy-analysis-of-kenyas-livestock-sector-abridged-version/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190808104609/http://www.kenyamarkets.org/publications/political-economy-analysis-of-kenyas-livestock-sector-abridged-version/|archive-date=8 August 2019|access-date=8 August 2019|website=Kenya Markets Trust}}</ref> Water sector adaptation include protecting water sources and managing catchment areas. '''Comoros''' – "NAPA is the operational extension of the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP), as it includes among its adaptation priorities, agriculture, fishing, water, housing, health, but also tourism, in an indirect way, through the reconstitution of basin slopes and the fight against soils erosion, and therefore the protection of reefs by limiting the silting up by terrigenous contributions.<ref>{{Cite web|title=National Action Programme of Adaptation to climate change (NAPA)|url=http://www.preventionweb.net/files/8507_com01e.pdf}}</ref>" '''Kenya''' has Climate Change Act, 2016 and National Climate Change Action Plan to guide adaptation and low-carbon development. === Central Africa adaptation measures === '''Angola''' – "The objective of the National Adaptation Programs of Action are to identify and communicate the urgent and immediate needs of the country regarding climate change adaptation, to increase Angola's resilience to climate variabilities and to climate change to ensure achievement of Poverty reduction programs, sustainable development objectives and the Millennium Development Goals pursued by the Government."<ref>{{citation |title=Analysis of Human Rights Language in the Cancun Agreements UNFCCC 16th Session of the Conference of the Parties|doi=10.1163/2210-7975_hrd-9986-0022}}</ref> === Southern Africa adaptation measures === There be many local, national and regional initiatives to strengthen climate adaptation. Examples include RCCP,<ref>{{cite web|title=Regional Climate Change Programme, Southern Africa |website=OneWorld|url=https://oneworldgroup.co.za/oneworld-projects/southern-african-regional-climate-change-programme-rccp/|access-date=8 August 2019}}</ref> SASSCAL,<ref>{{cite web|title=SASSCAL – Southern African Science Service Centre for Climate Change and Adaptive Land Management|url=http://www.sasscal.org/|access-date=8 August 2019}}</ref> ASSAR,<ref>{{cite web|title=Adaptation at Scale in Semi-Arid Regions|url=http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/|access-date=8 August 2019|website=www.assar.uct.ac.za}}</ref> UNDP Climate Change Adaptation,<ref>{{cite web|title=Southern Africa |website=UNDP Climate Change Adaptation |url=https://www.adaptation-undp.org/explore/southern-africa|access-date=8 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190808131738/https://www.adaptation-undp.org/explore/southern-africa |archive-date=2019-08-08}}</ref> RESILIM,<ref>{{cite book|title=Risk, Vulnerability & Resilience in the Limpopo River basin: Climate Change, water and biodiversity – a synthesis|publisher=OneWorld|year=2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Resilience in the Limpopo Basin (RESILIM) Program|publisher=Chemonics International Inc|year=2017}}</ref> FRACTAL.<ref>{{cite web|title=FRACTAL — Future Resilience for African CiTies And Lands|url=http://www.fractal.org.za/|access-date=8 August 2019}}</ref> South Africa implement Long-Term Adaptation Scenarios Programme and later adopt National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy in 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 August 2020 |title=South Africa's National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy approved |url=https://www.dffe.gov.za/mediarelease/nationalclimatechange_adaptationstrategy_ue10november19 |website=[[Department of Environment, Forestry and Fisheries]]}}</ref> '''Madagascar''' adaptation priorities include agriculture, forestry, health, water and coastal zones.<ref>{{cite web|title=Madagascar|url=http://www.ldc-climate.org/country/madagascar/|website=LDC Climate Change |date=6 January 2018 }}</ref> '''Malawi''' – NAPA priorities include improving resilience, restoring forests, improving agriculture, disaster preparedness, and climate monitoring.<ref>{{Cite web|title=REPUBLIC OF MALAWI. MALAWI'S NATIONAL ADAPTATION PROGRAMMES OF ACTION (NAPA) ..|url=http://www.unfccc.int/resource/docs/napa/mwi01.pdf}}</ref> '''Mauritius''' – adaptation focus on coastal resources, agriculture, water, fisheries, health and biodiversity.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Mauritius |website=UNDP Climate Change Adaptation|date=27 November 2018 |url=https://www.adaptation-undp.org/explore/eastern-africa/mauritius|access-date=8 August 2019}}</ref> '''Mozambique''' – adaptation include disaster risk reduction, soil protection, reforestation and water management.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Mozambique National Adaptation Programs of Action (NAPA) |website=Climate and Development Learning Platform|url=https://www.climatelearningplatform.org/mozambique-national-adaptation-programme-action-napa|access-date=2019-08-08}}</ref> '''Rwanda''' has NAPA and national policies guiding adaptation.<ref>{{Cite journal|date = January 2012|journal=USAID|title=Climate Change Adaptation in Rwanda|url=https://www.climatelinks.org/sites/default/files/asset/document/rwanda_adaptation_fact_sheet_jan2012.pdf }}</ref> '''Tanzania''' – NAPA support mainstreaming adaptation into sectors but still face coordination challenges.<ref name="date" /> '''Zambia''' – NAPA identify urgent needs in agriculture, energy, water, health and natural resources.<ref>{{Cite web|title=National Adaptation Programme of Action on Climate Change (Zambia) |website=The REDD Desk|url=http://www.theredddesk.org/countries/plans/national-adaptation-programme-action-climate-change-zambia|access-date=2019-08-08 |archive-date=2019-08-29|url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190829030222/http://theredddesk.org/countries/plans/national-adaptation-programme-action-climate-change-zambia}}</ref> '''Zimbabwe''' – NAP process focus on private sector role, funding access, climate data management, monitoring and evaluation systems.<ref>{{Cite web|title=National Adaptation Plan (NAP) Roadmap for Zimbabwe|url=http://www.napglobalnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/napgn-en-2019-nap-roadmap-for-zimbabwe.pdf |website=NAP Global Network |date=April 2019}}</ref> '''Lesotho''' – NAPA focus on identifying vulnerable communities and building adaptation capacity.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.adaptation-undp.org/sites/default/files/downloads/lso_napa.pdf|title=Lesotho's National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) on Climate Change|access-date=4 August 2024|archive-date=6 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221006210644/https://www.adaptation-undp.org/sites/default/files/downloads/lso_napa.pdf}}</ref> '''Namibia''' – focus on food security, water resources, health and infrastructure.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1163/9789004322714_cclc_2017-0228-011 |title=Youth Files Climate Case with India's Environmental Court |oclc=1312587857 |date=2017 |publisher=Our Children's Trust }}</ref> '''South Africa''' – National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy guide national response across sectors.<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 August 2020 |title=South Africa's National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy approved |url=https://www.dffe.gov.za/mediarelease/nationalclimatechange_adaptationstrategy_ue10november19 |website=[[Department of Environment, Forestry and Fisheries]]}}</ref> == Indigenous knowledge and local innovations == Even though big government programs and international funding dey drive climate action, many communities for Africa still rely on traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) to survive.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Antwi-Agyei |first1=Philip |last2=Nyantakyi-Frimpong |first2=Hanson |date=2021-01-27 |title=Evidence of Climate Change Coping and Adaptation Practices by Smallholder Farmers in Northern Ghana |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=13 |issue=3 |page=1308 |doi=10.3390/su13031308 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2021Sust...13.1308A |issn=2071-1050}}</ref> This knowledge come from many years of living close to nature and help people predict weather, save water and protect farming systems. === Traditional climate forecasting === Before modern weather apps, rural communities dey use natural signs to predict weather. For example: Movement of birds When certain trees dey flower Wind direction and stars pattern Pastoralists for East Africa dey also observe animal behavior to decide migration routes during drought.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Alemayehu |first1=Dejene |last2=Hizkeal |first2=Yitebarek |date=2022-06-30 |title=The Relevance and Practices of Indigenous Weather Forecasting Knowledge among the Gabra Pastoralists of Southern Ethiopia |url=https://www.jaeid.it/index.php/jaeid/article/view/12295 |journal=Journal of Agriculture and Environment for International Development (JAEID) |volume=116 |issue=1 |pages=59–76 |doi=10.36253/jaeid-12295 |issn=2240-2802}}</ref> Scientists now dey combine these local knowledge with modern forecasting to improve early warning systems. === Soil and water conservation techniques === In dry regions, communities don develop smart farming methods.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Salack |first1=Seyni |last2=Sanfo |first2=Safiétou |last3=Sidibe |first3=Moussa |last4=Daku |first4=Elidaa K. |last5=Camara |first5=Ibrahima |last6=Dieng |first6=Mame Diarra Bousso |last7=Hien |first7=Koufanou |last8=Torou |first8=Bio Mohamadou |last9=Ogunjobi |first9=Kehinde O. |last10=Sangare |first10=Sheick Ahmed Khalil S. B. |last11=Kouame |first11=Konan Raoul |last12=Koffi |first12=Yao Bernard |last13=Liersch |first13=Stefan |last14=Savadogo |first14=Moumini |last15=Giannini |first15=Alessandra |date=2022-10-25 |title=Low-cost adaptation options to support green growth in agriculture, water resources, and coastal zones |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=12 |issue=1 |article-number=17898 |doi=10.1038/s41598-022-22331-9 |issn=2045-2322 |pmc=9596419 |pmid=36284114 |bibcode=2022NatSR..1217898S }}</ref> For Sahel region, farmers dey use Zaï pits<ref name=":2">{{Citation |last1=L. Woomer |first1=Paul |title=Blending Climate Action and Rural Development in Africa's Sahel |date=2023-03-29 |work=Sustainable Rural Development Perspective and Global Challenges |editor-last=Özçatalbaş |editor-first=Orhan |url=https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/81496 |access-date=2026-06-06 |publisher=IntechOpen |language=en |doi=10.5772/intechopen.103817 |isbn=978-1-80355-420-4 |last2=Roobroeck |first2=Dries |last3=Yelognisse Alia |first3=Didier}}</ref> where dem dig holes inside dry soil, put manure for bottom to trap rainwater and improve soil fertility. Farmers also build stone bunds to slow down rainwater so soil no go wash away.<ref name=":1" /> For southern and eastern Africa, agroforestry like planting Faidherbia albida inside farms help improve soil and reduce heat.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Haskett |first1=Jonathan D. |last2=Simane |first2=Belay |last3=Smith |first3=Caitlin |date=2019-11-01 |title=Energy and Climate Change Mitigation Benefits of Faidherbia albida Agroforestry in Ethiopia |journal=Frontiers in Environmental Science |volume=7 |article-number=146 |doi=10.3389/fenvs.2019.00146 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2019FrEnS...7..146H |issn=2296-665X}}</ref> === Crop diversification and seed saving === Farmers dey save local seeds to reduce risk of crop failure.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Aniah |first1=Philip |last2=Kaunza-Nu-Dem |first2=Millar Katherine |last3=Ayembilla |first3=Joseph A. |date=April 2019 |title=Smallholder farmers' livelihood adaptation to climate variability and ecological changes in the savanna agro ecological zone of Ghana |journal=Heliyon |language=en |volume=5 |issue=4 |article-number=e01492 |doi=10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e01492 |doi-access=free |pmc=6479268 |pmid=31049426 |bibcode=2019Heliy...501492A }}</ref> Traditional crops like millet and sorghum fit survive drought more than commercial seeds. Communities also dey share seeds through seed banks.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Antwi-Agyei |first1=Philip |last2=Nyantakyi-Frimpong |first2=Hanson |date=2021-01-27 |title=Evidence of Climate Change Coping and Adaptation Practices by Smallholder Farmers in Northern Ghana |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=13 |issue=3 |page=1308 |doi=10.3390/su13031308 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2021Sust...13.1308A |issn=2071-1050}}</ref> Intercropping like maize and cowpea help protect soil moisture and reduce total crop loss.<ref name=":1" /> == Society and culture == === Inequality in climate research === Even though Africa go suffer climate change plenty, research funding and publications still dey skew. Many African researchers no get enough support.<ref name="Carbon Brief-2021">{{Cite web|date=5 October 2021|title=Analysis: The lack of diversity in climate-science research|url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/analysis-the-lack-of-diversity-in-climate-science-research|access-date=2021-11-15|website=Carbon Brief|language=en}}</ref> About 78% of climate research money for Africa dey go institutions for Europe and North America.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Overland |first1=Indra |last2=Fossum Sagbakken |first2=Haakon |last3=Isataeva |first3=Aidai |last4=Kolodzinskaia |first4=Galina |last5=Simpson |first5=Nicholas Philip |last6=Trisos |first6=Christopher |last7=Vakulchuk |first7=Roman |last8=Simpson |first8=Nicholas Philip |title=Funding flows for climate change research on Africa: where do they come from and where do they go? |journal=Climate and Development |date=14 September 2022 |volume=14 |issue=8 |pages=705–724 |doi=10.1080/17565529.2021.1976609 |s2cid=244210557 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2022CliDe..14..705O |hdl=11250/2832233 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> This pattern, known as parachute science, dey stop local scientists from leading research that concern their own environment. African pension funds also rarely report sustainability information.<ref>{{cite book |author1=European Investment Bank |title=Unlocking Sustainable Private Sector Growth in the Middle East and North Africa |date=2022 |isbn=978-92-861-5220-7 |hdl=20.500.12657/57821 |doi=10.1596/37601 |s2cid=250211092 }}{{page needed|date=January 2024}}</ref> UNCTAD-ISAR create African Regional Partnership for Sustainability and SDG Reporting in 2022 to improve transparency and cooperation.<ref name="EIB-2023" /> == See also == {{portal|Africa|Climate change}} Ecotourism in Africa Water scarcity in Africa ==References== {{Reflist}} {{Cite book |last=European Investment Bank |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/sustainability-report-2021 |title=EIB Group Sustainability Report 2021 |date=6 July 2022c |publisher=European Investment Bank |isbn=978-92-861-5237-5 |language=EN}} == External links == {{Commons category|Climate change in Africa}} https://futureclimateafrica.org/ Future Climate For Africa programme https://www.uneca.org/acpc African Climate Policy Centre (ACCP) https://www.amma2050.org/ African Monsoon Multidisciplinary Analysis 2050 (AMMA-2050) {{usurped|1=https://web.archive.org/web/20161113010948/http://cariaa.net/home-0}} Collaborative Adaptation Research Initiative in Africa and Asia (CARIAA) https://wascal.org/ West African Science Service Center on Climate Change and Adapted Land Use (WASCAL) {{Climate change regions|state=expanded}} [[Category:Climate change by continent|Africa]] [[Category:Environment of Africa]] [[Category:Climate change in Africa| ]] == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} * [https://futureclimateafrica.org/ Future Climate For Africa programme] * [https://www.uneca.org/acpc African Climate Policy Centre] (ACCP) goal is to contribute to poverty reduction through successful mitigation and adaptation to climate change in Africa and to improve the capacity of African countries to participate effectively in multilateral climate negotiations. * [https://www.amma2050.org/ African Monsoon Multidisciplinary Analysis 2050] (AMMA-2050) aim to address the challenges of understanding how the monsoon will change in future decades, to 2050, and how this information can be most effectively used to support climate-compatible development in the region. * (CARIAA) builds resilience by supporting collaborative research on climate change adaptation to inform adaptation policy and practice. * [https://wascal.org/ West African Science Service Center on Climate Change and Adapted Land Use] (WASCAL) is a research-focused Climate Service Centre designed to help tackle this challenge and thereby enhance the resilience of human and environmental systems to climate change and increased variability in West Africa. [[Category:Climate change by continent|Africa]] [[Category:Environment of Africa]] [[Category:Climate change insyd Africa]] rk8fq0d1q5n50eyv8czx2cq21b8an80 0 27241 102901 102760 2026-06-14T23:40:05Z Saharatu00 6324 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1358469902|Kafue River]]" 102901 wikitext text/x-wiki De 1,576 kilometres (979 mi) long '''Kafue River''' be de longest river lying wholly within Zambia.<ref name="kambole">{{Cite journal |last=Kambole |first=Michael |year=2003 |title=Managing the water quality of the Kafue River |url=http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576701/Kambole_2003_Managing_the.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Physics and Chemistry of the Earth |volume=28 |issue=20–27 |pages=1105–1109 |bibcode=2003PCE....28.1105K |doi=10.1016/j.pce.2003.08.031 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140820094303/http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576701/Kambole_2003_Managing_the.pdf |archive-date=20 August 2014 |access-date=19 August 2014}}</ref> Ein water is used for irrigation , wey dem use am for generating hydroelectric power.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kafue River |url=https://www.zambiatourism.com/destinations/rivers/kafue/}}</ref> E be de largest tributary for de [[Zambezi]], den [[Zambia]] principal rivers, E sanso be de most central den de most urban. More dan 50% of Zambia's population live in de Kafue River Basin wey around 65% of dem are urban.<ref name="kambole" /> It has a mean flow rate of 320 cubic metres per second (11,000 cu ft/s) through its lower half, with high seasonal variations. The river discharges 10 cubic kilometres (2.4 cu mi) per year into the [[Zambezi|Zambezi River]]. == Ein course == === Ein sources === De Kafue River rise at an elevation of 1,350 metres (4,430 ft) for de relatively flat plateau just south de border between [[Zambia]] den de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] 120 kilometres (75 mi) north-west of Chingola in de Copperbelt Province. De source of de Kafue River is in de North-western Province of Zambia. De area is Miombo woodland for de Congo-Zambezi watershed, plus many branching dambos lying 10 to 20 metres (33 to 66 ft) lower than de highest ground, producing a very gently undulating topography. De river starts as a trickle from de marshy dambos (de Munyanshi Swamp be tributary) plus little slope to speed up river flow, E dey meander south-eastwards sluggishly den within 50 kilometres (31 mi) has de character of a mature river. De area receives about 1,200 millimetres (47 in) of rain in de rainy season, den de river's channel soon reaches 100 metres (330 ft) wide plus a floodplain of fluvial dambos 1 to 2 kilometres (0.62 to 1.24 mi) wide. === Copperbelt === Before de river reaches the Copperbelt towns, however, e lose ein wide floodplain, de channel narrows to 30–40&nbsp;m den e meanders less for shallow valley only 40&nbsp;m or so lower dan de surrounding plateau. E dey flow close to de Copperbelt towns of Chililabombwe, Chingola den Mufulira, den athrough de outskirts of Kitwe. The popular picnic spot de Hippo Pool north of Chingola is protected as a national monument. In the Copperbelt, water is taken from the river to irrigate small farms and market gardens. At Kitwe it changes course to the south-west and flows through forest and areas of flat rock over which it floods in the wet season, keeping to a channel about 50&nbsp;m wide in the dry season.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Norrgren |first=L. |last2=Pettersson |first2=U. |last3=Örn |first3=S. |last4=Bergqvist |first4=P.-A. |date=2000-04-01 |title=Environmental Monitoring of the Kafue River, Located in the Copperbelt, Zambia |journal=Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology |volume=38 |issue=3 |pages=334–341 |bibcode=2000ArECT..38..334N |doi=10.1007/s002449910044 |issn=0090-4341 |pmid=10667931 |s2cid=11407966}}</ref> This project heavily influenced development of Zambian Government policy on water resources and in February 2010, the Zambian Cabinet approved a revised National Water policy that "aims to improve water resources management by establishing institutional coordination, engaging in modern methods of integrated water resource management while decentralising government policy to address diverse interests within the water sector".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Dimensions of Change in River Basins: Threats Linkages and Adaptation |url=http://www.gwsp.org/fileadmin/GCI_conference/Products/GWSP-GCI%20conference%202010%20Proceedings.pdf |access-date=7 November 2011 |publisher=Global Systems Water Project}}</ref> ==== Tailings dam collapse ==== On 18 February 2025, a tailings dam belonging to a copper mine operated by Sino-Metals Leach Zambia collapsed in de Copperbelt Province, causing 50 million liters of waste containing concentrated acid, dissolved solids den heavy metals to enter a tributary of de Kafue River den prompting a shutdown of de water supply in Kitwe. === Itezhi-Tezhi and Kafue Gorge Dams === These get major negative environmental effects for de river. === Water for irrigation === Commercial plantations, especially those bordering de Kafue flats take large quantities of water for irrigation. Chief of these is de Nakambala Sugar Estate, which draws in excess of 720,000&nbsp;m³ per day to irrigate 134.13 square kilometres of land to grow sugar cane. == References == <templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" />{{Reflist}} [[Category:Short description matches Wikidata]] [[Category:Articles with short description]] 5o8cc8e5vkban61sv5nba3dmdgrm5qp 0 27276 102907 101858 2026-06-15T00:20:05Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 102907 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Keta Lagoon''', dem sanso call '''Anlo-Keta lagoon''', be de largest for over 90 lagoons<ref name="oceandocs1">{{Cite web |date= |title=Management Issues for the Sustainable Use of Lagoon Fish Resources |url=http://www.oceandocs.net/bitstream/1834/699/1/ICLARM2427.pdf |access-date=2014-03-07}}</ref> wey cover 550&nbsp;km stretch for de coastline for Ghana. Dis lagoon be 126.13&nbsp;km for length. Edey locate insyd de eastern coast for Ghana wey e be separated from de [[Gulf of Guinea]]<ref>{{Cite web |date= |title=Gulf of Guinea (gulf, Atlantic Ocean) - Encyclopædia Britannica |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/248843/Gulf-of-Guinea |access-date=2014-03-07 |publisher=Britannica.com}}</ref> by a narrow strip of sandbar. Dis open salty water be surrounded by flood plains den mangrove swamps. Togeda dem form de Keta Lagoon Ramsar site<ref>{{Cite web |title=Clearing House mechanism of Ghana - Convention on Biological Diversity |url=http://gh.chm-cbd.net/biodiversity/faunal./ramsar-sites/keta-lagoon-complex |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140307234545/http://gh.chm-cbd.net/biodiversity/faunal./ramsar-sites/keta-lagoon-complex |archive-date=7 March 2014 |access-date=2 February 2022 |website=gh.chm-cbd.net}}</ref> wer cover 1200&nbsp;km² Seasonal inflow for sea water dey occur during high tide from de Gulf of Guinea den regular inflow of rivers. De rivers wich dey drain into de lagoon include de Aka, de Tordzi River den Belikpa stream<ref>{{Cite web |date= |title=Belikpa (stream) |url=http://gh.geoview.info/belikpa,2303213 |access-date=2014-03-07 |publisher=Gh.geoview.info}}</ref> wer dem dey enter de lagoon from de north. De lagoon be surrounded by chaw settlements. De towns include Anloga, Woe, Keta den Kedzi to de south, Aborlove Nolopi, Anyako den Anlo Afiadenyigba to de north, Kodzi, Alakple den Tregui to de west den Denu den Adina to de east. Over de years population growth, extensive human activities den climate change all contribute to reduce de volume of water insyd de lagoon wich dey appear to be drying up. De lagoon cam be part of de daily existence for de people insyd [[Anlo Ewe|Anlo]] land. Insyd 1992 de Keta Lagoon be place on de list of Wetlands for International Importance by de Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, den in 1999 work dem begin on measures to limit more erosion den to control flooding of de coastal region.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013-12-07 |title=Keta (Ghana) - Encyclopædia Britannica |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/315645/Keta |access-date=2014-03-07 |publisher=Britannica.com}}</ref> [[File:Gbe_languages.png|right|thumb|Keta Lagoon dey insyd de south-western end of de region settled by de Ewe people]] Dis Lagoon got ein name den prominence from the settlement for [[Anlo Ewe|Anlo]]- Ewes <ref>{{Cite web |date= |title=African Culture - The Anlo-Ewe People |url=http://africaimports.com/anlo-ewe-people-group.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140308044100/http://africaimports.com/anlo-ewe-people-group.asp |archive-date=2014-03-08 |access-date=2014-03-07 |publisher=Africa Imports}}</ref> buh more especially for de town Keta den dey put for use. De inhabitants for de area surrounding de lagoon be de descendants for Anlo Ewe groups wey dey settle for Anlo land. Dema ancestors migrate from Notsie insyd central [[Togo]] insyd de mid –seventeenth century.<ref>{{Cite web |date= |title=African Drumming - dancedrummer.com - Anlo-Ewe History |url=http://www.dancedrummer.com/history.html |access-date=2014-03-07 |publisher=dancedrummer.com}}</ref> Dem settle at Anloga wey dem establish several small settlements around de shores of de Keta Lagoon. Sam of de towns dem show below plus demma 2010 populations. {| class="wikitable" !Name of Town !2010 Population figure |- |Keta |8,101 |- |Anloga |29,748 |- |Anyako |6,780 |- |Anlo Afiadenyigba |9,680 |- |Tegbi |10,056 |- |Kedzi |129 |- |Kodzi |185 |- |Asadame |1,410 |- |Woe |558 |- |Tregui |786 |- |Wuti |2,340 |- |Atiteti |978 |- |Dzato |879 |- |Yenui |667 |- |Alakple |529 |- |Srogboe |640 |- |Dzita |3531 |- |Blekusu |897 |- |Adina |758 |- |Anyanui |1,783 |- |Havedzi |897 |- |Vodza |769 |- |Dzelukope |10,409 |- |'''Total''' |'''92,510''' |} === Climate === De Köppen Climate Classification be "Aw". (Tropical Savanna Climate).<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20230329164205/http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weather-summary.php3?s=57456&cityname=Ada,+Greater+Accra,+Ghana&units= Climate Summary for Ada Foah (closest city on record with accurate data for the Keta Municipal District)]</ref>{{Weather box|location=Keta Municipal District|single line=Yes|metric first=Yes|Jan high F=86|Feb high F=87|Mar high F=88|Apr high F=87|May high F=86|Jun high F=84|Jul high F=81|Aug high F=81|Sep high F=83|Oct high F=85|Nov high F=88|Dec high F=87|year high F=85|Jan low F=82|Feb low F=84|Mar low F=84|Apr low F=84|May low F=82|Jun low F=81|Jul low F=78|Aug low F=77|Sep low F=79|Oct low F=80|Nov low F=82|Dec low F=82|year low F=81|Jan precipitation days=0|Feb precipitation days=0|Mar precipitation days=2|Apr precipitation days=3|May precipitation days=4|Jun precipitation days=6|Jul precipitation days=3|Aug precipitation days=2|Sep precipitation days=5|Oct precipitation days=4|Nov precipitation days=1|Dec precipitation days=1|year precipitation days=31|source 1=Weatherbase <ref name=Weatherbase> {{cite web |url =http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weather.php3?s=57456&cityname=Ada--United-States-of-America |title =Weatherbase.com |publisher=Weatherbase |year=2013 }} Retrieved on May 11, 2013. </ref>|date=May 2013}} == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} [[Category:Lagoons insyd Ghana]] [[Category:Important Bird Areas of Ghana]] [[Category:Ramsar sites insyd Ghana]] bxxtwylulydtw7n31fot1nuq0md99mh 0 27278 102909 101643 2026-06-15T01:34:48Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 102909 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Turkana''' (/tɜːrˈkɑːnə, -ˈkæn-/) be a saline lake insyd de Kenyan Rift Valley, predominantly insyd northern Kenya; de far northern end dey cross into Ethiopia.<ref>The boundary between Ethiopia and Kenya has been a contentious matter. A brief consideration of the topic can be found in the State Department document, [https://web.archive.org/web/20090318063413/http://www.law.fsu.edu/library/collection/limitsinseas/IBS152.pdf Ethiopia – Kenya Boundary] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090318063413/http://www.law.fsu.edu/library/collection/limitsinseas/IBS152.pdf|date=18 March 2009}}</ref> E be de world ein largest permanent desert lake den de world ein largest alkaline lake. By volume e be de world ein fourth-largest salt lake<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lake Turkana in Kenya - The Jade Sea |url=http://www.kenyasafari.com/lake-turkana-kenya.html |access-date=2020-05-25 |website=www.kenyasafari.com}}</ref> after de Caspian Sea, Issyk-Kul, den Lake Van (wey dey pass de shrinking South Aral Sea), den among all lakes e dey rank 22nd. Lake Turkana now be threatened by de construction of de Gilgel Gibe III Dam insyd Ethiopia secof de damming of de Omo River wich dey supply chaw of de lake ein water.<ref name="Moran20172">{{cite news|author=Moran, B.|date=23 May 2017|title=A way of life under threat in Kenya as Lake Turkana shrinks|url=http://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/feature/2017/05/23/way-life-under-threat-kenya-lake-turkana-shrinks|publisher=The New Humanitarian|access-date=8 November 2019}}</ref> Although de lake commonly be—den to sam degree still be—dem use for drinking water, ein salinity (slightly brackish) den very high levels of fluoride (much higher dan insyd fluoridated water) generally make am unsuitable give drinking; e sanso be a source of diseases wey contaminated water spread. Increasingly, communities around de lake dey rely on underground springs for drinking water.<ref name="Serem20122">{{cite news|author=Serem, B.|date=29 November 2012|title=For villages in Turkana, Kenya, a new initiative that brings clean water to the community is life-changing|url=https://www.unicef.org/wash/kenya_66520.html|publisher=UNICEF|access-date=8 November 2019|archive-date=8 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191108110615/https://www.unicef.org/wash/kenya_66520.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> De same characteristics wey dey make am unsuitable for drinking limit ein use for irrigation.<ref name="Johnson2009">{{Cite book |last=Johnson, T.C. |title=The Nile |last2=J.O. Malala |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor-last=H.J. Dumont |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=287–306 |chapter=Lake Turkana and its connection to the Nile}}</ref> De climate be hot den very dry. De rocks of de surrounding area predominantly be volcanic. Central Island be an active volcano, wey dey emit vapour. Outcrops den rocky shores be found on de east den southern shores of de lake, while dunes, spits den flats be on de west den north, at a lower elevation. On-shore den off-shore winds fi be extremely strong, as de lake warms den cools more slowly dan de land. Sudden, violent storms be frequent. Three rivers (de Omo, Turkwel den Kerio) flow into de lake, buh lacking outflow, ein only water loss be by evaporation. Lake volume den dimensions vary. For example, de level fell by 10 metres (33 ft) between 1975 den 1993.<ref>Historic lake levels are graphed in the [https://web.archive.org/web/20060118225224/http://www.ilec.or.jp/database/afr/afr-20.html World Lakes Database] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060118225224/http://www.ilec.or.jp/database/afr/afr-20.html|date=18 January 2006}}.</ref> Despite de lack of outflow, insyd ecology e be often regarded as a part of — anaa at least associated plus — de [[Nile]] basin secof ein prehistoric connection to dis system den de similarities insyd dema aquatic faunas.<ref name="Johnson2009" /> Secof local temperatures — de lake water be 27–31 °C [81–88 °F], den de mean air temperature of de region be similar anaa slightly higher — aridity den geographic inaccessibility, de lake dey retain ein wild character.<ref name=Johnson2009/> Nile crocodiles be found insyd great abundance on de shore flats. De rocky shores be home to scorpions den carpet vipers. De lake be rich insyd fish den fishing be very important to de local economy, buh e be threatened by falling water levels den overfishing.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2017-05-23 |title=A way of life under threat in Kenya as Lake Turkana shrinks |url=https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/2017/05/23/way-life-under-threat-kenya-lake-turkana-shrinks |access-date=2026-06-10 |website=www.thenewhumanitarian.org |language=en}}</ref> Lake Turkana National Parks now be listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Sibiloi National Park dey lie on de lake ein eastern shore, while Central Island National Park den South Island National Park dey lie insyd de lake. Both be known for dema Nile crocodiles. An abundance of hominid fossils be discovered insyd de area wey dey surround Lake Turkana.<ref name=":0" /> De area dey see few visitors, be a two day drive from Nairobi. De lake sanso be an imaginary boundary of de Rendille den Borana den Oromo to de Turkana land. De area be primarily clay-based wey e be more alkaline dan seawater. ==Insyd popular culture== *Lake Turkana be featured insyd de 2002 video game ''Xenosaga Episode I: Der Wille zur Macht''. Insyd de game ein prologue, set insyd 20XX AD, an archaeological expedition at Lake Turkana dey uncover de Zohar, a mysterious monolith wey dey serve as a central element insyd de game ein story.<ref>{{cite web|title=Script of Xenosaga Episode I – Prologue|url=https://www.xenoserieswiki.org/wiki/Script_of_Xenosaga_Episode_I/Prologue|publisher=Xeno Series Wiki|access-date=2025-10-12}}</ref> * De lake ein eastern shore (insyd Loiyangalani) be de setting for John le Carré ein novel ''The Constant Gardener'', wey na e sanso be a location for de film of de same title. *Part of de events insyd de novel ''“Невозвращенец”'' (“The Non-Returnee”) by Andrei Gusev dey take place on de shores of Lake Turkana insyd Loiyangalani (insyd de second part of dis novel).<ref>[https://mliterature.narod.ru/Remaining.htm Review of ''“Невозвращенец”'' (“The Non-Returnee”)] on de site of public fund "Union of writers of Moscow", 2023</ref><ref>[https://andrei-gusev.narod.ru/Non-Returnee.htm ''“Невозвращенец”'' (“The Non-Returnee”)] by [[Andrei Gusev]], 2022</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} * [https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20080510070614/http://www.unep-wcmc.org/sites/wh/sibiloi.html Lake Turkana's entry on UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20041020044329/http://edcwww.cr.usgs.gov/earthshots/slow/Turkana/Turkana Satellite images showing Lake Turkana's falling water levels] * [http://www.kfrp.com Ongoing Palaeoanthropological research in the Turkana Basin] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060118225224/http://www.ilec.or.jp/database/afr/afr-20.html World Lakes Database] * [http://www.tours-kenya.net/lake-turkana-national-park.html Lake Turkana National Park] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070928020937/http://www.originsafaris.info/brochure/CradleofMankind07.pdf Remote Tribes of Northern Kenya] * [http://www.junglephotos.com/africa/afanimals/reptiles/crocodilenathist.shtml Crocodile Natural History] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20210216203655/http://www.arwg-gibe.org/ Africa Resources Working Group Gibe III Dam Lake Turkana] * [http://www.turkanabasin.org The Turkana Basin Institute] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20050324014526/http://sibiloi.com/ Sibiloi National Park, World Heritage Site] {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Turkana}} [[Category:Lake Turkana| ]] [[Category:Archaeological sites insyd Kenya]] [[Category:Archaeological sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:African Great Lakes]] [[Category:Endorheic lakes of Africa]] [[Category:Lakes of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Lakes of Kenya]] [[Category:Omo River (Ethiopia)]] [[Category:Ethiopia–Kenya border]] [[Category:International lakes of Africa]] [[Category:Saline lakes of de Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Freshwater ecoregions of Africa]] [[Category:Archaeology of Eastern Africa]] l9vur4d565jt7zl1zuorkmn33jbmil2 0 27309 102908 102264 2026-06-15T00:56:04Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 102908 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Kouilou-Niari River'''—sanso be like '''Kwilu''', '''Kwila''', anaa '''Kwil'''—be de most important river wey dey flow to de [[Atlantic Ocean]] for de [[Republic of the Congo]] coast. Moreover, ein entire drainage area dey complete for Republic of the Congo. ==Geography den environment== De river be called de Kouilou River while e dey flow insyd de coastal region of de Kouilou from de Sounda gorges. Upstream from de gorges, ein name be de Niari River wey e dey flow thru de Niari Valley. De river dey combine plus de Louessé, de Loudima den de Bouenza River den eventually dey flow into de [[Atlantic Ocean]]. E dey cover about 560&nbsp;km from ein origin insyd de Batéké Plateau of de Congo to ein mouth at de coast. De lower Kouilou basin be designated an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International secof e dey support significant populations of chaw bird species.<ref name=bli>{{cite web |url= https://datazone.birdlife.org/site/factsheet/lower-kouilou-basin-iba-congo |title= Lower Kouilou basin|author=<!--Not stated--> |date=2024|website= BirdLife Data Zone|publisher= BirdLife International|access-date= 2024-12-04}}</ref> ===Waterfalls=== *Zrinski chutes: dey honor Nikola Zrinski den Petar Zrinski, Croatian nobles of de Zrinski family; "discover" den name am insyd 1882 by Dragutin Lerman, a Croatian member of Henry Morton Stanley ein expedition. Local names, den local knowledge in general, be unfortunately ignored insyd such naming. * Sounda gorges. De gorges be remarkable plus a small waterdrop of two metres den mountain around 120 metres high. An old iron bridge still be usable insyd 2012 to cross de river insyd Sounda. A road dey cam from de village of Mandzi south of Sounda while de road dey continue on north west toward Kakamoéka, sous-prefecture. An abandoned track on de southern bank of de river dey reach Kakamoéka wich na dem create during de exploration for de train. Na de mission Jacob<ref>{{cite web|title=French national library|url=http://Www.gallica.fr}}</ref> be conducted insyd 1896. Na dem reopen de track insyd 1954 for de evaluation of de hydro potential of de Sounda dam.<ref>{{cite web|title=Institut de recherche et de developpement|url=http://www.ird.com/|access-date=2013-07-13|archive-date=2021-04-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422194952/https://www.ird.com/|url-status=dead}}</ref> == References == <references /> ==External links== {{Commons}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160303192359/http://congoinfos.skyrock.com/431748286-La-construction-d-un-barrage-sur-le-Kouilou-Niari-constitue-une.html Le projet de construction d'un barrage sur le Kouilou-Niari] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303192359/http://congoinfos.skyrock.com/431748286-La-construction-d-un-barrage-sur-le-Kouilou-Niari-constitue-une.html |date=2016-03-03 }} *[http://www.africanpowercorporation.com African Power Corporation Website] *[http://www.ird.com Institut de Recherche et Développement Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422194952/https://www.ird.com/ |date=2021-04-22 }} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Important Bird Areas of de Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:Rivers of de Republic of the Congo]] 6maentn5lk6waioxl7u442whb9c4lnr 0 27315 102817 100727 2026-06-14T12:08:52Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 102817 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Sanaga River''' (formerly German: ''Zannaga'') be de largest river insyd [[Cameroon]] dey locate insyd East Region, Centre Region den Littoral Region. Ein length be about 603 km (375 mi) from de confluence of Djérem den Lom River. De total length of Sanaga-Djérem River system be about 1,067.5 km (663.3 mi). Djérem be de longest source of Sanaga River plus a total length of 464.5 km. == Course == De Sanaga River get ein source at de Adamawa Plateau.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Knaap |first=M. van der |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wl4nd5K52FIC&pg=PA11 |title=Status of Fish Stocks and Fisheries of Thirteen Medium-sized African Reservoirs |date=1994 |publisher=Food & Agriculture Org |isbn=9789251035818 |pages=11 |language=en}}</ref> E be formed by de confluence of de Djérem den Lom Rivers insyd de north of de East Region. Djérem River get a total length of 464.5 km (288.6 mi) den Lom River a total length of 424.2 km (263.6 mi). Apart from dese originating rivers, de largest tributary of de Sanaga be Mbam River plus a total length of 548 km (341 mi).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Runge |first=Jürgen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ra8Wpm1QoMoC&pg=PA148 |title=Landscape Evolution, Neotectonics and Quaternary Environmental Change in Southern Cameroon: Palaeoecology of Africa Vol. 31, An International Yearbook of Landscape Evolution and Palaeoenvironments |date=2012-05-30 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=9780415677356 |pages=148 |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Slop_of_the_Sanaga.png|center|400x400px|Slope of Sanaga River]] == Climate == De Sanaga River dey form a boundary between two tropical moist forest ecoregions. De Cross-Sanaga-Bioko coastal forests dey lie to de north between de Sanaga River den de Cross River of [[Nigeria]], den de Atlantic Equatorial coastal forests extend south of de river thru southwestern Cameroon den [[Equatorial Guinea]], [[Gabon]], de [[Republic of the Congo]], Cabinda den de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]. == Hydrology == De flow of de river be measured at Edéa insyd m³/s:<ref name="FluCAM3">[http://horizon.documentation.ird.fr/exl-doc/pleins_textes/pleins_textes_6/Mon_hydr/25393.pdf PDF about the Hydrology of Cameroon (french)]</ref> == Dams den reservoirs == Beginning at de headwaters, der be 2 dams on de Sanaga River: {| class="wikitable sortable" !Dam !Nameplate capacity<br /><br />(MW) !Reservoir !Surface area<br /><br /> (km²) !Total capacity<br /><br />(million m³) |- |Song Loulou |384 | | |10 |- |Edea |264 | | | |- |} == Transport == [[File:Photo_Pont_Allemand_d'Edéa.JPG|right|thumb|Edea bridge on de Sanaga]] * De Camrail railway dey bridge de Sanaga River at Edea. == Gallery == <gallery mode="slideshow" caption=> File:Alentour_fleuve_sanaga_09.jpg|thumb|Forest around de Sanaga River File:Alentour_fleuve_sanaga_06.jpg|thumb|Around de Sanaga River </gallery> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Rivers of Cameroon]] 67wzsmg45mvhpp20gww9tcb6vg63qyd 0 27316 102818 100730 2026-06-14T13:24:28Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 102818 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Nyong''' (formerly German: ''Yong'') be a river insyd [[Cameroon]]. De river dey flow approximately {{convert|690|km}} to empty into de [[Gulf of Guinea]]. == Hydrology == De flow of de river as dem measure at Déhané insyd m³/s:<ref name="FluCAM">[http://horizon.documentation.ird.fr/exl-doc/pleins_textes/pleins_textes_6/Mon_hydr/25393.pdf PDF about the Hydrology of Cameroon (french)]</ref> == References == 66wbo2q6vp9qhswcclt2thuvg2p5nuv 102819 102818 2026-06-14T13:28:30Z DaSupremo 9 /* Course */ Improve article 102819 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Nyong''' (formerly German: ''Yong'') be a river insyd [[Cameroon]]. De river dey flow approximately {{convert|690|km}} to empty into de [[Gulf of Guinea]]. == Course == De Nyong dey originate {{convert|40|km|abbr=on}} east of de town of Abong-Mbang, wer de northern rain forest dey feed am.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ra8Wpm1QoMoC&dq=nyong+River+abong&pg=PA157|title=Landscape Evolution, Neotectonics and Quaternary Environmental Change in Southern Cameroon: Palaeoecology of Africa Vol. 31, An International Yearbook of Landscape Evolution and Palaeoenvironments|last=Runge|first=Jürgen|date=2012-05-30|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=9780415677356|pages=157|language=en}}</ref> De river ein length be almost parallel to de lower reaches of de [[Sanaga River]]. Ein mouth dey insyd Petit Batanga, {{convert|40|mi|km|abbr=on|sigfig=1|order=flip}} south-southwest of Edéa.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zJXfAAAAMAAJ&q=nyong+River+batanga|title=Publications ...|last=Office|first=United States Hydrographic|date=1952|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office|pages=123|language=en}}</ref> Insyd two places, Mbalmayo den Déhané, de river get huge rapids. De first {{convert|250|mi|km|abbr=on|sigfig=1|order=flip}} of de river, between Abong-Mbang den Mbalmayo, be navigable give small boats from April to November. [[File:Slope of Nyong.png|400px|center|Slope of Nyong River]] == Hydrology == De flow of de river as dem measure at Déhané insyd m³/s:<ref name="FluCAM">[http://horizon.documentation.ird.fr/exl-doc/pleins_textes/pleins_textes_6/Mon_hydr/25393.pdf PDF about the Hydrology of Cameroon (french)]</ref> == References == qkvlmr60hc2rn3fq8qqlze28lufr3bd 102820 102819 2026-06-14T13:34:13Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 102820 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Nyong''' (formerly German: ''Yong'') be a river insyd [[Cameroon]]. De river dey flow approximately {{convert|690|km}} to empty into de [[Gulf of Guinea]]. == Course == De Nyong dey originate {{convert|40|km|abbr=on}} east of de town of Abong-Mbang, wer de northern rain forest dey feed am.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ra8Wpm1QoMoC&dq=nyong+River+abong&pg=PA157|title=Landscape Evolution, Neotectonics and Quaternary Environmental Change in Southern Cameroon: Palaeoecology of Africa Vol. 31, An International Yearbook of Landscape Evolution and Palaeoenvironments|last=Runge|first=Jürgen|date=2012-05-30|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=9780415677356|pages=157|language=en}}</ref> De river ein length be almost parallel to de lower reaches of de [[Sanaga River]]. Ein mouth dey insyd Petit Batanga, {{convert|40|mi|km|abbr=on|sigfig=1|order=flip}} south-southwest of Edéa.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zJXfAAAAMAAJ&q=nyong+River+batanga|title=Publications ...|last=Office|first=United States Hydrographic|date=1952|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office|pages=123|language=en}}</ref> Insyd two places, Mbalmayo den Déhané, de river get huge rapids. De first {{convert|250|mi|km|abbr=on|sigfig=1|order=flip}} of de river, between Abong-Mbang den Mbalmayo, be navigable give small boats from April to November. [[File:Slope of Nyong.png|400px|center|Slope of Nyong River]] == Hydrology == De flow of de river as dem measure at Déhané insyd m³/s:<ref name="FluCAM">[http://horizon.documentation.ird.fr/exl-doc/pleins_textes/pleins_textes_6/Mon_hydr/25393.pdf PDF about the Hydrology of Cameroon (french)]</ref> ==Transport== De town of Mbalmayo, wich get a railhead, dey lie on de north bank of dis river.<ref name=":0" /> De towns of Akonolinga den Abong-Mbang sanso dey lie for ein top. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Rivers of Cameroon]] humnkbox0yw9prf7jgdl0cxkrqdmcg2 0 27317 102821 100787 2026-06-14T13:51:34Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 102821 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Corubal''', wey e sana be '''Rio Corubal''' anaa '''Tomine''', be river for [[West Africa]], ebe big tributary of de Geba River. For sam short distance, e dey form de international border for [[Guinea]] den [[Guinea-Bissau]]. e get length of approximately 560 kilometres (350 mi). == En History == De Corubal form de border between Kaabu den de Imamate of Futa Jallon insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mane |first1=Mamadou |url=https://www.scribd.com/document/902727591/Mane-M-Le-Kaabu-XIII-XIXe-Une-des-grandes-entite-s-historiques-de-l-espace-mandingue-de-Se-ne-gambie |title=Le Kaabu (XIIIe-XIXe siècle), Une des grandes entités historiques de l’espace mandingue de Sénégambie |access-date=3 March 2026}}</ref> During de Portuguese Colonial War insyd February 1969, de Portuguese army, wey na dem dey run from territories insyd de Madina do Boe sector, dem loose 47 soldiers to drowning wen demma overloaded raft fall for one side while dem dey cross de Corubal. De incident cam be known as de Cheche Disaster.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026 |title=Desastre de Cheche: 'Dignificar morte' de antigos combatentes |url=http://www.cienciahoje.pt/index.php?oid=39816&op=all |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20251009182853/http://www.cienciahoje.pt/index.php?oid=39816&op=all |archive-date=2025-10-09 |access-date=2026-06-14 |website=CiênciaHoje |language=en}}</ref> === Ein Treaty === Sam protocol agreement dem dey call de "Corubal River Agreement" wey dem sign on 21 October 1978 for Conakry by de [[Guinea|Republic of Guinea]] den [[Guinea-Bissau|Republic of Guinea Bissau]] say ego develop den manage de Kaliba-Koribal River; de Corubal River wey e sana be Kaliba. De "Organisation pour la Mise en Valeur du Fleuve Gambie" (OMVG) wey e sana be "The Gambia River Basin Development Organization" wey dem sana agree dem go establish to study den develop management plans for projects on de [[Gambia River]], de Geba River den de Corubal River for power generation, irrigation, flood control, navigation, water quality den infrastructure.<ref name="Hydropolitical Vulnerability And Resilience Along International Waters: Africa">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NPXKoHilf8kC&pg=PA92 |title=Hydropolitical Vulnerability And Resilience Along International Waters: Africa |publisher=UNEP/Earthprint |year=2005 |isbn=978-92-807-2575-9 |pages=92– |access-date=3 January 2013}}</ref><ref name="Dinar2008">{{Cite book |last=Shlomi Dinar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tx8SoeluyWoC&pg=PA247 |title=International Water Treaties: Negotiation and Cooperation Along Transboundary Rivers |publisher=Psychology Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-415-77208-2 |pages=247– |access-date=3 January 2013}}</ref> De agreement wey sana dem recognized de total basin area of de Corubal River of 24000&nbsp;km² plus 17500&nbsp;km² (72.71%) insyd Guinea den de balance 27.02% insyde Guinea Bissau.<ref name="Basin">{{Cite web |title=Appendix 1 International Freshwater Agreements, River Basin organizations, and River Basin Commissions of Africa |url=http://www.awiru.co.za/pdf/F_BACK%20UNEP%20Africa.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150110210929/http://www.awiru.co.za/pdf/F_BACK%20UNEP%20Africa.pdf |archive-date=10 January 2015 |access-date=31 January 2013 |website=Corubal |publisher=UNEP Africa |format=pdf}}</ref> OMVG demma study four sites for development as hydro-electric power projects. De projects be, de Sambangalou on de River Gambia, de Fello Sounga den Saltinho Projects on de River Koliba/Corubal, den de Gaoual Project for de River Géba. However, de general agreement nor dey get any relevant substantive den procedural rules governing cooperation between Guinea den Guinea-Bissau. Hence na dem suggest say recourse for be taken to "De United Nations Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses“ wich be global instrument, dem adopt insyd 1997, to promote de equitable den sustainable development den management of river basins wey be shared by two anaa more states. Using de provisions of dis convention de existing agreement between de two basin states on development of Corubal River go need to be enlarged wey dey make specific provisions for "informing den guiding cooperation, as well as by providing de technical committee plus legal guidance for better implementing ein activities."<ref>{{Cite web |title=UN Watercourses Convention: Applicability And Relevance In West Africa |url=http://www.internationalwaterlaw.org/bibliography/WWF/RA_West_Africa.pdf |accessdate=31 January 2013 |publisher=International Water Law organization |format=pdf}}</ref> == Hydrometry == De river ein discharge be observed for 18 years (1977-1994) for Saltinho, wey dey locate sam 200 kilometers from de sea. For de Saltinho amont station, de mean annual discharge dem observe during de period be 304 m3/s for catchment area wey take cover 23,840 km2, over 90% of de entire watershed of de river. De depth of runoff reach 404&nbsp;mm/yr, wich fi be considered high.<ref name="GRDC">{{Cite web |title=GHAASBasin437 - Saltinho amont |url=https://www.compositerunoff.sr.unh.edu/html/Polygons/P1815020.html |access-date=2026-06-14 |website=www.compositerunoff.sr.unh.edu}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == 3ypi0q6f0zk6ruwij57lkeogja18kc9 102822 102821 2026-06-14T14:00:57Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 102822 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Corubal''', wey e sana be '''Rio Corubal''' anaa '''Tomine''', be river for [[West Africa]], ebe big tributary of de Geba River. For sam short distance, e dey form de international border for [[Guinea]] den [[Guinea-Bissau]]. e get length of approximately 560 kilometres (350 mi). == En History == De Corubal form de border between Kaabu den de Imamate of Futa Jallon insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mane |first1=Mamadou |url=https://www.scribd.com/document/902727591/Mane-M-Le-Kaabu-XIII-XIXe-Une-des-grandes-entite-s-historiques-de-l-espace-mandingue-de-Se-ne-gambie |title=Le Kaabu (XIIIe-XIXe siècle), Une des grandes entités historiques de l’espace mandingue de Sénégambie |access-date=3 March 2026}}</ref> During de Portuguese Colonial War insyd February 1969, de Portuguese army, wey na dem dey run from territories insyd de Madina do Boe sector, dem loose 47 soldiers to drowning wen demma overloaded raft fall for one side while dem dey cross de Corubal. De incident cam be known as de Cheche Disaster.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026 |title=Desastre de Cheche: 'Dignificar morte' de antigos combatentes |url=http://www.cienciahoje.pt/index.php?oid=39816&op=all |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20251009182853/http://www.cienciahoje.pt/index.php?oid=39816&op=all |archive-date=2025-10-09 |access-date=2026-06-14 |website=CiênciaHoje |language=en}}</ref> === Ein Treaty === Sam protocol agreement dem dey call de "Corubal River Agreement" wey dem sign on 21 October 1978 for Conakry by de [[Guinea|Republic of Guinea]] den [[Guinea-Bissau|Republic of Guinea Bissau]] say ego develop den manage de Kaliba-Koribal River; de Corubal River wey e sana be Kaliba. De "Organisation pour la Mise en Valeur du Fleuve Gambie" (OMVG) wey e sana be "The Gambia River Basin Development Organization" wey dem sana agree dem go establish to study den develop management plans for projects on de [[Gambia River]], de Geba River den de Corubal River for power generation, irrigation, flood control, navigation, water quality den infrastructure.<ref name="Hydropolitical Vulnerability And Resilience Along International Waters: Africa">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NPXKoHilf8kC&pg=PA92 |title=Hydropolitical Vulnerability And Resilience Along International Waters: Africa |publisher=UNEP/Earthprint |year=2005 |isbn=978-92-807-2575-9 |pages=92– |access-date=3 January 2013}}</ref><ref name="Dinar2008">{{Cite book |last=Shlomi Dinar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tx8SoeluyWoC&pg=PA247 |title=International Water Treaties: Negotiation and Cooperation Along Transboundary Rivers |publisher=Psychology Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-415-77208-2 |pages=247– |access-date=3 January 2013}}</ref> De agreement wey sana dem recognized de total basin area of de Corubal River of 24000&nbsp;km² plus 17500&nbsp;km² (72.71%) insyd Guinea den de balance 27.02% insyde Guinea Bissau.<ref name="Basin">{{Cite web |title=Appendix 1 International Freshwater Agreements, River Basin organizations, and River Basin Commissions of Africa |url=http://www.awiru.co.za/pdf/F_BACK%20UNEP%20Africa.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150110210929/http://www.awiru.co.za/pdf/F_BACK%20UNEP%20Africa.pdf |archive-date=10 January 2015 |access-date=31 January 2013 |website=Corubal |publisher=UNEP Africa |format=pdf}}</ref> OMVG demma study four sites for development as hydro-electric power projects. De projects be, de Sambangalou on de River Gambia, de Fello Sounga den Saltinho Projects on de River Koliba/Corubal, den de Gaoual Project for de River Géba. However, de general agreement nor dey get any relevant substantive den procedural rules governing cooperation between Guinea den Guinea-Bissau. Hence na dem suggest say recourse for be taken to "De United Nations Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses“ wich be global instrument, dem adopt insyd 1997, to promote de equitable den sustainable development den management of river basins wey be shared by two anaa more states. Using de provisions of dis convention de existing agreement between de two basin states on development of Corubal River go need to be enlarged wey dey make specific provisions for "informing den guiding cooperation, as well as by providing de technical committee plus legal guidance for better implementing ein activities."<ref>{{Cite web |title=UN Watercourses Convention: Applicability And Relevance In West Africa |url=http://www.internationalwaterlaw.org/bibliography/WWF/RA_West_Africa.pdf |accessdate=31 January 2013 |publisher=International Water Law organization |format=pdf}}</ref> == Hydrometry == De river ein discharge be observed for 18 years (1977-1994) for Saltinho, wey dey locate sam 200 kilometers from de sea. For de Saltinho amont station, de mean annual discharge dem observe during de period be 304 m3/s for catchment area wey take cover 23,840 km2, over 90% of de entire watershed of de river. De depth of runoff reach 404&nbsp;mm/yr, wich fi be considered high.<ref name="GRDC">{{Cite web |title=GHAASBasin437 - Saltinho amont |url=https://www.compositerunoff.sr.unh.edu/html/Polygons/P1815020.html |access-date=2026-06-14 |website=www.compositerunoff.sr.unh.edu}}</ref> ==Vegetation== Insyd de lower stretches of de two rivers, de banks get Mangrove forests den marshy lands, wich sanso be infested plus anopheles mosquitoes. Insyd de upper reaches of de river de basin get savanna woodland.<ref name="Brooks20032">{{cite book |author=George E. Brooks |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O2T8EAgAYiMC&pg=PA40 |title=Eurafricans in Western Africa: Commerce, Social Status, Gender, and Religious Observance from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century |publisher=Ohio University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-85255-489-0 |pages=40– |accessdate=3 January 2013}}</ref> == Fauna == Chaw of Guinea-Bissau ein populations of antelope species dey situate insyd de Corubal River-Dulombi area.<ref name="East1999">{{cite book |last=East |first=Rod |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=59Ci3C8BCmEC&pg=PA45 |title=African Antelope Database 1998 |publisher=IUCN |year=1999 |isbn=978-2-8317-0477-7 |pages=45– |accessdate=29 January 2013}}</ref> Hippopotamus dey make up an isolated population.<ref name="Eltringham2010">{{cite book |last=Eltringham |first=S.K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p0xvDQq7hZ8C&pg=PA139 |title=The Hippos |date=31 January 2010 |publisher=A&C Black |isbn=978-1-4081-2868-8 |pages=139– |accessdate=29 January 2013}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == 89f2dbls3y1u50g60eo2bgixmgkg7ou 102823 102822 2026-06-14T14:01:54Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 102823 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Corubal''', wey e sana be '''Rio Corubal''' anaa '''Tomine''', be river for [[West Africa]], ebe big tributary of de Geba River. For sam short distance, e dey form de international border for [[Guinea]] den [[Guinea-Bissau]]. e get length of approximately 560 kilometres (350 mi). == En History == De Corubal form de border between Kaabu den de Imamate of Futa Jallon insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mane |first1=Mamadou |url=https://www.scribd.com/document/902727591/Mane-M-Le-Kaabu-XIII-XIXe-Une-des-grandes-entite-s-historiques-de-l-espace-mandingue-de-Se-ne-gambie |title=Le Kaabu (XIIIe-XIXe siècle), Une des grandes entités historiques de l’espace mandingue de Sénégambie |access-date=3 March 2026}}</ref> During de Portuguese Colonial War insyd February 1969, de Portuguese army, wey na dem dey run from territories insyd de Madina do Boe sector, dem loose 47 soldiers to drowning wen demma overloaded raft fall for one side while dem dey cross de Corubal. De incident cam be known as de Cheche Disaster.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026 |title=Desastre de Cheche: 'Dignificar morte' de antigos combatentes |url=http://www.cienciahoje.pt/index.php?oid=39816&op=all |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20251009182853/http://www.cienciahoje.pt/index.php?oid=39816&op=all |archive-date=2025-10-09 |access-date=2026-06-14 |website=CiênciaHoje |language=en}}</ref> === Ein Treaty === Sam protocol agreement dem dey call de "Corubal River Agreement" wey dem sign on 21 October 1978 for Conakry by de [[Guinea|Republic of Guinea]] den [[Guinea-Bissau|Republic of Guinea Bissau]] say ego develop den manage de Kaliba-Koribal River; de Corubal River wey e sana be Kaliba. De "Organisation pour la Mise en Valeur du Fleuve Gambie" (OMVG) wey e sana be "The Gambia River Basin Development Organization" wey dem sana agree dem go establish to study den develop management plans for projects on de [[Gambia River]], de Geba River den de Corubal River for power generation, irrigation, flood control, navigation, water quality den infrastructure.<ref name="Hydropolitical Vulnerability And Resilience Along International Waters: Africa">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NPXKoHilf8kC&pg=PA92 |title=Hydropolitical Vulnerability And Resilience Along International Waters: Africa |publisher=UNEP/Earthprint |year=2005 |isbn=978-92-807-2575-9 |pages=92– |access-date=3 January 2013}}</ref><ref name="Dinar2008">{{Cite book |last=Shlomi Dinar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tx8SoeluyWoC&pg=PA247 |title=International Water Treaties: Negotiation and Cooperation Along Transboundary Rivers |publisher=Psychology Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-415-77208-2 |pages=247– |access-date=3 January 2013}}</ref> De agreement wey sana dem recognized de total basin area of de Corubal River of 24000&nbsp;km² plus 17500&nbsp;km² (72.71%) insyd Guinea den de balance 27.02% insyde Guinea Bissau.<ref name="Basin">{{Cite web |title=Appendix 1 International Freshwater Agreements, River Basin organizations, and River Basin Commissions of Africa |url=http://www.awiru.co.za/pdf/F_BACK%20UNEP%20Africa.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150110210929/http://www.awiru.co.za/pdf/F_BACK%20UNEP%20Africa.pdf |archive-date=10 January 2015 |access-date=31 January 2013 |website=Corubal |publisher=UNEP Africa |format=pdf}}</ref> OMVG demma study four sites for development as hydro-electric power projects. De projects be, de Sambangalou on de River Gambia, de Fello Sounga den Saltinho Projects on de River Koliba/Corubal, den de Gaoual Project for de River Géba. However, de general agreement nor dey get any relevant substantive den procedural rules governing cooperation between Guinea den Guinea-Bissau. Hence na dem suggest say recourse for be taken to "De United Nations Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses“ wich be global instrument, dem adopt insyd 1997, to promote de equitable den sustainable development den management of river basins wey be shared by two anaa more states. Using de provisions of dis convention de existing agreement between de two basin states on development of Corubal River go need to be enlarged wey dey make specific provisions for "informing den guiding cooperation, as well as by providing de technical committee plus legal guidance for better implementing ein activities."<ref>{{Cite web |title=UN Watercourses Convention: Applicability And Relevance In West Africa |url=http://www.internationalwaterlaw.org/bibliography/WWF/RA_West_Africa.pdf |accessdate=31 January 2013 |publisher=International Water Law organization |format=pdf}}</ref> == Hydrometry == De river ein discharge be observed for 18 years (1977-1994) for Saltinho, wey dey locate sam 200 kilometers from de sea. For de Saltinho amont station, de mean annual discharge dem observe during de period be 304 m3/s for catchment area wey take cover 23,840 km2, over 90% of de entire watershed of de river. De depth of runoff reach 404&nbsp;mm/yr, wich fi be considered high.<ref name="GRDC">{{Cite web |title=GHAASBasin437 - Saltinho amont |url=https://www.compositerunoff.sr.unh.edu/html/Polygons/P1815020.html |access-date=2026-06-14 |website=www.compositerunoff.sr.unh.edu}}</ref> ==Vegetation== Insyd de lower stretches of de two rivers, de banks get Mangrove forests den marshy lands, wich sanso be infested plus anopheles mosquitoes. Insyd de upper reaches of de river de basin get savanna woodland.<ref name="Brooks20032">{{cite book |author=George E. Brooks |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O2T8EAgAYiMC&pg=PA40 |title=Eurafricans in Western Africa: Commerce, Social Status, Gender, and Religious Observance from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century |publisher=Ohio University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-85255-489-0 |pages=40– |accessdate=3 January 2013}}</ref> == Fauna == Chaw of Guinea-Bissau ein populations of antelope species dey situate insyd de Corubal River-Dulombi area.<ref name="East1999">{{cite book |last=East |first=Rod |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=59Ci3C8BCmEC&pg=PA45 |title=African Antelope Database 1998 |publisher=IUCN |year=1999 |isbn=978-2-8317-0477-7 |pages=45– |accessdate=29 January 2013}}</ref> Hippopotamus dey make up an isolated population.<ref name="Eltringham2010">{{cite book |last=Eltringham |first=S.K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p0xvDQq7hZ8C&pg=PA139 |title=The Hippos |date=31 January 2010 |publisher=A&C Black |isbn=978-1-4081-2868-8 |pages=139– |accessdate=29 January 2013}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} [[Category:Rivers of Guinea]] [[Category:Rivers of Guinea-Bissau]] [[Category:Geba River]] [[Category:International rivers of Africa]] [[Category:Guinea–Guinea-Bissau border]] [[Category:Border rivers]] byoxan0jm7hl05v4buys3mpka31kr81 0 27370 102834 100868 2026-06-14T19:40:57Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 102834 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Inga03.jpg|thumb|250px|A [[Wiktionary:cataract|cataract]] of [[Inga Falls]]]] [[File:Livingstone Falls.jpg|thumb|250px|Livingstone Falls as seen by Stanley]] [[File:Livingstone falls map.jpg|thumb|250px|Livingstone Falls map]] '''Livingstone Falls''' (French: ''Chutes Livingstone''; Dutch: ''Livingstonewatervallen''), dem name give British explorer [[David Livingstone]], be a succession of enormous rapids on de lower course of de [[Congo River]] insyd west equatorial [[Africa]], downstream from Malebo Pool insyd de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]].<ref name=Stanley>Stanley, H.M., 1899, Through the Dark Continent, London: G. Newnes, Vol. One {{ISBN|0486256677}}, Vol. Two {{ISBN|0486256685}}</ref> ==Description== Livingstone Falls dey consist of a series of rapids wey dey drop {{convert|900|ft|m|order=flip}} insyd {{convert|220|mi|km|order=flip}}. Dem dey start downstream of Malebo Pool den end insyd Matadi insyd Bas-Congo. De Congo River get de second largest flow rate insyd de world after de Amazon, wich get no falls anaa rapids (except near ein sources). De lowest rapids of Livingstone Falls, therefore, be de world ein largest waterfall insyd terms of flow rate — provided one accept dese rapids as dem be a waterfall. An interesting aspect of de {{convert|220|mi|km|adj=mid|-long|order=flip}} Livingstone Falls be de width of de channel. De channel be very narrow: insyd several stretches de channel width be less dan {{convert|300|m|ft|sigfig=1}} den for de majority of de length de channel be less dan {{convert|800|m|ft|sigfig=1}} wide. Dis be an extraordinarily narrow channel since de river flow rate typically dey exceed {{convert|42000|m3/s|ft3/s}}. Investigations insyd 2008 den 2009 show dat sections between de rapids fi be as deep as {{convert|200|m|ft|abbr=on|sigfig=1}}.<ref name="weis">{{cite web |last1=Weisberger |first1=Mindy |title=Dying Fish Revealed Congo Is World's Deepest River |url=https://www.livescience.com/congo-river-fish-with-bends.html |website=livescience.com |publisher=LiveScience | date = 12 January 2020 | accessdate=14 January 2020}}</ref> De powerful rapids separate fish populations from one anoda, wey dey cause new species to evolve insyd close proximity to one anoda.<ref name="weis"/> ==History== Although na he explore de upper Congo, Livingstone never travel go dis part of de river den de falls wey dem name insyd ein honour by Henry Morton Stanley. Stanley describe de falls as <blockquote>"...de wildest stretch of river dat I have ever seen. Take a strip of sea blown over by a hurricane, four miles insyd length den half a mile insyd breadth, den a pretty accurate conception of ein leaping waves fi be obtained. Sam of de troughs be 100 yards insyd length, den from one to de oda de mad river plunged. Na der be first a rush down into de bottom of an immense trough, den then, by ein sheer force, de enormous volume go lift einself upward steeply until, wey dey gather einself into a ridge, e suddenly hurl einself 20 anaa 30 feet straight upward, before rolling down into anoda trough. If I look up anaa down along dis angry scene, every interval of 50 anaa 100 yards of am be mark by wave-towers - dema collapse into foam den spray, de mad clash of watery hills, bounding mounds den heaving billows, while de base of either bank, wey dey consist of a long line of piled boulders of massive size, dem bury insyd de tempestuous surf. De roar be tremendous den deafening. I fi only compare am to de thunder of an express train thru a rock tunnel."<ref name="Stanley" />{{rp|261–262}}</blockquote>Since de falls, wich start plus de Yellala Falls just above Matadi, dey a barrier to navigation on de lower part of de river, de Matadi-Kinshasa Railway dey construct to by-pass dem. =="Grand Inga" proposed hydroelectric project== Inga Falls on [[Congo River]] be a group of rapids insyd de latter portion of de Livingstone Falls, {{convert|177|mi|km|order=flip}} after de Malebo Pool. De Congo falls about 96 metres within dis set of [[Wiktionary:cataract|cataracts]]. De mean annual flow rate at Inga Falls be about {{convert|42000|m3/s|ft3/s}}. Given dis flow rate den de {{convert|96|m|ft|adj=on}} fall, e be possible to calculate dat de Inga Falls alone has a power potential of approximately 40 GW. Insyd 2014, Inga Falls be de site of two large hydro-electric power plants wey na e be considered for a much larger hydro-electric power generating station wey dem know as Grand Inga. De Grand Inga project, if dem plete am, go be de largest hydro-electric power generating facility on Earth. De current project scope dey call for de use of a flow rate {{convert|26400|m3/s|ft3/s}} at a net head of {{convert|150|m|ft}}; dis be equivalent to a generating capacity of about 38.9GW. Dis hydro-electric generator go be almost double de current world record holder, wich be de Three Gorges facility at 22. GW on de Yangtze River insyd [[China]]. == References == <references /> == External links == [[Category:Congo River]] [[Category:David Livingstone]] [[Category:Waterfalls of de Democratic Republic of de Congo]] [[Category:International waterfalls]] [[Category:Waterfalls of de Republic of de Congo]] [[Category:Ecoregions of the Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:Freshwater ecoregions of Africa]] [[Category:Ecoregions of the Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:AWC2026]] b1ohz9tmizzir4m3n9nmqsjpx3muso7 102835 102834 2026-06-14T19:48:37Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 102835 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Inga03.jpg|thumb|250px|A [[Wiktionary:cataract|cataract]] of [[Inga Falls]]]] [[File:Livingstone Falls.jpg|thumb|250px|Livingstone Falls as seen by Stanley]] [[File:Livingstone falls map.jpg|thumb|250px|Livingstone Falls map]] '''Livingstone Falls''' (French: ''Chutes Livingstone''; Dutch: ''Livingstonewatervallen''), dem name give British explorer [[David Livingstone]], be a succession of enormous rapids on de lower course of de [[Congo River]] insyd west equatorial [[Africa]], downstream from Malebo Pool insyd de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]].<ref name=Stanley>Stanley, H.M., 1899, Through the Dark Continent, London: G. Newnes, Vol. One {{ISBN|0486256677}}, Vol. Two {{ISBN|0486256685}}</ref> ==Description== Livingstone Falls dey consist of a series of rapids wey dey drop {{convert|900|ft|m|order=flip}} insyd {{convert|220|mi|km|order=flip}}. Dem dey start downstream of Malebo Pool den end insyd Matadi insyd Bas-Congo. De Congo River get de second largest flow rate insyd de world after de Amazon, wich get no falls anaa rapids (except near ein sources). De lowest rapids of Livingstone Falls, therefore, be de world ein largest waterfall insyd terms of flow rate — provided one accept dese rapids as dem be a waterfall. An interesting aspect of de {{convert|220|mi|km|adj=mid|-long|order=flip}} Livingstone Falls be de width of de channel. De channel be very narrow: insyd several stretches de channel width be less dan {{convert|300|m|ft|sigfig=1}} den for de majority of de length de channel be less dan {{convert|800|m|ft|sigfig=1}} wide. Dis be an extraordinarily narrow channel since de river flow rate typically dey exceed {{convert|42000|m3/s|ft3/s}}. Investigations insyd 2008 den 2009 show dat sections between de rapids fi be as deep as {{convert|200|m|ft|abbr=on|sigfig=1}}.<ref name="weis">{{cite web |last1=Weisberger |first1=Mindy |title=Dying Fish Revealed Congo Is World's Deepest River |url=https://www.livescience.com/congo-river-fish-with-bends.html |website=livescience.com |publisher=LiveScience | date = 12 January 2020 | accessdate=14 January 2020}}</ref> De powerful rapids separate fish populations from one anoda, wey dey cause new species to evolve insyd close proximity to one anoda.<ref name="weis"/> ==History== Although na he explore de upper Congo, Livingstone never travel go dis part of de river den de falls wey dem name insyd ein honour by Henry Morton Stanley. Stanley describe de falls as <blockquote>"...de wildest stretch of river dat I have ever seen. Take a strip of sea blown over by a hurricane, four miles insyd length den half a mile insyd breadth, den a pretty accurate conception of ein leaping waves fi be obtained. Sam of de troughs be 100 yards insyd length, den from one to de oda de mad river plunged. Na der be first a rush down into de bottom of an immense trough, den then, by ein sheer force, de enormous volume go lift einself upward steeply until, wey dey gather einself into a ridge, e suddenly hurl einself 20 anaa 30 feet straight upward, before rolling down into anoda trough. If I look up anaa down along dis angry scene, every interval of 50 anaa 100 yards of am be mark by wave-towers - dema collapse into foam den spray, de mad clash of watery hills, bounding mounds den heaving billows, while de base of either bank, wey dey consist of a long line of piled boulders of massive size, dem bury insyd de tempestuous surf. De roar be tremendous den deafening. I fi only compare am to de thunder of an express train thru a rock tunnel."<ref name="Stanley" />{{rp|261–262}}</blockquote>Since de falls, wich start plus de Yellala Falls just above Matadi, dey a barrier to navigation on de lower part of de river, de Matadi-Kinshasa Railway dey construct to by-pass dem. =="Grand Inga" proposed hydroelectric project== Inga Falls on [[Congo River]] be a group of rapids insyd de latter portion of de Livingstone Falls, {{convert|177|mi|km|order=flip}} after de Malebo Pool. De Congo falls about 96 metres within dis set of [[Wiktionary:cataract|cataracts]]. De mean annual flow rate at Inga Falls be about {{convert|42000|m3/s|ft3/s}}. Given dis flow rate den de {{convert|96|m|ft|adj=on}} fall, e be possible to calculate dat de Inga Falls alone has a power potential of approximately 40 GW. Insyd 2014, Inga Falls be de site of two large hydro-electric power plants wey na e be considered for a much larger hydro-electric power generating station wey dem know as Grand Inga. De Grand Inga project, if dem plete am, go be de largest hydro-electric power generating facility on Earth. De current project scope dey call for de use of a flow rate {{convert|26400|m3/s|ft3/s}} at a net head of {{convert|150|m|ft}}; dis be equivalent to a generating capacity of about 38.9GW. Dis hydro-electric generator go be almost double de current world record holder, wich be de Three Gorges facility at 22. GW on de Yangtze River insyd [[China]]. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} [[Category:Congo River]] [[Category:Waterfalls of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:Waterfalls of de Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:International waterfalls]] [[Category:Freshwater ecoregions of Africa]] [[Category:Ecoregions of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:Ecoregions of de Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:David Livingstone]] 7f1l5d0ybobomb8425bfheus461oi2z 0 27371 102839 100869 2026-06-14T20:18:28Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 102839 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Nile Basin Initiative (NBI)''' be a partnership among de [[Nile]] riparian states wey “seek to develop de river insyd a cooperative manner, share substantial socioeconomic benefits, den promote regional peace den security”.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last1=A|first1=Haileslassie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4woyikQZoMcC&pg=PA64|title=Institutional settings and livelihood strategies in the Blue Nile Basin: implications for upstream/downstream linkages|last2=Fitsum|first2=Hagos|last3=Everisto|first3=Mapedza|last4=W|first4=Sadoff, Claudia|last5=Bekele|first5=Awulachew, Seleshi|last6=S|first6=Gebreselassie|last7=D|first7=Peden|date=2009-02-05|publisher=IWMI|isbn=978-92-9090-700-8|pages=64|language=en}}</ref> De NBI begin plus a dialogue among de riparian states wey result in a shared vision objective “to achieve sustainable socioeconomic development thru de equitable utilization of, den benefit from, de common [[Nile Basin]] water resources."<ref name=":0" /><ref name="NBI Background">{{Cite web|url=https://nilebasin.org/?option=com_content&task=view&id=13&Itemid=42|title=homepage &#124; Nile Basin Initiative|website=nilebasin.org}}</ref> E be formally launched insyd February 1999<ref name="NBI Background"/> by de water ministers of nine countries wey dey share de river: [[Egypt]], [[Sudan]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Uganda]], [[Kenya]], [[Tanzania]], [[Burundi]], [[Rwanda]], de [[Democratic Republic of Congo]] (DRC), as well as [[Eritrea]] as an observer. From ein beginning de Nile Basin Initiative be supported by de [[World Bank]] den by oda external partners. De World Bank get a mandate to support de work of de NBI, as lead development partner den as administrator of de multi-donor Nile Basin Trust Fund.<ref>The World Bank, 2010, pgs. 90-95 {{cite web|url=http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/sustaining-water-all-changing-climate-world-bank-group-implementation-progress-report |title=Sustaining water for all in a changing climate: World Bank Group Implementation Progress Report |access-date=2011-10-24}}</ref> One of de partners be de "Nile Basin Discourse", wich dey describe einself as "a civil society network of organisations wey dey seek to achieve positive influence over de development of projects den programmes under de Nile Basin Initiative".<ref>[https://www.nilebasindiscourse.org/ Nile Basin Discourse]</ref> Insyd May 2010, five upstream states sign a Cooperative Framework Agreement (CFA) to seek more water from de River Nile den establish water sharing rights between de NBI states — a move strongly opposed by Egypt den Sudan.<ref name="BBC May 14">{{cite web |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8682387.stm |title=East Africa seeks more Nile water from Egypt |work=[[BBC News]] |date=14 May 2010 |access-date=17 October 2024}}</ref> Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda den Tanzania be original signatories wey Burundi sign insyd February 2011. Na de agreement subsequently be ratified by Ethiopia, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda, den Burundi between 2013 den 2023, plus South Sudan dey ratify de CFA on 8 July 2024.<ref name="nbi-cfa">{{cite web |url=https://nilebasin.org/about-us/cooperative-framework-agreement |title=Cooperative Framework Agreement {{!}} Content of the CFA |work=Nile Basin Initiative |access-date=17 October 2024}}</ref><ref name="indug-20240812">{{cite web |last=Musoke |first=Ronald |url=https://www.independent.co.ug/south-sudan-signs-nile-treaty/ |title=South Sudan signs Nile Treaty |work=[[The Independent (Uganda)|The Independent]] |date=12 August 2024 |access-date=17 October 2024}}</ref> De DRC abstain, while Egypt den Sudan refuse to sign on after decrying de CFA as an attempt to diminish dema shares of Nile water. Despite dese objections, de CFA officially cam be legally binding over de NBI states on 13 October 2024.<ref name="ap-20241014">{{cite web |last=Muhumuza |first=Rodney |url=https://apnews.com/article/nile-river-accord-egypt-ethiopia-water-sharing-e245661a016bb75d9337d3e45a7753f7 |title=Nile basin nations say water-sharing accord has come into force without Egypt's backing |work=[[AP News]] |date=14 October 2024 |access-date=17 October 2024}}</ref> == References == 36njlntqif0t5q6lsyot0q2vh730rft 102840 102839 2026-06-14T20:19:15Z DaSupremo 9 DaSupremo moved page [[Nile basil initiatives]] to [[Nile Basin Initiative]] without leaving a redirect: Misspelled title 102839 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Nile Basin Initiative (NBI)''' be a partnership among de [[Nile]] riparian states wey “seek to develop de river insyd a cooperative manner, share substantial socioeconomic benefits, den promote regional peace den security”.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last1=A|first1=Haileslassie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4woyikQZoMcC&pg=PA64|title=Institutional settings and livelihood strategies in the Blue Nile Basin: implications for upstream/downstream linkages|last2=Fitsum|first2=Hagos|last3=Everisto|first3=Mapedza|last4=W|first4=Sadoff, Claudia|last5=Bekele|first5=Awulachew, Seleshi|last6=S|first6=Gebreselassie|last7=D|first7=Peden|date=2009-02-05|publisher=IWMI|isbn=978-92-9090-700-8|pages=64|language=en}}</ref> De NBI begin plus a dialogue among de riparian states wey result in a shared vision objective “to achieve sustainable socioeconomic development thru de equitable utilization of, den benefit from, de common [[Nile Basin]] water resources."<ref name=":0" /><ref name="NBI Background">{{Cite web|url=https://nilebasin.org/?option=com_content&task=view&id=13&Itemid=42|title=homepage &#124; Nile Basin Initiative|website=nilebasin.org}}</ref> E be formally launched insyd February 1999<ref name="NBI Background"/> by de water ministers of nine countries wey dey share de river: [[Egypt]], [[Sudan]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Uganda]], [[Kenya]], [[Tanzania]], [[Burundi]], [[Rwanda]], de [[Democratic Republic of Congo]] (DRC), as well as [[Eritrea]] as an observer. From ein beginning de Nile Basin Initiative be supported by de [[World Bank]] den by oda external partners. De World Bank get a mandate to support de work of de NBI, as lead development partner den as administrator of de multi-donor Nile Basin Trust Fund.<ref>The World Bank, 2010, pgs. 90-95 {{cite web|url=http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/sustaining-water-all-changing-climate-world-bank-group-implementation-progress-report |title=Sustaining water for all in a changing climate: World Bank Group Implementation Progress Report |access-date=2011-10-24}}</ref> One of de partners be de "Nile Basin Discourse", wich dey describe einself as "a civil society network of organisations wey dey seek to achieve positive influence over de development of projects den programmes under de Nile Basin Initiative".<ref>[https://www.nilebasindiscourse.org/ Nile Basin Discourse]</ref> Insyd May 2010, five upstream states sign a Cooperative Framework Agreement (CFA) to seek more water from de River Nile den establish water sharing rights between de NBI states — a move strongly opposed by Egypt den Sudan.<ref name="BBC May 14">{{cite web |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8682387.stm |title=East Africa seeks more Nile water from Egypt |work=[[BBC News]] |date=14 May 2010 |access-date=17 October 2024}}</ref> Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda den Tanzania be original signatories wey Burundi sign insyd February 2011. Na de agreement subsequently be ratified by Ethiopia, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda, den Burundi between 2013 den 2023, plus South Sudan dey ratify de CFA on 8 July 2024.<ref name="nbi-cfa">{{cite web |url=https://nilebasin.org/about-us/cooperative-framework-agreement |title=Cooperative Framework Agreement {{!}} Content of the CFA |work=Nile Basin Initiative |access-date=17 October 2024}}</ref><ref name="indug-20240812">{{cite web |last=Musoke |first=Ronald |url=https://www.independent.co.ug/south-sudan-signs-nile-treaty/ |title=South Sudan signs Nile Treaty |work=[[The Independent (Uganda)|The Independent]] |date=12 August 2024 |access-date=17 October 2024}}</ref> De DRC abstain, while Egypt den Sudan refuse to sign on after decrying de CFA as an attempt to diminish dema shares of Nile water. Despite dese objections, de CFA officially cam be legally binding over de NBI states on 13 October 2024.<ref name="ap-20241014">{{cite web |last=Muhumuza |first=Rodney |url=https://apnews.com/article/nile-river-accord-egypt-ethiopia-water-sharing-e245661a016bb75d9337d3e45a7753f7 |title=Nile basin nations say water-sharing accord has come into force without Egypt's backing |work=[[AP News]] |date=14 October 2024 |access-date=17 October 2024}}</ref> == References == 36njlntqif0t5q6lsyot0q2vh730rft 102841 102840 2026-06-14T20:23:30Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 102841 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Nile Basin Initiative (NBI)''' be a partnership among de [[Nile]] riparian states wey “seek to develop de river insyd a cooperative manner, share substantial socioeconomic benefits, den promote regional peace den security”.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last1=A|first1=Haileslassie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4woyikQZoMcC&pg=PA64|title=Institutional settings and livelihood strategies in the Blue Nile Basin: implications for upstream/downstream linkages|last2=Fitsum|first2=Hagos|last3=Everisto|first3=Mapedza|last4=W|first4=Sadoff, Claudia|last5=Bekele|first5=Awulachew, Seleshi|last6=S|first6=Gebreselassie|last7=D|first7=Peden|date=2009-02-05|publisher=IWMI|isbn=978-92-9090-700-8|pages=64|language=en}}</ref> De NBI begin plus a dialogue among de riparian states wey result in a shared vision objective “to achieve sustainable socioeconomic development thru de equitable utilization of, den benefit from, de common Nile Basin water resources."<ref name=":0" /><ref name="NBI Background">{{Cite web|url=https://nilebasin.org/?option=com_content&task=view&id=13&Itemid=42|title=homepage &#124; Nile Basin Initiative|website=nilebasin.org}}</ref> E be formally launched insyd February 1999<ref name="NBI Background"/> by de water ministers of nine countries wey dey share de river: [[Egypt]], [[Sudan]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Uganda]], [[Kenya]], [[Tanzania]], [[Burundi]], [[Rwanda]], de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of Congo]] (DRC), as well as [[Eritrea]] as an observer. From ein beginning de Nile Basin Initiative be supported by de World Bank den by oda external partners. De World Bank get a mandate to support de work of de NBI, as lead development partner den as administrator of de multi-donor Nile Basin Trust Fund.<ref>The World Bank, 2010, pgs. 90-95 {{cite web|url=http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/sustaining-water-all-changing-climate-world-bank-group-implementation-progress-report |title=Sustaining water for all in a changing climate: World Bank Group Implementation Progress Report |access-date=2011-10-24}}</ref> One of de partners be de "Nile Basin Discourse", wich dey describe einself as "a civil society network of organisations wey dey seek to achieve positive influence over de development of projects den programmes under de Nile Basin Initiative".<ref>[https://www.nilebasindiscourse.org/ Nile Basin Discourse]</ref> Insyd May 2010, five upstream states sign a Cooperative Framework Agreement (CFA) to seek more water from de River Nile den establish water sharing rights between de NBI states — a move strongly opposed by Egypt den Sudan.<ref name="BBC May 14">{{cite web |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8682387.stm |title=East Africa seeks more Nile water from Egypt |work=[[BBC News]] |date=14 May 2010 |access-date=17 October 2024}}</ref> Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda den Tanzania be original signatories wey Burundi sign insyd February 2011. Na de agreement subsequently be ratified by Ethiopia, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda, den Burundi between 2013 den 2023, plus South Sudan dey ratify de CFA on 8 July 2024.<ref name="nbi-cfa">{{cite web |url=https://nilebasin.org/about-us/cooperative-framework-agreement |title=Cooperative Framework Agreement {{!}} Content of the CFA |work=Nile Basin Initiative |access-date=17 October 2024}}</ref><ref name="indug-20240812">{{cite web |last=Musoke |first=Ronald |url=https://www.independent.co.ug/south-sudan-signs-nile-treaty/ |title=South Sudan signs Nile Treaty |work=[[The Independent (Uganda)|The Independent]] |date=12 August 2024 |access-date=17 October 2024}}</ref> De DRC abstain, while Egypt den Sudan refuse to sign on after decrying de CFA as an attempt to diminish dema shares of Nile water. Despite dese objections, de CFA officially cam be legally binding over de NBI states on 13 October 2024.<ref name="ap-20241014">{{cite web |last=Muhumuza |first=Rodney |url=https://apnews.com/article/nile-river-accord-egypt-ethiopia-water-sharing-e245661a016bb75d9337d3e45a7753f7 |title=Nile basin nations say water-sharing accord has come into force without Egypt's backing |work=[[AP News]] |date=14 October 2024 |access-date=17 October 2024}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080509091649/http://www.nilebasin.org/ Nilebasin.org: '''The Nile Basin Initiative'''] * [https://www.nilebasindiscourse.org/ Nilebasindiscourse.org: Nile Basin Discourse website] * [http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/AFRICAEXT/EXTREGINI/EXTAFRNILEBASINI/0,,contentMDK:21066483~pagePK:64168427~piPK:64168435~theSitePK:2959951,00.html Worldbank.org: The World Bank + The Nile Basin Initiative] * [https://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTAFRNILEBASINI/Resources/Eastern_Nile_map.pdf Worldbank.org: Map of Eastern Nile Region] * [https://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTWAT/Resources/4602122-1213366294492/5106220-1234469721549/33.1_River_Basin_Management.pdf Worldbank.org: The Nile Basin Initiative presentation at World Bank Water Week] — ''(February 2009)''. * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/sustaining-water-all-changing-climate-world-bank-group-implementation-progress-report/ Worldbank.org: Sustaining Water for All in a Changing Climate (2010)] — ''special case study on water resources in Nigeria (pgs. 90-95)''. {{Authority control}} h6m8mrbl27ric5wlmfq3c1bqjivt35u 102842 102841 2026-06-14T20:25:14Z DaSupremo 9 Add categories 102842 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Nile Basin Initiative (NBI)''' be a partnership among de [[Nile]] riparian states wey “seek to develop de river insyd a cooperative manner, share substantial socioeconomic benefits, den promote regional peace den security”.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last1=A|first1=Haileslassie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4woyikQZoMcC&pg=PA64|title=Institutional settings and livelihood strategies in the Blue Nile Basin: implications for upstream/downstream linkages|last2=Fitsum|first2=Hagos|last3=Everisto|first3=Mapedza|last4=W|first4=Sadoff, Claudia|last5=Bekele|first5=Awulachew, Seleshi|last6=S|first6=Gebreselassie|last7=D|first7=Peden|date=2009-02-05|publisher=IWMI|isbn=978-92-9090-700-8|pages=64|language=en}}</ref> De NBI begin plus a dialogue among de riparian states wey result in a shared vision objective “to achieve sustainable socioeconomic development thru de equitable utilization of, den benefit from, de common Nile Basin water resources."<ref name=":0" /><ref name="NBI Background">{{Cite web|url=https://nilebasin.org/?option=com_content&task=view&id=13&Itemid=42|title=homepage &#124; Nile Basin Initiative|website=nilebasin.org}}</ref> E be formally launched insyd February 1999<ref name="NBI Background"/> by de water ministers of nine countries wey dey share de river: [[Egypt]], [[Sudan]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Uganda]], [[Kenya]], [[Tanzania]], [[Burundi]], [[Rwanda]], de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of Congo]] (DRC), as well as [[Eritrea]] as an observer. From ein beginning de Nile Basin Initiative be supported by de World Bank den by oda external partners. De World Bank get a mandate to support de work of de NBI, as lead development partner den as administrator of de multi-donor Nile Basin Trust Fund.<ref>The World Bank, 2010, pgs. 90-95 {{cite web|url=http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/sustaining-water-all-changing-climate-world-bank-group-implementation-progress-report |title=Sustaining water for all in a changing climate: World Bank Group Implementation Progress Report |access-date=2011-10-24}}</ref> One of de partners be de "Nile Basin Discourse", wich dey describe einself as "a civil society network of organisations wey dey seek to achieve positive influence over de development of projects den programmes under de Nile Basin Initiative".<ref>[https://www.nilebasindiscourse.org/ Nile Basin Discourse]</ref> Insyd May 2010, five upstream states sign a Cooperative Framework Agreement (CFA) to seek more water from de River Nile den establish water sharing rights between de NBI states — a move strongly opposed by Egypt den Sudan.<ref name="BBC May 14">{{cite web |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8682387.stm |title=East Africa seeks more Nile water from Egypt |work=[[BBC News]] |date=14 May 2010 |access-date=17 October 2024}}</ref> Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda den Tanzania be original signatories wey Burundi sign insyd February 2011. Na de agreement subsequently be ratified by Ethiopia, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda, den Burundi between 2013 den 2023, plus South Sudan dey ratify de CFA on 8 July 2024.<ref name="nbi-cfa">{{cite web |url=https://nilebasin.org/about-us/cooperative-framework-agreement |title=Cooperative Framework Agreement {{!}} Content of the CFA |work=Nile Basin Initiative |access-date=17 October 2024}}</ref><ref name="indug-20240812">{{cite web |last=Musoke |first=Ronald |url=https://www.independent.co.ug/south-sudan-signs-nile-treaty/ |title=South Sudan signs Nile Treaty |work=[[The Independent (Uganda)|The Independent]] |date=12 August 2024 |access-date=17 October 2024}}</ref> De DRC abstain, while Egypt den Sudan refuse to sign on after decrying de CFA as an attempt to diminish dema shares of Nile water. Despite dese objections, de CFA officially cam be legally binding over de NBI states on 13 October 2024.<ref name="ap-20241014">{{cite web |last=Muhumuza |first=Rodney |url=https://apnews.com/article/nile-river-accord-egypt-ethiopia-water-sharing-e245661a016bb75d9337d3e45a7753f7 |title=Nile basin nations say water-sharing accord has come into force without Egypt's backing |work=[[AP News]] |date=14 October 2024 |access-date=17 October 2024}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080509091649/http://www.nilebasin.org/ Nilebasin.org: '''The Nile Basin Initiative'''] * [https://www.nilebasindiscourse.org/ Nilebasindiscourse.org: Nile Basin Discourse website] * [http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/AFRICAEXT/EXTREGINI/EXTAFRNILEBASINI/0,,contentMDK:21066483~pagePK:64168427~piPK:64168435~theSitePK:2959951,00.html Worldbank.org: The World Bank + The Nile Basin Initiative] * [https://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTAFRNILEBASINI/Resources/Eastern_Nile_map.pdf Worldbank.org: Map of Eastern Nile Region] * [https://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTWAT/Resources/4602122-1213366294492/5106220-1234469721549/33.1_River_Basin_Management.pdf Worldbank.org: The Nile Basin Initiative presentation at World Bank Water Week] — ''(February 2009)''. * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/sustaining-water-all-changing-climate-world-bank-group-implementation-progress-report/ Worldbank.org: Sustaining Water for All in a Changing Climate (2010)] — ''special case study on water resources in Nigeria (pgs. 90-95)''. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Water politics insyd de Nile Basin|*]] [[Category:International organizations based insyd Africa]] [[Category:River regulation insyd Burundi]] [[Category:River regulation insyd de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:River regulation insyd Egypt]] [[Category:River regulation insyd Eritrea]] [[Category:River regulation insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:River regulation insyd Kenya]] [[Category:River regulation insyd Rwanda]] [[Category:River regulation insyd South Sudan]] [[Category:River regulation insyd Sudan]] [[Category:River regulation insyd Tanzania]] [[Category:River regulation insyd Uganda]] o7g3ae5kbvx5aibx9w6rjlojl2cr80i 0 27372 102865 100900 2026-06-14T22:08:00Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 102865 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Water resources''' be natural resources of [[water]] wey potentially be useful give humans, for example as a source of drinking water supply anaa [[irrigation]] water. Dese resources fi be either freshwater from natural sources, anaa water dem produce artificially from oda sources, such as from reclaimed water (wastewater) anaa [[desalination|desalinated]] water (seawater). 97% of de water for Earth be salt water den three percent per be fresh water; slightly over two-thirds of dis be frozen insyd glaciers den polar ice caps.<ref name="USGS dist">{{cite web|url=https://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/waterdistribution.html|title=Earth's water distribution|publisher=United States Geological Survey|access-date=2009-05-13}}</ref> De remaining unfrozen freshwater be found mainly as groundwater, plus only a small fraction present above ground anaa insyd de air.<ref>{{cite web | title=Scientific Facts on Water: State of the Resource| publisher=GreenFacts Website | access-date=2008-01-31 | url= http://www.greenfacts.org/en/water-resources/index.htm#2}}</ref> Natural sources of fresh water dey include frozen water, groundwater, surface water, den under river flow. People dey use water resources for agricultural, household, den industrial activities. Water resources be under threat from multiple issues. Der be water scarcity, [[water pollution]], water conflict den [[climate change]]. Fresh water be in principle a renewable resource. However, de world ein supply of groundwater be steadily decreasing. Groundwater depletion (anaa overdrafting) dey occur for example insyd Asia, South America den [[North America]]. == References == f8i59lm0i13v6g6oehiuwcd5ouhqxul 102870 102865 2026-06-14T22:16:58Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 102870 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Water resources''' be natural resources of [[water]] wey potentially be useful give humans, for example as a source of drinking water supply anaa [[irrigation]] water. Dese resources fi be either freshwater from natural sources, anaa water dem produce artificially from oda sources, such as from reclaimed water (wastewater) anaa [[desalination|desalinated]] water (seawater). 97% of de water for Earth be salt water den three percent per be fresh water; slightly over two-thirds of dis be frozen insyd glaciers den polar ice caps.<ref name="USGS dist">{{cite web|url=https://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/waterdistribution.html|title=Earth's water distribution|publisher=United States Geological Survey|access-date=2009-05-13}}</ref> De remaining unfrozen freshwater be found mainly as groundwater, plus only a small fraction present above ground anaa insyd de air.<ref>{{cite web | title=Scientific Facts on Water: State of the Resource| publisher=GreenFacts Website | access-date=2008-01-31 | url= http://www.greenfacts.org/en/water-resources/index.htm#2}}</ref> Natural sources of fresh water dey include frozen water, groundwater, surface water, den under river flow. People dey use water resources for agricultural, household, den industrial activities. Water resources be under threat from multiple issues. Der be water scarcity, [[water pollution]], water conflict den [[climate change]]. Fresh water be in principle a renewable resource. However, de world ein supply of groundwater be steadily decreasing. Groundwater depletion (anaa overdrafting) dey occur for example insyd Asia, South America den [[North America]]. == References == <references /> ==External links== {{Commons}} * [http://www.fao.org/ag/agl/aglw/aquastat/water_res/waterres_tab.htm Renewable water resources in the world by country] * [http://www.hydrology.nl/ Portal to international hydrology and water resources] * [http://www.sswm.info/ Sustainable Sanitation and Water Management Toolbox] {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Resources}} [[Category:Aquatic ecology]] [[Category:Hydrology]] [[Category:Irrigation]] [[Category:Natural resources]] [[Category:Water den de environment]] [[Category:Water management]] [[Category:Water supply|Resources]] [[Category:Water resources management]] [[Category:Water industry]] [[Category:Sanitation]] 5dhzx3zmq6ageey8m48psu9el6kuca2 0 27373 102895 100937 2026-06-14T23:22:31Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 102895 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Pool''' (Kongo: ''Mpumbu, Nsundi, Mbula Ntangu''<ref>William Graham Lister Randles, ''L’ancien royaume du Congo des origines à la fin du XIXe siècle'', Éditions de l’École des hautes études en sciences sociales, 2013, p. 44</ref><ref> Jean Félix YEKOKA, ''L’HOMME ET SA TERRE AU PAYS DE BOKO-SONGHO DU XVIIe AU DEBUT DU XXIe SIECLES'', UNIVERSITE MARIEN NGOUABI - FACULTE DES LETTRES ET DES SCIENCES HUMAINES FORMATION DOCTORALE « HISTOIRE ET CIVILISATIONS AFRICAINES » (HCA), 2013, p. 36 </ref>) be a department of de [[Republic of the Congo]] insyd de southeastern part of de country. E dey border de departments of Bouenza Lékoumou, den Plateaux. Internationally, e dey border de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]. E sanso dey surround de commune district of de national capital, Brazzaville. De regional capital be Kinkala. Main towns dey include Boko, Kindamba, den Mindouli. Insyd de early 2000s, de Pool region be de home of a low-level insurgency wey lead by Pasteur Ntumi. De inhabitants of dis department be de Kongo, de Téké den de Native population (Pygmies).<ref>{{cite web |url= https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01279960/document |title= Une zone enclavée en situation post-confit: le district de Kindamba (Pool, République du Congo). Diagnostic territorial dans en vue d'un Projet d'appui au Développement Communautaire |language=fr |date=2011|website=HAL OPEN SCIENCE |author1= Elisabeth Dorier|author2=Rodrigue Kinouani|author3=Erwan Morand|author4=Damien Rouquier|author5=Quentin Fleuret}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://gitpa.org/Autochtone%20GITPA%20300/gitpa300-16-58congobrazzaTEXTREFOCDH%20RAPPORT%20.pdf |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170329152251/http://gitpa.org/Autochtone%20GITPA%20300/gitpa300-16-58congobrazzaTEXTREFOCDH%20RAPPORT%20.pdf |url-status= usurped |archive-date= March 29, 2017 |title= LES PEUPLES AUTOCHTONES DE LA REPUBLIQUE DU CONGO : DISCRIMINATION ET ESCLAVAGE |language=fr|date=2011|website=GITPA.ORG |author1= Roger BOUKA OWOKO|author2= Roch Euloge N’ZOBO|author3=OBSERVATOIRE CONGOLAIS DES DROITS DE L’HOMME (OCDH)|author4=UNION EUROPÉENNE}}</ref> De region be named after de Pool Malebo (formerly Stanley Pool), a particularly wide stretch of de [[Congo River]]. [[Image:Pool districts.png|thumb|right|250px|Districts of Pool]] == Administrative divisions == Pool Department be divided into thirteen districts: # Kinkala District # Boko District # Mindouli District # Kindamba District # Goma Tsé-Tsé District # Mayama District # Ngabé District # Mbanza-Ndounga District # Louingui District # Loumo District # Ignié District # Vindza District # Kimba District == References == <references /> == External links == [[Category:Pool Department]] [[Category:Departments of de Republic of de Congo]] [[Category:Republic of de Congo geography stubs]] [[Category:Congo River]] [[Category:AWC2026]] 008ntsqmnnniw0zumuz7zy39h2tfn6l 102896 102895 2026-06-14T23:25:01Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 102896 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Pool''' (Kongo: ''Mpumbu, Nsundi, Mbula Ntangu''<ref>William Graham Lister Randles, ''L’ancien royaume du Congo des origines à la fin du XIXe siècle'', Éditions de l’École des hautes études en sciences sociales, 2013, p. 44</ref><ref> Jean Félix YEKOKA, ''L’HOMME ET SA TERRE AU PAYS DE BOKO-SONGHO DU XVIIe AU DEBUT DU XXIe SIECLES'', UNIVERSITE MARIEN NGOUABI - FACULTE DES LETTRES ET DES SCIENCES HUMAINES FORMATION DOCTORALE « HISTOIRE ET CIVILISATIONS AFRICAINES » (HCA), 2013, p. 36 </ref>) be a department of de [[Republic of the Congo]] insyd de southeastern part of de country. E dey border de departments of Bouenza Lékoumou, den Plateaux. Internationally, e dey border de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]. E sanso dey surround de commune district of de national capital, Brazzaville. De regional capital be Kinkala. Main towns dey include Boko, Kindamba, den Mindouli. Insyd de early 2000s, de Pool region be de home of a low-level insurgency wey lead by Pasteur Ntumi. De inhabitants of dis department be de Kongo, de Téké den de Native population (Pygmies).<ref>{{cite web |url= https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01279960/document |title= Une zone enclavée en situation post-confit: le district de Kindamba (Pool, République du Congo). Diagnostic territorial dans en vue d'un Projet d'appui au Développement Communautaire |language=fr |date=2011|website=HAL OPEN SCIENCE |author1= Elisabeth Dorier|author2=Rodrigue Kinouani|author3=Erwan Morand|author4=Damien Rouquier|author5=Quentin Fleuret}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://gitpa.org/Autochtone%20GITPA%20300/gitpa300-16-58congobrazzaTEXTREFOCDH%20RAPPORT%20.pdf |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170329152251/http://gitpa.org/Autochtone%20GITPA%20300/gitpa300-16-58congobrazzaTEXTREFOCDH%20RAPPORT%20.pdf |url-status= usurped |archive-date= March 29, 2017 |title= LES PEUPLES AUTOCHTONES DE LA REPUBLIQUE DU CONGO : DISCRIMINATION ET ESCLAVAGE |language=fr|date=2011|website=GITPA.ORG |author1= Roger BOUKA OWOKO|author2= Roch Euloge N’ZOBO|author3=OBSERVATOIRE CONGOLAIS DES DROITS DE L’HOMME (OCDH)|author4=UNION EUROPÉENNE}}</ref> De region be named after de Pool Malebo (formerly Stanley Pool), a particularly wide stretch of de [[Congo River]]. [[Image:Pool districts.png|thumb|right|250px|Districts of Pool]] == Administrative divisions == Pool Department be divided into thirteen districts: # Kinkala District # Boko District # Mindouli District # Kindamba District # Goma Tsé-Tsé District # Mayama District # Ngabé District # Mbanza-Ndounga District # Louingui District # Loumo District # Ignié District # Vindza District # Kimba District == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} *[http://www.geohive.com/cntry/repcongo.asx Republic of the Congo at GeoHive] {{Authority control}} [[Category:Pool Department| ]] [[Category:Departments of de Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:Congo River]] avnddywz6rvm11aoqds5jr9eer3nq94 0 27374 102899 101174 2026-06-14T23:37:07Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 102899 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kariba''' be de world ein largest artificial lake den reservoir by volume. E dey lie {{convert|1300|km|mi}} upstream from de mouth of de [[Zambezi|Zambezi river]] on de Indian Ocean, along de border between [[Zambia]] den [[Zimbabwe]]. Lake Kariba be filled between 1958 den 1963 dey follow de completion of de Kariba Dam at ein northeastern end, flooding de Kariba Gorge on de Zambezi River. Na dem build de Zimbabwean town of Kariba give construction workers on de lake ein dam, while some oda settlements such as Binga village den Mlibizi insyd Zimbabwe den Siavonga den Sinazongwe insyd Zambia dem expand to house people wey de damming of de river displace. ==Physical characteristics== Lake Kariba be over {{convert|223|km|mi|abbr=off}} long den up to {{convert|40|km|mi|abbr=off}} insyd width. E dey cover an area of {{convert|5,580|km2|mi2|abbr=off}} den ein storage capacity be {{convert|185|km3|mi3|abbr=off}}. De mean depth of de lake be {{convert|29|m|ft|abbr=off}}; de maximum depth be {{convert|97|m|ft|abbr=off}}. E be de world ein largest man-made reservoir by volume, four times as large as de Three Gorges Dam.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9044719/Kariba |title=Kariba |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=2007-07-31 }} </ref> De enormous mass of water be believed to have caused induced seismicity insyd de seismically active region, wey dey include over 20 earthquakes of greater dan 5 magnitude on de Richter scale.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Scholz |first1=C. H. |last2=Koczynski |first2=T. A. |last3=Hutchins |first3=D. G. |title=Evidence for Incipient Rifting in Southern Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |date=1 January 1976 |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=135–144 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246X.1976.tb00278.x |bibcode=1976GeoJ...44..135S |url=https://academic.oup.com/gji/article-pdf/44/1/135/1914105/44-1-135.pdf|doi-access=free }}</ref> De lake get several islands, wwey dey include Maaze Island, Mashape Island, Chete Island, Sekula Island, Sampa Karuma, Fothergill, Spurwing, Snake Island, Antelope Island, Bed Island, den Chikanka. ==Ecology== [[File:KaribaDam.jpg|thumb|right|[[Kariba Dam]]]] During de filling-up phase of de lake, na de water be high insyd nutrients wey dey cam from decomposing, inundated vegetation, creating a thick layer of fertile soil on land dat became de lake bed. As a result, de ecology of Lake Kariba be vibrant. Na dem introduce a number of fish species to de lake, notably de sardine-like Kapenta (dem transport from [[Lake Tanganyika]]), wich now dey support a thriving commercial fishery. Oda inhabitants of Lake Kariba dey include Nile crocodiles den hippopotamuses. Gamefish, particularly tigerfish, wich be among de indigenous species of de Zambezi river system, now thrive on de kapenta, wich in turn dey encourage tourism. Both Zambia den Zimbabwe now dey attempt to develop de tourism industry along dema respective coasts of Lake Kariba. Fish eagles, cormorants den oda water birds patrol de shorelines, as do large numbers of elephants den oda big game species wey dey include lion, cheetah, leopard, buffalo den a myriad of smaller plains game species. De southern Matusadona National Park once be a haven give black den white rhinoceros, buh na recent poaching activity dramatically reduce dema numbers. ==Protected areas== De portion of Lake Kariba wich dey fall within Zimbabwe be designated a recreational park within de Zimbabwe Parks den Wildlife Estate. == References == <references /> == External links == [[Category:Lake Kariba]] [[Category:Reservoirs insyd Zambia]] [[Category:Reservoirs insyd Zimbabwe]] [[Category:International lakes of Africa]] [[Category:Geography of Mashonaland West Province]] [[Category:Geography of Southern Province, Zambia]] [[Category:Zambia–Zimbabwe border]] c1x6x5s3onvxofg86ctpo9cfpbmpa9g 102900 102899 2026-06-14T23:39:10Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 102900 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kariba''' be de world ein largest artificial lake den reservoir by volume. E dey lie {{convert|1300|km|mi}} upstream from de mouth of de [[Zambezi|Zambezi river]] on de Indian Ocean, along de border between [[Zambia]] den [[Zimbabwe]]. Lake Kariba be filled between 1958 den 1963 dey follow de completion of de Kariba Dam at ein northeastern end, flooding de Kariba Gorge on de Zambezi River. Na dem build de Zimbabwean town of Kariba give construction workers on de lake ein dam, while some oda settlements such as Binga village den Mlibizi insyd Zimbabwe den Siavonga den Sinazongwe insyd Zambia dem expand to house people wey de damming of de river displace. ==Physical characteristics== Lake Kariba be over {{convert|223|km|mi|abbr=off}} long den up to {{convert|40|km|mi|abbr=off}} insyd width. E dey cover an area of {{convert|5,580|km2|mi2|abbr=off}} den ein storage capacity be {{convert|185|km3|mi3|abbr=off}}. De mean depth of de lake be {{convert|29|m|ft|abbr=off}}; de maximum depth be {{convert|97|m|ft|abbr=off}}. E be de world ein largest man-made reservoir by volume, four times as large as de Three Gorges Dam.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9044719/Kariba |title=Kariba |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=2007-07-31 }} </ref> De enormous mass of water be believed to have caused induced seismicity insyd de seismically active region, wey dey include over 20 earthquakes of greater dan 5 magnitude on de Richter scale.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Scholz |first1=C. H. |last2=Koczynski |first2=T. A. |last3=Hutchins |first3=D. G. |title=Evidence for Incipient Rifting in Southern Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |date=1 January 1976 |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=135–144 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246X.1976.tb00278.x |bibcode=1976GeoJ...44..135S |url=https://academic.oup.com/gji/article-pdf/44/1/135/1914105/44-1-135.pdf|doi-access=free }}</ref> De lake get several islands, wwey dey include Maaze Island, Mashape Island, Chete Island, Sekula Island, Sampa Karuma, Fothergill, Spurwing, Snake Island, Antelope Island, Bed Island, den Chikanka. ==Ecology== [[File:KaribaDam.jpg|thumb|right|[[Kariba Dam]]]] During de filling-up phase of de lake, na de water be high insyd nutrients wey dey cam from decomposing, inundated vegetation, creating a thick layer of fertile soil on land dat became de lake bed. As a result, de ecology of Lake Kariba be vibrant. Na dem introduce a number of fish species to de lake, notably de sardine-like Kapenta (dem transport from [[Lake Tanganyika]]), wich now dey support a thriving commercial fishery. Oda inhabitants of Lake Kariba dey include Nile crocodiles den hippopotamuses. Gamefish, particularly tigerfish, wich be among de indigenous species of de Zambezi river system, now thrive on de kapenta, wich in turn dey encourage tourism. Both Zambia den Zimbabwe now dey attempt to develop de tourism industry along dema respective coasts of Lake Kariba. Fish eagles, cormorants den oda water birds patrol de shorelines, as do large numbers of elephants den oda big game species wey dey include lion, cheetah, leopard, buffalo den a myriad of smaller plains game species. De southern Matusadona National Park once be a haven give black den white rhinoceros, buh na recent poaching activity dramatically reduce dema numbers. ==Protected areas== De portion of Lake Kariba wich dey fall within Zimbabwe be designated a recreational park within de Zimbabwe Parks den Wildlife Estate. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} * [http://www.zambiatourism.com/travel/places/kariba.htm "Lake Kariba"]. Zambiatourism.com. Retrieved August 11, 2005. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20020620143447/http://www.dams.org/kbase/consultations/afrme/dam_stats_eng.htm "Dam Statistics: Africa and the Middle East Regions"]. World Commission on Dams. Retrieved August 11, 2005. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060426204701/http://www.ilec.or.jp/database/afr/dafr04.html World Lakes Database entry for Lake Kariba] {{Authority control}} [[Category:Lake Kariba| ]] [[Category:Reservoirs insyd Zambia|Kariba]] [[Category:Reservoirs insyd Zimbabwe|Kariba]] [[Category:Zambezi River]] [[Category:International lakes of Africa|Kariba]] [[Category:Geography of Mashonaland West Province]] [[Category:Geography of Southern Province, Zambia]] [[Category:Zambia–Zimbabwe border]] 2okvoygoqu7c1wvuy67qhl3s46rdwk7 0 27375 102827 101191 2026-06-14T15:38:50Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 102827 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Old droughts wey happen for Sahel region}} [[File:Sahel rainfall timeseries en.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|More than 100 years of rainfall data for Sahel show say from 1950 reach 1970, rain fall plenty pass normal (positive index values). After that, from 1970 reach 1991, the area face very serious dry years (negative index values). From 1990 come reach now, rainfall don return close to the average level wey dey between 1898 and 1993, but the amount of rain dey change plenty from year to year.]] [[File:Map of the Sahel.png|thumb|Map wey show the size and location of the Sahel region]] The Sahel region for Africa don experience plenty historic droughts for long time, wey records show say e start at least from the 17th century. Sahel be climate zone wey dey between the Sudanian Savanna for south and the Sahara Desert for north, across West Africa and Central Africa. Even though people believe say drought frequency for the region increase from the end of the 19th century, three long drought periods cause serious environmental and social problems for Sahel countries. Severe droughts cause famine for the 1910s, 1940s, and again for the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, although from 1975 to 1980 there be small recovery. The most recent major drought happen for 2012. Although records confirm say at least one very severe drought happen every century from the 17th century go, the frequency and seriousness of recent Sahel droughts stand out. Massive famine and displacement wey happen from 1968 to 1974 and again during the early and middle 1980s, people blame am on two very severe periods during the 1960–1980 drought years.<ref name=Batterbury2001>[https://web.archive.org/web/20200218192202/http://www.simonbatterbury.net/pubs/geogmag.html The Sahel region; assessing progress twenty-five years after the great drought]. Simon Batterbury, republished paper from 1998 RGS-IBG conference. Global Environmental Change (2001) v11, no 1, 1-95.</ref> From the late 1960s reach early 1980s, famine kill about 100,000 people, leave around 750,000 people depending on food aid, and affect most of the Sahel population wey be around 50 million people.<ref>[https://archive.today/20130416015442/http://www.unep.org/dewa/Africa/publications/AEO-1/056.htm AFRICA ENVIRONMENT OUTLOOK. Past, present and future perspectives] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130416015442/http://www.unep.org/dewa/Africa/publications/AEO-1/056.htm |date=2013-04-16 }}. United Nations Environmental Programme (2002). Retrieved 2009-02-13.</ref> The economies, farming activities, livestock and human populations for countries like Mauritania, Mali, Chad, Niger and Burkina Faso (wey people call Upper Volta during that time) suffer heavily because of the drought. Even though the late 20th century droughts be very destructive, evidence from lake sediments for Ghana show say long-lasting megadroughts happen often for West Africa during the last 3,000 years, and some of these droughts last longer and be more severe than the recent ones.<ref name="shanahan"/><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20091107172707/http://www.jsg.utexas.edu/news/rels/041609.html Severity, Length of Past Megadroughts Dwarf Recent Drought in West Africa]. Jackson School of Geosciences Online, April 16, 2009.</ref> Since the 1980s, summer rainfall for the Sahel don increase gradually. This increase in rainfall link to more vegetation growth, a process wey researchers call the “greening” of the Sahel. Scientists explain the increase in rainfall through stronger African easterly jet winds, wey normally bring wetter conditions. A 2011 study find say changes in the position of the African easterly jet and African easterly waves happen together with the northward movement of the Sahel rainband.<ref name="hindawi.com">[http://www.hindawi.com/journals/ijge/2011/259529/abs/ Wang and Gillies (2011)]</ref> ==History== Because almost all the rain wey fall for Sahel come during one short season every year, the region don always be vulnerable to serious problems whenever drought happen. Agriculture for the area begin around 5,000 years ago. The Sahel usually receive less than {{convert|1000|mm|in|-1|disp=or}} of rain every year, and almost all of am fall during one continuous rainy season wey fit last from a few weeks reach four months. Even though the area be vulnerable to drought, the history of drought and famine for the Sahel no always match perfectly. Modern scientific studies of climate and rainfall don identify several drought periods, but oral traditions and written records from the last thousand years no always report famine everywhere during every drought. One 1997 study wey compare historical famine records with long-term rainfall records for Northern Nigeria conclude say: “The most disruptive historical famines happened when cumulative rainfall shortages pass 1.3 times the standard deviation of long-term average annual rainfall for a particular area.”<ref>Aondover Tarhule1 and Ming-Ko Woo. 'Towards an Interpretation of Historical Droughts in Northern Nigeria' ''Climatic Change'', no 37, 1997. pp.601-613</ref> For example, between 1982 and 1984, the drought be especially destructive for the pastoral Fula people of Senegal, Mali and Niger, as well as the Tuareg people of northern Mali and Niger. These populations no only suffer from the 1968–1974 drought period, but many of them no fit rebuild their livestock herds wey they lose before. Other factors, such as political power shifting to settled populations after independence during the 1960s, problems for Senegal–Mauritania border relations, and Niger’s dependence on falling world uranium prices, all combine to make the famine worse.<ref>David Tenenbaum. [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1510/is_1986_Summer/ai_4284343 Traditional drought and uncommon famine in the Sahel]. Whole Earth Review, Summer, 1986.</ref><ref>J Swift. Sahelian Pastoralists: Underdevelopment, Desertification, and Famine. Annual Review of Anthropology Vol. 6: 457-478</ref><ref>Timberlake L. The Sahel: drought, desertification and famine. Draper Fund Report, 1985 Sept(14):17-9.</ref> ===600–700 AD=== The earliest surviving climate records for the Sahel come from Muslim travellers during the early Medieval Warm Period. These records suggest say rainfall for the Sahel be relatively low during the 7th and 8th centuries, but increase significantly from around 800 AD.<ref name="Rain1999">{{cite book |title=Eaters of the Dry Season: Circular Labor Migration in the West African Sahel |last=Rain |first=David |year=1999 |publisher=Westview Press |location=Boulder, Colorado |isbn=978-0-8133-3872-9 |page=77 }}</ref> Rainfall later reduce again from around 1300 AD, but increase once more about 200 years later. ==="Little Ice Age" droughts=== According to a study of West African drought based on Ghanaian lake sediments (not eyewitness historical accounts) published in the journal ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'' in April 2009: <blockquote>The most recent of these [multicentury droughts] occurred between 1400 and 1750 CE (550 to 200 yr B.P.), similar in timing to the Little Ice Age (LIA, 1400 to 1850 CE), a well-known interval when Northern Hemisphere temperatures were cooler than at present. In contrast with earlier studies, which reconstructed wetter conditions in East Africa during this period, evidence from [[Lake Bosumtwi]] supports more recent studies suggesting that this interval was dry. Evidence for LIA drought is not restricted to Africa, however. Records from throughout the tropics, including the western Pacific warm pool, the Arabian Sea, continental Asia, and tropical South America all show evidence for dry conditions during this time period.<ref name="shanahan"/></blockquote> ====1640==== The first major historically recorded drought in the Sahel occurred around 1640. Based on the reports of European travellers,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.greenstone.org/greenstone3/nzdl;jsessionid=1AB0DFF58D047EC9E8B55C523A65856F?a=d&d=HASH99771026b305b974da2200.7&c=envl&sib=1&dt=&ec=&et=&p.a=b&p.s=ClassifierBrowse&p.sa= |title=Climate and Man in the Sahel during the Historical Period |access-date=2008-06-19 |work=World Environmental Library |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101219124305/http://www.greenstone.org/greenstone3/nzdl%3Bjsessionid%3D1AB0DFF58D047EC9E8B55C523A65856F?a=d&d=HASH99771026b305b974da2200.7&c=envl&sib=1&dt=&ec=&et=&p.a=b&p.s=ClassifierBrowse&p.sa= |archive-date=2010-12-19 }}</ref> a major drought after generally wet conditions also took place during the 1680s. ====1740s and 1750s==== Cycles of several wet decades followed by a drought were to be repeated during the 18th century. Sahelian drought again killed hundreds of thousands of people in the 1740s and 1750s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ag.arizona.edu/~lmilich/desclim.html |title=Len Milich: Anthropogenic Desertification vs 'Natural' Climate Trends |publisher=Ag.arizona.edu |date=1997-08-10 |access-date=2012-09-25 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120211081648/http://ag.arizona.edu/~lmilich/desclim.html |archive-date=2012-02-11 }}</ref> The 1740s and 1750s was recorded in chronicles of what is today Northern Nigeria, Niger and Mali as the "Great Famine", the worst for at least 200 years prior. It caused massive dislocation of the Sahelian states of the time, but also disrupted the [[Trans Saharan trade]] routes to North Africa and Europe.<ref name=Lovejoy1975>Paul E. Lovejoy and Stephen Baier. The Desert-Side Economy of the Central Sudan. The International Journal of African Historical Studies, Vol. 8, No. 4 (1975), pp. 551-581</ref> ====1830s==== Around 1790 dry conditions similar to those of the late 20th century set in<ref name="Rain1999" /> and continued until around 1870. After that, a very wet period set in for around 25 years, followed by a return to drier conditions. While the drying begun around 1895 and caused its first large famine only in the early 20th century, the 1820s and 1830s saw a 12 to 15-year drought and regional instances of major famine from Senegal to Chad. Historical records suggest this drought caused a large-scale emigration from the [[Bornu Empire]], contributing to its rapid decline in the 19th century.<ref name=Lovejoy1975 /> In what is now northern Senegal, the [[Imamate of Futa Toro]] was struck by a famine caused by the failure of 1833's rainy season, leading to waves of famine until 1837.<ref name=Curtin1975>Philip D. Curtin, Economic Change in Precolonial Africa: Senegambia in the Era of the Slave Trade, 2 vols. University of Wisconsin Press (1975)</ref> ===Early 20th century droughts=== The first rain gauges in the Sahel date from 1898 and they reveal that a major drought in the 1910s, accompanied by large-scale famine, was followed by wet conditions during the 1920s and 1930s, reaching a peak with the very wet year of 1936. The 1940s saw several minor droughts — notably in 1949 — but the 1950s were consistently wet, and expansion of agriculture to feed growing populations characterised this decade. Many have thought this contributed to the severity of the subsequent Sahel droughts. ===Late 20th century droughts=== [[Burkina Faso]], northern [[Nigeria]], southern [[Niger]], far northern [[Cameroon]] (near [[Lake Chad]]) and central [[Chad]] all struggled with dwindling rain fall from the 1960s. The 1968-73 drought severely affected several West African countries. Grazing became impossible and this triggered a large-scale famine that led to the first mobilization of external aid and the creation of the [[International Fund for Agricultural Development]] by [[United Nations]]. Up to 100,000 people and a third of livestock died. This drought was so catastrophic that it became known as the "[[Great Sahelian drought]]".<ref>[https://www.wearewater.org/en/the-sahel-desertification-beyond-drought_318262 The Sahel, desertification beyond drought]</ref><ref>[https://cdn.odi.org/media/documents/6718.pdf COPING WITH AFRICAN DROUGHT]</ref><ref>[https://repositorio.esocite.la/465/1/Garcia1981-NaturePleadsNotGuilty.pdf Drought and Man. The 1972 Case History]</ref><ref>[https://reliefweb.int/report/burkina-faso/west-africa-sahels-nutrition-revolution WEST AFRICA: The Sahel's nutrition revolution]</ref> In 1983-84 Sahelian countries received some of the lowest rainfall ever recorded. However, even though this drought was more severe than that of the early 1970s, the human impact was less severe, since economies and societies had developed better coping mechanisms.<ref>[https://reliefweb.int/report/burkina-faso/west-africa-sahels-nutrition-revolution WEST AFRICA: The Sahel's nutrition revolution]</ref> A literature review from the ''[[African Journal of Ecology]]'' summarized the environmental changes that species faced after the late 20th century droughts, some of which includes (but is not limited to) severe declines in biodiversity and increases in other disturbances, such as fires.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Walther|first=Bruno|date=2016|title=A review of recent ecological changes in the Sahel, with particular reference to land-use change, plants, birds and mammals|journal=African Journal of Ecology|volume=54|issue=3|pages=268–280|doi=10.1111/aje.12350}}</ref> ===21st Century Droughts=== ====2010 Sahel drought==== {{Main|2010 Sahel famine}} Throughout June to August 2010, famine struck the Sahel.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.channel4.com/news/articles/world/africa/drought+threatens+african+humanitarian+crisis/3697427 |title=Drought threatens African humanitarian crisis - Channel 4 News |publisher=Channel4.com |date=2010-07-01 |accessdate=2010-07-28}}</ref> Niger's crops failed to mature in the heat which resulted in [[famine]]. 350,000 faced starvation and 1,200,000 were at risk of [[famine]].<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/jun/21/millions-face-starvation-west-africa | location=London | work=The Guardian | title=Millions face starvation in west Africa, warn aid agencies | first=Henry | last=Foy | date=June 21, 2010}}</ref> In Chad, the temperature reached {{convert|47.6|°C|°F|1}} on June 22 in [[Faya-Largeau]], breaking a record set in 1961 at the same location. Niger tied its highest temperature record set in 1998, on also June 22, at {{convert|47.1|°C|1}} in [[Bilma]]. That record was broken the next day, on June 23 when [[Bilma]] hit {{convert|48.2|°C|°F|1}}. The hottest temperature recorded in Sudan was reached on June 25, at {{convert|49.6|°C|°F|1}} in [[Dongola]], breaking a record set in 1987.<ref name="MastersNOAA">{{cite web|last=Masters|first=Jeff|title=NOAA: June 2010 the globe's 4th consecutive warmest month on record|url=http://www.wunderground.com/blog/JeffMasters/comment.html?entrynum=1544|work=Weather Underground|publisher=Jeff Masters' WunderBlog|access-date=21 July 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100719104107/http://www.wunderground.com/blog/JeffMasters/comment.html?entrynum=1544|archive-date=19 July 2010}}</ref> Niger reported [[diarrhoea]], starvation, [[gastroenteritis]], [[malnutrition]] and [[respiratory diseases]] killed and sickened many children July 14. The new [[military junta]] appealed for international food aid and has taken serious steps to calling overseas help since coming to office in February 2010.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.france24.com/en/20100625-reporters-niger-famine-horizon-harvests-sahara-junta-coup-appeal-international-aid-mamadou-tandja |title=Niger: famine on the horizon? |publisher=FRANCE 24 |accessdate=2012-09-25|date=2010-06-25 }}</ref> On July 26 the heat reached near-record levels over [[Chad]] and [[Niger]].<ref name="wunderground.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.wunderground.com/blog/JeffMasters/comment.html?entrynum=1516 |title=Wunder Blog : Weather Underground |publisher=Wunderground.com |access-date=2010-07-28 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100627220406/http://www.wunderground.com/blog/JeffMasters/comment.html?entrynum=1516 |archive-date=2010-06-27 }}</ref> ====2012 Sahel drought==== {{Main|2012 Sahel drought}} By the middle of 2010, another drought in the western Sahel was predicted by several organisations for 2011 and 2012.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://oceanworld.tamu.edu/resources/environment-book/Images/sahel.jpg&imgrefurl=http://oceanworld.tamu.edu/resources/environment-book/desertificationinsahel.html&h=352&w=620&sz=41&tbnid=aVNb7rLreHj5LM:&tbnh=77&tbnw=136&prev=/images%3Fq%3DSahel&usg=__X6CSKM4gSWK6qP6rD6sjgddhBL0=&sa=X&ei=TC8aTOfeN-GJ4gaPsLjSCg&ved=0CC4Q9QEwAw |title=Google Image Result for sahel.jpg |accessdate=2012-09-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Robert Stewart |url=http://oceanworld.tamu.edu/resources/environment-book/desertificationinsahel.html |title=Desertification in the Sahel |publisher=Oceanworld.tamu.edu |date=2010-03-02 |accessdate=2012-09-25 |archive-date=2012-07-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120701135505/http://oceanworld.tamu.edu/resources/environment-book/desertificationinsahel.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sahel.org.uk/ |title=SOS Sahel |publisher=Sahel.org.uk |accessdate=2012-09-25}}</ref> ==Potential contributing factors== Originally it was believed that the drought in the [[Sahel]] primarily was caused by humans over-using natural resources in the region through [[overgrazing]], [[deforestation]]<ref>{{cite journal|author=J Odihi |title=Deforestation in afforestation priority zone in Sudano-Sahelian Nigeria|doi=10.1016/j.apgeog.2003.08.004 |volume=23 |issue=4 |journal=Applied Geography |pages=227–259|year=2003 }}</ref> and poor [[land management]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Eden Foundation |url=http://www.eden-foundation.org/project/desertif.html |title="Desertification - a threat to the Sahel", August 1994 |publisher=Eden-foundation.org |date=1992-11-07 |accessdate=2012-09-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0801/p01s02-woaf.html |title=Hunger is spreading in Africa |publisher=Csmonitor.com |date=2005-08-01 |accessdate=2012-09-25}}</ref> In the late 1990s,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013-11-19 |title=The Sahel: One region, many crises |url=https://www.un.org/africarenewal/magazine/december-2013/sahel-one-region-many-crises |access-date=2022-10-25 |website=Africa Renewal |language=en}}</ref> climate model studies suggested that large scale [[climate change]]s were also triggers for the drought. Based on Senegal river cycles, precipitation cycles of various El Sahel stations which are related to Solar (89–120 years) Wolf-Gleissberg cycles, and on relations to Nile floods and Equatorial lake levels, Yousef and Ghilly in 2000 anticipated that there is a considerable probability that drought will occur El Sahel Zone in 2005±4 years. This forecast was correct as drought occurred in El Niger in 2005 and again in 2010.<ref>{{cite web|last=Yousef and Ghilly|title=Alert el Sahel countries; drought is approaching|work=virtualacademia.com |url=http://www.virtualacademia.com/pdf/cli209_220.pdf}}</ref> In 2002, after the phenomenon of [[global dimming]] was discovered, a [[CSIRO]] study<ref>{{cite news|agency=Associated Press |title=1970-85 Famine Blamed on Pollution |url=http://www.commondreams.org/headlines02/0721-07.htm |access-date=2012-05-27 |date=2002-07-21 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120601025414/http://www.commondreams.org/headlines02/0721-07.htm |archive-date=2012-06-01 }} {{Cite journal|doi=10.1175/1520-0442(2002)015<2103:TRTATI>2.0.CO;2|title=Tropical Rainfall Trends and the Indirect Aerosol Effect|volume=15|issue=15|pages=2103–2116|last1=Rotstayn|first1=Leon D.|last2=Lohmann|first2=Ulrike|author-link2=Ulrike Lohmann|journal=Journal of Climate|date=August 2002|bibcode=2002JCli...15.2103R|s2cid=55802370|doi-access=free}}</ref> suggested that the drought was probably caused by air pollution generated in [[Eurasia]] and [[North America]], which changed the properties of clouds over the [[Atlantic Ocean]], disturbing the [[monsoon]]s and shifting the tropical rains southwards. In 2005, a series of climate modeling studies performed at [[NOAA]] / [[Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory]] indicated that the late 20th century Sahel drought was probably a climatic response to changing [[sea surface temperature]] patterns, and that it could be viewed as a combination of natural variability superimposed upon an anthropogenically forced regional drying trend.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Held |first1=I. M. |year=2005 |title=Simulation of Sahel drought in the 20th and 21st centuries |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|PNAS]] |volume=102 |issue=50 |pages=17891&ndash;17896 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0509057102 |pmid=16322101 |pmc=1312412 |bibcode = 2005PNAS..10217891H |display-authors=2 |last2=Delworth |first2=T. L. |last3=Findell |first3=K. L. |last4=Knutson |first4=T. R. |doi-access=free }}</ref> Using [[GFDL CM2.X]], these climate model simulations indicated that the general late 20th century Sahel drying trend was attributable to human-induced factors; largely due to an increase in [[greenhouse gases]] and partly due to an increase in atmospheric aerosols. A study published in 2013, done at the University of Washington, suggests that atmospheric aerosols caused a downward shift in the [[Intertropical Convergence Zone]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|date=2013|journal=Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society|volume=94|issue=9|pages=S1–S74|doi=10.1175/BAMS-D-13-00085.1|bibcode=2013BAMS...94S...1P|last1=Peterson|first1=Thomas C.|title=Explaining Extreme Events of 2012 from a Climate Perspective|last2=Hoerling|first2=Martin P.|last3=Stott|first3=Peter A.|last4=Herring|first4=Stephanie C.|doi-access=free|hdl=10261/93203|hdl-access=free}}</ref> The shift, the study says, left normally rainy areas in Central Africa much drier.<ref name=":0" /> In [[IPCC Fourth Assessment Report#Working Group I (WGI): The Physical Science Basis|IPCC future scenario A2]] (CO₂ value of ≈860 ppm) Sahel rainfall could be reduced by up to 25% by year 2100, according to climate models. A 2006 study by NOAA scientists suggests that the [[Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation]] plays a leading role. An AMO warm phase strengthens the summer rainfall over Sahel, while a cold phase reduces it.<ref name="Zhang2006">{{cite journal |last=Zhang |first=Rong |author2=Delworth, Thomas L. |year=2006 |title=Impact of Atlantic multidecadal oscillations on India/Sahel rainfall and Atlantic hurricanes |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |volume=33 |issue= 17|pages=L17712 |doi=10.1029/2006GL026267 |bibcode=2006GeoRL..3317712Z|s2cid=16588748 }}</ref> The AMO entered a warm phase in 1995 and, assuming a 70-year cycle (following peaks in ≈1880 and ≈1950), will peak around 2020.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Enfield |first=David B. |author2=Cid-Serrano, Luis |title=Secular and multidecadal warmings in the North Atlantic and their relationships with major hurricane activity |journal=International Journal of Climatology |date=2010 |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=174–184 |doi=10.1002/joc.1881|s2cid=18833210 }}</ref> A 2009 study found further evidence for a link between the AMO and West African drought.<ref name="shanahan">{{Cite journal |last1=Shanahan |first1=T. M. |last2=Overpeck |first2=J. T. |last3=Anchukaitis |first3=K. J. |year=2009 |title=Atlantic Forcing of Persistent Drought in West Africa |journal=Science |volume=324 |issue=5925 |pages=377–380 |doi=10.1126/science.1166352 |pmid=19372429 |last4=Beck |first4=JW |last5=Cole |first5=JE |last6=Dettman |first6=DL |last7=Peck |first7=JA |last8=Scholz |first8=CA |last9=King |first9=JW |bibcode=2009Sci...324..377S |citeseerx=10.1.1.366.1394 |s2cid=2679216 }}</ref> Later, a 2013 study<ref>Barandiaran and Wang (2013) http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/asl2.457/abstract</ref> found that the East Atlantic (EA) mode also modulates Sahel summer rainfall and further indicated that operational climate forecasting was unable to capture this EA impact on the Sahel. [[File:Greening Sahel 1982-1999.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Recent "greening" of the Sahel: The results of trend analyses of time series over the Sahel region of seasonally integrated NDVI using NOAA AVHRR NDVI-data from 1982 to 1999. Areas with trends of <95% probability in white.]] The recovery of Sahel drought since the 1990s, coined "Sahel Greening" by media, is accounted for by enhancements in both the tropical easterly jet and the African easterly jet, both of which are known to induce wet anomalies.<ref name="hindawi.com"/> Moreover, positional shifts in the African easterly jet and African easterly waves (AEWs) accompanied the northward migration of the Sahel rainband. Change in the African easterly jet and AEWs are coupled to a northward shift and amplification of convective activity.<ref name="hindawi.com"/> ==United Nations response== In 1973, The United Nations Sahelian Office (UNSO) was created to address the problems of drought in the Sahel region following the West African Sahel drought of 1968-73. In the 1990s, the [[United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification]] (UNCCD) was adopted and UNSO became the United Nations Development Programme's Office to Combat Desertification and Drought, as its scope broadened to be global rather than only focused on Africa.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.undp.org/drylands/history.html |title=Drylands Development Centre |publisher=UNDP |access-date=2012-09-25 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120208081007/http://www.undp.org/drylands/history.html |archive-date=2012-02-08 }}</ref> ==See also== {{Wikinews|Imminent danger of famine in the Sahel}} * [[2005–06 Niger food crisis]] * [[2010 Sahel famine]] * [[2011 East Africa drought]] * [[2020–2023 Horn of Africa drought]] * [[Desertification]] * [[Green Sahara]] * [[Great Green Wall (Africa)]] * [[List of years in the environment]] * [[Yacouba Sawadogo]] ==References== {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} ==Further reading== * {{Cite journal | last1=Dai | first1=A. | last2=Lamb | first2=P.J. | last3=Trenberth | first3=K.E. | last4=Hulme | first4=M. | last5=Jones | first5=P.D. | last6=Xie | first6=P. | year=2004 | title=The recent Sahel drought is real | journal=International Journal of Climatology | volume=24 | issue=11 | pages=1323–1331 | url= http://www.mikehulme.org/wp-content/uploads/2007/04/2004-dai-et-al-sahel.pdf | doi= 10.1002/joc.1083 |bibcode = 2004IJCli..24.1323D | s2cid=6955930 }}. * {{Cite journal |last1=Folland |first1=C. K. |last2=Palmer |first2=T. N. |last3=Parker |first3=D. E. |year=1986 |title=Sahel rainfall and worldwide sea temperatures, 1901−85 |journal=Nature |volume=320 |issue=6063 |pages=602&ndash;607 |doi=10.1038/320602a0 |bibcode = 1986Natur.320..602F |s2cid=4231823 }} * {{Cite journal |last1=Giannini |first1=A. |last2=Saravanan |first2=R. |last3=Chang |first3=P. |year=2003 |title=Oceanic Forcing of Sahel Rainfall on Interannual to Interdecadal Time Scales |journal=Science |volume=302 |issue=5647 |pages=1027&ndash;1030 |doi=10.1126/science.1089357 |pmid=14551320 |bibcode = 2003Sci...302.1027G |s2cid=25009125 }} * {{Cite book |editor-first=Michael H. |editor-last=Glantz |title=The Politics of Natural Disasters: The Case of the Sahel Drought |location=New York |publisher=Praeger |year=1976 }} ==External links== * [http://www.unccd.int/ United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification home page] * Climate research summary -[http://www.gfdl.noaa.gov/research/climate/highlights/index.html#sahel Sahel drought: past problems, an uncertain future] Text, graphics and [http://www.gfdl.noaa.gov/research/climate/highlights/images/ani/SahelPR_ANN5yr_CM2Q_h1_A1B_6fps_720x480.mov animations] from [[NOAA]] / [[Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory]] {{Authority control}} [[Category:1820s famines]] [[Category:1830s famines]] [[Category:1910s famines]] [[Category:1960s famines]] [[Category:1970s famines]] [[Category:2010s famines]] [[Category:18th-century droughts]] [[Category:19th-century droughts]] [[Category:20th-century droughts]] [[Category:21st-century droughts]] [[Category:Droughts in Africa]] [[Category:Economic history of Africa]] [[Category:Sahel]] bkfgch1a9dlqce21ecxfppih22aqh4l 0 27403 102946 102726 2026-06-15T11:33:22Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 3 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 102946 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sanitation''' refer to [[:en:Public_health|public health]] conditions wey dey relate to clean [[drinking water]] den treatment plus disposal of human ein excreta den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=sanitation {{!}} Definition of sanitation in English by Oxford Dictionaries |url=https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/sanitation |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171117175208/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/sanitation |archive-date=2017-11-17 |access-date=2026-06-09 |website=Oxford Dictionaries {{!}} English}}</ref> [[:en:Risk_management|Preventing]] human contact plus [[:en:Feces|faeces]] be part of sanitation, like washing your hand plus soap. Sanitation system dey aim to protect human health thru providing clean environment wey go stop de [[:en:Transmission_(medicine)|transmission of disease]], especially thru de fecal–oral route.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SuSanA Library - Sustainable Sanitation Alliance - SuSanA |url=https://www.susana.org/knowledge-hub/resources?id=267 |access-date=2026-06-09 |website=www.susana.org}}</ref> For example, [[:en:Diarrhea|diarrhea]], one of de main cause of [[:en:Undernutrition_in_children|malnutrition]] den [[:en:Stunted_growth|stunted growth]] insyd children, go fit be reduce thru adequate sanitation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Diarrhoeal disease |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/diarrhoeal-disease |access-date=2026-06-09 |website=www.who.int |language=en}}</ref> Oda diseases wey be easily transmitted insyd communities dat get low levels of sanitation, be [[:en:Ascariasis|ascariasis]] (a type of intestinal worm infection or [[:en:Helminthiasis|helminthiasis]]), [[:en:Cholera|cholera]], [[:en:Hepatitis|hepatitis]], [[polio]], [[:en:Schistosomiasis|schistosomiasis]], den [[:en:Trachoma|trachoma]], for now. Here be di text rewrite into natural Ghanaian Pidgin, with all references, templates, images, formatting, and citations preserved. Internal wiki links don remove while di visible text still dey. A plenty sanitation technologies plus approaches dey. Some examples be community-led total sanitation, container-based sanitation, ecological sanitation, emergency sanitation, environmental sanitation, onsite sanitation and sustainable sanitation. Sanitation system dey include how dem dey collect, store, transport, treat and finally throw away or reuse human excreta plus wastewater.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://docs.gatesfoundation.org/documents/water-sanitation-hygiene-fact-sheet-2010.pdf|title=Water Sanitation Hygiene Fact Sheet 2010|last=Gates Foundation|date=2010|website=Gates Foundation|access-date=2017-11-17|archive-date=2020-10-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201021134815/https://docs.gatesfoundation.org/documents/water-sanitation-hygiene-fact-sheet-2010.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Di reuse activities inside sanitation system fit focus on di nutrients, water, energy or organic matter wey dey inside excreta plus wastewater. Dem dey call dis one di "sanitation value chain" or "sanitation economy".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.trust.org/item/20170919145350-bovq7|title=The rise of the sanitation economy: how business can help solve a global crisis|last=Paranipe|first=Nitin|date=19 September 2017|website=Thomson Reuters Foundation News|access-date=November 13, 2017|archive-date=29 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191229085853/http://news.trust.org/item/20170919145350-bovq7/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www.toiletboard.org/media/30-Sanitation_Economy_Final.pdf|title=Introducing the Sanitation Economy|publisher=Toilet Board Coalition|year=2017|access-date=2017-12-19|archive-date=2018-07-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180731222035/http://www.toiletboard.org/media/30-Sanitation_Economy_Final.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> People wey dey clean, maintain, operate or empty any sanitation technology for any stage of di sanitation chain, dem dey call dem "sanitation workers".<ref name=":0.a">World Bank, ILO, WaterAid, and WHO (2019). [https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/3719 Health, Safety and Dignity of Sanitation Workers: An Initial Assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221211030327/https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/3719 |date=2022-12-11 }}. World Bank, Washington, DC.</ref>{{rp|2}} Different sanitation "levels" dey wey people dey use compare sanitation service levels inside countries or between countries.<ref name="Sanitation {{!}} JMP">{{Cite web|url=https://washdata.org/monitoring/sanitation|title=Sanitation {{!}} JMP|website=washdata.org|language=en|access-date=2017-11-17|archive-date=2021-07-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210721181243/https://washdata.org/monitoring/sanitation|url-status=live}}</ref> Di sanitation ladder wey Joint Monitoring Programme define for 2016 start from open defecation, then e move go "unimproved", "limited", "basic", and di highest level be "safely managed".<ref name="Sanitation {{!}} JMP" /> Dis one dey mostly apply to developing countries. Di United Nations General Assembly recognize human right to water and sanitation for 2010. Sanitation be one global development priority and e be part of Sustainable Development Goal 6.<ref name="JMP2017">WHO and UNICEF (2017) [https://washdata.org/reports Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: 2017 Update and SDG Baselines] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190725020452/https://washdata.org/reports |date=2019-07-25 }}. Geneva: World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), 2017</ref> According to estimate wey JMP release for 2017, about 4.5 billion people no get safely managed sanitation.<ref name="JMP2017" /> Lack of sanitation no dey affect only public health, e dey also affect human dignity plus personal safety. {{TOC limit|3}} == Definitions == [[File:2011 07-Internal ReinventTheToilet Animation.webm|thumb|Animated video wey dey show why sanitation (especially toilet) important for public health for developing countries]] [[File:Urban sanitation facilities vs. rural sanitation facilities, OWID.svg|thumb|upright=1.6|Urban improved sanitation facilities versus rural improved sanitation facilities, 2015.<ref>{{cite web |title=Urban sanitation facilities vs. rural sanitation facilities |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/urban-sanitation-facilities-vs-rural-sanitation-facilities |website=Our World in Data |access-date=6 March 2020 |archive-date=19 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919224224/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/urban-sanitation-facilities-vs-rural-sanitation-facilities |url-status=live }}</ref>]] Different countries plus organizations dey use di word "sanitation" small differently. World Health Organization define "sanitation" like dis: {{quote|"Sanitation generally refers to the provision of facilities and services for the safe disposal of human urine and faeces. The word 'sanitation' also refers to the maintenance of hygienic conditions, through services such as garbage collection and wastewater disposal."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.who.int/topics/sanitation/en/ |publisher=World Health Organization |work=Health topics |title=Sanitation |access-date=2020-10-05 |archive-date=2020-06-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200606233031/https://www.who.int/topics/sanitation/en/ |url-status=live }}</ref>}} Sanitation include all four technical plus non-technical systems: excreta management systems, wastewater management systems (including wastewater treatment plants), solid waste management systems and drainage systems for rainwater, wey dem dey also call stormwater drainage.{{citation needed|date=April 2020}} But plenty people for di WASH sector dey limit sanitation to only excreta management. Another example of wetin sanitation include dey inside di handbook by Sphere on "Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Humanitarian Response". Di handbook describe minimum standards for four key response sectors during humanitarian response situations. One of dem be "Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene Promotion" (WASH), and e include hygiene promotion, water supply, excreta management, vector control, solid waste management and WASH for disease outbreaks plus healthcare settings.<ref name="Sphere">Sphere Association (2018) [https://www.spherestandards.org/handbook/ The Sphere Handbook: Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Humanitarian Response] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190512070558/https://www.spherestandards.org/handbook/ |date=2019-05-12 }}, fourth edition, Geneva, Switzerland, 2018.</ref>{{rp|91}} Plenty people see hygiene promotion as important part of sanitation. Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council define sanitation as "The collection, transport, treatment and disposal or reuse of human excreta, domestic wastewater and solid waste, and associated hygiene promotion."<ref>Evans, B., van der Voorden, C., Peal, A. (2009). [http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/2010 Public Funding for Sanitation - The many faces of sanitation subsidies] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011220914/http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/2010 |date=2017-10-11 }}. Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council (WSSCC), Geneva, Switzerland, p. 35</ref> Even though sanitation include wastewater treatment, people plenty times still dey mention di two together as "sanitation and wastewater management". Another definition dey inside DFID guidance manual on water supply and sanitation programmes from 1998:<ref>WELL (1998) [https://web.archive.org/web/20220120043854/https://www.lboro.ac.uk/orgs/well/resources/Publications/guidance-manual/chapter-1.pdf DFID guidance manual on water supply and sanitation programmes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120043854/https://www.lboro.ac.uk/orgs/well/resources/Publications/guidance-manual/chapter-1.pdf |date=2022-01-20 }} WELL Loughborough University UK</ref> {{quote|"For the purposes of this manual, the word 'sanitation' alone is taken to mean the safe management of human excreta. It therefore includes both the 'hardware' (e.g. latrines and sewers) and the 'software' (regulation, hygiene promotion) needed to reduce faecal-oral disease transmission. It encompasses too the re-use and ultimate disposal of human excreta. The term environmental sanitation is used to cover the wider concept of controlling all the factors in the physical environment which may have deleterious impacts on human health and well-being. In developing countries, it normally includes drainage, solid waste management, and vector control, in addition to the activities covered by the definition of sanitation."|author=|title=|source=}} Sanitation fit include personal sanitation plus public hygiene. Personal sanitation work fit include handling menstrual waste, cleaning household toilets and managing household garbage. Public sanitation work fit include garbage collection, transfer plus treatment (municipal solid waste management), cleaning drains, streets, schools, trains, public spaces, community toilets and public toilets, sewers, operating sewage treatment plants and more.<ref name="PRIA">PRIA (2019): [https://pria.org/knowledge_resource/1560777260_Occasional%20Paper%204%20(2019)%20(Lived%20Realities%20of%20Women%20Sanitation%20Workers%20i....pdf Lived Realities of Women Sanitation Workers in India: Insights from a Participatory Research Conducted in Three Cities of India] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221211030322/https://pria.org/knowledge_resource/1560777260_Occasional%20Paper%204%20%282019%29%20%28Lived%20Realities%20of%20Women%20Sanitation%20Workers%20i....pdf |date=2022-12-11 }}. Participatory Research in Asia, New Delhi, India</ref>{{rp|4}} Workers wey dey provide these services for other people, dem dey call dem sanitation workers. == Purposes == {{owidslider |start = 2021 |list = Template:OWID/death rate from unsafe sanitation gbd#gallery |location = commons |caption = |title = |language = |file = [[File:Death rate from unsafe sanitation gbd, World, 2021 (cropped).svg|link=|thumb|upright=1.6|Death rate from unsafe sanitation gbd]] |startingView = World }} [[File:2016 EPI Environmental Health Objective - Water and Sanitation (26170609358).jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.6|Access to safe drinking water and sanitation (2016)]] Di main purpose of sanitation na to make everywhere healthy for everybody to live, protect natural resources like surface water, groundwater and soil, plus make sure say people get safety, security and dignity anytime dem wan ease demselves (defecate or urinate).{{cn|date=May 2024}} The Human Right to Water and Sanitation be recognized by the United Nations (UN) General Assembly for 2010.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://s3.amazonaws.com/berkley-center/100308UNARES64292.pdf|title=General Assembly|access-date=2019-11-25|archive-date=2017-03-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170319023103/https://s3.amazonaws.com/berkley-center/100308UNARES64292.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Human Rights Council resolution 15/9, ''Human rights and access to safe drinking water and sanitation'', (6 October 2010), available from https://web.archive.org/web/20170517121015/http://www.right2water.eu/sites/water/files/UNHRC {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517121015/http://www.right2water.eu/sites/water/files/UNHRC |date=2017-05-17 }}</ref><ref name="HRWS2015">{{Cite web|url=http://www.endwaterpoverty.org/sites/endwaterpoverty.org/files/The%20Human%20Rights%20To%20Water%20And%20Sanitation%20UN%20resolution.pdf|title=The human rights to safe drinking water and sanitation|access-date=2019-11-25|archive-date=2017-08-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170825141743/http://www.endwaterpoverty.org/sites/endwaterpoverty.org/files/The}}</ref> Dem recognize am too under international law through human rights treaties, declarations and oda standards. E come from di human right to adequate standard of living.<ref>Right to water and sanitation derive from the right to an adequate standard of living. http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=10403&LangID=E {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220306080254/http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=10403&LangID=E |date=2022-03-06 }}</ref> Good sanitation systems dey create barrier between human waste and people so diseases no go spread. This one dey break disease transmission cycle, especially diseases wey dey spread through faeces.<ref>Thor Axel Stenström (2005) [https://web.archive.org/web/20081122002145/http://conference2005.ecosan.org/papers/stenstrom.pdf Breaking the sanitation barriers; WHO Guidelines for excreta use as a baseline for environmental health] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081122002145/http://conference2005.ecosan.org/papers/stenstrom.pdf |date=2008-11-22 }}, Ecosan Conference, Durban, South Africa</ref> Dem dey show this concept with the F-diagram, where all di main ways faecal-oral diseases dey spread start with letter F: feces, fingers, flies, fields, fluids and food.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Conant|first1=Jeff|title=Sanitation and Cleanliness for a Healthy Environment|date=2005|publisher=The Hesperian Foundation in collaboration with the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Sida|location=Berkeley, California, USA|page=6|url=http://www.unwater.org/downloads/EHB_Sanitation_EN_lowres.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141021110930/http://www.unwater.org/downloads/EHB_Sanitation_EN_lowres.pdf|archive-date=2014-10-21}}</ref> Sanitation infrastructure suppose fit the place where e dey, including wetin users expect and the local resources wey dey available.{{cn|date=May 2024}} Sanitation technology fit include big centralized civil engineering structures like sewer systems, sewage treatment plants, surface runoff treatment systems and solid waste landfills. Dem build these systems to treat wastewater and municipal solid waste. E fit also be simple onsite sanitation systems like pit latrines or oda dry toilets for managing human excreta. If people wan get proper sanitation, dem no suppose focus only on toilet, fecal sludge management or wastewater treatment plant alone.<ref name="Tilley">Tilley, E., Ulrich, L., Lüthi, C., Reymond, Ph. and Zurbrügg, C. (2014). [http://www.sandec.ch/compendium Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies. 2nd Revised Edition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210828225257/https://www.eawag.ch/en/department/sandec/publications/compendium/ |date=2021-08-28 }}. Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag), Duebendorf, Switzerland</ref> Di whole sanitation chain matter, from how user use am, how dem collect excreta and wastewater, transport am, treat am, then either reuse or dispose am. All these parts need proper planning.<ref name="Tilley"/> === Economic impacts === The benefits wey society get from proper human waste management be plenty, both for public health and the environment. Rough estimate show say every US$1 wey people spend on sanitation dey return about US$5.50 back to society.<ref>{{Cite book|last=WWAP (United Nations World Water Assessment Programme)|url=http://www.unwater.org/publications/publications-detail/en/c/853650/|title=The United Nations World Water Development Report 2017. Wastewater: The Untapped Resource|year=2017|isbn=978-92-3-100201-4|location=Paris|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170408061139/http://www.unwater.org/publications/publications-detail/en/c/853650/|archive-date=2017-04-08}}</ref>{{rp|2}} For developing countries, poor sanitation dey cause serious economic losses. According to one World Bank study, India lose about 6.4% of its GDP because sanitation no dey adequate.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=WSP|title=The economic Impacts of Inadequate Sanitation in India.|publisher=Water and Sanitation Programme, The World Bank|year=2011}}</ref> Most of these losses come from premature deaths, time wey people waste to get sanitation services, reduced productivity, plus extra healthcare costs.<ref name=":4" /> Poor sanitation dey also reduce tourism income.<ref name=":4" /> Di study show say poor people, women and children dey suffer pass. On the other hand, when toilet dey house, e dey improve women's economic wellbeing because e dey help increase literacy and participation for labour force.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gius|first1=Mark|last2=Subramanian|first2=Ramesh|date=2015|title=The Relationship between Inadequate Sanitation Facilities and the Economic Well-Being of Women in India|journal=Journal of Economics and Development Studies|volume=3|issue=1|doi=10.15640/jeds.v3n1a2|doi-broken-date=12 July 2025 |issn=2334-2382|doi-access=free}}</ref> == Types and concepts (for excreta management) == [[File:Percentage of population served by different types of sanitation systems.png|thumb|upright=1.4|Percentage of population served by different types of sanitation systems<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www.unwater.org/publications/publications-detail/en/c/853650/|title=The United Nations World Water Development Report 2017. Wastewater: The Untapped Resource|last=WWAP (United Nations World Water Assessment Programme)|year=2017|isbn=978-92-3-100201-4|location=Paris|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170408061139/http://www.unwater.org/publications/publications-detail/en/c/853650/|archive-date=2017-04-08}}</ref>]] [[File:Shower, double-vault urine-diverting dry toilet (UDDT) and waterless urinal in Lima, Peru.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Example of sanitation infrastructure: Shower, double-vault urine-diverting dry toilet (UDDT) and waterless urinal in Lima, Peru]] Di word "sanitation" dey come with different descriptions to show different sanitation systems. Some dey manage only human excreta while others dey include greywater, stormwater and solid waste management too. ===Basic sanitation=== For 2017, JMP introduce one new term wey dem call "basic sanitation service". This one mean say people dey use improved sanitation facilities wey dem no dey share with other households. Lower level dey called "limited sanitation service", wey mean say two or more households dey share the same improved sanitation facility.<ref name="JMP2017"/> === Container-based sanitation === {{excerpt|Container-based sanitation|paragraphs=1|file=no}} === Community-based sanitation === Community-based sanitation dey relate to decentralized wastewater treatment (DEWATS).{{cn|date=May 2024}} === Community-led total sanitation === {{excerpt|Community-led total sanitation|paragraphs=1|file=no}} === Dry sanitation === The term "dry sanitation" no too common and e no get one clear definition. Normally e mean sanitation system wey dey use dry toilets and no dey use sewers to transport human waste. Plenty times, when people talk "dry sanitation", dem dey refer to systems wey dey use urine-diverting dry toilets (UDDTs).<ref name="Platzer">Platzer, C., Hoffmann, H., Ticona, E. (2008). [http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/961 Alternatives to waterborne sanitation – a comparative study – limits and potentials] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171009041929/http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/961 |date=2017-10-09 }}. IRC Symposium: Sanitation for the urban poor – partnerships and governance, Delft, The Netherlands</ref><ref name="Flores">Flores, A. (2010). [http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/1172 ''Towards sustainable sanitation: evaluating the sustainability of resource-oriented sanitation''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629180540/http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/1172 |date=2017-06-29 }}. PhD Thesis, University of Cambridge, UK</ref> === Ecological sanitation === {{excerpt|Ecological sanitation|paragraphs=1|file=no}} [[File:Emergency pit lining kits by Evenproducts (6619616945).jpg|thumb|Emergency pit lining kits by Evenproducts]] === Emergency sanitation === {{Excerpt|Emergency sanitation|paragraphs=1|file=no}} === Environmental sanitation === Environmental sanitation dey involve controlling environmental factors wey fit spread diseases. E include solid waste management, water and wastewater treatment, industrial waste treatment and noise pollution control. According to World Health Organization (WHO), environmental sanitation na control of all physical environmental factors wey fit negatively affect human physical development, health and survival. One of the main purposes of environmental sanitation na to protect public health.{{cn|date=May 2024}} [[File:Environmental_sanitation.jpg|thumb|Environmental sanitation by an NGO member]] [[File:Environmental_clean_up_in_UNN.jpg|thumb|A clean exercise organized by an NGO]] === Fecal sludge management === {{Excerpt|Fecal sludge management|paragraphs=1|file=no}} === Improved and unimproved sanitation === {{Excerpt|Improved sanitation|paragraphs=1|file=no}} === Lack of sanitation === Lack of sanitation mean say sanitation no dey available. For practical terms, e usually mean say toilet no dey or hygienic toilet no dey wey people go like use. The result usually be open defecation, plus open urination, wey dey cause serious public health problems.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Mara|first=Duncan|date=2017|title=The elimination of open defecation and its adverse health effects: a moral imperative for governments and development professionals|url=http://washdev.iwaponline.com/content/7/1/1|journal=Journal of Water Sanitation and Hygiene for Development|language=en|volume=7|issue=1|pages=1–12|doi=10.2166/washdev.2017.027|issn=2043-9083|doi-access=free|bibcode=2017JWSHD...7....1M |access-date=2017-08-17|archive-date=2018-06-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180621085738/http://washdev.iwaponline.com/content/7/1/1|url-status=live}}</ref> As of 2015, estimate show say 2.4 billion people still no get improved sanitation facilities, including 660 million people wey no get access to safe drinking water.<ref name="sanitation">WHO and UNICEF ''[http://www.washdata.org/reports Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2015 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210212123015/https://washdata.org/reports |date=2021-02-12 }}'', WHO, Geneva and UNICEF, New York</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|title=On Water|url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/eib-big-ideas-on-water|access-date=2020-12-07|website=European Investment Bank|year=2019|doi=10.2867/509830|language=en|author1=European Investment Bank|publisher=Publications Office |isbn=978-92-861-4319-9|archive-date=2020-11-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129051604/https://www.eib.org/en/publications/eib-big-ideas-on-water|url-status=live}}</ref> === Onsite sanitation or non-sewered sanitation system === Onsite sanitation (or on-site sanitation) na sanitation system where dem dey collect, store or treat excreta and wastewater for the same place where e come from.<ref name="Tilley" />{{rp|173}} Another name be non-sewered sanitation systems (NSSS), and plenty countries dey use am.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Cheng |first1=Shikun |last2=Long |first2=Jinyun |last3=Evans |first3=Barbara |last4=Zhan |first4=Zhe |last5=Li |first5=Tianxin |last6=Chen |first6=Cong |last7=Mang |first7=Heinz-Peter |last8=Li |first8=Zifu |date=2022 |title=Non-negligible greenhouse gas emissions from non-sewered sanitation systems: A meta-analysis |journal=Environmental Research |language=en |volume=212 |issue=Pt D |article-number=113468 |doi=10.1016/j.envres.2022.113468 |pmc=9227720 |pmid=35597295|bibcode= 2022ER....21213468C|doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171016050101/https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ |date=2017-10-16 }}</ref> NSSS dey play important role for safe fecal sludge management and e account for about half of all sanitation systems wey dey exist.<ref name=":1" /> Treatment level fit range from no treatment at all to advanced treatment. Examples include pit latrines and septic tanks. Onsite sanitation systems often connect to fecal sludge management (FSM), where dem carry the sludge go another place for treatment. Wastewater (sewage) dey happen only where piped water supply dey inside or close to buildings.{{cn|date=May 2024}} One related term be decentralized wastewater system, wey dey refer mainly to the wastewater side of onsite sanitation. In the same way, onsite sewage facility fit treat wastewater locally.{{cn|date=May 2024}} Global methane emissions from NSSS for 2020 be estimated at 377 Mt CO2e every year, about 4.7% of all human-caused methane emissions worldwide. This amount dey almost equal emissions from wastewater treatment plants, meaning say NSSS greenhouse gas emissions no be small issue.<ref name=":1" /> ===Safely managed sanitation=== [[File:Share of population using safely managed sanitation facilities, OWID.svg|thumb|Share of population using safely managed sanitation facilities in 2022<ref>Ritchie, Roser, Mispy, Ortiz-Ospina (2018) [https://sdg-tracker.org/water-and-sanitation "Measuring progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals." (SDG 6)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101050352/https://sdg-tracker.org/water-and-sanitation |date=2020-11-01 }} ''SDG-Tracker.org, website''</ref>]] [[File:Proportion of population with basic handwashing facilities on premises, OWID.svg|thumb|Number of handwashing facilities in the world, 2022|alt=]] Safely managed sanitation na the highest level of household sanitation under Sustainable Development Goal Number 6.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=Joint Monitoring Programme of UNICEF and WHO |title=JMP - Sanitation |url=https://washdata.org/monitoring/sanitation |access-date=25 February 2021 |website=washdata.org |archive-date=21 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210721181243/https://washdata.org/monitoring/sanitation |url-status=live }}</ref> Dem dey measure am under Sustainable Development Goal 6.2, Indicator 6.2.1.<ref name="unwater">{{cite web |title=Indicator 6.2.1 - Proportion of population using safely managed sanitation services, including a handwashing facility with soap and water |url=https://www.sdg6monitoring.org/indicator-621/ |website=sdg6monitoring.org |publisher=UN Water |access-date=25 February 2021 |archive-date=3 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210303212826/https://www.sdg6monitoring.org/indicator-621/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="JMP2017" /> According to United Nations estimate for 2024, about 3.4 billion people still no get safely managed sanitation.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Martin |title=Water and Sanitation |url=https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/water-and-sanitation/ |access-date=2025-08-13 |website=United Nations Sustainable Development |language=en-US}}</ref> Safely managed sanitation mean improved sanitation facility wey households no dey share, plus dem dey safely treat and dispose the excreta either for the same place, carry am elsewhere for treatment, or pass am through sewer before treatment.<ref name="unwater" /><ref name="JMP2017"/> === Sustainable sanitation === {{Excerpt|Sustainable sanitation|paragraphs=1|file=no}} == Other types, concepts and systems == === Wastewater management === {{Main|Wastewater|Wastewater treatment}} [[File:Wonga wetlands sewage plant.jpg|thumb|Sewage treatment plant, Australia.]] Wastewater management be di collection, wastewater treatment (whether na municipal or industrial wastewater), disposal or reuse of treated wastewater. Dem dey also call di reuse of treated wastewater "water reclamation".{{cn|date=May 2024}} For developed countries, sanitation systems for urban areas usually include collection of wastewater through gravity-driven sewer systems, treatment for wastewater treatment plants, den reuse or disposal into rivers, lakes or di sea.{{cn|date=May 2024}} For developing countries, most wastewater still dey enter di environment without any treatment.<ref>{{cite web |author=Nallapaneni Sasidhar |year=2026 |url=https://www.ijee.latticescipub.com/wp-content/uploads/papers/v6i1/A187206010526.pdf |title=Economically Viable Nature-based Sewage Treatment Method by Using Life Cycles of Mosquitoes and Non-biting Midges|publisher=Indian Journal of Environment Engineering}}</ref> Other options instead of centralized sewer systems include onsite sanitation, decentralized wastewater systems, dry toilets linked to fecal sludge management. === Stormwater drainage === {{Main|Storm drain}} Sewer systems fit either combine with storm drains or dem separate am as sanitary sewers. Combined sewers mostly dey older central parts of urban areas. Heavy rainfall plus poor maintenance fit cause combined sewer overflows or sanitary sewer overflows, wey mean raw sewage wey dilute small or plenty fit flow enter di environment. Industries too fit discharge wastewater into municipal sewers, and dat one fit make wastewater treatment hard unless dem pre-treat dia wastewater first.<ref>''Environmental Biotechnology: Advancement in Water And Wastewater Application'', edited by Z. Ujang, IWA Proceedings, Malaysia (2003)</ref> ===Solid waste disposal=== {{Main|Waste management}} [[File:Israel hiriya.jpg|thumb|left|Hiriya Landfill, Israel.]] Solid waste disposal mostly happen for landfills, but people dey also use incineration, recycling, composting and conversion into biofuels. For landfills, advanced countries usually get strict rules for covering di waste every day with topsoil, while underdeveloped countries mostly follow less strict rules.<ref>George Tchobanoglous and Frank Kreith ''Handbook of Solid Waste Management'', McGraw Hill (2002)</ref> Daily cover help reduce contact between disease vectors and waste, stop pathogens from spreading, reduce bad smell, and prevent litter from blowing away. Developed countries also usually require proper sealing around landfills with clay-rich soils to stop leachate from entering groundwater and contaminating some drinking water sources. For incineration, one disadvantage be say e fit release air pollutants, including some toxic substances. Recycling and biofuel production generally be more sustainable options because dem usually get lower lifecycle costs, especially when people consider all ecological impacts.<ref>William D. Robinson, ''The Solid Waste Handbook: A Practical Guide'', John Wiley and sons (1986)</ref> Di value of composting finally depend on whether people dey demand compost products for di market.{{cn|date=May 2024}} ===Food safety=== [[File:Canteen kitchen.jpg|thumb|left|Modern restaurant food preparation area.]] {{Main|Food safety}} For di food industry, sanitation mean proper cleaning and treatment of surfaces wey touch food. Di process suppose destroy harmful microorganisms wey fit affect public health and greatly reduce other unwanted microorganisms without affecting di food or making am unsafe for consumers (U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Code of Federal Regulations, 21CFR110, USA). Sanitation Standard Operating Procedures be compulsory for food industries in United States. For Japan too, food hygiene must follow di country's food sanitation law.<ref name="fslj">{{cite web|url=http://www.jetro.go.jp/en/market/regulations/pdf/food-e.pdf|title=Food Sanitation Law in Japan|last=Japan External Trade Organization|author-link=Japan External Trade Organization|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080409155125/http://www.jetro.go.jp/en/market/regulations/pdf/food-e.pdf|archive-date=9 April 2008|access-date=1 March 2008}}</ref> For di food and biopharmaceutical industries, "sanitary equipment" mean equipment wey people fit clean completely with clean-in-place (CIP) and sterilization-in-place (SIP) procedures. Di equipment suppose drain cleaning solutions and other liquids completely. Di design too suppose reduce deadlegs, or areas where cleaning no dey create enough turbulence to remove product deposits.<ref>[http://scitation.aip.org/getabs/servlet/GetabsServlet?prog=normal&id=JFEGA4000127000001000124000001&idtype=cvips&gifs=yes Treatment of deadleg plumbing areas]</ref> Normally, dem make this equipment from Stainless Steel 316L, an alloy wey contain small amounts of molybdenum. Dem usually electropolish di surface to roughness below 0.5 micrometre to reduce bacterial attachment. === Hygiene promotion === {{Further|Hygiene}} [[File:Hygiene education.jpg|thumb|left|Hygiene education (on proper handwashing) in Afghanistan]] For many places, just providing sanitation facilities no guarantee say people go enjoy good health. Research show say good hygiene practices get almost di same impact on sanitation-related diseases as providing sanitation facilities. Because of dat, hygiene promotion be important part of sanitation and e dey help maintain good health.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Reed|first1=Brian|title=Managing hygiene promotion in WASH programmes|last2=Bevan|first2=Jane|publisher=Water, Engineering and Development Centre (WEDC), Loughborough University|year=2014|isbn=978-1-84380-168-9|location=Leicestershire, UK}}</ref> Hygiene promotion be planned approach wey help people change dia behaviour to reduce or prevent water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) related diseases.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021|title=2021 water, sanitation and hygiene barometer|url=https://www.solidarites.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/water-barometer-2021.pdf|website=SOLIDARITÉS INTERNATIONAL|access-date=2021-04-13|archive-date=2021-03-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210325000242/https://www.solidarites.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/water-barometer-2021.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> E usually involve people directly so dem go take responsibility for WASH services and infrastructure, including operation and maintenance. Di three main parts of hygiene promotion be sharing information and knowledge, mobilizing affected communities, and providing essential materials and facilities.<ref name="Sphere" /> == Health aspects == [[File:F-diagram-01.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|The "F-diagram" (feces, fingers, flies, fields, fluids, food), showing pathways of fecal-oral disease transmission. The vertical blue lines show barriers: toilets, safe water, hygiene and handwashing.]] [[File:Dalberg Water Week Final.webm|thumb|A video wey show di unsafe and undignified working conditions of many sanitation workers for India]] {{Main|WASH#Health aspects}} {{excerpt|WASH#WASH-attributable burden of diseases and injuries|paragraphs=1-2|file=no}} == Environmental aspects == === Indicator organisms === When people dey analyze environmental samples, dem dey use different indicator organisms to check whether fecal pollution dey inside. Common indicators for bacteriological water analysis include di bacterium ''Escherichia coli'' (short form ''E. coli'') and non-specific fecal coliforms. For samples of soil, sewage sludge, biosolids or fecal matter from dry toilets, helminth eggs be one common indicator. During helminth egg analysis, dem extract di eggs from di sample, then carry out viability test to separate viable eggs from non-viable ones. After dat, dem count di viable helminth eggs. == Climate change == {{Main|WASH#Climate change aspects}} == Global mechanisms == === Sustainable Development Goal Number 6 === {{Further|Sustainable Development Goal 6}} [[File:Sustainable Development Goal 6.png|thumb|left|United Nations SDG 6 Logo]] For 2016, di Sustainable Development Goals replace di Millennium Development Goals. Sanitation be one global development priority and e dey inside Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG 6).<ref name="JMP2017" /> Di target be "clean water and sanitation for all" by 2030.<ref name="SDG6">{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/water-and-sanitation/|title=Goal 6: Ensure access to water and sanitation for all|access-date=2017-11-17|archive-date=2019-04-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190416212832/https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/water-and-sanitation/|url-status=live}}</ref> As of 2015, about 660 million people still no get access to safe drinking water.<ref name="sanitation" /><ref name=":5" /> Since di COVID-19 pandemic start for 2020, di fight for clean water and sanitation become even more important. Handwashing be one of di main ways to prevent Coronavirus, but two out of every five people still no get access to handwashing facilities.<ref>{{Cite web|last=UN|title=Water and Sanitation|url=https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/water-and-sanitation/|access-date=2021-01-04|website=United Nations Sustainable Development|language=en-US|archive-date=2019-04-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190416212832/https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/water-and-sanitation/|url-status=live}}</ref> == References == lqvn5fyi2ui5143uum1hle0xlvri819 0 27405 102910 101261 2026-06-15T05:42:58Z Achiri Bitamsimli 64 Added more content 102910 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Open defecation''' be de human practice for [[:en:Defecating|defecating]] outside ("for de open") rather than for [[:en:Toilet|toilet]]. People dey choose fields, bushes, forests, ditches, streets, canals, plus oder open spaces for defecation. Dey do so either because dey no get toilet wey be accessible or due to dema archaic traditional cultural practices.<ref>{{Cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Clasen T, Boisson S, Routray P, Torondel B, Bell M, Cumming O, Ensink J, Freeman M, Jenkins M, Odagiri M, Ray S, Sinha A, Suar M, Schmidt WP |date=November 2014 |title=Effectiveness of a rural sanitation program on diarrhea, soil-transmitted helminth infection, and child malnutrition in Odisha, India: a cluster-randomized trial |journal=The Lancet. Global Health |volume=2 |issue=11 |pages=e645-53 |doi=10.1016/S2214-109X(14)70307-9 |pmid=25442689 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De practice be common where sanitation infrastructure den services no dey available. Even if toilets dey available, behavior change efforts go be needed to promote de use of toilets. 'Open defecation free' (ODF) be term used to describe communities dat make de shift to dey use toilets instead of open defecation. Dis go fit happen, for example, afta [[:en:Community-led_total_sanitation|community-led total sanitation]] programs get implemention. Open defecation go fit pollute de environment den cause health problems den diseases. High levels of open defecation dey link to high [[:en:Child_mortality|child mortality]], poor [[:en:Undernutrition|nutrition]], [[:en:Poverty|poverty]], plus large disparities between rich den poor people.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/2036 |title=Progress on drinking water and sanitation, 2014 Update |date=2014 |publisher=WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (JMP) |isbn=978-92-4-150724-0 |access-date=12 March 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> '''Open defecation''' na when person go ease body for outside ("for open place") instead of inside [[toilet]]. People fit go farm, bush, forest, gutter, street, canal, or any oda open place go ease body. Dem dey do am because dem no get toilet wey dey easy for dem to use, or because of old traditional cultural practices.<ref name="ClasenBoisson2014">{{cite journal | vauthors = Clasen T, Boisson S, Routray P, Torondel B, Bell M, Cumming O, Ensink J, Freeman M, Jenkins M, Odagiri M, Ray S, Sinha A, Suar M, Schmidt WP | display-authors = 6 | title = Effectiveness of a rural sanitation program on diarrhea, soil-transmitted helminth infection, and child malnutrition in Odisha, India: a cluster-randomized trial | journal = The Lancet. Global Health | volume = 2 | issue = 11 | pages = e645-53 | date = November 2014 | pmid = 25442689 | doi = 10.1016/S2214-109X(14)70307-9 | doi-access = free }}</ref> This practice dey common for places wey [[sanitation]] infrastructure and services no dey. Even if toilet dey, people fit still need [[Behavior change (public health)|behavior change]] programs make dem start use toilet. "Open defecation free" (ODF) na term wey dem dey use for communities wey stop open defecation and begin dey use toilets. This one fit happen after [[community-led total sanitation]] programs. Open defecation fit pollute environment and cause health problems plus diseases. Plenty open defecation dey linked to high [[child mortality]], poor [[undernutrition|nutrition]], [[poverty]], and big gap between rich and poor people.<ref name="JMP2014">{{cite book|url=http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/2036|title=Progress on drinking water and sanitation, 2014 Update|date=2014|publisher=WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (JMP)|isbn=978-92-4-150724-0|access-date=12 March 2015|archive-date=2 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402115029/http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/2036|url-status=live}}</ref> Ending open defecation be one indicator wey dem dey use check progress toward [[Sustainable Development Goal 6|Sustainable Development Goal Number 6]]. Extreme poverty and lack of sanitation dey strongly linked by statistics. Because of dat, ending open defecation dey be important part of effort to end poverty.<ref name="Ahmad">{{cite news|last=Junaid Ahmad|date=30 October 2014|title=How to eliminate open defecation by 2030|website=Devex|url=https://www.devex.com/news/how-to-eliminate-open-defecation-by-2030-84634|url-status=live|access-date=2 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160601220402/https://www.devex.com/news/how-to-eliminate-open-defecation-by-2030-84634|archive-date=1 June 2016}}</ref> For 2022, about 420 million people (5.25% of the world's population) still dey practice open defecation. This number reduce well from about 1.31 billion people (21.42%) for 2000, wey mean reduction of about 890 million people or 16.17 percentage points within 22 years. Out of everybody wey still dey practice open defecation, 275 million (65.6%) dey live for just seven countries. For example, for India, the number reduce by 62% (from 73% for 2000 to 7% for 2024), showing the country's big effort to achieve [[Sustainable Development Goals]] by 2030.<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=29 June 2024 |title=Sustainable Development Goals National Indicator Framework |url=https://www.mospi.gov.in/sites/default/files/publication_reports/SDG-NIF-ProgressReport-FullFile-v4N.pdf |access-date=2 September 2024 |website=Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation |archive-date=30 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240630172041/https://mospi.gov.in/sites/default/files/publication_reports/SDG-NIF-ProgressReport-FullFile-v4N.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Even though progress don happen,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2019-12-02 |title=Rural India achieved 100 pc ODF status: Govt |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/rural-india-achieved-100-pc-odf-status-govt/articleshow/72337872.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2026-01-25 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}}</ref> India still get the biggest number of people wey dey practice open defecation, followed by Nigeria, Ethiopia, Niger and Pakistan as of 2023 according to the World Bank.<ref name=":2" /> {{TOC limit|3}} == Overview == Long time ago, when land plenty and population no too much, open defecation be common practice and e no bring plenty health and hygiene problems. But as development and urbanization increase, open defecation turn serious [[public health]] matter and issue of human [[dignity]].<ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = O'Reilly K |date=2016-01-01|title=From toilet insecurity to toilet security: creating safe sanitation for women and girls|journal=Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water|language=en|volume=3|issue=1|pages=19–24|doi=10.1002/wat2.1122|bibcode=2016WIRWa...3...19O |s2cid=109965522|issn=2049-1948}}</ref> As population continue increase for towns and cities, people begin pay more attention to hygiene and health. Because of dat, global efforts to reduce open defecation also increase.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2017/08/toilet-defecate-outdoors-stunting-sanitation/|title=Nearly a Billion People Still Defecate Outdoors. Here's Why.|date=2017-07-25|access-date=2017-10-04|archive-date=5 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171005050709/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2017/08/toilet-defecate-outdoors-stunting-sanitation/}}</ref> Open defecation dey continue the cycle of [[Diseases of poverty|disease and poverty]], and many people see am as something wey dey take away human dignity.<ref name="JMP2014" /> Countries wey open defecation dey common pass also get the highest number of [[Child mortality|children under five wey dey die]], high levels of [[Malnutrition|undernutrition]], high poverty, and wide gap between rich and poor people.<ref name="JMP2014" /> <gallery> Waste dumping in a slum of Cap-Haitien.jpg|Indiscriminate waste dumping and open defecation (from animals), Shadda, Cap-Haitien, Haiti Open defecation along the river bank (6908382463).jpg|Evidence of open defecation along a riverbank in Bujumbura, Burundi Child in open sewer in Nigeria (3150664698).jpg|Child wey dey ease body for open canal for Gege slum inside Ibadan, Nigeria Open defecation in Tirin Kowt bazaar (4361881653).jpg|Open defecation for Tirin Kowt bazaar, Afghanistan </gallery>== Terminology == The term "open defecation" start become common for the water, sanitation, and hygiene ([[WASH]]) sector around 2008. This happen because of publications by the [[Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] (JMP) and the UN [[International Year of Sanitation]]. The [[Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation|JMP]] na joint program by [[World Health Organization|WHO]] and [[UNICEF]]. Before, dem dey monitor the water and sanitation targets under the [[Millennium Development Goals|Millennium Development Goals]] (MDGs), but now dem dey monitor [[Sustainable Development Goal 6|Sustainable Development Goal Number 6]]. For monitoring MDG Number 7, dem create two categories: (1) [[improved sanitation]] and (2) [[unimproved sanitation]]. Open defecation fall under unimproved sanitation. This mean say people wey dey practice open defecation no get access to improved sanitation facilities.{{citation needed|date=September 2024}} For 2013, [[World Toilet Day]] become official UN day for the first time. The term "open defecation" appear for many high-level speeches, and e help bring worldwide attention to the issue. One example na the "call to action" on sanitation wey the Deputy Secretary-General of the United Nations release for March 2013.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/pdf/DSG%20sanitation%20two-pager%20FINAL.pdf|title=United Nations Deputy Secretary-General's Call to Action on Sanitation|date=2013|website=United Nations|access-date=19 October 2014|archive-date=1 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150601174853/http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/pdf/DSG%20sanitation%20two-pager%20FINAL.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> == References == 7vi832kgcxmvrdz7lm2mrbk5coqsjar 102911 102910 2026-06-15T05:46:20Z Achiri Bitamsimli 64 Added more content 102911 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Open defecation''' be de human practice for [[:en:Defecating|defecating]] outside ("for de open") rather than for [[:en:Toilet|toilet]]. People dey choose fields, bushes, forests, ditches, streets, canals, plus oder open spaces for defecation. Dey do so either because dey no get toilet wey be accessible or due to dema archaic traditional cultural practices.<ref>{{Cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Clasen T, Boisson S, Routray P, Torondel B, Bell M, Cumming O, Ensink J, Freeman M, Jenkins M, Odagiri M, Ray S, Sinha A, Suar M, Schmidt WP |date=November 2014 |title=Effectiveness of a rural sanitation program on diarrhea, soil-transmitted helminth infection, and child malnutrition in Odisha, India: a cluster-randomized trial |journal=The Lancet. Global Health |volume=2 |issue=11 |pages=e645-53 |doi=10.1016/S2214-109X(14)70307-9 |pmid=25442689 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De practice be common where sanitation infrastructure den services no dey available. Even if toilets dey available, behavior change efforts go be needed to promote de use of toilets. 'Open defecation free' (ODF) be term used to describe communities dat make de shift to dey use toilets instead of open defecation. Dis go fit happen, for example, afta [[:en:Community-led_total_sanitation|community-led total sanitation]] programs get implemention. Open defecation go fit pollute de environment den cause health problems den diseases. High levels of open defecation dey link to high [[:en:Child_mortality|child mortality]], poor [[:en:Undernutrition|nutrition]], [[:en:Poverty|poverty]], plus large disparities between rich den poor people.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/2036 |title=Progress on drinking water and sanitation, 2014 Update |date=2014 |publisher=WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (JMP) |isbn=978-92-4-150724-0 |access-date=12 March 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> '''Open defecation''' na when person go ease body for outside ("for open place") instead of inside [[toilet]]. People fit go farm, bush, forest, gutter, street, canal, or any oda open place go ease body. Dem dey do am because dem no get toilet wey dey easy for dem to use, or because of old traditional cultural practices.<ref name="ClasenBoisson2014">{{cite journal | vauthors = Clasen T, Boisson S, Routray P, Torondel B, Bell M, Cumming O, Ensink J, Freeman M, Jenkins M, Odagiri M, Ray S, Sinha A, Suar M, Schmidt WP | display-authors = 6 | title = Effectiveness of a rural sanitation program on diarrhea, soil-transmitted helminth infection, and child malnutrition in Odisha, India: a cluster-randomized trial | journal = The Lancet. Global Health | volume = 2 | issue = 11 | pages = e645-53 | date = November 2014 | pmid = 25442689 | doi = 10.1016/S2214-109X(14)70307-9 | doi-access = free }}</ref> This practice dey common for places wey [[sanitation]] infrastructure and services no dey. Even if toilet dey, people fit still need [[Behavior change (public health)|behavior change]] programs make dem start use toilet. "Open defecation free" (ODF) na term wey dem dey use for communities wey stop open defecation and begin dey use toilets. This one fit happen after [[community-led total sanitation]] programs. Open defecation fit pollute environment and cause health problems plus diseases. Plenty open defecation dey linked to high [[child mortality]], poor [[undernutrition|nutrition]], [[poverty]], and big gap between rich and poor people.<ref name="JMP2014">{{cite book|url=http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/2036|title=Progress on drinking water and sanitation, 2014 Update|date=2014|publisher=WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (JMP)|isbn=978-92-4-150724-0|access-date=12 March 2015|archive-date=2 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402115029/http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/2036|url-status=live}}</ref> Ending open defecation be one indicator wey dem dey use check progress toward [[Sustainable Development Goal 6|Sustainable Development Goal Number 6]]. Extreme poverty and lack of sanitation dey strongly linked by statistics. Because of dat, ending open defecation dey be important part of effort to end poverty.<ref name="Ahmad">{{cite news|last=Junaid Ahmad|date=30 October 2014|title=How to eliminate open defecation by 2030|website=Devex|url=https://www.devex.com/news/how-to-eliminate-open-defecation-by-2030-84634|url-status=live|access-date=2 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160601220402/https://www.devex.com/news/how-to-eliminate-open-defecation-by-2030-84634|archive-date=1 June 2016}}</ref> For 2022, about 420 million people (5.25% of the world's population) still dey practice open defecation. This number reduce well from about 1.31 billion people (21.42%) for 2000, wey mean reduction of about 890 million people or 16.17 percentage points within 22 years. Out of everybody wey still dey practice open defecation, 275 million (65.6%) dey live for just seven countries. For example, for India, the number reduce by 62% (from 73% for 2000 to 7% for 2024), showing the country's big effort to achieve [[Sustainable Development Goals]] by 2030.<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=29 June 2024 |title=Sustainable Development Goals National Indicator Framework |url=https://www.mospi.gov.in/sites/default/files/publication_reports/SDG-NIF-ProgressReport-FullFile-v4N.pdf |access-date=2 September 2024 |website=Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation |archive-date=30 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240630172041/https://mospi.gov.in/sites/default/files/publication_reports/SDG-NIF-ProgressReport-FullFile-v4N.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Even though progress don happen,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2019-12-02 |title=Rural India achieved 100 pc ODF status: Govt |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/rural-india-achieved-100-pc-odf-status-govt/articleshow/72337872.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2026-01-25 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}}</ref> India still get the biggest number of people wey dey practice open defecation, followed by Nigeria, Ethiopia, Niger and Pakistan as of 2023 according to the World Bank.<ref name=":2" /> {{TOC limit|3}} == Overview == Long time ago, when land plenty and population no too much, open defecation be common practice and e no bring plenty health and hygiene problems. But as development and urbanization increase, open defecation turn serious [[public health]] matter and issue of human [[dignity]].<ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = O'Reilly K |date=2016-01-01|title=From toilet insecurity to toilet security: creating safe sanitation for women and girls|journal=Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water|language=en|volume=3|issue=1|pages=19–24|doi=10.1002/wat2.1122|bibcode=2016WIRWa...3...19O |s2cid=109965522|issn=2049-1948}}</ref> As population continue increase for towns and cities, people begin pay more attention to hygiene and health. Because of dat, global efforts to reduce open defecation also increase.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2017/08/toilet-defecate-outdoors-stunting-sanitation/|title=Nearly a Billion People Still Defecate Outdoors. Here's Why.|date=2017-07-25|access-date=2017-10-04|archive-date=5 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171005050709/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2017/08/toilet-defecate-outdoors-stunting-sanitation/}}</ref> Open defecation dey continue the cycle of [[Diseases of poverty|disease and poverty]], and many people see am as something wey dey take away human dignity.<ref name="JMP2014" /> Countries wey open defecation dey common pass also get the highest number of [[Child mortality|children under five wey dey die]], high levels of [[Malnutrition|undernutrition]], high poverty, and wide gap between rich and poor people.<ref name="JMP2014" /> <gallery> Waste dumping in a slum of Cap-Haitien.jpg|Indiscriminate waste dumping and open defecation (from animals), Shadda, Cap-Haitien, Haiti Open defecation along the river bank (6908382463).jpg|Evidence of open defecation along a riverbank in Bujumbura, Burundi Child in open sewer in Nigeria (3150664698).jpg|Child wey dey ease body for open canal for Gege slum inside Ibadan, Nigeria Open defecation in Tirin Kowt bazaar (4361881653).jpg|Open defecation for Tirin Kowt bazaar, Afghanistan </gallery> == Terminology == The term "open defecation" start become common for the water, sanitation, and hygiene ([[WASH]]) sector around 2008. This happen because of publications by the [[Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] (JMP) and the UN [[International Year of Sanitation]]. The [[Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation|JMP]] na joint program by [[World Health Organization|WHO]] and [[UNICEF]]. Before, dem dey monitor the water and sanitation targets under the [[Millennium Development Goals|Millennium Development Goals]] (MDGs), but now dem dey monitor [[Sustainable Development Goal 6|Sustainable Development Goal Number 6]]. For monitoring MDG Number 7, dem create two categories: (1) [[improved sanitation]] and (2) [[unimproved sanitation]]. Open defecation fall under unimproved sanitation. This mean say people wey dey practice open defecation no get access to improved sanitation facilities.{{citation needed|date=September 2024}} For 2013, [[World Toilet Day]] become official UN day for the first time. The term "open defecation" appear for many high-level speeches, and e help bring worldwide attention to the issue. One example na the "call to action" on sanitation wey the Deputy Secretary-General of the United Nations release for March 2013.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/pdf/DSG%20sanitation%20two-pager%20FINAL.pdf|title=United Nations Deputy Secretary-General's Call to Action on Sanitation|date=2013|website=United Nations|access-date=19 October 2014|archive-date=1 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150601174853/http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/pdf/DSG%20sanitation%20two-pager%20FINAL.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> === Open defecation free === "Open defecation free" (ODF) na term wey dem first use for community-led total sanitation (CLTS) programs. Now, people dey use ODF for different contexts too. Di original meaning of ODF be say everybody for one community dey use sanitation facilities (like toilet) instead of going outside go ease body. Later, some countries wey adopt di CLTS approach improve dis definition plus add more conditions for dia programs wey dey fight open defecation.<ref name="Cavill">{{cite book|last1=Cavill|url=https://opendocs.ids.ac.uk/opendocs/bitstream/handle/20.500.12413/5859/Issue%204%20-%20sustainability.pdf?sequence=13&isAllowed=y|title=Sustainability and CLTS: Taking Stock Frontiers of CLTS: Innovations and Insights Issue 4|last2=Chambers|last3=Vernon|date=2015|publisher=[[Institute of Development Studies]]|isbn=978-1-78118-222-2|page=18|access-date=28 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150703142843/http://www.communityledtotalsanitation.org/resource/frontiers-clts-issue-4-sustainability-and-clts-taking-stock|archive-date=3 July 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> Di Indian Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation for mid-2015 define ODF as "di complete stop of fecal–oral transmission", wey dem define am as: No visible feces for environment or village, and Every household plus public/community institution dey use safe technology option to dispose of feces.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mdws.gov.in/sites/default/files/R_274_1441280478318.pdf|title=Guidelines for ODF Verification|date=2015|publisher=Indian Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation|access-date=3 May 2016|archive-date=11 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160411101355/http://www.mdws.gov.in/sites/default/files/R_274_1441280478318.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> For here, "safe technology option" mean toilet wey dey safely contain feces so e no go contaminate surface soil, groundwater or surface water. Flies or animals no fit touch di open feces, nobody dey handle human waste directly, no bad smell dey, and no visible feces dey around di environment.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://forum.susana.org/71-behaviour-change-and-user-psychology-issues/13746-definition-of-odf-open-defecation-free-indian-government-publication|title=Definition of ODF – Open Defecation Free (Indian government publication)|date=2015-06-18|access-date=2017-10-05|language=en-gb|archive-date=6 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171006012854/http://forum.susana.org/71-behaviour-change-and-user-psychology-issues/13746-definition-of-odf-open-defecation-free-indian-government-publication|url-status=live}}</ref> Dis definition be part of di Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (Clean India Campaign).<ref>{{Cite web | title=UN Vows to Eliminate Open Defecation by 2025 - Our World | url=https://ourworld.unu.edu/en/un-vows-to-eliminate-open-defecation-by-2025 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141122050313/http://ourworld.unu.edu/en/un-vows-to-eliminate-open-defecation-by-2025 | access-date=2025-08-05 | archive-date=22 November 2014 | url-status=live }}</ref> == Reasons == Plenty different reasons dey make people do open defecation. E fit be by choice, partly by choice, or because dem no get any other option. Most times, di main reason be say toilet no dey available. But for some places, even people wey get toilet for dia house still prefer go ease body outside.<ref name="Cavill" /> Some of di main reasons wey dey cause open defecation be these: === No toilet === Open defecation dey happen plenty anytime people no get toilet for dia house or for where dem dey live.<ref name="Routray 880">{{cite journal|vauthors=Routray P, Schmidt WP, Boisson S, Clasen T, Jenkins MW|date=September 2015|title=Socio-cultural and behavioural factors constraining latrine adoption in rural coastal Odisha: an exploratory qualitative study|journal=[[BMC Public Health]]|volume=15|article-number=880|doi=10.1186/s12889-015-2206-3|pmc=4566293|pmid=26357958 |doi-access=free }}</ref> If toilet no dey places like schools or farms too, people go end up dey ease body outside.<ref name="Routray 880" /> Another example be shortage of public toilets for cities, whether businesses no dey allow people use dia toilets or di toilets no dey open all di time (for example, if no 24-hour business dey and somebody need toilet after working hours). Dis one fit be serious problem for homeless people.<ref>{{cite web|title=Public Bathrooms Become Ground Zero in the Opioid Epidemic|url=http://www.wbur.org/commonhealth/2017/04/03/public-bathrooms-opioids|access-date=2018-10-16|website=Wbur.org|date=3 April 2017 |language=en|archive-date=23 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180623141445/http://www.wbur.org/commonhealth/2017/04/03/public-bathrooms-opioids|url-status=live}}</ref> For some rural communities, people dey use toilets for other things like keeping household items, animals, farm produce, or even as kitchen. Because of dat, dem go outside go ease body.<ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = Bardosh K |date=2015-11-01|title=Achieving "Total Sanitation" in Rural African Geographies: Poverty, Participation and Pit Latrines in Eastern Zambia|journal=Geoforum|volume=66|issue=Supplement C|pages=53–63|doi=10.1016/j.geoforum.2015.09.004|s2cid=153649870 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/2762|title=Understanding Gendered Sanitation Vulnerabilities: A Study in Uttar Pradesh - Resources|website=Susana.org|access-date=2017-10-23|archive-date=24 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171024095611/http://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/2762|url-status=live}}</ref> === Uncomfortable or unsafe toilet === [[File:Pit latrines in Zambia (3233256285).jpg|thumb|A pit latrine with failing superstructure in Zambia]] Sometimes people get toilet, but di toilet spoil or e no good. Outdoor toilets, especially pit latrines, mostly no dey clean and dem dey smell bad. Some toilets no get enough light, especially for places wey electricity no dey. Others no get door or water. Some toilets even get maggots or cockroaches, so people prefer go outside go ease body.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/WSP-What-Influences-Open-Defecation-Global-Sanitation-Review.pdf|title=What Influences Open Defecation and Latrine Ownership in Rural Households?: Findings from a Global Review| vauthors = O'Connell K |access-date=23 October 2017|archive-date=18 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171118135242/http://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/WSP-What-Influences-Open-Defecation-Global-Sanitation-Review.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wateraid.org/se/~/media/Files/Sweden/nowhere-to-go.pdf|title=Nowhere to go How a lack of safe toilets threatens to increase violence against women in slums|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140611225519/http://www.wateraid.org/se/%7E/media/Files/Sweden/nowhere%2Dto%2Dgo.pdf|archive-date=2014-06-11}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kwiringira J, Atekyereza P, Niwagaba C, Günther I | title = Descending the sanitation ladder in urban Uganda: evidence from Kampala Slums | journal = BMC Public Health | volume = 14 | article-number = 624 | date = June 2014 | pmid = 24948084 | pmc = 4071028 | doi = 10.1186/1471-2458-14-624 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Routray 880" /> Some toilets no safe to reach. For night, lack of light, criminals, or animals like snakes and dogs fit make am dangerous. Women and children wey no get toilet inside dia house dey fear use shared or public toilets, especially for night.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/AFR32/002/2010/en/|title=Document|website=Amnesty.org|date=7 July 2010 |language=en|access-date=2017-10-23|archive-date=24 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171024043145/https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/AFR32/002/2010/en/|url-status=live}}</ref> People wey get disability too fit struggle use toilets wey no dey inside di house, especially for night.<ref name="Tsinda 6939–6954">{{cite journal | vauthors = Tsinda A, Abbott P, Pedley S, Charles K, Adogo J, Okurut K, Chenoweth J | title = Challenges to achieving sustainable sanitation in informal settlements of Kigali, Rwanda | journal = International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health | volume = 10 | issue = 12 | pages = 6939–54 | date = December 2013 | pmid = 24336021 | pmc = 3881150 | doi = 10.3390/ijerph10126939 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2013IJERP..10.6939T }}</ref> For some places like Zambia, dem no encourage very small children make dem use pit latrines because dem fit fall inside di hole.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Water and Sanitation Programme and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)|date=2015|title=Child Feces Disposal in Zambia|url=https://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp/files/publications/WSP-Zambia-CFD-Profile.pdf|journal=International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank and UNICEF.|access-date=22 September 2020|archive-date=2 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201002000020/https://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp/files/publications/WSP-Zambia-CFD-Profile.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Some toilets no even get proper door; na cloth dem hang instead. For some communities too, women dey shy use toilets wey dey where men dey.<ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = O'Reilly K |date=2006-11-01|title="Traditional" women, "modern" water: Linking gender and commodification in Rajasthan, India|journal=Geoforum|volume=37|issue=6|pages=958–972|doi=10.1016/j.geoforum.2006.05.008}}</ref><ref name="Tsinda 6939–6954" /><ref name="Routray 880" /> If water no dey near, people go need fetch water before dem fit use toilet.<ref name="Routray 880" /> Dis one dey add more work and take more time. If plenty people wan use one toilet at di same time, some people go decide say make dem just go outside instead of waiting. Some people too fit get diarrhea or emergency wey dem no fit hold. For home pit latrines, some families dey fear say di pit go full quick if everybody dey use am every day, so dem still dey go outside to delay di filling of di pit.<ref name=":0" /><ref name="Tsinda 6939–6954" /> === Unrelated to toilet infrastructure === Some communities get safe and easy-to-use toilets, but people still prefer go ease body outside.<ref name="Cavill" /> For some cases, government or other organizations build di toilets, but people no like dem, no value dem, or no know di benefits of using dem.<ref>In 2016, Kunwar Bai Yadav, a woman claiming to be 105 years old, said she had never heard about a toilet until that year, and had always gone into the nearby woods to defecate. Only when she learned about them, did she have one built in her community. Source: BBC News (India): [https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-37799425 "How a 105-year-old ended open defecation in her village"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181221154407/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-37799425 |date=21 December 2018 }}, 1 November 2016</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://riceinstitute.org/research/revealed-preference-for-open-defecation-evidence-from-a-new-survey-in-rural-north-india-longer-working-paper/|title=Revealed Preference for Open Defecation: Evidence from a new survey in rural north India (longer working paper) {{!}} r.i.c.e.|website=riceinstitute.org|language=en-US|access-date=2017-10-23|archive-date=24 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171024043235/http://riceinstitute.org/research/revealed-preference-for-open-defecation-evidence-from-a-new-survey-in-rural-north-india-longer-working-paper/|url-status=live}}</ref> Dem continue dey ease body outside. Older people too often no want change dia old habit and start use enclosed toilet.<ref name="Routray 880" /> Some people like di feeling of dey for open nature when dem dey ease body instead of inside closed toilet. Dis one common for rural or less populated areas, where people dey waka go fields or bushes early morning go ease body.<ref name="Ahmad" /> Sometimes e fit be because of culture or habit. Some people see am as social activity, especially women wey use dat time chat with other women and look after dia animals while dem dey go fields.<ref name="Routray 880" /> For some regions, open defecation don become part of everyday life. For example, one 2011 survey for rural East Java, Indonesia, show say many men believe say di practice be "normal", and e get benefits like social interaction and physical comfort.<ref name=":3" /> For some cultures too, social taboos dey. For example, father-in-law fit no use di same toilet with daughter-in-law for one household.{{citation needed|date=March 2019}} For some parts of di world, people even prefer open defecation pass toilet use, and many respondents for one 2015 survey talk say "open defecation was more pleasurable and desirable than latrine use".<ref name=":3" /> For some societies, people intentionally use open defecation as way to fertilize land. People wey get fecal incontinence fit suddenly get emergency wey no go give dem enough time to reach toilet, so open defecation fit be dia only option for dat situation. == References == gmo1uiz0yhelze1ix7mf9dgubxsj7b6 102912 102911 2026-06-15T05:54:15Z Achiri Bitamsimli 64 Added more content 102912 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Open defecation''' be de human practice for [[:en:Defecating|defecating]] outside ("for de open") rather than for [[:en:Toilet|toilet]]. People dey choose fields, bushes, forests, ditches, streets, canals, plus oder open spaces for defecation. Dey do so either because dey no get toilet wey be accessible or due to dema archaic traditional cultural practices.<ref>{{Cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Clasen T, Boisson S, Routray P, Torondel B, Bell M, Cumming O, Ensink J, Freeman M, Jenkins M, Odagiri M, Ray S, Sinha A, Suar M, Schmidt WP |date=November 2014 |title=Effectiveness of a rural sanitation program on diarrhea, soil-transmitted helminth infection, and child malnutrition in Odisha, India: a cluster-randomized trial |journal=The Lancet. Global Health |volume=2 |issue=11 |pages=e645-53 |doi=10.1016/S2214-109X(14)70307-9 |pmid=25442689 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De practice be common where sanitation infrastructure den services no dey available. Even if toilets dey available, behavior change efforts go be needed to promote de use of toilets. 'Open defecation free' (ODF) be term used to describe communities dat make de shift to dey use toilets instead of open defecation. Dis go fit happen, for example, afta [[:en:Community-led_total_sanitation|community-led total sanitation]] programs get implemention. Open defecation go fit pollute de environment den cause health problems den diseases. High levels of open defecation dey link to high [[:en:Child_mortality|child mortality]], poor [[:en:Undernutrition|nutrition]], [[:en:Poverty|poverty]], plus large disparities between rich den poor people.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/2036 |title=Progress on drinking water and sanitation, 2014 Update |date=2014 |publisher=WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (JMP) |isbn=978-92-4-150724-0 |access-date=12 March 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> '''Open defecation''' na when person go ease body for outside ("for open place") instead of inside [[toilet]]. People fit go farm, bush, forest, gutter, street, canal, or any oda open place go ease body. Dem dey do am because dem no get toilet wey dey easy for dem to use, or because of old traditional cultural practices.<ref name="ClasenBoisson2014">{{cite journal | vauthors = Clasen T, Boisson S, Routray P, Torondel B, Bell M, Cumming O, Ensink J, Freeman M, Jenkins M, Odagiri M, Ray S, Sinha A, Suar M, Schmidt WP | display-authors = 6 | title = Effectiveness of a rural sanitation program on diarrhea, soil-transmitted helminth infection, and child malnutrition in Odisha, India: a cluster-randomized trial | journal = The Lancet. Global Health | volume = 2 | issue = 11 | pages = e645-53 | date = November 2014 | pmid = 25442689 | doi = 10.1016/S2214-109X(14)70307-9 | doi-access = free }}</ref> This practice dey common for places wey [[sanitation]] infrastructure and services no dey. Even if toilet dey, people fit still need [[Behavior change (public health)|behavior change]] programs make dem start use toilet. "Open defecation free" (ODF) na term wey dem dey use for communities wey stop open defecation and begin dey use toilets. This one fit happen after [[community-led total sanitation]] programs. Open defecation fit pollute environment and cause health problems plus diseases. Plenty open defecation dey linked to high [[child mortality]], poor [[undernutrition|nutrition]], [[poverty]], and big gap between rich and poor people.<ref name="JMP2014">{{cite book|url=http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/2036|title=Progress on drinking water and sanitation, 2014 Update|date=2014|publisher=WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (JMP)|isbn=978-92-4-150724-0|access-date=12 March 2015|archive-date=2 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402115029/http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/2036|url-status=live}}</ref> Ending open defecation be one indicator wey dem dey use check progress toward [[Sustainable Development Goal 6|Sustainable Development Goal Number 6]]. Extreme poverty and lack of sanitation dey strongly linked by statistics. Because of dat, ending open defecation dey be important part of effort to end poverty.<ref name="Ahmad">{{cite news|last=Junaid Ahmad|date=30 October 2014|title=How to eliminate open defecation by 2030|website=Devex|url=https://www.devex.com/news/how-to-eliminate-open-defecation-by-2030-84634|url-status=live|access-date=2 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160601220402/https://www.devex.com/news/how-to-eliminate-open-defecation-by-2030-84634|archive-date=1 June 2016}}</ref> For 2022, about 420 million people (5.25% of the world's population) still dey practice open defecation. This number reduce well from about 1.31 billion people (21.42%) for 2000, wey mean reduction of about 890 million people or 16.17 percentage points within 22 years. Out of everybody wey still dey practice open defecation, 275 million (65.6%) dey live for just seven countries. For example, for India, the number reduce by 62% (from 73% for 2000 to 7% for 2024), showing the country's big effort to achieve [[Sustainable Development Goals]] by 2030.<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=29 June 2024 |title=Sustainable Development Goals National Indicator Framework |url=https://www.mospi.gov.in/sites/default/files/publication_reports/SDG-NIF-ProgressReport-FullFile-v4N.pdf |access-date=2 September 2024 |website=Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation |archive-date=30 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240630172041/https://mospi.gov.in/sites/default/files/publication_reports/SDG-NIF-ProgressReport-FullFile-v4N.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Even though progress don happen,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2019-12-02 |title=Rural India achieved 100 pc ODF status: Govt |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/rural-india-achieved-100-pc-odf-status-govt/articleshow/72337872.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2026-01-25 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}}</ref> India still get the biggest number of people wey dey practice open defecation, followed by Nigeria, Ethiopia, Niger and Pakistan as of 2023 according to the World Bank.<ref name=":2" /> {{TOC limit|3}} == Overview == Long time ago, when land plenty and population no too much, open defecation be common practice and e no bring plenty health and hygiene problems. But as development and urbanization increase, open defecation turn serious [[public health]] matter and issue of human [[dignity]].<ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = O'Reilly K |date=2016-01-01|title=From toilet insecurity to toilet security: creating safe sanitation for women and girls|journal=Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water|language=en|volume=3|issue=1|pages=19–24|doi=10.1002/wat2.1122|bibcode=2016WIRWa...3...19O |s2cid=109965522|issn=2049-1948}}</ref> As population continue increase for towns and cities, people begin pay more attention to hygiene and health. Because of dat, global efforts to reduce open defecation also increase.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2017/08/toilet-defecate-outdoors-stunting-sanitation/|title=Nearly a Billion People Still Defecate Outdoors. Here's Why.|date=2017-07-25|access-date=2017-10-04|archive-date=5 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171005050709/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2017/08/toilet-defecate-outdoors-stunting-sanitation/}}</ref> Open defecation dey continue the cycle of [[Diseases of poverty|disease and poverty]], and many people see am as something wey dey take away human dignity.<ref name="JMP2014" /> Countries wey open defecation dey common pass also get the highest number of [[Child mortality|children under five wey dey die]], high levels of [[Malnutrition|undernutrition]], high poverty, and wide gap between rich and poor people.<ref name="JMP2014" /> <gallery> Waste dumping in a slum of Cap-Haitien.jpg|Indiscriminate waste dumping and open defecation (from animals), Shadda, Cap-Haitien, Haiti Open defecation along the river bank (6908382463).jpg|Evidence of open defecation along a riverbank in Bujumbura, Burundi Child in open sewer in Nigeria (3150664698).jpg|Child wey dey ease body for open canal for Gege slum inside Ibadan, Nigeria Open defecation in Tirin Kowt bazaar (4361881653).jpg|Open defecation for Tirin Kowt bazaar, Afghanistan </gallery> === Public defecation for other reasons === For developed countries, people fit do open defecation because of homelessness. Open defecation for developed areas too dey happen during outdoor activities like camping for remote places. E hard to know the exact number of people wey dey practice open defecation for these communities. == Prevalence and trends == [[File:People-practicing-open-defecation-of-population.png|thumb|350x350px|Percentage of people wey dey practice open defecation for 2022<ref>{{Cite web | author=Hannah Ritchie | year=2024 | url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/people-practicing-open-defecation-of-population?time=latest | title=Sanitation | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240816121425/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/people-practicing-open-defecation-of-population?time=latest | archive-date=16 August 2024 }}</ref>. According to government data, open defecation for India reduce well-well after the launch of the Swachh Bharat Mission on 2 October 2014.]] === Countries with high numbers === Open defecation get strong connection with poverty and social exclusion, especially for rural areas and informal urban settlements for developing countries. The Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (JMP) by UNICEF and WHO dey collect worldwide data about how common open defecation be. Dem separate the figures into rural and urban areas, plus different poverty levels. This programme dey monitor progress toward the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) for drinking water and sanitation. Since open defecation be one example of unimproved sanitation, JMP dey monitor am for every country and dey publish the results regularly.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/|title = Data and estimates|access-date = 12 March 2015|website = JMP – WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) for Water Supply and Sanitation|publisher = WHO/UNICEF|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150219114756/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates|archive-date = 19 February 2015}}</ref><ref name="JMP2017">WHO and UNICEF (2017) [https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/2805 Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: 2017 Update and SDG Baselines] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227032419/https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/2805 |date=27 February 2020 }}. Geneva: World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)</ref> Before, dem dey join open defecation figures together with other unimproved sanitation data, but since 2010 dem dey record am separately. The number of people wey dey practice open defecation reduce from 20% for 2000 to 12% for 2015.<ref name="JMP2017" />{{rp|page=34}} For 2016, estimate show say about 892 million people no get any sanitation facility at all, so dem dey practice open defecation (inside gutters, behind bushes, for open water bodies and other places). Most of these people (9 out of every 10) dey live for rural areas, and plenty of them dey inside two regions (Central Africa and South Asia).<ref name="JMP2017" /> For 2016, 76% (678 million) of the 892 million people wey dey practice open defecation for the world dey live inside just seven countries.<ref name="JMP2017" /> {| class="wikitable sortable" |+Countries with Over 1 Million People Who Defecate openly are listed in the table below, based on available data from different years. !Year ! style="text-align:left;" | Country !<!--Please don't remove it or update it with current year data. The total population is listed as per the respective years.--> Total population as per respective year<ref>{{Cite web |title=World Population Clock: 8.2 Billion People (LIVE, 2024) - Worldometer |url=https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/ |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=Worldometers.info |language=en |archive-date=22 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222155525/https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ! style="text-align:left;" data-sort-type="number" | Percentage and Number of people who defecate in the open<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |last=If you are viewing it from a mobile device, it would be best to open the link in desktop mode for a complete and convenient experience. |title=JMP |url=https://washdata.org/data/household#!/IND |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=washdata.org |archive-date=11 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190111175434/https://washdata.org/data/household |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=KASHIWASE |first=HARUNA |date=17 November 2023 |title=World Toilet Day: 420 million people are defecating outdoors |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/world-toilet-day-420-million-people-are-defecating-outdoors |access-date=2 September 2024 |website=World Bank Group}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=World Bank Open Data |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.ODFC.ZS |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=World Bank Open Data |archive-date=28 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200828134124/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.ODFC.ZS |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":5" /> |- |2022 | Afghanistan |40,578,842 |9% or 3.6 million |- |2022 |Angola |35,635,029 |17% or 6.1 million |- |2022 |Benin |13,759,501 |49% or 6.4 million |- |2022 |Bolivia |12,077,154 |9% or 1 million |- |2022 |Burkina Faso |22,509,038 |34% or 7.6 million |- |2022 |Cambodia |17,201,724 |12% or 2 million |- |2022 |Cameroon |27,632,771 |4% or 1.1 million |- |2022 |Central African Republic |5,098,039 |25% or 1.3 million |- |2022 |Chad |16,244,513 |62.6% or 11 million |- |2022 |Colombia |51,737,944 |2% or 1.2 million |- |2022 |Democratic Republic of the Congo |102,396,968 |12% or 11.7 million |- |2016 |Eritrea |3,124,698 |67% or 2.2 million |- |2022 |Ethiopia |125,384,287 |17.6%–18% or 21.7 million |- |2022 |Ghana |33,149,152 |17% or 5.7 million |- |2022 |Haiti |11,503,606 |18% or 2 million |- |2022 |India |1,425,423,212 |11% or 157.4 million |- |2022 |Indonesia |278,830,529 |4.1% or 11.5 million |- |2022 |Kenya |54,252,461 |6% or 3.4 million |- |2022 |Laos |7,559,007 |16% or 1.2 million |- |2022 |Liberia |5,373,294 |35% or 1.8 million |- |2022 |Ivory Coast |30,395,002 |22% or 5.9 million |- |2022 |Madagascar |30,437,261 |34% or 9.9 million |- |2022 |Mali |23,072,640 |5% or 1 million |- |2022 |Mauritania |4,875,637 |27% or 1.2 million |- |2022 |Mozambique |32,656,246 |20% or 6.4 million |- |2022 |Myanmar |53,756,787 |7% or 3.6 million |- |2022 |Nepal |29,715,436 |7% or 2.1 million |- |2022 |Niger |25,311,973 |64.9% or 17 million |- |2022 |Nigeria |223,150,896 |18.4% or 40.3 million |- |2022 |Pakistan |243,700,667 |6.7%–7% or 15.9 million |- |2022 |Papua New Guinea |10,203,169 |16% or 1.6 million |- |2022 |Philippines |113,964,338 |3% or 3.4 million |- |2022 |Senegal |17,651,103 |8% or 1.3 million |- |2022 |Sierra Leone |8,276,807 |16% or 1.4 million |- |2022 |Somalia |17,801,897 |21% or 3.7 million |- |2022 |South Sudan |11,021,177 |59.7% or 6.5 million |- |2020 |Sudan |46,789,231 |17.3% or 7.6 million |- |2022 |Tanzania |64,711,821 |6% or 4.1 million |- |2022 |Togo |9,089,738 |39% or 3.4 million |- |2022 |Uganda |47,312,719 |4% or 1.8 million |- |2022 |Yemen |38,222,876 |8.5% or 2.8 million |- |2022 |Zambia |20,152,938 |6% or 1.2 million |- |2022 |Zimbabwe |16,069,056 |17% or 2.8 million |} === India === {{Further|Swachh Bharat Mission|Take Poo to the Loo}} [[File:People-practicing-open-defecation-of-population (1).png|thumb|350x350px|This chart show how open defecation reduce from 2000 to 2022 for countries wey share land border with India, together with World Bank income classifications. According to the data, about 11% of India's population still dey practice open defecation for 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 January 2024 |title=Share of people practicing open defecation |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/people-practicing-open-defecation-of-population?tab=chart&country=MMR~BGD~IND~OWID_WRL~CHN~PAK~BTN~NPL~AFG~High-income+countries~Least+Developed+Countries~Low-income+countries~Lower-middle-income+countries |access-date=2024-08-16 |website=Our World in Data |archive-date=17 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240817114237/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/people-practicing-open-defecation-of-population?tab=chart&country=MMR~BGD~IND~OWID_WRL~CHN~PAK~BTN~NPL~AFG~High-income%20countries~Least%20Developed%20Countries~Low-income%20countries~Lower-middle-income%20countries |url-status=live }}</ref>]] Campaign wey build toilets for both urban and rural areas help reduce open defecation plenty between 2014 and 2019. For September 2019, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation honour Indian leader Narendra Modi because of the work wey e do to improve sanitation for the country.<ref>{{cite news|date=25 September 2019|title=Gates Foundation award seen as boost to Swachh Bharat Abhiyan|work=Mint|url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/gates-foundation-award-seen-as-boost-to-swachh-bharat-abhiyan-1569432677658.html|url-status=live|access-date=20 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201130113601/https://www.livemint.com/news/india/gates-foundation-award-seen-as-boost-to-swachh-bharat-abhiyan-1569432677658.html|archive-date=30 November 2020}}</ref> According to UNICEF, the five-year Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) reduce the number of people wey dey practice open defecation by 500 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=A Clean (Sampoorna Swachh) India|url=https://www.unicef.org/india/what-we-do/ending-open-defecation|access-date=2021-07-07|website=Unicef.org|language=en|archive-date=7 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807020542/https://www.unicef.org/india/what-we-do/ending-open-defecation|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2019-03-05|title=93 Percent Households In Rural India Have Access To Toilets, Says Government Survey {{!}} News|url=https://swachhindia.ndtv.com/93-percent-households-rural-india-access-to-toilets-government-survey-31891/|access-date=2021-07-07|website=NDTV-Dettol Banega Swasth Swachh India|language=en-US|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709183528/https://swachhindia.ndtv.com/93-percent-households-rural-india-access-to-toilets-government-survey-31891/|url-status=live}}</ref> Some reports too talk say some people no dey use the toilets even though dem get one. But according to The Economic Times, quoting government sources, 96% of Indians use the toilets wey dem get under one World Bank support project.<ref>{{cite news|author=Helen Regan and Manveena Suri|date=2019-10-06|title=Half of India couldn't access a toilet 5 years ago. Modi built 110M latrines -- but will people use them?|url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/10/05/asia/india-modi-open-defecation-free-intl-hnk-scli/index.html|access-date=2021-07-07|website=CNN|language=en|archive-date=30 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211130053416/https://www.cnn.com/2019/10/05/asia/india-modi-open-defecation-free-intl-hnk-scli/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Sharma|first=Aman|title=96% usage of toilets under Swachh Bharat, shows a survey by an independent verification agency|work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/96-usage-of-toilets-under-swachh-bharat-shows-survey-by-an-independent-verification-agency/articleshow/68265399.cms?from=mdr|access-date=2021-07-07|archive-date=10 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210710000513/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/96-usage-of-toilets-under-swachh-bharat-shows-survey-by-an-independent-verification-agency/articleshow/68265399.cms?from=mdr|url-status=live}}</ref> For October 2019, Modi announce say India don become "open defecation free".<ref name=":4">{{cite web|url=https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1587023&reg=3&lang=2|title=PM dedicates a Swachh Bharat to Bapu and the people of India|website=Pib.gov.in|access-date=June 1, 2026}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/rural-india-achieved-100-pc-odf-status-govt/articleshow/72337872.cms?from=mdr|title=Rural India achieved 100 pc ODF status: Govt|date=2 December 2019|access-date=1 June 2026|newspaper=The Economic Times}}</ref> After the success of the Swachh Bharat Mission, Modi launch Phase 2 from 2020 to 2025.<ref>{{Cite news|agency=Press Trust of India|date=2020-03-04|title=Second phase of Swachh Bharat Mission (Grameen) launched|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/second-phase-of-swachh-bharat-mission-grameen-launched/article30981702.ece|access-date=2021-07-07|issn=0971-751X|archive-date=28 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220128195604/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/second-phase-of-swachh-bharat-mission-grameen-launched/article30981702.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> During Phase 2, government go focus on waste segregation and continue the work to eliminate open defecation.<ref>{{cite web|date=2021-03-03|title=Phase 2 of Swachh Bharat Mission to focus on waste segregation at source|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/India/phase-2-of-swachh-bharat-mission-to-focus-on-waste-segregation-at-source-7210207/|access-date=2021-07-07|website=The Indian Express|language=en|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709185247/https://indianexpress.com/article/india/phase-2-of-swachh-bharat-mission-to-focus-on-waste-segregation-at-source-7210207/|url-status=live}}</ref> == Terminology == The term "open defecation" start become common for the water, sanitation, and hygiene ([[WASH]]) sector around 2008. This happen because of publications by the [[Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] (JMP) and the UN [[International Year of Sanitation]]. The [[Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation|JMP]] na joint program by [[World Health Organization|WHO]] and [[UNICEF]]. Before, dem dey monitor the water and sanitation targets under the [[Millennium Development Goals|Millennium Development Goals]] (MDGs), but now dem dey monitor [[Sustainable Development Goal 6|Sustainable Development Goal Number 6]]. For monitoring MDG Number 7, dem create two categories: (1) [[improved sanitation]] and (2) [[unimproved sanitation]]. Open defecation fall under unimproved sanitation. This mean say people wey dey practice open defecation no get access to improved sanitation facilities.{{citation needed|date=September 2024}} For 2013, [[World Toilet Day]] become official UN day for the first time. The term "open defecation" appear for many high-level speeches, and e help bring worldwide attention to the issue. One example na the "call to action" on sanitation wey the Deputy Secretary-General of the United Nations release for March 2013.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/pdf/DSG%20sanitation%20two-pager%20FINAL.pdf|title=United Nations Deputy Secretary-General's Call to Action on Sanitation|date=2013|website=United Nations|access-date=19 October 2014|archive-date=1 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150601174853/http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/pdf/DSG%20sanitation%20two-pager%20FINAL.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> === Open defecation free === "Open defecation free" (ODF) na term wey dem first use for community-led total sanitation (CLTS) programs. Now, people dey use ODF for different contexts too. Di original meaning of ODF be say everybody for one community dey use sanitation facilities (like toilet) instead of going outside go ease body. Later, some countries wey adopt di CLTS approach improve dis definition plus add more conditions for dia programs wey dey fight open defecation.<ref name="Cavill">{{cite book|last1=Cavill|url=https://opendocs.ids.ac.uk/opendocs/bitstream/handle/20.500.12413/5859/Issue%204%20-%20sustainability.pdf?sequence=13&isAllowed=y|title=Sustainability and CLTS: Taking Stock Frontiers of CLTS: Innovations and Insights Issue 4|last2=Chambers|last3=Vernon|date=2015|publisher=[[Institute of Development Studies]]|isbn=978-1-78118-222-2|page=18|access-date=28 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150703142843/http://www.communityledtotalsanitation.org/resource/frontiers-clts-issue-4-sustainability-and-clts-taking-stock|archive-date=3 July 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> Di Indian Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation for mid-2015 define ODF as "di complete stop of fecal–oral transmission", wey dem define am as: No visible feces for environment or village, and Every household plus public/community institution dey use safe technology option to dispose of feces.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mdws.gov.in/sites/default/files/R_274_1441280478318.pdf|title=Guidelines for ODF Verification|date=2015|publisher=Indian Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation|access-date=3 May 2016|archive-date=11 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160411101355/http://www.mdws.gov.in/sites/default/files/R_274_1441280478318.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> For here, "safe technology option" mean toilet wey dey safely contain feces so e no go contaminate surface soil, groundwater or surface water. Flies or animals no fit touch di open feces, nobody dey handle human waste directly, no bad smell dey, and no visible feces dey around di environment.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://forum.susana.org/71-behaviour-change-and-user-psychology-issues/13746-definition-of-odf-open-defecation-free-indian-government-publication|title=Definition of ODF – Open Defecation Free (Indian government publication)|date=2015-06-18|access-date=2017-10-05|language=en-gb|archive-date=6 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171006012854/http://forum.susana.org/71-behaviour-change-and-user-psychology-issues/13746-definition-of-odf-open-defecation-free-indian-government-publication|url-status=live}}</ref> Dis definition be part of di Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (Clean India Campaign).<ref>{{Cite web | title=UN Vows to Eliminate Open Defecation by 2025 - Our World | url=https://ourworld.unu.edu/en/un-vows-to-eliminate-open-defecation-by-2025 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141122050313/http://ourworld.unu.edu/en/un-vows-to-eliminate-open-defecation-by-2025 | access-date=2025-08-05 | archive-date=22 November 2014 | url-status=live }}</ref> == Reasons == Plenty different reasons dey make people do open defecation. E fit be by choice, partly by choice, or because dem no get any other option. Most times, di main reason be say toilet no dey available. But for some places, even people wey get toilet for dia house still prefer go ease body outside.<ref name="Cavill" /> Some of di main reasons wey dey cause open defecation be these: === No toilet === Open defecation dey happen plenty anytime people no get toilet for dia house or for where dem dey live.<ref name="Routray 880">{{cite journal|vauthors=Routray P, Schmidt WP, Boisson S, Clasen T, Jenkins MW|date=September 2015|title=Socio-cultural and behavioural factors constraining latrine adoption in rural coastal Odisha: an exploratory qualitative study|journal=[[BMC Public Health]]|volume=15|article-number=880|doi=10.1186/s12889-015-2206-3|pmc=4566293|pmid=26357958 |doi-access=free }}</ref> If toilet no dey places like schools or farms too, people go end up dey ease body outside.<ref name="Routray 880" /> Another example be shortage of public toilets for cities, whether businesses no dey allow people use dia toilets or di toilets no dey open all di time (for example, if no 24-hour business dey and somebody need toilet after working hours). Dis one fit be serious problem for homeless people.<ref>{{cite web|title=Public Bathrooms Become Ground Zero in the Opioid Epidemic|url=http://www.wbur.org/commonhealth/2017/04/03/public-bathrooms-opioids|access-date=2018-10-16|website=Wbur.org|date=3 April 2017 |language=en|archive-date=23 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180623141445/http://www.wbur.org/commonhealth/2017/04/03/public-bathrooms-opioids|url-status=live}}</ref> For some rural communities, people dey use toilets for other things like keeping household items, animals, farm produce, or even as kitchen. Because of dat, dem go outside go ease body.<ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = Bardosh K |date=2015-11-01|title=Achieving "Total Sanitation" in Rural African Geographies: Poverty, Participation and Pit Latrines in Eastern Zambia|journal=Geoforum|volume=66|issue=Supplement C|pages=53–63|doi=10.1016/j.geoforum.2015.09.004|s2cid=153649870 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/2762|title=Understanding Gendered Sanitation Vulnerabilities: A Study in Uttar Pradesh - Resources|website=Susana.org|access-date=2017-10-23|archive-date=24 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171024095611/http://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/2762|url-status=live}}</ref> === Uncomfortable or unsafe toilet === [[File:Pit latrines in Zambia (3233256285).jpg|thumb|A pit latrine with failing superstructure in Zambia]] Sometimes people get toilet, but di toilet spoil or e no good. Outdoor toilets, especially pit latrines, mostly no dey clean and dem dey smell bad. Some toilets no get enough light, especially for places wey electricity no dey. Others no get door or water. Some toilets even get maggots or cockroaches, so people prefer go outside go ease body.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/WSP-What-Influences-Open-Defecation-Global-Sanitation-Review.pdf|title=What Influences Open Defecation and Latrine Ownership in Rural Households?: Findings from a Global Review| vauthors = O'Connell K |access-date=23 October 2017|archive-date=18 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171118135242/http://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/WSP-What-Influences-Open-Defecation-Global-Sanitation-Review.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wateraid.org/se/~/media/Files/Sweden/nowhere-to-go.pdf|title=Nowhere to go How a lack of safe toilets threatens to increase violence against women in slums|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140611225519/http://www.wateraid.org/se/%7E/media/Files/Sweden/nowhere%2Dto%2Dgo.pdf|archive-date=2014-06-11}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kwiringira J, Atekyereza P, Niwagaba C, Günther I | title = Descending the sanitation ladder in urban Uganda: evidence from Kampala Slums | journal = BMC Public Health | volume = 14 | article-number = 624 | date = June 2014 | pmid = 24948084 | pmc = 4071028 | doi = 10.1186/1471-2458-14-624 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Routray 880" /> Some toilets no safe to reach. For night, lack of light, criminals, or animals like snakes and dogs fit make am dangerous. Women and children wey no get toilet inside dia house dey fear use shared or public toilets, especially for night.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/AFR32/002/2010/en/|title=Document|website=Amnesty.org|date=7 July 2010 |language=en|access-date=2017-10-23|archive-date=24 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171024043145/https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/AFR32/002/2010/en/|url-status=live}}</ref> People wey get disability too fit struggle use toilets wey no dey inside di house, especially for night.<ref name="Tsinda 6939–6954">{{cite journal | vauthors = Tsinda A, Abbott P, Pedley S, Charles K, Adogo J, Okurut K, Chenoweth J | title = Challenges to achieving sustainable sanitation in informal settlements of Kigali, Rwanda | journal = International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health | volume = 10 | issue = 12 | pages = 6939–54 | date = December 2013 | pmid = 24336021 | pmc = 3881150 | doi = 10.3390/ijerph10126939 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2013IJERP..10.6939T }}</ref> For some places like Zambia, dem no encourage very small children make dem use pit latrines because dem fit fall inside di hole.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Water and Sanitation Programme and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)|date=2015|title=Child Feces Disposal in Zambia|url=https://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp/files/publications/WSP-Zambia-CFD-Profile.pdf|journal=International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank and UNICEF.|access-date=22 September 2020|archive-date=2 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201002000020/https://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp/files/publications/WSP-Zambia-CFD-Profile.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Some toilets no even get proper door; na cloth dem hang instead. For some communities too, women dey shy use toilets wey dey where men dey.<ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = O'Reilly K |date=2006-11-01|title="Traditional" women, "modern" water: Linking gender and commodification in Rajasthan, India|journal=Geoforum|volume=37|issue=6|pages=958–972|doi=10.1016/j.geoforum.2006.05.008}}</ref><ref name="Tsinda 6939–6954" /><ref name="Routray 880" /> If water no dey near, people go need fetch water before dem fit use toilet.<ref name="Routray 880" /> Dis one dey add more work and take more time. If plenty people wan use one toilet at di same time, some people go decide say make dem just go outside instead of waiting. Some people too fit get diarrhea or emergency wey dem no fit hold. For home pit latrines, some families dey fear say di pit go full quick if everybody dey use am every day, so dem still dey go outside to delay di filling of di pit.<ref name=":0" /><ref name="Tsinda 6939–6954" /> === Unrelated to toilet infrastructure === Some communities get safe and easy-to-use toilets, but people still prefer go ease body outside.<ref name="Cavill" /> For some cases, government or other organizations build di toilets, but people no like dem, no value dem, or no know di benefits of using dem.<ref>In 2016, Kunwar Bai Yadav, a woman claiming to be 105 years old, said she had never heard about a toilet until that year, and had always gone into the nearby woods to defecate. Only when she learned about them, did she have one built in her community. Source: BBC News (India): [https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-37799425 "How a 105-year-old ended open defecation in her village"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181221154407/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-37799425 |date=21 December 2018 }}, 1 November 2016</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://riceinstitute.org/research/revealed-preference-for-open-defecation-evidence-from-a-new-survey-in-rural-north-india-longer-working-paper/|title=Revealed Preference for Open Defecation: Evidence from a new survey in rural north India (longer working paper) {{!}} r.i.c.e.|website=riceinstitute.org|language=en-US|access-date=2017-10-23|archive-date=24 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171024043235/http://riceinstitute.org/research/revealed-preference-for-open-defecation-evidence-from-a-new-survey-in-rural-north-india-longer-working-paper/|url-status=live}}</ref> Dem continue dey ease body outside. Older people too often no want change dia old habit and start use enclosed toilet.<ref name="Routray 880" /> Some people like di feeling of dey for open nature when dem dey ease body instead of inside closed toilet. Dis one common for rural or less populated areas, where people dey waka go fields or bushes early morning go ease body.<ref name="Ahmad" /> Sometimes e fit be because of culture or habit. Some people see am as social activity, especially women wey use dat time chat with other women and look after dia animals while dem dey go fields.<ref name="Routray 880" /> For some regions, open defecation don become part of everyday life. For example, one 2011 survey for rural East Java, Indonesia, show say many men believe say di practice be "normal", and e get benefits like social interaction and physical comfort.<ref name=":3" /> For some cultures too, social taboos dey. For example, father-in-law fit no use di same toilet with daughter-in-law for one household.{{citation needed|date=March 2019}} For some parts of di world, people even prefer open defecation pass toilet use, and many respondents for one 2015 survey talk say "open defecation was more pleasurable and desirable than latrine use".<ref name=":3" /> For some societies, people intentionally use open defecation as way to fertilize land. People wey get fecal incontinence fit suddenly get emergency wey no go give dem enough time to reach toilet, so open defecation fit be dia only option for dat situation. == References == a89z7yz72jnhhu5q1fz5zwv3i1o1oed 102913 102912 2026-06-15T06:06:24Z Achiri Bitamsimli 64 Added more content 102913 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Open defecation''' be de human practice for [[:en:Defecating|defecating]] outside ("for de open") rather than for [[:en:Toilet|toilet]]. People dey choose fields, bushes, forests, ditches, streets, canals, plus oder open spaces for defecation. Dey do so either because dey no get toilet wey be accessible or due to dema archaic traditional cultural practices.<ref>{{Cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Clasen T, Boisson S, Routray P, Torondel B, Bell M, Cumming O, Ensink J, Freeman M, Jenkins M, Odagiri M, Ray S, Sinha A, Suar M, Schmidt WP |date=November 2014 |title=Effectiveness of a rural sanitation program on diarrhea, soil-transmitted helminth infection, and child malnutrition in Odisha, India: a cluster-randomized trial |journal=The Lancet. Global Health |volume=2 |issue=11 |pages=e645-53 |doi=10.1016/S2214-109X(14)70307-9 |pmid=25442689 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De practice be common where sanitation infrastructure den services no dey available. Even if toilets dey available, behavior change efforts go be needed to promote de use of toilets. 'Open defecation free' (ODF) be term used to describe communities dat make de shift to dey use toilets instead of open defecation. Dis go fit happen, for example, afta [[:en:Community-led_total_sanitation|community-led total sanitation]] programs get implemention. Open defecation go fit pollute de environment den cause health problems den diseases. High levels of open defecation dey link to high [[:en:Child_mortality|child mortality]], poor [[:en:Undernutrition|nutrition]], [[:en:Poverty|poverty]], plus large disparities between rich den poor people.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/2036 |title=Progress on drinking water and sanitation, 2014 Update |date=2014 |publisher=WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (JMP) |isbn=978-92-4-150724-0 |access-date=12 March 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> '''Open defecation''' na when person go ease body for outside ("for open place") instead of inside [[toilet]]. People fit go farm, bush, forest, gutter, street, canal, or any oda open place go ease body. Dem dey do am because dem no get toilet wey dey easy for dem to use, or because of old traditional cultural practices.<ref name="ClasenBoisson2014">{{cite journal | vauthors = Clasen T, Boisson S, Routray P, Torondel B, Bell M, Cumming O, Ensink J, Freeman M, Jenkins M, Odagiri M, Ray S, Sinha A, Suar M, Schmidt WP | display-authors = 6 | title = Effectiveness of a rural sanitation program on diarrhea, soil-transmitted helminth infection, and child malnutrition in Odisha, India: a cluster-randomized trial | journal = The Lancet. Global Health | volume = 2 | issue = 11 | pages = e645-53 | date = November 2014 | pmid = 25442689 | doi = 10.1016/S2214-109X(14)70307-9 | doi-access = free }}</ref> This practice dey common for places wey [[sanitation]] infrastructure and services no dey. Even if toilet dey, people fit still need [[Behavior change (public health)|behavior change]] programs make dem start use toilet. "Open defecation free" (ODF) na term wey dem dey use for communities wey stop open defecation and begin dey use toilets. This one fit happen after [[community-led total sanitation]] programs. Open defecation fit pollute environment and cause health problems plus diseases. Plenty open defecation dey linked to high [[child mortality]], poor [[undernutrition|nutrition]], [[poverty]], and big gap between rich and poor people.<ref name="JMP2014">{{cite book|url=http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/2036|title=Progress on drinking water and sanitation, 2014 Update|date=2014|publisher=WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (JMP)|isbn=978-92-4-150724-0|access-date=12 March 2015|archive-date=2 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402115029/http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/2036|url-status=live}}</ref> Ending open defecation be one indicator wey dem dey use check progress toward [[Sustainable Development Goal 6|Sustainable Development Goal Number 6]]. Extreme poverty and lack of sanitation dey strongly linked by statistics. Because of dat, ending open defecation dey be important part of effort to end poverty.<ref name="Ahmad">{{cite news|last=Junaid Ahmad|date=30 October 2014|title=How to eliminate open defecation by 2030|website=Devex|url=https://www.devex.com/news/how-to-eliminate-open-defecation-by-2030-84634|url-status=live|access-date=2 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160601220402/https://www.devex.com/news/how-to-eliminate-open-defecation-by-2030-84634|archive-date=1 June 2016}}</ref> For 2022, about 420 million people (5.25% of the world's population) still dey practice open defecation. This number reduce well from about 1.31 billion people (21.42%) for 2000, wey mean reduction of about 890 million people or 16.17 percentage points within 22 years. Out of everybody wey still dey practice open defecation, 275 million (65.6%) dey live for just seven countries. For example, for India, the number reduce by 62% (from 73% for 2000 to 7% for 2024), showing the country's big effort to achieve [[Sustainable Development Goals]] by 2030.<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=29 June 2024 |title=Sustainable Development Goals National Indicator Framework |url=https://www.mospi.gov.in/sites/default/files/publication_reports/SDG-NIF-ProgressReport-FullFile-v4N.pdf |access-date=2 September 2024 |website=Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation |archive-date=30 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240630172041/https://mospi.gov.in/sites/default/files/publication_reports/SDG-NIF-ProgressReport-FullFile-v4N.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Even though progress don happen,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2019-12-02 |title=Rural India achieved 100 pc ODF status: Govt |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/rural-india-achieved-100-pc-odf-status-govt/articleshow/72337872.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2026-01-25 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}}</ref> India still get the biggest number of people wey dey practice open defecation, followed by Nigeria, Ethiopia, Niger and Pakistan as of 2023 according to the World Bank.<ref name=":2" /> {{TOC limit|3}} == Overview == Long time ago, when land plenty and population no too much, open defecation be common practice and e no bring plenty health and hygiene problems. But as development and urbanization increase, open defecation turn serious [[public health]] matter and issue of human [[dignity]].<ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = O'Reilly K |date=2016-01-01|title=From toilet insecurity to toilet security: creating safe sanitation for women and girls|journal=Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water|language=en|volume=3|issue=1|pages=19–24|doi=10.1002/wat2.1122|bibcode=2016WIRWa...3...19O |s2cid=109965522|issn=2049-1948}}</ref> As population continue increase for towns and cities, people begin pay more attention to hygiene and health. Because of dat, global efforts to reduce open defecation also increase.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2017/08/toilet-defecate-outdoors-stunting-sanitation/|title=Nearly a Billion People Still Defecate Outdoors. Here's Why.|date=2017-07-25|access-date=2017-10-04|archive-date=5 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171005050709/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2017/08/toilet-defecate-outdoors-stunting-sanitation/}}</ref> Open defecation dey continue the cycle of [[Diseases of poverty|disease and poverty]], and many people see am as something wey dey take away human dignity.<ref name="JMP2014" /> Countries wey open defecation dey common pass also get the highest number of [[Child mortality|children under five wey dey die]], high levels of [[Malnutrition|undernutrition]], high poverty, and wide gap between rich and poor people.<ref name="JMP2014" /> <gallery> Waste dumping in a slum of Cap-Haitien.jpg|Indiscriminate waste dumping and open defecation (from animals), Shadda, Cap-Haitien, Haiti Open defecation along the river bank (6908382463).jpg|Evidence of open defecation along a riverbank in Bujumbura, Burundi Child in open sewer in Nigeria (3150664698).jpg|Child wey dey ease body for open canal for Gege slum inside Ibadan, Nigeria Open defecation in Tirin Kowt bazaar (4361881653).jpg|Open defecation for Tirin Kowt bazaar, Afghanistan </gallery> === Public defecation for other reasons === For developed countries, people fit do open defecation because of homelessness. Open defecation for developed areas too dey happen during outdoor activities like camping for remote places. E hard to know the exact number of people wey dey practice open defecation for these communities. == Prevalence and trends == [[File:People-practicing-open-defecation-of-population.png|thumb|350x350px|Percentage of people wey dey practice open defecation for 2022<ref>{{Cite web | author=Hannah Ritchie | year=2024 | url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/people-practicing-open-defecation-of-population?time=latest | title=Sanitation | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240816121425/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/people-practicing-open-defecation-of-population?time=latest | archive-date=16 August 2024 }}</ref>. According to government data, open defecation for India reduce well-well after the launch of the Swachh Bharat Mission on 2 October 2014.]] === Countries with high numbers === Open defecation get strong connection with poverty and social exclusion, especially for rural areas and informal urban settlements for developing countries. The Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (JMP) by UNICEF and WHO dey collect worldwide data about how common open defecation be. Dem separate the figures into rural and urban areas, plus different poverty levels. This programme dey monitor progress toward the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) for drinking water and sanitation. Since open defecation be one example of unimproved sanitation, JMP dey monitor am for every country and dey publish the results regularly.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/|title = Data and estimates|access-date = 12 March 2015|website = JMP – WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) for Water Supply and Sanitation|publisher = WHO/UNICEF|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150219114756/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates|archive-date = 19 February 2015}}</ref><ref name="JMP2017">WHO and UNICEF (2017) [https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/2805 Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: 2017 Update and SDG Baselines] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227032419/https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/2805 |date=27 February 2020 }}. Geneva: World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)</ref> Before, dem dey join open defecation figures together with other unimproved sanitation data, but since 2010 dem dey record am separately. The number of people wey dey practice open defecation reduce from 20% for 2000 to 12% for 2015.<ref name="JMP2017" />{{rp|page=34}} For 2016, estimate show say about 892 million people no get any sanitation facility at all, so dem dey practice open defecation (inside gutters, behind bushes, for open water bodies and other places). Most of these people (9 out of every 10) dey live for rural areas, and plenty of them dey inside two regions (Central Africa and South Asia).<ref name="JMP2017" /> For 2016, 76% (678 million) of the 892 million people wey dey practice open defecation for the world dey live inside just seven countries.<ref name="JMP2017" /> {| class="wikitable sortable" |+Countries with Over 1 Million People Who Defecate openly are listed in the table below, based on available data from different years. !Year ! style="text-align:left;" | Country !<!--Please don't remove it or update it with current year data. The total population is listed as per the respective years.--> Total population as per respective year<ref>{{Cite web |title=World Population Clock: 8.2 Billion People (LIVE, 2024) - Worldometer |url=https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/ |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=Worldometers.info |language=en |archive-date=22 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222155525/https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ! style="text-align:left;" data-sort-type="number" | Percentage and Number of people who defecate in the open<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |last=If you are viewing it from a mobile device, it would be best to open the link in desktop mode for a complete and convenient experience. |title=JMP |url=https://washdata.org/data/household#!/IND |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=washdata.org |archive-date=11 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190111175434/https://washdata.org/data/household |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=KASHIWASE |first=HARUNA |date=17 November 2023 |title=World Toilet Day: 420 million people are defecating outdoors |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/world-toilet-day-420-million-people-are-defecating-outdoors |access-date=2 September 2024 |website=World Bank Group}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=World Bank Open Data |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.ODFC.ZS |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=World Bank Open Data |archive-date=28 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200828134124/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.ODFC.ZS |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":5" /> |- |2022 | Afghanistan |40,578,842 |9% or 3.6 million |- |2022 |Angola |35,635,029 |17% or 6.1 million |- |2022 |Benin |13,759,501 |49% or 6.4 million |- |2022 |Bolivia |12,077,154 |9% or 1 million |- |2022 |Burkina Faso |22,509,038 |34% or 7.6 million |- |2022 |Cambodia |17,201,724 |12% or 2 million |- |2022 |Cameroon |27,632,771 |4% or 1.1 million |- |2022 |Central African Republic |5,098,039 |25% or 1.3 million |- |2022 |Chad |16,244,513 |62.6% or 11 million |- |2022 |Colombia |51,737,944 |2% or 1.2 million |- |2022 |Democratic Republic of the Congo |102,396,968 |12% or 11.7 million |- |2016 |Eritrea |3,124,698 |67% or 2.2 million |- |2022 |Ethiopia |125,384,287 |17.6%–18% or 21.7 million |- |2022 |Ghana |33,149,152 |17% or 5.7 million |- |2022 |Haiti |11,503,606 |18% or 2 million |- |2022 |India |1,425,423,212 |11% or 157.4 million |- |2022 |Indonesia |278,830,529 |4.1% or 11.5 million |- |2022 |Kenya |54,252,461 |6% or 3.4 million |- |2022 |Laos |7,559,007 |16% or 1.2 million |- |2022 |Liberia |5,373,294 |35% or 1.8 million |- |2022 |Ivory Coast |30,395,002 |22% or 5.9 million |- |2022 |Madagascar |30,437,261 |34% or 9.9 million |- |2022 |Mali |23,072,640 |5% or 1 million |- |2022 |Mauritania |4,875,637 |27% or 1.2 million |- |2022 |Mozambique |32,656,246 |20% or 6.4 million |- |2022 |Myanmar |53,756,787 |7% or 3.6 million |- |2022 |Nepal |29,715,436 |7% or 2.1 million |- |2022 |Niger |25,311,973 |64.9% or 17 million |- |2022 |Nigeria |223,150,896 |18.4% or 40.3 million |- |2022 |Pakistan |243,700,667 |6.7%–7% or 15.9 million |- |2022 |Papua New Guinea |10,203,169 |16% or 1.6 million |- |2022 |Philippines |113,964,338 |3% or 3.4 million |- |2022 |Senegal |17,651,103 |8% or 1.3 million |- |2022 |Sierra Leone |8,276,807 |16% or 1.4 million |- |2022 |Somalia |17,801,897 |21% or 3.7 million |- |2022 |South Sudan |11,021,177 |59.7% or 6.5 million |- |2020 |Sudan |46,789,231 |17.3% or 7.6 million |- |2022 |Tanzania |64,711,821 |6% or 4.1 million |- |2022 |Togo |9,089,738 |39% or 3.4 million |- |2022 |Uganda |47,312,719 |4% or 1.8 million |- |2022 |Yemen |38,222,876 |8.5% or 2.8 million |- |2022 |Zambia |20,152,938 |6% or 1.2 million |- |2022 |Zimbabwe |16,069,056 |17% or 2.8 million |} === India === {{Further|Swachh Bharat Mission|Take Poo to the Loo}} [[File:People-practicing-open-defecation-of-population (1).png|thumb|350x350px|This chart show how open defecation reduce from 2000 to 2022 for countries wey share land border with India, together with World Bank income classifications. According to the data, about 11% of India's population still dey practice open defecation for 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 January 2024 |title=Share of people practicing open defecation |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/people-practicing-open-defecation-of-population?tab=chart&country=MMR~BGD~IND~OWID_WRL~CHN~PAK~BTN~NPL~AFG~High-income+countries~Least+Developed+Countries~Low-income+countries~Lower-middle-income+countries |access-date=2024-08-16 |website=Our World in Data |archive-date=17 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240817114237/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/people-practicing-open-defecation-of-population?tab=chart&country=MMR~BGD~IND~OWID_WRL~CHN~PAK~BTN~NPL~AFG~High-income%20countries~Least%20Developed%20Countries~Low-income%20countries~Lower-middle-income%20countries |url-status=live }}</ref>]] Campaign wey build toilets for both urban and rural areas help reduce open defecation plenty between 2014 and 2019. For September 2019, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation honour Indian leader Narendra Modi because of the work wey e do to improve sanitation for the country.<ref>{{cite news|date=25 September 2019|title=Gates Foundation award seen as boost to Swachh Bharat Abhiyan|work=Mint|url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/gates-foundation-award-seen-as-boost-to-swachh-bharat-abhiyan-1569432677658.html|url-status=live|access-date=20 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201130113601/https://www.livemint.com/news/india/gates-foundation-award-seen-as-boost-to-swachh-bharat-abhiyan-1569432677658.html|archive-date=30 November 2020}}</ref> According to UNICEF, the five-year Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) reduce the number of people wey dey practice open defecation by 500 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=A Clean (Sampoorna Swachh) India|url=https://www.unicef.org/india/what-we-do/ending-open-defecation|access-date=2021-07-07|website=Unicef.org|language=en|archive-date=7 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807020542/https://www.unicef.org/india/what-we-do/ending-open-defecation|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2019-03-05|title=93 Percent Households In Rural India Have Access To Toilets, Says Government Survey {{!}} News|url=https://swachhindia.ndtv.com/93-percent-households-rural-india-access-to-toilets-government-survey-31891/|access-date=2021-07-07|website=NDTV-Dettol Banega Swasth Swachh India|language=en-US|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709183528/https://swachhindia.ndtv.com/93-percent-households-rural-india-access-to-toilets-government-survey-31891/|url-status=live}}</ref> Some reports too talk say some people no dey use the toilets even though dem get one. But according to The Economic Times, quoting government sources, 96% of Indians use the toilets wey dem get under one World Bank support project.<ref>{{cite news|author=Helen Regan and Manveena Suri|date=2019-10-06|title=Half of India couldn't access a toilet 5 years ago. Modi built 110M latrines -- but will people use them?|url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/10/05/asia/india-modi-open-defecation-free-intl-hnk-scli/index.html|access-date=2021-07-07|website=CNN|language=en|archive-date=30 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211130053416/https://www.cnn.com/2019/10/05/asia/india-modi-open-defecation-free-intl-hnk-scli/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Sharma|first=Aman|title=96% usage of toilets under Swachh Bharat, shows a survey by an independent verification agency|work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/96-usage-of-toilets-under-swachh-bharat-shows-survey-by-an-independent-verification-agency/articleshow/68265399.cms?from=mdr|access-date=2021-07-07|archive-date=10 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210710000513/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/96-usage-of-toilets-under-swachh-bharat-shows-survey-by-an-independent-verification-agency/articleshow/68265399.cms?from=mdr|url-status=live}}</ref> For October 2019, Modi announce say India don become "open defecation free".<ref name=":4">{{cite web|url=https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1587023&reg=3&lang=2|title=PM dedicates a Swachh Bharat to Bapu and the people of India|website=Pib.gov.in|access-date=June 1, 2026}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/rural-india-achieved-100-pc-odf-status-govt/articleshow/72337872.cms?from=mdr|title=Rural India achieved 100 pc ODF status: Govt|date=2 December 2019|access-date=1 June 2026|newspaper=The Economic Times}}</ref> After the success of the Swachh Bharat Mission, Modi launch Phase 2 from 2020 to 2025.<ref>{{Cite news|agency=Press Trust of India|date=2020-03-04|title=Second phase of Swachh Bharat Mission (Grameen) launched|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/second-phase-of-swachh-bharat-mission-grameen-launched/article30981702.ece|access-date=2021-07-07|issn=0971-751X|archive-date=28 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220128195604/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/second-phase-of-swachh-bharat-mission-grameen-launched/article30981702.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> During Phase 2, government go focus on waste segregation and continue the work to eliminate open defecation.<ref>{{cite web|date=2021-03-03|title=Phase 2 of Swachh Bharat Mission to focus on waste segregation at source|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/India/phase-2-of-swachh-bharat-mission-to-focus-on-waste-segregation-at-source-7210207/|access-date=2021-07-07|website=The Indian Express|language=en|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709185247/https://indianexpress.com/article/india/phase-2-of-swachh-bharat-mission-to-focus-on-waste-segregation-at-source-7210207/|url-status=live}}</ref> == Terminology == The term "open defecation" start become common for the water, sanitation, and hygiene ([[WASH]]) sector around 2008. This happen because of publications by the [[Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] (JMP) and the UN [[International Year of Sanitation]]. The [[Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation|JMP]] na joint program by [[World Health Organization|WHO]] and [[UNICEF]]. Before, dem dey monitor the water and sanitation targets under the [[Millennium Development Goals|Millennium Development Goals]] (MDGs), but now dem dey monitor [[Sustainable Development Goal 6|Sustainable Development Goal Number 6]]. For monitoring MDG Number 7, dem create two categories: (1) [[improved sanitation]] and (2) [[unimproved sanitation]]. Open defecation fall under unimproved sanitation. This mean say people wey dey practice open defecation no get access to improved sanitation facilities.{{citation needed|date=September 2024}} For 2013, [[World Toilet Day]] become official UN day for the first time. The term "open defecation" appear for many high-level speeches, and e help bring worldwide attention to the issue. One example na the "call to action" on sanitation wey the Deputy Secretary-General of the United Nations release for March 2013.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/pdf/DSG%20sanitation%20two-pager%20FINAL.pdf|title=United Nations Deputy Secretary-General's Call to Action on Sanitation|date=2013|website=United Nations|access-date=19 October 2014|archive-date=1 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150601174853/http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/pdf/DSG%20sanitation%20two-pager%20FINAL.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> === Open defecation free === "Open defecation free" (ODF) na term wey dem first use for community-led total sanitation (CLTS) programs. Now, people dey use ODF for different contexts too. Di original meaning of ODF be say everybody for one community dey use sanitation facilities (like toilet) instead of going outside go ease body. Later, some countries wey adopt di CLTS approach improve dis definition plus add more conditions for dia programs wey dey fight open defecation.<ref name="Cavill">{{cite book|last1=Cavill|url=https://opendocs.ids.ac.uk/opendocs/bitstream/handle/20.500.12413/5859/Issue%204%20-%20sustainability.pdf?sequence=13&isAllowed=y|title=Sustainability and CLTS: Taking Stock Frontiers of CLTS: Innovations and Insights Issue 4|last2=Chambers|last3=Vernon|date=2015|publisher=[[Institute of Development Studies]]|isbn=978-1-78118-222-2|page=18|access-date=28 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150703142843/http://www.communityledtotalsanitation.org/resource/frontiers-clts-issue-4-sustainability-and-clts-taking-stock|archive-date=3 July 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> Di Indian Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation for mid-2015 define ODF as "di complete stop of fecal–oral transmission", wey dem define am as: No visible feces for environment or village, and Every household plus public/community institution dey use safe technology option to dispose of feces.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mdws.gov.in/sites/default/files/R_274_1441280478318.pdf|title=Guidelines for ODF Verification|date=2015|publisher=Indian Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation|access-date=3 May 2016|archive-date=11 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160411101355/http://www.mdws.gov.in/sites/default/files/R_274_1441280478318.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> For here, "safe technology option" mean toilet wey dey safely contain feces so e no go contaminate surface soil, groundwater or surface water. Flies or animals no fit touch di open feces, nobody dey handle human waste directly, no bad smell dey, and no visible feces dey around di environment.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://forum.susana.org/71-behaviour-change-and-user-psychology-issues/13746-definition-of-odf-open-defecation-free-indian-government-publication|title=Definition of ODF – Open Defecation Free (Indian government publication)|date=2015-06-18|access-date=2017-10-05|language=en-gb|archive-date=6 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171006012854/http://forum.susana.org/71-behaviour-change-and-user-psychology-issues/13746-definition-of-odf-open-defecation-free-indian-government-publication|url-status=live}}</ref> Dis definition be part of di Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (Clean India Campaign).<ref>{{Cite web | title=UN Vows to Eliminate Open Defecation by 2025 - Our World | url=https://ourworld.unu.edu/en/un-vows-to-eliminate-open-defecation-by-2025 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141122050313/http://ourworld.unu.edu/en/un-vows-to-eliminate-open-defecation-by-2025 | access-date=2025-08-05 | archive-date=22 November 2014 | url-status=live }}</ref> == Reasons == Plenty different reasons dey make people do open defecation. E fit be by choice, partly by choice, or because dem no get any other option. Most times, di main reason be say toilet no dey available. But for some places, even people wey get toilet for dia house still prefer go ease body outside.<ref name="Cavill" /> Some of di main reasons wey dey cause open defecation be these: === No toilet === Open defecation dey happen plenty anytime people no get toilet for dia house or for where dem dey live.<ref name="Routray 880">{{cite journal|vauthors=Routray P, Schmidt WP, Boisson S, Clasen T, Jenkins MW|date=September 2015|title=Socio-cultural and behavioural factors constraining latrine adoption in rural coastal Odisha: an exploratory qualitative study|journal=[[BMC Public Health]]|volume=15|article-number=880|doi=10.1186/s12889-015-2206-3|pmc=4566293|pmid=26357958 |doi-access=free }}</ref> If toilet no dey places like schools or farms too, people go end up dey ease body outside.<ref name="Routray 880" /> Another example be shortage of public toilets for cities, whether businesses no dey allow people use dia toilets or di toilets no dey open all di time (for example, if no 24-hour business dey and somebody need toilet after working hours). Dis one fit be serious problem for homeless people.<ref>{{cite web|title=Public Bathrooms Become Ground Zero in the Opioid Epidemic|url=http://www.wbur.org/commonhealth/2017/04/03/public-bathrooms-opioids|access-date=2018-10-16|website=Wbur.org|date=3 April 2017 |language=en|archive-date=23 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180623141445/http://www.wbur.org/commonhealth/2017/04/03/public-bathrooms-opioids|url-status=live}}</ref> For some rural communities, people dey use toilets for other things like keeping household items, animals, farm produce, or even as kitchen. Because of dat, dem go outside go ease body.<ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = Bardosh K |date=2015-11-01|title=Achieving "Total Sanitation" in Rural African Geographies: Poverty, Participation and Pit Latrines in Eastern Zambia|journal=Geoforum|volume=66|issue=Supplement C|pages=53–63|doi=10.1016/j.geoforum.2015.09.004|s2cid=153649870 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/2762|title=Understanding Gendered Sanitation Vulnerabilities: A Study in Uttar Pradesh - Resources|website=Susana.org|access-date=2017-10-23|archive-date=24 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171024095611/http://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/2762|url-status=live}}</ref> === Uncomfortable or unsafe toilet === [[File:Pit latrines in Zambia (3233256285).jpg|thumb|A pit latrine with failing superstructure in Zambia]] Sometimes people get toilet, but di toilet spoil or e no good. Outdoor toilets, especially pit latrines, mostly no dey clean and dem dey smell bad. Some toilets no get enough light, especially for places wey electricity no dey. Others no get door or water. Some toilets even get maggots or cockroaches, so people prefer go outside go ease body.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/WSP-What-Influences-Open-Defecation-Global-Sanitation-Review.pdf|title=What Influences Open Defecation and Latrine Ownership in Rural Households?: Findings from a Global Review| vauthors = O'Connell K |access-date=23 October 2017|archive-date=18 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171118135242/http://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/WSP-What-Influences-Open-Defecation-Global-Sanitation-Review.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wateraid.org/se/~/media/Files/Sweden/nowhere-to-go.pdf|title=Nowhere to go How a lack of safe toilets threatens to increase violence against women in slums|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140611225519/http://www.wateraid.org/se/%7E/media/Files/Sweden/nowhere%2Dto%2Dgo.pdf|archive-date=2014-06-11}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kwiringira J, Atekyereza P, Niwagaba C, Günther I | title = Descending the sanitation ladder in urban Uganda: evidence from Kampala Slums | journal = BMC Public Health | volume = 14 | article-number = 624 | date = June 2014 | pmid = 24948084 | pmc = 4071028 | doi = 10.1186/1471-2458-14-624 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Routray 880" /> Some toilets no safe to reach. For night, lack of light, criminals, or animals like snakes and dogs fit make am dangerous. Women and children wey no get toilet inside dia house dey fear use shared or public toilets, especially for night.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/AFR32/002/2010/en/|title=Document|website=Amnesty.org|date=7 July 2010 |language=en|access-date=2017-10-23|archive-date=24 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171024043145/https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/AFR32/002/2010/en/|url-status=live}}</ref> People wey get disability too fit struggle use toilets wey no dey inside di house, especially for night.<ref name="Tsinda 6939–6954">{{cite journal | vauthors = Tsinda A, Abbott P, Pedley S, Charles K, Adogo J, Okurut K, Chenoweth J | title = Challenges to achieving sustainable sanitation in informal settlements of Kigali, Rwanda | journal = International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health | volume = 10 | issue = 12 | pages = 6939–54 | date = December 2013 | pmid = 24336021 | pmc = 3881150 | doi = 10.3390/ijerph10126939 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2013IJERP..10.6939T }}</ref> For some places like Zambia, dem no encourage very small children make dem use pit latrines because dem fit fall inside di hole.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Water and Sanitation Programme and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)|date=2015|title=Child Feces Disposal in Zambia|url=https://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp/files/publications/WSP-Zambia-CFD-Profile.pdf|journal=International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank and UNICEF.|access-date=22 September 2020|archive-date=2 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201002000020/https://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp/files/publications/WSP-Zambia-CFD-Profile.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Some toilets no even get proper door; na cloth dem hang instead. For some communities too, women dey shy use toilets wey dey where men dey.<ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = O'Reilly K |date=2006-11-01|title="Traditional" women, "modern" water: Linking gender and commodification in Rajasthan, India|journal=Geoforum|volume=37|issue=6|pages=958–972|doi=10.1016/j.geoforum.2006.05.008}}</ref><ref name="Tsinda 6939–6954" /><ref name="Routray 880" /> If water no dey near, people go need fetch water before dem fit use toilet.<ref name="Routray 880" /> Dis one dey add more work and take more time. If plenty people wan use one toilet at di same time, some people go decide say make dem just go outside instead of waiting. Some people too fit get diarrhea or emergency wey dem no fit hold. For home pit latrines, some families dey fear say di pit go full quick if everybody dey use am every day, so dem still dey go outside to delay di filling of di pit.<ref name=":0" /><ref name="Tsinda 6939–6954" /> === Unrelated to toilet infrastructure === Some communities get safe and easy-to-use toilets, but people still prefer go ease body outside.<ref name="Cavill" /> For some cases, government or other organizations build di toilets, but people no like dem, no value dem, or no know di benefits of using dem.<ref>In 2016, Kunwar Bai Yadav, a woman claiming to be 105 years old, said she had never heard about a toilet until that year, and had always gone into the nearby woods to defecate. Only when she learned about them, did she have one built in her community. Source: BBC News (India): [https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-37799425 "How a 105-year-old ended open defecation in her village"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181221154407/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-37799425 |date=21 December 2018 }}, 1 November 2016</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://riceinstitute.org/research/revealed-preference-for-open-defecation-evidence-from-a-new-survey-in-rural-north-india-longer-working-paper/|title=Revealed Preference for Open Defecation: Evidence from a new survey in rural north India (longer working paper) {{!}} r.i.c.e.|website=riceinstitute.org|language=en-US|access-date=2017-10-23|archive-date=24 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171024043235/http://riceinstitute.org/research/revealed-preference-for-open-defecation-evidence-from-a-new-survey-in-rural-north-india-longer-working-paper/|url-status=live}}</ref> Dem continue dey ease body outside. Older people too often no want change dia old habit and start use enclosed toilet.<ref name="Routray 880" /> Some people like di feeling of dey for open nature when dem dey ease body instead of inside closed toilet. Dis one common for rural or less populated areas, where people dey waka go fields or bushes early morning go ease body.<ref name="Ahmad" /> Sometimes e fit be because of culture or habit. Some people see am as social activity, especially women wey use dat time chat with other women and look after dia animals while dem dey go fields.<ref name="Routray 880" /> For some regions, open defecation don become part of everyday life. For example, one 2011 survey for rural East Java, Indonesia, show say many men believe say di practice be "normal", and e get benefits like social interaction and physical comfort.<ref name=":3" /> For some cultures too, social taboos dey. For example, father-in-law fit no use di same toilet with daughter-in-law for one household.{{citation needed|date=March 2019}} For some parts of di world, people even prefer open defecation pass toilet use, and many respondents for one 2015 survey talk say "open defecation was more pleasurable and desirable than latrine use".<ref name=":3" /> For some societies, people intentionally use open defecation as way to fertilize land. People wey get fecal incontinence fit suddenly get emergency wey no go give dem enough time to reach toilet, so open defecation fit be dia only option for dat situation. === Public defecation for other reasons === For developed countries, open defecation fit happen because of homelessness. Some people for developed areas too dey do open defecation during outdoor activities like camping for remote places. E hard make anybody know exactly how many people for these communities dey practice open defecation. == Prevalence and trends == [[File:People-practicing-open-defecation-of-population.png|thumb|350x350px|Share of people wey dey practice open defecation for 2022<ref>{{Cite web | author=[[Hannah Ritchie]] | year=2024 | url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/people-practicing-open-defecation-of-population?time=latest | title=Sanitation | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240816121425/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/people-practicing-open-defecation-of-population?time=latest | archive-date=16 August 2024 }}</ref> Government data show say open defecation reduce well well for India after dem launch the Swachh Bharat Mission on 2 October 2014.]] === Countries with high numbers === Open defecation dey happen pass for places wey poverty and social exclusion plenty, especially for rural communities and informal urban settlements for developing countries. The Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) of UNICEF and WHO dey collect data about how open defecation dey happen around the world. Dem separate the figures into rural and urban areas, plus different poverty levels. This programme get responsibility to monitor progress towards the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) for drinking water and sanitation. Since open defecation be one example of unimproved sanitation, JMP dey monitor am for every country, and dem dey publish the results regularly.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/|title = Data and estimates|access-date = 12 March 2015|website = JMP – WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) for Water Supply and Sanitation|publisher = WHO/UNICEF|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150219114756/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates|archive-date = 19 February 2015}}</ref><ref name="JMP2017">WHO and UNICEF (2017) [https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/2805 Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: 2017 Update and SDG Baselines] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227032419/https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/2805 |date=27 February 2020 }}. Geneva: World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)</ref> Before 2010, dem dey join open defecation figures together with other unimproved sanitation figures, but from 2010 go, dem begin collect am separately. The number of people wey dey practice open defecation reduce from 20% for 2000 to 12% for 2015.<ref name="JMP2017" />{{rp|page=34}} For 2016, estimate show say about 892 million people no get any sanitation facility at all, so dem dey do open defecation for gutters, behind bushes, open water bodies and other open places. Most of these people (9 out of every 10) dey live for rural areas, but most of all of dem dey come from two regions (Central Africa and South Asia).<ref name="JMP2017" /> For 2016, about 76% (678 million) of the 892 million people wey dey practice open defecation for the world dey live for only seven countries.<ref name="JMP2017" /> {| class="wikitable sortable" |+Countries with Over 1 Million People Who Defecate openly are listed in the table below, based on available data from different years. !Year ! style="text-align:left;" | Country ! Total population as per respective year<ref>{{Cite web |title=World Population Clock: 8.2 Billion People (LIVE, 2024) - Worldometer |url=https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/ |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=Worldometers.info |language=en |archive-date=22 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222155525/https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ! style="text-align:left;" data-sort-type="number" | Percentage and Number of people who defecate in the open<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |last=If you are viewing it from a mobile device, it would be best to open the link in desktop mode for a complete and convenient experience. |title=JMP |url=https://washdata.org/data/household#!/IND |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=washdata.org |archive-date=11 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190111175434/https://washdata.org/data/household |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=KASHIWASE |first=HARUNA |date=17 November 2023 |title=World Toilet Day: 420 million people are defecating outdoors |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/world-toilet-day-420-million-people-are-defecating-outdoors |access-date=2 September 2024 |website=World Bank Group}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=World Bank Open Data |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.ODFC.ZS |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=World Bank Open Data |archive-date=28 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200828134124/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.ODFC.ZS |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":5" /> |} == References == 59gi1wqgcbqv9ygedn451al0luj0jt9 102914 102913 2026-06-15T06:08:17Z Achiri Bitamsimli 64 Added more content 102914 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Open defecation''' be de human practice for [[:en:Defecating|defecating]] outside ("for de open") rather than for [[:en:Toilet|toilet]]. People dey choose fields, bushes, forests, ditches, streets, canals, plus oder open spaces for defecation. Dey do so either because dey no get toilet wey be accessible or due to dema archaic traditional cultural practices.<ref>{{Cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Clasen T, Boisson S, Routray P, Torondel B, Bell M, Cumming O, Ensink J, Freeman M, Jenkins M, Odagiri M, Ray S, Sinha A, Suar M, Schmidt WP |date=November 2014 |title=Effectiveness of a rural sanitation program on diarrhea, soil-transmitted helminth infection, and child malnutrition in Odisha, India: a cluster-randomized trial |journal=The Lancet. Global Health |volume=2 |issue=11 |pages=e645-53 |doi=10.1016/S2214-109X(14)70307-9 |pmid=25442689 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De practice be common where sanitation infrastructure den services no dey available. Even if toilets dey available, behavior change efforts go be needed to promote de use of toilets. 'Open defecation free' (ODF) be term used to describe communities dat make de shift to dey use toilets instead of open defecation. Dis go fit happen, for example, afta [[:en:Community-led_total_sanitation|community-led total sanitation]] programs get implemention. Open defecation go fit pollute de environment den cause health problems den diseases. High levels of open defecation dey link to high [[:en:Child_mortality|child mortality]], poor [[:en:Undernutrition|nutrition]], [[:en:Poverty|poverty]], plus large disparities between rich den poor people.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/2036 |title=Progress on drinking water and sanitation, 2014 Update |date=2014 |publisher=WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (JMP) |isbn=978-92-4-150724-0 |access-date=12 March 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> '''Open defecation''' na when person go ease body for outside ("for open place") instead of inside [[toilet]]. People fit go farm, bush, forest, gutter, street, canal, or any oda open place go ease body. Dem dey do am because dem no get toilet wey dey easy for dem to use, or because of old traditional cultural practices.<ref name="ClasenBoisson2014">{{cite journal | vauthors = Clasen T, Boisson S, Routray P, Torondel B, Bell M, Cumming O, Ensink J, Freeman M, Jenkins M, Odagiri M, Ray S, Sinha A, Suar M, Schmidt WP | display-authors = 6 | title = Effectiveness of a rural sanitation program on diarrhea, soil-transmitted helminth infection, and child malnutrition in Odisha, India: a cluster-randomized trial | journal = The Lancet. Global Health | volume = 2 | issue = 11 | pages = e645-53 | date = November 2014 | pmid = 25442689 | doi = 10.1016/S2214-109X(14)70307-9 | doi-access = free }}</ref> This practice dey common for places wey [[sanitation]] infrastructure and services no dey. Even if toilet dey, people fit still need [[Behavior change (public health)|behavior change]] programs make dem start use toilet. "Open defecation free" (ODF) na term wey dem dey use for communities wey stop open defecation and begin dey use toilets. This one fit happen after [[community-led total sanitation]] programs. Open defecation fit pollute environment and cause health problems plus diseases. Plenty open defecation dey linked to high [[child mortality]], poor [[undernutrition|nutrition]], [[poverty]], and big gap between rich and poor people.<ref name="JMP2014">{{cite book|url=http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/2036|title=Progress on drinking water and sanitation, 2014 Update|date=2014|publisher=WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (JMP)|isbn=978-92-4-150724-0|access-date=12 March 2015|archive-date=2 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402115029/http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/2036|url-status=live}}</ref> Ending open defecation be one indicator wey dem dey use check progress toward [[Sustainable Development Goal 6|Sustainable Development Goal Number 6]]. Extreme poverty and lack of sanitation dey strongly linked by statistics. Because of dat, ending open defecation dey be important part of effort to end poverty.<ref name="Ahmad">{{cite news|last=Junaid Ahmad|date=30 October 2014|title=How to eliminate open defecation by 2030|website=Devex|url=https://www.devex.com/news/how-to-eliminate-open-defecation-by-2030-84634|url-status=live|access-date=2 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160601220402/https://www.devex.com/news/how-to-eliminate-open-defecation-by-2030-84634|archive-date=1 June 2016}}</ref> For 2022, about 420 million people (5.25% of the world's population) still dey practice open defecation. This number reduce well from about 1.31 billion people (21.42%) for 2000, wey mean reduction of about 890 million people or 16.17 percentage points within 22 years. Out of everybody wey still dey practice open defecation, 275 million (65.6%) dey live for just seven countries. For example, for India, the number reduce by 62% (from 73% for 2000 to 7% for 2024), showing the country's big effort to achieve [[Sustainable Development Goals]] by 2030.<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=29 June 2024 |title=Sustainable Development Goals National Indicator Framework |url=https://www.mospi.gov.in/sites/default/files/publication_reports/SDG-NIF-ProgressReport-FullFile-v4N.pdf |access-date=2 September 2024 |website=Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation |archive-date=30 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240630172041/https://mospi.gov.in/sites/default/files/publication_reports/SDG-NIF-ProgressReport-FullFile-v4N.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Even though progress don happen,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2019-12-02 |title=Rural India achieved 100 pc ODF status: Govt |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/rural-india-achieved-100-pc-odf-status-govt/articleshow/72337872.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2026-01-25 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}}</ref> India still get the biggest number of people wey dey practice open defecation, followed by Nigeria, Ethiopia, Niger and Pakistan as of 2023 according to the World Bank.<ref name=":2" /> {{TOC limit|3}} == Overview == Long time ago, when land plenty and population no too much, open defecation be common practice and e no bring plenty health and hygiene problems. But as development and urbanization increase, open defecation turn serious [[public health]] matter and issue of human [[dignity]].<ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = O'Reilly K |date=2016-01-01|title=From toilet insecurity to toilet security: creating safe sanitation for women and girls|journal=Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water|language=en|volume=3|issue=1|pages=19–24|doi=10.1002/wat2.1122|bibcode=2016WIRWa...3...19O |s2cid=109965522|issn=2049-1948}}</ref> As population continue increase for towns and cities, people begin pay more attention to hygiene and health. Because of dat, global efforts to reduce open defecation also increase.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2017/08/toilet-defecate-outdoors-stunting-sanitation/|title=Nearly a Billion People Still Defecate Outdoors. Here's Why.|date=2017-07-25|access-date=2017-10-04|archive-date=5 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171005050709/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2017/08/toilet-defecate-outdoors-stunting-sanitation/}}</ref> Open defecation dey continue the cycle of [[Diseases of poverty|disease and poverty]], and many people see am as something wey dey take away human dignity.<ref name="JMP2014" /> Countries wey open defecation dey common pass also get the highest number of [[Child mortality|children under five wey dey die]], high levels of [[Malnutrition|undernutrition]], high poverty, and wide gap between rich and poor people.<ref name="JMP2014" /> <gallery> Waste dumping in a slum of Cap-Haitien.jpg|Indiscriminate waste dumping and open defecation (from animals), Shadda, Cap-Haitien, Haiti Open defecation along the river bank (6908382463).jpg|Evidence of open defecation along a riverbank in Bujumbura, Burundi Child in open sewer in Nigeria (3150664698).jpg|Child wey dey ease body for open canal for Gege slum inside Ibadan, Nigeria Open defecation in Tirin Kowt bazaar (4361881653).jpg|Open defecation for Tirin Kowt bazaar, Afghanistan </gallery> === Public defecation for other reasons === For developed countries, people fit do open defecation because of homelessness. Open defecation for developed areas too dey happen during outdoor activities like camping for remote places. E hard to know the exact number of people wey dey practice open defecation for these communities. == Prevalence and trends == [[File:People-practicing-open-defecation-of-population.png|thumb|350x350px|Percentage of people wey dey practice open defecation for 2022<ref>{{Cite web | author=Hannah Ritchie | year=2024 | url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/people-practicing-open-defecation-of-population?time=latest | title=Sanitation | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240816121425/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/people-practicing-open-defecation-of-population?time=latest | archive-date=16 August 2024 }}</ref>. According to government data, open defecation for India reduce well-well after the launch of the Swachh Bharat Mission on 2 October 2014.]] === Countries with high numbers === Open defecation get strong connection with poverty and social exclusion, especially for rural areas and informal urban settlements for developing countries. The Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (JMP) by UNICEF and WHO dey collect worldwide data about how common open defecation be. Dem separate the figures into rural and urban areas, plus different poverty levels. This programme dey monitor progress toward the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) for drinking water and sanitation. Since open defecation be one example of unimproved sanitation, JMP dey monitor am for every country and dey publish the results regularly.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/|title = Data and estimates|access-date = 12 March 2015|website = JMP – WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) for Water Supply and Sanitation|publisher = WHO/UNICEF|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150219114756/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates|archive-date = 19 February 2015}}</ref><ref name="JMP2017">WHO and UNICEF (2017) [https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/2805 Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: 2017 Update and SDG Baselines] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227032419/https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/2805 |date=27 February 2020 }}. Geneva: World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)</ref> Before, dem dey join open defecation figures together with other unimproved sanitation data, but since 2010 dem dey record am separately. The number of people wey dey practice open defecation reduce from 20% for 2000 to 12% for 2015.<ref name="JMP2017" />{{rp|page=34}} For 2016, estimate show say about 892 million people no get any sanitation facility at all, so dem dey practice open defecation (inside gutters, behind bushes, for open water bodies and other places). Most of these people (9 out of every 10) dey live for rural areas, and plenty of them dey inside two regions (Central Africa and South Asia).<ref name="JMP2017" /> For 2016, 76% (678 million) of the 892 million people wey dey practice open defecation for the world dey live inside just seven countries.<ref name="JMP2017" /> {| class="wikitable sortable" |+Countries with Over 1 Million People Who Defecate openly are listed in the table below, based on available data from different years. !Year ! style="text-align:left;" | Country !<!--Please don't remove it or update it with current year data. The total population is listed as per the respective years.--> Total population as per respective year<ref>{{Cite web |title=World Population Clock: 8.2 Billion People (LIVE, 2024) - Worldometer |url=https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/ |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=Worldometers.info |language=en |archive-date=22 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222155525/https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ! style="text-align:left;" data-sort-type="number" | Percentage and Number of people who defecate in the open<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |last=If you are viewing it from a mobile device, it would be best to open the link in desktop mode for a complete and convenient experience. |title=JMP |url=https://washdata.org/data/household#!/IND |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=washdata.org |archive-date=11 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190111175434/https://washdata.org/data/household |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=KASHIWASE |first=HARUNA |date=17 November 2023 |title=World Toilet Day: 420 million people are defecating outdoors |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/world-toilet-day-420-million-people-are-defecating-outdoors |access-date=2 September 2024 |website=World Bank Group}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=World Bank Open Data |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.ODFC.ZS |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=World Bank Open Data |archive-date=28 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200828134124/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.ODFC.ZS |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":5" /> |- |2022 | Afghanistan |40,578,842 |9% or 3.6 million |- |2022 |Angola |35,635,029 |17% or 6.1 million |- |2022 |Benin |13,759,501 |49% or 6.4 million |- |2022 |Bolivia |12,077,154 |9% or 1 million |- |2022 |Burkina Faso |22,509,038 |34% or 7.6 million |- |2022 |Cambodia |17,201,724 |12% or 2 million |- |2022 |Cameroon |27,632,771 |4% or 1.1 million |- |2022 |Central African Republic |5,098,039 |25% or 1.3 million |- |2022 |Chad |16,244,513 |62.6% or 11 million |- |2022 |Colombia |51,737,944 |2% or 1.2 million |- |2022 |Democratic Republic of the Congo |102,396,968 |12% or 11.7 million |- |2016 |Eritrea |3,124,698 |67% or 2.2 million |- |2022 |Ethiopia |125,384,287 |17.6%–18% or 21.7 million |- |2022 |Ghana |33,149,152 |17% or 5.7 million |- |2022 |Haiti |11,503,606 |18% or 2 million |- |2022 |India |1,425,423,212 |11% or 157.4 million |- |2022 |Indonesia |278,830,529 |4.1% or 11.5 million |- |2022 |Kenya |54,252,461 |6% or 3.4 million |- |2022 |Laos |7,559,007 |16% or 1.2 million |- |2022 |Liberia |5,373,294 |35% or 1.8 million |- |2022 |Ivory Coast |30,395,002 |22% or 5.9 million |- |2022 |Madagascar |30,437,261 |34% or 9.9 million |- |2022 |Mali |23,072,640 |5% or 1 million |- |2022 |Mauritania |4,875,637 |27% or 1.2 million |- |2022 |Mozambique |32,656,246 |20% or 6.4 million |- |2022 |Myanmar |53,756,787 |7% or 3.6 million |- |2022 |Nepal |29,715,436 |7% or 2.1 million |- |2022 |Niger |25,311,973 |64.9% or 17 million |- |2022 |Nigeria |223,150,896 |18.4% or 40.3 million |- |2022 |Pakistan |243,700,667 |6.7%–7% or 15.9 million |- |2022 |Papua New Guinea |10,203,169 |16% or 1.6 million |- |2022 |Philippines |113,964,338 |3% or 3.4 million |- |2022 |Senegal |17,651,103 |8% or 1.3 million |- |2022 |Sierra Leone |8,276,807 |16% or 1.4 million |- |2022 |Somalia |17,801,897 |21% or 3.7 million |- |2022 |South Sudan |11,021,177 |59.7% or 6.5 million |- |2020 |Sudan |46,789,231 |17.3% or 7.6 million |- |2022 |Tanzania |64,711,821 |6% or 4.1 million |- |2022 |Togo |9,089,738 |39% or 3.4 million |- |2022 |Uganda |47,312,719 |4% or 1.8 million |- |2022 |Yemen |38,222,876 |8.5% or 2.8 million |- |2022 |Zambia |20,152,938 |6% or 1.2 million |- |2022 |Zimbabwe |16,069,056 |17% or 2.8 million |} === India === {{Further|Swachh Bharat Mission|Take Poo to the Loo}} [[File:People-practicing-open-defecation-of-population (1).png|thumb|350x350px|This chart show how open defecation reduce from 2000 to 2022 for countries wey share land border with India, together with World Bank income classifications. According to the data, about 11% of India's population still dey practice open defecation for 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 January 2024 |title=Share of people practicing open defecation |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/people-practicing-open-defecation-of-population?tab=chart&country=MMR~BGD~IND~OWID_WRL~CHN~PAK~BTN~NPL~AFG~High-income+countries~Least+Developed+Countries~Low-income+countries~Lower-middle-income+countries |access-date=2024-08-16 |website=Our World in Data |archive-date=17 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240817114237/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/people-practicing-open-defecation-of-population?tab=chart&country=MMR~BGD~IND~OWID_WRL~CHN~PAK~BTN~NPL~AFG~High-income%20countries~Least%20Developed%20Countries~Low-income%20countries~Lower-middle-income%20countries |url-status=live }}</ref>]] Campaign wey build toilets for both urban and rural areas help reduce open defecation plenty between 2014 and 2019. For September 2019, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation honour Indian leader Narendra Modi because of the work wey e do to improve sanitation for the country.<ref>{{cite news|date=25 September 2019|title=Gates Foundation award seen as boost to Swachh Bharat Abhiyan|work=Mint|url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/gates-foundation-award-seen-as-boost-to-swachh-bharat-abhiyan-1569432677658.html|url-status=live|access-date=20 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201130113601/https://www.livemint.com/news/india/gates-foundation-award-seen-as-boost-to-swachh-bharat-abhiyan-1569432677658.html|archive-date=30 November 2020}}</ref> According to UNICEF, the five-year Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) reduce the number of people wey dey practice open defecation by 500 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=A Clean (Sampoorna Swachh) India|url=https://www.unicef.org/india/what-we-do/ending-open-defecation|access-date=2021-07-07|website=Unicef.org|language=en|archive-date=7 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807020542/https://www.unicef.org/india/what-we-do/ending-open-defecation|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2019-03-05|title=93 Percent Households In Rural India Have Access To Toilets, Says Government Survey {{!}} News|url=https://swachhindia.ndtv.com/93-percent-households-rural-india-access-to-toilets-government-survey-31891/|access-date=2021-07-07|website=NDTV-Dettol Banega Swasth Swachh India|language=en-US|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709183528/https://swachhindia.ndtv.com/93-percent-households-rural-india-access-to-toilets-government-survey-31891/|url-status=live}}</ref> Some reports too talk say some people no dey use the toilets even though dem get one. But according to The Economic Times, quoting government sources, 96% of Indians use the toilets wey dem get under one World Bank support project.<ref>{{cite news|author=Helen Regan and Manveena Suri|date=2019-10-06|title=Half of India couldn't access a toilet 5 years ago. Modi built 110M latrines -- but will people use them?|url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/10/05/asia/india-modi-open-defecation-free-intl-hnk-scli/index.html|access-date=2021-07-07|website=CNN|language=en|archive-date=30 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211130053416/https://www.cnn.com/2019/10/05/asia/india-modi-open-defecation-free-intl-hnk-scli/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Sharma|first=Aman|title=96% usage of toilets under Swachh Bharat, shows a survey by an independent verification agency|work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/96-usage-of-toilets-under-swachh-bharat-shows-survey-by-an-independent-verification-agency/articleshow/68265399.cms?from=mdr|access-date=2021-07-07|archive-date=10 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210710000513/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/96-usage-of-toilets-under-swachh-bharat-shows-survey-by-an-independent-verification-agency/articleshow/68265399.cms?from=mdr|url-status=live}}</ref> For October 2019, Modi announce say India don become "open defecation free".<ref name=":4">{{cite web|url=https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1587023&reg=3&lang=2|title=PM dedicates a Swachh Bharat to Bapu and the people of India|website=Pib.gov.in|access-date=June 1, 2026}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/rural-india-achieved-100-pc-odf-status-govt/articleshow/72337872.cms?from=mdr|title=Rural India achieved 100 pc ODF status: Govt|date=2 December 2019|access-date=1 June 2026|newspaper=The Economic Times}}</ref> After the success of the Swachh Bharat Mission, Modi launch Phase 2 from 2020 to 2025.<ref>{{Cite news|agency=Press Trust of India|date=2020-03-04|title=Second phase of Swachh Bharat Mission (Grameen) launched|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/second-phase-of-swachh-bharat-mission-grameen-launched/article30981702.ece|access-date=2021-07-07|issn=0971-751X|archive-date=28 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220128195604/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/second-phase-of-swachh-bharat-mission-grameen-launched/article30981702.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> During Phase 2, government go focus on waste segregation and continue the work to eliminate open defecation.<ref>{{cite web|date=2021-03-03|title=Phase 2 of Swachh Bharat Mission to focus on waste segregation at source|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/India/phase-2-of-swachh-bharat-mission-to-focus-on-waste-segregation-at-source-7210207/|access-date=2021-07-07|website=The Indian Express|language=en|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709185247/https://indianexpress.com/article/india/phase-2-of-swachh-bharat-mission-to-focus-on-waste-segregation-at-source-7210207/|url-status=live}}</ref> == Terminology == The term "open defecation" start become common for the water, sanitation, and hygiene ([[WASH]]) sector around 2008. This happen because of publications by the [[Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] (JMP) and the UN [[International Year of Sanitation]]. The [[Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation|JMP]] na joint program by [[World Health Organization|WHO]] and [[UNICEF]]. Before, dem dey monitor the water and sanitation targets under the [[Millennium Development Goals|Millennium Development Goals]] (MDGs), but now dem dey monitor [[Sustainable Development Goal 6|Sustainable Development Goal Number 6]]. For monitoring MDG Number 7, dem create two categories: (1) [[improved sanitation]] and (2) [[unimproved sanitation]]. Open defecation fall under unimproved sanitation. This mean say people wey dey practice open defecation no get access to improved sanitation facilities.{{citation needed|date=September 2024}} For 2013, [[World Toilet Day]] become official UN day for the first time. The term "open defecation" appear for many high-level speeches, and e help bring worldwide attention to the issue. One example na the "call to action" on sanitation wey the Deputy Secretary-General of the United Nations release for March 2013.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/pdf/DSG%20sanitation%20two-pager%20FINAL.pdf|title=United Nations Deputy Secretary-General's Call to Action on Sanitation|date=2013|website=United Nations|access-date=19 October 2014|archive-date=1 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150601174853/http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/pdf/DSG%20sanitation%20two-pager%20FINAL.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> === Open defecation free === "Open defecation free" (ODF) na term wey dem first use for community-led total sanitation (CLTS) programs. Now, people dey use ODF for different contexts too. Di original meaning of ODF be say everybody for one community dey use sanitation facilities (like toilet) instead of going outside go ease body. Later, some countries wey adopt di CLTS approach improve dis definition plus add more conditions for dia programs wey dey fight open defecation.<ref name="Cavill">{{cite book|last1=Cavill|url=https://opendocs.ids.ac.uk/opendocs/bitstream/handle/20.500.12413/5859/Issue%204%20-%20sustainability.pdf?sequence=13&isAllowed=y|title=Sustainability and CLTS: Taking Stock Frontiers of CLTS: Innovations and Insights Issue 4|last2=Chambers|last3=Vernon|date=2015|publisher=[[Institute of Development Studies]]|isbn=978-1-78118-222-2|page=18|access-date=28 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150703142843/http://www.communityledtotalsanitation.org/resource/frontiers-clts-issue-4-sustainability-and-clts-taking-stock|archive-date=3 July 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> Di Indian Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation for mid-2015 define ODF as "di complete stop of fecal–oral transmission", wey dem define am as: No visible feces for environment or village, and Every household plus public/community institution dey use safe technology option to dispose of feces.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mdws.gov.in/sites/default/files/R_274_1441280478318.pdf|title=Guidelines for ODF Verification|date=2015|publisher=Indian Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation|access-date=3 May 2016|archive-date=11 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160411101355/http://www.mdws.gov.in/sites/default/files/R_274_1441280478318.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> For here, "safe technology option" mean toilet wey dey safely contain feces so e no go contaminate surface soil, groundwater or surface water. Flies or animals no fit touch di open feces, nobody dey handle human waste directly, no bad smell dey, and no visible feces dey around di environment.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://forum.susana.org/71-behaviour-change-and-user-psychology-issues/13746-definition-of-odf-open-defecation-free-indian-government-publication|title=Definition of ODF – Open Defecation Free (Indian government publication)|date=2015-06-18|access-date=2017-10-05|language=en-gb|archive-date=6 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171006012854/http://forum.susana.org/71-behaviour-change-and-user-psychology-issues/13746-definition-of-odf-open-defecation-free-indian-government-publication|url-status=live}}</ref> Dis definition be part of di Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (Clean India Campaign).<ref>{{Cite web | title=UN Vows to Eliminate Open Defecation by 2025 - Our World | url=https://ourworld.unu.edu/en/un-vows-to-eliminate-open-defecation-by-2025 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141122050313/http://ourworld.unu.edu/en/un-vows-to-eliminate-open-defecation-by-2025 | access-date=2025-08-05 | archive-date=22 November 2014 | url-status=live }}</ref> == Reasons == Plenty different reasons dey make people do open defecation. E fit be by choice, partly by choice, or because dem no get any other option. Most times, di main reason be say toilet no dey available. But for some places, even people wey get toilet for dia house still prefer go ease body outside.<ref name="Cavill" /> Some of di main reasons wey dey cause open defecation be these: === No toilet === Open defecation dey happen plenty anytime people no get toilet for dia house or for where dem dey live.<ref name="Routray 880">{{cite journal|vauthors=Routray P, Schmidt WP, Boisson S, Clasen T, Jenkins MW|date=September 2015|title=Socio-cultural and behavioural factors constraining latrine adoption in rural coastal Odisha: an exploratory qualitative study|journal=[[BMC Public Health]]|volume=15|article-number=880|doi=10.1186/s12889-015-2206-3|pmc=4566293|pmid=26357958 |doi-access=free }}</ref> If toilet no dey places like schools or farms too, people go end up dey ease body outside.<ref name="Routray 880" /> Another example be shortage of public toilets for cities, whether businesses no dey allow people use dia toilets or di toilets no dey open all di time (for example, if no 24-hour business dey and somebody need toilet after working hours). Dis one fit be serious problem for homeless people.<ref>{{cite web|title=Public Bathrooms Become Ground Zero in the Opioid Epidemic|url=http://www.wbur.org/commonhealth/2017/04/03/public-bathrooms-opioids|access-date=2018-10-16|website=Wbur.org|date=3 April 2017 |language=en|archive-date=23 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180623141445/http://www.wbur.org/commonhealth/2017/04/03/public-bathrooms-opioids|url-status=live}}</ref> For some rural communities, people dey use toilets for other things like keeping household items, animals, farm produce, or even as kitchen. Because of dat, dem go outside go ease body.<ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = Bardosh K |date=2015-11-01|title=Achieving "Total Sanitation" in Rural African Geographies: Poverty, Participation and Pit Latrines in Eastern Zambia|journal=Geoforum|volume=66|issue=Supplement C|pages=53–63|doi=10.1016/j.geoforum.2015.09.004|s2cid=153649870 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/2762|title=Understanding Gendered Sanitation Vulnerabilities: A Study in Uttar Pradesh - Resources|website=Susana.org|access-date=2017-10-23|archive-date=24 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171024095611/http://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/2762|url-status=live}}</ref> === Uncomfortable or unsafe toilet === [[File:Pit latrines in Zambia (3233256285).jpg|thumb|A pit latrine with failing superstructure in Zambia]] Sometimes people get toilet, but di toilet spoil or e no good. Outdoor toilets, especially pit latrines, mostly no dey clean and dem dey smell bad. Some toilets no get enough light, especially for places wey electricity no dey. Others no get door or water. Some toilets even get maggots or cockroaches, so people prefer go outside go ease body.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/WSP-What-Influences-Open-Defecation-Global-Sanitation-Review.pdf|title=What Influences Open Defecation and Latrine Ownership in Rural Households?: Findings from a Global Review| vauthors = O'Connell K |access-date=23 October 2017|archive-date=18 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171118135242/http://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/WSP-What-Influences-Open-Defecation-Global-Sanitation-Review.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wateraid.org/se/~/media/Files/Sweden/nowhere-to-go.pdf|title=Nowhere to go How a lack of safe toilets threatens to increase violence against women in slums|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140611225519/http://www.wateraid.org/se/%7E/media/Files/Sweden/nowhere%2Dto%2Dgo.pdf|archive-date=2014-06-11}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kwiringira J, Atekyereza P, Niwagaba C, Günther I | title = Descending the sanitation ladder in urban Uganda: evidence from Kampala Slums | journal = BMC Public Health | volume = 14 | article-number = 624 | date = June 2014 | pmid = 24948084 | pmc = 4071028 | doi = 10.1186/1471-2458-14-624 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Routray 880" /> Some toilets no safe to reach. For night, lack of light, criminals, or animals like snakes and dogs fit make am dangerous. Women and children wey no get toilet inside dia house dey fear use shared or public toilets, especially for night.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/AFR32/002/2010/en/|title=Document|website=Amnesty.org|date=7 July 2010 |language=en|access-date=2017-10-23|archive-date=24 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171024043145/https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/AFR32/002/2010/en/|url-status=live}}</ref> People wey get disability too fit struggle use toilets wey no dey inside di house, especially for night.<ref name="Tsinda 6939–6954">{{cite journal | vauthors = Tsinda A, Abbott P, Pedley S, Charles K, Adogo J, Okurut K, Chenoweth J | title = Challenges to achieving sustainable sanitation in informal settlements of Kigali, Rwanda | journal = International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health | volume = 10 | issue = 12 | pages = 6939–54 | date = December 2013 | pmid = 24336021 | pmc = 3881150 | doi = 10.3390/ijerph10126939 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2013IJERP..10.6939T }}</ref> For some places like Zambia, dem no encourage very small children make dem use pit latrines because dem fit fall inside di hole.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Water and Sanitation Programme and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)|date=2015|title=Child Feces Disposal in Zambia|url=https://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp/files/publications/WSP-Zambia-CFD-Profile.pdf|journal=International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank and UNICEF.|access-date=22 September 2020|archive-date=2 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201002000020/https://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp/files/publications/WSP-Zambia-CFD-Profile.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Some toilets no even get proper door; na cloth dem hang instead. For some communities too, women dey shy use toilets wey dey where men dey.<ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = O'Reilly K |date=2006-11-01|title="Traditional" women, "modern" water: Linking gender and commodification in Rajasthan, India|journal=Geoforum|volume=37|issue=6|pages=958–972|doi=10.1016/j.geoforum.2006.05.008}}</ref><ref name="Tsinda 6939–6954" /><ref name="Routray 880" /> If water no dey near, people go need fetch water before dem fit use toilet.<ref name="Routray 880" /> Dis one dey add more work and take more time. If plenty people wan use one toilet at di same time, some people go decide say make dem just go outside instead of waiting. Some people too fit get diarrhea or emergency wey dem no fit hold. For home pit latrines, some families dey fear say di pit go full quick if everybody dey use am every day, so dem still dey go outside to delay di filling of di pit.<ref name=":0" /><ref name="Tsinda 6939–6954" /> === Unrelated to toilet infrastructure === Some communities get safe and easy-to-use toilets, but people still prefer go ease body outside.<ref name="Cavill" /> For some cases, government or other organizations build di toilets, but people no like dem, no value dem, or no know di benefits of using dem.<ref>In 2016, Kunwar Bai Yadav, a woman claiming to be 105 years old, said she had never heard about a toilet until that year, and had always gone into the nearby woods to defecate. Only when she learned about them, did she have one built in her community. Source: BBC News (India): [https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-37799425 "How a 105-year-old ended open defecation in her village"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181221154407/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-37799425 |date=21 December 2018 }}, 1 November 2016</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://riceinstitute.org/research/revealed-preference-for-open-defecation-evidence-from-a-new-survey-in-rural-north-india-longer-working-paper/|title=Revealed Preference for Open Defecation: Evidence from a new survey in rural north India (longer working paper) {{!}} r.i.c.e.|website=riceinstitute.org|language=en-US|access-date=2017-10-23|archive-date=24 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171024043235/http://riceinstitute.org/research/revealed-preference-for-open-defecation-evidence-from-a-new-survey-in-rural-north-india-longer-working-paper/|url-status=live}}</ref> Dem continue dey ease body outside. Older people too often no want change dia old habit and start use enclosed toilet.<ref name="Routray 880" /> Some people like di feeling of dey for open nature when dem dey ease body instead of inside closed toilet. Dis one common for rural or less populated areas, where people dey waka go fields or bushes early morning go ease body.<ref name="Ahmad" /> Sometimes e fit be because of culture or habit. Some people see am as social activity, especially women wey use dat time chat with other women and look after dia animals while dem dey go fields.<ref name="Routray 880" /> For some regions, open defecation don become part of everyday life. For example, one 2011 survey for rural East Java, Indonesia, show say many men believe say di practice be "normal", and e get benefits like social interaction and physical comfort.<ref name=":3" /> For some cultures too, social taboos dey. For example, father-in-law fit no use di same toilet with daughter-in-law for one household.{{citation needed|date=March 2019}} For some parts of di world, people even prefer open defecation pass toilet use, and many respondents for one 2015 survey talk say "open defecation was more pleasurable and desirable than latrine use".<ref name=":3" /> For some societies, people intentionally use open defecation as way to fertilize land. People wey get fecal incontinence fit suddenly get emergency wey no go give dem enough time to reach toilet, so open defecation fit be dia only option for dat situation. === Public defecation for other reasons === For developed countries, open defecation fit happen because of homelessness. Some people for developed areas too dey do open defecation during outdoor activities like camping for remote places. E hard make anybody know exactly how many people for these communities dey practice open defecation. == Prevalence and trends == [[File:People-practicing-open-defecation-of-population.png|thumb|350x350px|Share of people wey dey practice open defecation for 2022<ref>{{Cite web | author=[[Hannah Ritchie]] | year=2024 | url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/people-practicing-open-defecation-of-population?time=latest | title=Sanitation | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240816121425/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/people-practicing-open-defecation-of-population?time=latest | archive-date=16 August 2024 }}</ref> Government data show say open defecation reduce well well for India after dem launch the Swachh Bharat Mission on 2 October 2014.]] === Countries with high numbers === Open defecation dey happen pass for places wey poverty and social exclusion plenty, especially for rural communities and informal urban settlements for developing countries. The Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) of UNICEF and WHO dey collect data about how open defecation dey happen around the world. Dem separate the figures into rural and urban areas, plus different poverty levels. This programme get responsibility to monitor progress towards the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) for drinking water and sanitation. Since open defecation be one example of unimproved sanitation, JMP dey monitor am for every country, and dem dey publish the results regularly.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/|title = Data and estimates|access-date = 12 March 2015|website = JMP – WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) for Water Supply and Sanitation|publisher = WHO/UNICEF|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150219114756/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates|archive-date = 19 February 2015}}</ref><ref name="JMP2017">WHO and UNICEF (2017) [https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/2805 Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: 2017 Update and SDG Baselines] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227032419/https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/2805 |date=27 February 2020 }}. Geneva: World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)</ref> Before 2010, dem dey join open defecation figures together with other unimproved sanitation figures, but from 2010 go, dem begin collect am separately. The number of people wey dey practice open defecation reduce from 20% for 2000 to 12% for 2015.<ref name="JMP2017" />{{rp|page=34}} For 2016, estimate show say about 892 million people no get any sanitation facility at all, so dem dey do open defecation for gutters, behind bushes, open water bodies and other open places. Most of these people (9 out of every 10) dey live for rural areas, but most of all of dem dey come from two regions (Central Africa and South Asia).<ref name="JMP2017" /> For 2016, about 76% (678 million) of the 892 million people wey dey practice open defecation for the world dey live for only seven countries.<ref name="JMP2017" /> {| class="wikitable sortable" |+Countries with Over 1 Million People Who Defecate openly are listed in the table below, based on available data from different years. !Year ! style="text-align:left;" | Country ! Total population as per respective year<ref>{{Cite web |title=World Population Clock: 8.2 Billion People (LIVE, 2024) - Worldometer |url=https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/ |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=Worldometers.info |language=en |archive-date=22 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222155525/https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ! style="text-align:left;" data-sort-type="number" | Percentage and Number of people who defecate in the open<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |last=If you are viewing it from a mobile device, it would be best to open the link in desktop mode for a complete and convenient experience. |title=JMP |url=https://washdata.org/data/household#!/IND |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=washdata.org |archive-date=11 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190111175434/https://washdata.org/data/household |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=KASHIWASE |first=HARUNA |date=17 November 2023 |title=World Toilet Day: 420 million people are defecating outdoors |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/world-toilet-day-420-million-people-are-defecating-outdoors |access-date=2 September 2024 |website=World Bank Group}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=World Bank Open Data |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.ODFC.ZS |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=World Bank Open Data |archive-date=28 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200828134124/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.ODFC.ZS |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":5" /> |} === India === {{Further|Swachh Bharat Mission|Take Poo to the Loo}} [[File:People-practicing-open-defecation-of-population (1).png|thumb|350x350px|This chart show how open defecation reduce from 2000 to 2022 for countries wey get land border with India, plus World Bank income classifications. According to the data, around 11% of India's population still dey practice open defecation for 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 January 2024 |title=Share of people practicing open defecation |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/people-practicing-open-defecation-of-population?tab=chart&country=MMR/BGD/IND/OWID_WRL/CHN/PAK/BTN/NPL/AFG/High-income+countries/Least+Developed+Countries/Low-income+countries/Lower-middle-income+countries |access-date=2024-08-16 |website=Our World in Data |archive-date=17 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240817114237/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/people-practicing-open-defecation-of-population?tab=chart&country=MMR/BGD/IND/OWID_WRL/CHN/PAK/BTN/NPL/AFG/High-income%20countries/Least%20Developed%20Countries/Low-income%20countries/Lower-middle-income%20countries |url-status=live }}</ref>]] Campaign wey dem start to build toilets for urban and rural areas help reduce open defecation well well between 2014 and 2019. For September 2019, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation honour Indian leader Narendra Modi because of the work wey e do to improve sanitation for the country.<ref>{{cite news|date=25 September 2019|title=Gates Foundation award seen as boost to Swachh Bharat Abhiyan|work=[[Mint (newspaper)|Mint]]|url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/gates-foundation-award-seen-as-boost-to-swachh-bharat-abhiyan-1569432677658.html|url-status=live|access-date=20 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201130113601/https://www.livemint.com/news/india/gates-foundation-award-seen-as-boost-to-swachh-bharat-abhiyan-1569432677658.html|archive-date=30 November 2020}}</ref> According to UNICEF, the five-year Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) reduce the number of people wey dey practice open defecation by about 500 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=A Clean (Sampoorna Swachh) India|url=https://www.unicef.org/india/what-we-do/ending-open-defecation|access-date=2021-07-07|website=Unicef.org|language=en|archive-date=7 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807020542/https://www.unicef.org/india/what-we-do/ending-open-defecation|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2019-03-05|title=93 Percent Households In Rural India Have Access To Toilets, Says Government Survey {{!}} News|url=https://swachhindia.ndtv.com/93-percent-households-rural-india-access-to-toilets-government-survey-31891/|access-date=2021-07-07|website=NDTV-Dettol Banega Swasth Swachh India|language=en-US|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709183528/https://swachhindia.ndtv.com/93-percent-households-rural-india-access-to-toilets-government-survey-31891/|url-status=live}}</ref> Some reports too talk say some people no dey use the toilets even though dem get one. But according to the Indian newspaper The Economic Times, wey quote government sources, World Bank support project survey show say 96% of Indians dey use the toilets wey dem get.<ref>{{cite news|author=Helen Regan and Manveena Suri|date=2019-10-06|title=Half of India couldn't access a toilet 5 years ago. Modi built 110M latrines -- but will people use them?|url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/10/05/asia/india-modi-open-defecation-free-intl-hnk-scli/index.html|access-date=2021-07-07|website=CNN|language=en|archive-date=30 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211130053416/https://www.cnn.com/2019/10/05/asia/india-modi-open-defecation-free-intl-hnk-scli/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Sharma|first=Aman|title=96% usage of toilets under Swachh Bharat, shows a survey by an independent verification agency|work=[[The Economic Times]]|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/96-usage-of-toilets-under-swachh-bharat-shows-survey-by-an-independent-verification-agency/articleshow/68265399.cms?from=mdr|access-date=2021-07-07|archive-date=10 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210710000513/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/96-usage-of-toilets-under-swachh-bharat-shows-survey-by-an-independent-verification-agency/articleshow/68265399.cms?from=mdr|url-status=live}}</ref> For October 2019, Modi announce say India don become "open defecation free".<ref name=":4">{{cite web|url=https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1587023&reg=3&lang=2|title=PM dedicates a Swachh Bharat to Bapu and the people of India|website=Pib.gov.in|access-date=June 1, 2026}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/rural-india-achieved-100-pc-odf-status-govt/articleshow/72337872.cms?from=mdr|title=Rural India achieved 100 pc ODF status: Govt|date=2 December 2019|access-date=1 June 2026|newspaper=[[The Economic Times]]}}</ref> After the success of the Swachh Bharat Mission, Modi launch Phase 2 from 2020 to 2025.<ref>{{Cite news|agency=[[Press Trust of India]]|date=2020-03-04|title=Second phase of Swachh Bharat Mission (Grameen) launched|language=en-IN|work=[[The Hindu]]|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/second-phase-of-swachh-bharat-mission-grameen-launched/article30981702.ece|access-date=2021-07-07|issn=0971-751X|archive-date=28 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220128195604/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/second-phase-of-swachh-bharat-mission-grameen-launched/article30981702.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> During Phase 2, government go focus on waste segregation and continue the work to eliminate open defecation completely.<ref>{{cite web|date=2021-03-03|title=Phase 2 of Swachh Bharat Mission to focus on waste segregation at source|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/India/phase-2-of-swachh-bharat-mission-to-focus-on-waste-segregation-at-source-7210207/|access-date=2021-07-07|website=[[The Indian Express]]|language=en|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709185247/https://indianexpress.com/article/india/phase-2-of-swachh-bharat-mission-to-focus-on-waste-segregation-at-source-7210207/|url-status=live}}</ref> === Pakistan === For 2017–18, about 94% of people for Pakistan get toilet facilities (99% for urban areas and 91% for rural areas), while 6% of the population no get any toilet facility (1% for urban areas and 9% for rural areas).<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/571527-world-toilet-day-20m-pakistanis-have-no-toilet-facility|title=World Toilet Day: 13.2m Pakistanis have no toilet facility|date=2019-11-20|access-date=2026-01-28|last=Mustafa|first=Khalid|website=Thenews.com.pk|language=en-US}}</ref> For 2009, sanitation facilities dey available for only about 42% of the population—65% for urban areas and 30% for rural settlements.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256191560 | title=Sustainability of Sanitation Systems in Pakistan | website=Researchgate.net}}</ref> For 2017, WaterAid report say about 79 million people for Pakistan no get access to proper toilet.<ref name=":6">{{cite web|date=2017-11-23|title=79m Pakistanis still lack a decent toilet: report|url=https://dailytimes.com.pk/145728/79m-pakistanis-still-lack-decent-toilet-report/|access-date=2021-06-23|website=Daily Times|language=en-US|archive-date=22 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122011353/https://dailytimes.com.pk/145728/79m-pakistanis-still-lack-decent-toilet-report/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{cite web|title=Pakistan {{!}} WaterAid Global|url=https://www.wateraid.org/where-we-work/pakistan|access-date=2021-06-23|website=Wateraid.org|language=en|archive-date=13 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613103834/https://www.wateraid.org/where-we-work/pakistan|url-status=live}}</ref> According to UNICEF, for 2018 about 12% of the population, or 26 million people, dey practice open defecation.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.ODFC.ZS?end=2018&locations=PK|title=People practicing open defecation (% of population) - Pakistan|newspaper=World Bank|access-date=29 November 2021|archive-date=29 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211129221532/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.ODFC.ZS?end=2018&locations=PK|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="thehindu24Nov2018">{{cite news|date=24 November 2018|title=Women in Pakistan fight for toilets, while men have 'other priorities'|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/women-in-pakistan-fight-for-toilets-while-men-have-other-priorities/article25587275.ece|work=The Hindu|access-date=27 May 2021|archive-date=17 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210717200628/https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/women-in-pakistan-fight-for-toilets-while-men-have-other-priorities/article25587275.ece|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":2" /> As of 2022, UNICEF report say about 7% of Pakistan population, or 15.92 million people, still dey practice open defecation.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |date=July 2023 |title=Sanitation statistics |url=https://data.unicef.org/topic/water-and-sanitation/sanitation/ |access-date=1 September 2024 |website=[[UNICEF]] |archive-date=22 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240522174203/https://data.unicef.org/topic/water-and-sanitation/sanitation/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":2" /> == References == 7eohpu4zm82ypg4i55sku9i5jl9b525 102916 102914 2026-06-15T06:11:46Z Achiri Bitamsimli 64 Added more content 102916 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Open defecation''' be de human practice for [[:en:Defecating|defecating]] outside ("for de open") rather than for [[:en:Toilet|toilet]]. People dey choose fields, bushes, forests, ditches, streets, canals, plus oder open spaces for defecation. Dey do so either because dey no get toilet wey be accessible or due to dema archaic traditional cultural practices.<ref>{{Cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Clasen T, Boisson S, Routray P, Torondel B, Bell M, Cumming O, Ensink J, Freeman M, Jenkins M, Odagiri M, Ray S, Sinha A, Suar M, Schmidt WP |date=November 2014 |title=Effectiveness of a rural sanitation program on diarrhea, soil-transmitted helminth infection, and child malnutrition in Odisha, India: a cluster-randomized trial |journal=The Lancet. Global Health |volume=2 |issue=11 |pages=e645-53 |doi=10.1016/S2214-109X(14)70307-9 |pmid=25442689 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De practice be common where sanitation infrastructure den services no dey available. Even if toilets dey available, behavior change efforts go be needed to promote de use of toilets. 'Open defecation free' (ODF) be term used to describe communities dat make de shift to dey use toilets instead of open defecation. Dis go fit happen, for example, afta [[:en:Community-led_total_sanitation|community-led total sanitation]] programs get implemention. Open defecation go fit pollute de environment den cause health problems den diseases. High levels of open defecation dey link to high [[:en:Child_mortality|child mortality]], poor [[:en:Undernutrition|nutrition]], [[:en:Poverty|poverty]], plus large disparities between rich den poor people.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/2036 |title=Progress on drinking water and sanitation, 2014 Update |date=2014 |publisher=WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (JMP) |isbn=978-92-4-150724-0 |access-date=12 March 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> '''Open defecation''' na when person go ease body for outside ("for open place") instead of inside [[toilet]]. People fit go farm, bush, forest, gutter, street, canal, or any oda open place go ease body. Dem dey do am because dem no get toilet wey dey easy for dem to use, or because of old traditional cultural practices.<ref name="ClasenBoisson2014">{{cite journal | vauthors = Clasen T, Boisson S, Routray P, Torondel B, Bell M, Cumming O, Ensink J, Freeman M, Jenkins M, Odagiri M, Ray S, Sinha A, Suar M, Schmidt WP | display-authors = 6 | title = Effectiveness of a rural sanitation program on diarrhea, soil-transmitted helminth infection, and child malnutrition in Odisha, India: a cluster-randomized trial | journal = The Lancet. Global Health | volume = 2 | issue = 11 | pages = e645-53 | date = November 2014 | pmid = 25442689 | doi = 10.1016/S2214-109X(14)70307-9 | doi-access = free }}</ref> This practice dey common for places wey [[sanitation]] infrastructure and services no dey. Even if toilet dey, people fit still need [[Behavior change (public health)|behavior change]] programs make dem start use toilet. "Open defecation free" (ODF) na term wey dem dey use for communities wey stop open defecation and begin dey use toilets. This one fit happen after [[community-led total sanitation]] programs. Open defecation fit pollute environment and cause health problems plus diseases. Plenty open defecation dey linked to high [[child mortality]], poor [[undernutrition|nutrition]], [[poverty]], and big gap between rich and poor people.<ref name="JMP2014">{{cite book|url=http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/2036|title=Progress on drinking water and sanitation, 2014 Update|date=2014|publisher=WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (JMP)|isbn=978-92-4-150724-0|access-date=12 March 2015|archive-date=2 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402115029/http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/2036|url-status=live}}</ref> Ending open defecation be one indicator wey dem dey use check progress toward [[Sustainable Development Goal 6|Sustainable Development Goal Number 6]]. Extreme poverty and lack of sanitation dey strongly linked by statistics. Because of dat, ending open defecation dey be important part of effort to end poverty.<ref name="Ahmad">{{cite news|last=Junaid Ahmad|date=30 October 2014|title=How to eliminate open defecation by 2030|website=Devex|url=https://www.devex.com/news/how-to-eliminate-open-defecation-by-2030-84634|url-status=live|access-date=2 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160601220402/https://www.devex.com/news/how-to-eliminate-open-defecation-by-2030-84634|archive-date=1 June 2016}}</ref> For 2022, about 420 million people (5.25% of the world's population) still dey practice open defecation. This number reduce well from about 1.31 billion people (21.42%) for 2000, wey mean reduction of about 890 million people or 16.17 percentage points within 22 years. Out of everybody wey still dey practice open defecation, 275 million (65.6%) dey live for just seven countries. For example, for India, the number reduce by 62% (from 73% for 2000 to 7% for 2024), showing the country's big effort to achieve [[Sustainable Development Goals]] by 2030.<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=29 June 2024 |title=Sustainable Development Goals National Indicator Framework |url=https://www.mospi.gov.in/sites/default/files/publication_reports/SDG-NIF-ProgressReport-FullFile-v4N.pdf |access-date=2 September 2024 |website=Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation |archive-date=30 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240630172041/https://mospi.gov.in/sites/default/files/publication_reports/SDG-NIF-ProgressReport-FullFile-v4N.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Even though progress don happen,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2019-12-02 |title=Rural India achieved 100 pc ODF status: Govt |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/rural-india-achieved-100-pc-odf-status-govt/articleshow/72337872.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2026-01-25 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}}</ref> India still get the biggest number of people wey dey practice open defecation, followed by Nigeria, Ethiopia, Niger and Pakistan as of 2023 according to the World Bank.<ref name=":2" /> {{TOC limit|3}} == Overview == Long time ago, when land plenty and population no too much, open defecation be common practice and e no bring plenty health and hygiene problems. But as development and urbanization increase, open defecation turn serious [[public health]] matter and issue of human [[dignity]].<ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = O'Reilly K |date=2016-01-01|title=From toilet insecurity to toilet security: creating safe sanitation for women and girls|journal=Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water|language=en|volume=3|issue=1|pages=19–24|doi=10.1002/wat2.1122|bibcode=2016WIRWa...3...19O |s2cid=109965522|issn=2049-1948}}</ref> As population continue increase for towns and cities, people begin pay more attention to hygiene and health. Because of dat, global efforts to reduce open defecation also increase.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2017/08/toilet-defecate-outdoors-stunting-sanitation/|title=Nearly a Billion People Still Defecate Outdoors. Here's Why.|date=2017-07-25|access-date=2017-10-04|archive-date=5 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171005050709/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2017/08/toilet-defecate-outdoors-stunting-sanitation/}}</ref> Open defecation dey continue the cycle of [[Diseases of poverty|disease and poverty]], and many people see am as something wey dey take away human dignity.<ref name="JMP2014" /> Countries wey open defecation dey common pass also get the highest number of [[Child mortality|children under five wey dey die]], high levels of [[Malnutrition|undernutrition]], high poverty, and wide gap between rich and poor people.<ref name="JMP2014" /> <gallery> Waste dumping in a slum of Cap-Haitien.jpg|Indiscriminate waste dumping and open defecation (from animals), Shadda, Cap-Haitien, Haiti Open defecation along the river bank (6908382463).jpg|Evidence of open defecation along a riverbank in Bujumbura, Burundi Child in open sewer in Nigeria (3150664698).jpg|Child wey dey ease body for open canal for Gege slum inside Ibadan, Nigeria Open defecation in Tirin Kowt bazaar (4361881653).jpg|Open defecation for Tirin Kowt bazaar, Afghanistan </gallery> === Public defecation for other reasons === For developed countries, people fit do open defecation because of homelessness. Open defecation for developed areas too dey happen during outdoor activities like camping for remote places. E hard to know the exact number of people wey dey practice open defecation for these communities. == Prevalence and trends == [[File:People-practicing-open-defecation-of-population.png|thumb|350x350px|Percentage of people wey dey practice open defecation for 2022<ref>{{Cite web | author=Hannah Ritchie | year=2024 | url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/people-practicing-open-defecation-of-population?time=latest | title=Sanitation | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240816121425/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/people-practicing-open-defecation-of-population?time=latest | archive-date=16 August 2024 }}</ref>. According to government data, open defecation for India reduce well-well after the launch of the Swachh Bharat Mission on 2 October 2014.]] === Countries with high numbers === Open defecation get strong connection with poverty and social exclusion, especially for rural areas and informal urban settlements for developing countries. The Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (JMP) by UNICEF and WHO dey collect worldwide data about how common open defecation be. Dem separate the figures into rural and urban areas, plus different poverty levels. This programme dey monitor progress toward the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) for drinking water and sanitation. Since open defecation be one example of unimproved sanitation, JMP dey monitor am for every country and dey publish the results regularly.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/|title = Data and estimates|access-date = 12 March 2015|website = JMP – WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) for Water Supply and Sanitation|publisher = WHO/UNICEF|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150219114756/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates|archive-date = 19 February 2015}}</ref><ref name="JMP2017">WHO and UNICEF (2017) [https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/2805 Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: 2017 Update and SDG Baselines] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227032419/https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/2805 |date=27 February 2020 }}. Geneva: World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)</ref> Before, dem dey join open defecation figures together with other unimproved sanitation data, but since 2010 dem dey record am separately. The number of people wey dey practice open defecation reduce from 20% for 2000 to 12% for 2015.<ref name="JMP2017" />{{rp|page=34}} For 2016, estimate show say about 892 million people no get any sanitation facility at all, so dem dey practice open defecation (inside gutters, behind bushes, for open water bodies and other places). Most of these people (9 out of every 10) dey live for rural areas, and plenty of them dey inside two regions (Central Africa and South Asia).<ref name="JMP2017" /> For 2016, 76% (678 million) of the 892 million people wey dey practice open defecation for the world dey live inside just seven countries.<ref name="JMP2017" /> {| class="wikitable sortable" |+Countries with Over 1 Million People Who Defecate openly are listed in the table below, based on available data from different years. !Year ! style="text-align:left;" | Country !<!--Please don't remove it or update it with current year data. The total population is listed as per the respective years.--> Total population as per respective year<ref>{{Cite web |title=World Population Clock: 8.2 Billion People (LIVE, 2024) - Worldometer |url=https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/ |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=Worldometers.info |language=en |archive-date=22 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222155525/https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ! style="text-align:left;" data-sort-type="number" | Percentage and Number of people who defecate in the open<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |last=If you are viewing it from a mobile device, it would be best to open the link in desktop mode for a complete and convenient experience. |title=JMP |url=https://washdata.org/data/household#!/IND |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=washdata.org |archive-date=11 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190111175434/https://washdata.org/data/household |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=KASHIWASE |first=HARUNA |date=17 November 2023 |title=World Toilet Day: 420 million people are defecating outdoors |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/world-toilet-day-420-million-people-are-defecating-outdoors |access-date=2 September 2024 |website=World Bank Group}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=World Bank Open Data |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.ODFC.ZS |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=World Bank Open Data |archive-date=28 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200828134124/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.ODFC.ZS |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":5" /> |- |2022 | Afghanistan |40,578,842 |9% or 3.6 million |- |2022 |Angola |35,635,029 |17% or 6.1 million |- |2022 |Benin |13,759,501 |49% or 6.4 million |- |2022 |Bolivia |12,077,154 |9% or 1 million |- |2022 |Burkina Faso |22,509,038 |34% or 7.6 million |- |2022 |Cambodia |17,201,724 |12% or 2 million |- |2022 |Cameroon |27,632,771 |4% or 1.1 million |- |2022 |Central African Republic |5,098,039 |25% or 1.3 million |- |2022 |Chad |16,244,513 |62.6% or 11 million |- |2022 |Colombia |51,737,944 |2% or 1.2 million |- |2022 |Democratic Republic of the Congo |102,396,968 |12% or 11.7 million |- |2016 |Eritrea |3,124,698 |67% or 2.2 million |- |2022 |Ethiopia |125,384,287 |17.6%–18% or 21.7 million |- |2022 |Ghana |33,149,152 |17% or 5.7 million |- |2022 |Haiti |11,503,606 |18% or 2 million |- |2022 |India |1,425,423,212 |11% or 157.4 million |- |2022 |Indonesia |278,830,529 |4.1% or 11.5 million |- |2022 |Kenya |54,252,461 |6% or 3.4 million |- |2022 |Laos |7,559,007 |16% or 1.2 million |- |2022 |Liberia |5,373,294 |35% or 1.8 million |- |2022 |Ivory Coast |30,395,002 |22% or 5.9 million |- |2022 |Madagascar |30,437,261 |34% or 9.9 million |- |2022 |Mali |23,072,640 |5% or 1 million |- |2022 |Mauritania |4,875,637 |27% or 1.2 million |- |2022 |Mozambique |32,656,246 |20% or 6.4 million |- |2022 |Myanmar |53,756,787 |7% or 3.6 million |- |2022 |Nepal |29,715,436 |7% or 2.1 million |- |2022 |Niger |25,311,973 |64.9% or 17 million |- |2022 |Nigeria |223,150,896 |18.4% or 40.3 million |- |2022 |Pakistan |243,700,667 |6.7%–7% or 15.9 million |- |2022 |Papua New Guinea |10,203,169 |16% or 1.6 million |- |2022 |Philippines |113,964,338 |3% or 3.4 million |- |2022 |Senegal |17,651,103 |8% or 1.3 million |- |2022 |Sierra Leone |8,276,807 |16% or 1.4 million |- |2022 |Somalia |17,801,897 |21% or 3.7 million |- |2022 |South Sudan |11,021,177 |59.7% or 6.5 million |- |2020 |Sudan |46,789,231 |17.3% or 7.6 million |- |2022 |Tanzania |64,711,821 |6% or 4.1 million |- |2022 |Togo |9,089,738 |39% or 3.4 million |- |2022 |Uganda |47,312,719 |4% or 1.8 million |- |2022 |Yemen |38,222,876 |8.5% or 2.8 million |- |2022 |Zambia |20,152,938 |6% or 1.2 million |- |2022 |Zimbabwe |16,069,056 |17% or 2.8 million |} === India === {{Further|Swachh Bharat Mission|Take Poo to the Loo}} [[File:People-practicing-open-defecation-of-population (1).png|thumb|350x350px|This chart show how open defecation reduce from 2000 to 2022 for countries wey share land border with India, together with World Bank income classifications. According to the data, about 11% of India's population still dey practice open defecation for 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 January 2024 |title=Share of people practicing open defecation |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/people-practicing-open-defecation-of-population?tab=chart&country=MMR~BGD~IND~OWID_WRL~CHN~PAK~BTN~NPL~AFG~High-income+countries~Least+Developed+Countries~Low-income+countries~Lower-middle-income+countries |access-date=2024-08-16 |website=Our World in Data |archive-date=17 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240817114237/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/people-practicing-open-defecation-of-population?tab=chart&country=MMR~BGD~IND~OWID_WRL~CHN~PAK~BTN~NPL~AFG~High-income%20countries~Least%20Developed%20Countries~Low-income%20countries~Lower-middle-income%20countries |url-status=live }}</ref>]] Campaign wey build toilets for both urban and rural areas help reduce open defecation plenty between 2014 and 2019. For September 2019, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation honour Indian leader Narendra Modi because of the work wey e do to improve sanitation for the country.<ref>{{cite news|date=25 September 2019|title=Gates Foundation award seen as boost to Swachh Bharat Abhiyan|work=Mint|url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/gates-foundation-award-seen-as-boost-to-swachh-bharat-abhiyan-1569432677658.html|url-status=live|access-date=20 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201130113601/https://www.livemint.com/news/india/gates-foundation-award-seen-as-boost-to-swachh-bharat-abhiyan-1569432677658.html|archive-date=30 November 2020}}</ref> According to UNICEF, the five-year Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) reduce the number of people wey dey practice open defecation by 500 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=A Clean (Sampoorna Swachh) India|url=https://www.unicef.org/india/what-we-do/ending-open-defecation|access-date=2021-07-07|website=Unicef.org|language=en|archive-date=7 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807020542/https://www.unicef.org/india/what-we-do/ending-open-defecation|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2019-03-05|title=93 Percent Households In Rural India Have Access To Toilets, Says Government Survey {{!}} News|url=https://swachhindia.ndtv.com/93-percent-households-rural-india-access-to-toilets-government-survey-31891/|access-date=2021-07-07|website=NDTV-Dettol Banega Swasth Swachh India|language=en-US|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709183528/https://swachhindia.ndtv.com/93-percent-households-rural-india-access-to-toilets-government-survey-31891/|url-status=live}}</ref> Some reports too talk say some people no dey use the toilets even though dem get one. But according to The Economic Times, quoting government sources, 96% of Indians use the toilets wey dem get under one World Bank support project.<ref>{{cite news|author=Helen Regan and Manveena Suri|date=2019-10-06|title=Half of India couldn't access a toilet 5 years ago. Modi built 110M latrines -- but will people use them?|url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/10/05/asia/india-modi-open-defecation-free-intl-hnk-scli/index.html|access-date=2021-07-07|website=CNN|language=en|archive-date=30 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211130053416/https://www.cnn.com/2019/10/05/asia/india-modi-open-defecation-free-intl-hnk-scli/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Sharma|first=Aman|title=96% usage of toilets under Swachh Bharat, shows a survey by an independent verification agency|work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/96-usage-of-toilets-under-swachh-bharat-shows-survey-by-an-independent-verification-agency/articleshow/68265399.cms?from=mdr|access-date=2021-07-07|archive-date=10 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210710000513/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/96-usage-of-toilets-under-swachh-bharat-shows-survey-by-an-independent-verification-agency/articleshow/68265399.cms?from=mdr|url-status=live}}</ref> For October 2019, Modi announce say India don become "open defecation free".<ref name=":4">{{cite web|url=https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1587023&reg=3&lang=2|title=PM dedicates a Swachh Bharat to Bapu and the people of India|website=Pib.gov.in|access-date=June 1, 2026}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/rural-india-achieved-100-pc-odf-status-govt/articleshow/72337872.cms?from=mdr|title=Rural India achieved 100 pc ODF status: Govt|date=2 December 2019|access-date=1 June 2026|newspaper=The Economic Times}}</ref> After the success of the Swachh Bharat Mission, Modi launch Phase 2 from 2020 to 2025.<ref>{{Cite news|agency=Press Trust of India|date=2020-03-04|title=Second phase of Swachh Bharat Mission (Grameen) launched|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/second-phase-of-swachh-bharat-mission-grameen-launched/article30981702.ece|access-date=2021-07-07|issn=0971-751X|archive-date=28 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220128195604/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/second-phase-of-swachh-bharat-mission-grameen-launched/article30981702.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> During Phase 2, government go focus on waste segregation and continue the work to eliminate open defecation.<ref>{{cite web|date=2021-03-03|title=Phase 2 of Swachh Bharat Mission to focus on waste segregation at source|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/India/phase-2-of-swachh-bharat-mission-to-focus-on-waste-segregation-at-source-7210207/|access-date=2021-07-07|website=The Indian Express|language=en|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709185247/https://indianexpress.com/article/india/phase-2-of-swachh-bharat-mission-to-focus-on-waste-segregation-at-source-7210207/|url-status=live}}</ref> == Terminology == The term "open defecation" start become common for the water, sanitation, and hygiene ([[WASH]]) sector around 2008. This happen because of publications by the [[Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] (JMP) and the UN [[International Year of Sanitation]]. The [[Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation|JMP]] na joint program by [[World Health Organization|WHO]] and [[UNICEF]]. Before, dem dey monitor the water and sanitation targets under the [[Millennium Development Goals|Millennium Development Goals]] (MDGs), but now dem dey monitor [[Sustainable Development Goal 6|Sustainable Development Goal Number 6]]. For monitoring MDG Number 7, dem create two categories: (1) [[improved sanitation]] and (2) [[unimproved sanitation]]. Open defecation fall under unimproved sanitation. This mean say people wey dey practice open defecation no get access to improved sanitation facilities.{{citation needed|date=September 2024}} For 2013, [[World Toilet Day]] become official UN day for the first time. The term "open defecation" appear for many high-level speeches, and e help bring worldwide attention to the issue. One example na the "call to action" on sanitation wey the Deputy Secretary-General of the United Nations release for March 2013.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/pdf/DSG%20sanitation%20two-pager%20FINAL.pdf|title=United Nations Deputy Secretary-General's Call to Action on Sanitation|date=2013|website=United Nations|access-date=19 October 2014|archive-date=1 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150601174853/http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/pdf/DSG%20sanitation%20two-pager%20FINAL.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> === Open defecation free === "Open defecation free" (ODF) na term wey dem first use for community-led total sanitation (CLTS) programs. Now, people dey use ODF for different contexts too. Di original meaning of ODF be say everybody for one community dey use sanitation facilities (like toilet) instead of going outside go ease body. Later, some countries wey adopt di CLTS approach improve dis definition plus add more conditions for dia programs wey dey fight open defecation.<ref name="Cavill">{{cite book|last1=Cavill|url=https://opendocs.ids.ac.uk/opendocs/bitstream/handle/20.500.12413/5859/Issue%204%20-%20sustainability.pdf?sequence=13&isAllowed=y|title=Sustainability and CLTS: Taking Stock Frontiers of CLTS: Innovations and Insights Issue 4|last2=Chambers|last3=Vernon|date=2015|publisher=[[Institute of Development Studies]]|isbn=978-1-78118-222-2|page=18|access-date=28 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150703142843/http://www.communityledtotalsanitation.org/resource/frontiers-clts-issue-4-sustainability-and-clts-taking-stock|archive-date=3 July 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> Di Indian Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation for mid-2015 define ODF as "di complete stop of fecal–oral transmission", wey dem define am as: No visible feces for environment or village, and Every household plus public/community institution dey use safe technology option to dispose of feces.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mdws.gov.in/sites/default/files/R_274_1441280478318.pdf|title=Guidelines for ODF Verification|date=2015|publisher=Indian Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation|access-date=3 May 2016|archive-date=11 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160411101355/http://www.mdws.gov.in/sites/default/files/R_274_1441280478318.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> For here, "safe technology option" mean toilet wey dey safely contain feces so e no go contaminate surface soil, groundwater or surface water. Flies or animals no fit touch di open feces, nobody dey handle human waste directly, no bad smell dey, and no visible feces dey around di environment.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://forum.susana.org/71-behaviour-change-and-user-psychology-issues/13746-definition-of-odf-open-defecation-free-indian-government-publication|title=Definition of ODF – Open Defecation Free (Indian government publication)|date=2015-06-18|access-date=2017-10-05|language=en-gb|archive-date=6 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171006012854/http://forum.susana.org/71-behaviour-change-and-user-psychology-issues/13746-definition-of-odf-open-defecation-free-indian-government-publication|url-status=live}}</ref> Dis definition be part of di Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (Clean India Campaign).<ref>{{Cite web | title=UN Vows to Eliminate Open Defecation by 2025 - Our World | url=https://ourworld.unu.edu/en/un-vows-to-eliminate-open-defecation-by-2025 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141122050313/http://ourworld.unu.edu/en/un-vows-to-eliminate-open-defecation-by-2025 | access-date=2025-08-05 | archive-date=22 November 2014 | url-status=live }}</ref> == Reasons == Plenty different reasons dey make people do open defecation. E fit be by choice, partly by choice, or because dem no get any other option. Most times, di main reason be say toilet no dey available. But for some places, even people wey get toilet for dia house still prefer go ease body outside.<ref name="Cavill" /> Some of di main reasons wey dey cause open defecation be these: === No toilet === Open defecation dey happen plenty anytime people no get toilet for dia house or for where dem dey live.<ref name="Routray 880">{{cite journal|vauthors=Routray P, Schmidt WP, Boisson S, Clasen T, Jenkins MW|date=September 2015|title=Socio-cultural and behavioural factors constraining latrine adoption in rural coastal Odisha: an exploratory qualitative study|journal=[[BMC Public Health]]|volume=15|article-number=880|doi=10.1186/s12889-015-2206-3|pmc=4566293|pmid=26357958 |doi-access=free }}</ref> If toilet no dey places like schools or farms too, people go end up dey ease body outside.<ref name="Routray 880" /> Another example be shortage of public toilets for cities, whether businesses no dey allow people use dia toilets or di toilets no dey open all di time (for example, if no 24-hour business dey and somebody need toilet after working hours). Dis one fit be serious problem for homeless people.<ref>{{cite web|title=Public Bathrooms Become Ground Zero in the Opioid Epidemic|url=http://www.wbur.org/commonhealth/2017/04/03/public-bathrooms-opioids|access-date=2018-10-16|website=Wbur.org|date=3 April 2017 |language=en|archive-date=23 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180623141445/http://www.wbur.org/commonhealth/2017/04/03/public-bathrooms-opioids|url-status=live}}</ref> For some rural communities, people dey use toilets for other things like keeping household items, animals, farm produce, or even as kitchen. Because of dat, dem go outside go ease body.<ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = Bardosh K |date=2015-11-01|title=Achieving "Total Sanitation" in Rural African Geographies: Poverty, Participation and Pit Latrines in Eastern Zambia|journal=Geoforum|volume=66|issue=Supplement C|pages=53–63|doi=10.1016/j.geoforum.2015.09.004|s2cid=153649870 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/2762|title=Understanding Gendered Sanitation Vulnerabilities: A Study in Uttar Pradesh - Resources|website=Susana.org|access-date=2017-10-23|archive-date=24 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171024095611/http://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/2762|url-status=live}}</ref> === Uncomfortable or unsafe toilet === [[File:Pit latrines in Zambia (3233256285).jpg|thumb|A pit latrine with failing superstructure in Zambia]] Sometimes people get toilet, but di toilet spoil or e no good. Outdoor toilets, especially pit latrines, mostly no dey clean and dem dey smell bad. Some toilets no get enough light, especially for places wey electricity no dey. Others no get door or water. Some toilets even get maggots or cockroaches, so people prefer go outside go ease body.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/WSP-What-Influences-Open-Defecation-Global-Sanitation-Review.pdf|title=What Influences Open Defecation and Latrine Ownership in Rural Households?: Findings from a Global Review| vauthors = O'Connell K |access-date=23 October 2017|archive-date=18 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171118135242/http://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/WSP-What-Influences-Open-Defecation-Global-Sanitation-Review.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wateraid.org/se/~/media/Files/Sweden/nowhere-to-go.pdf|title=Nowhere to go How a lack of safe toilets threatens to increase violence against women in slums|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140611225519/http://www.wateraid.org/se/%7E/media/Files/Sweden/nowhere%2Dto%2Dgo.pdf|archive-date=2014-06-11}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kwiringira J, Atekyereza P, Niwagaba C, Günther I | title = Descending the sanitation ladder in urban Uganda: evidence from Kampala Slums | journal = BMC Public Health | volume = 14 | article-number = 624 | date = June 2014 | pmid = 24948084 | pmc = 4071028 | doi = 10.1186/1471-2458-14-624 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Routray 880" /> Some toilets no safe to reach. For night, lack of light, criminals, or animals like snakes and dogs fit make am dangerous. Women and children wey no get toilet inside dia house dey fear use shared or public toilets, especially for night.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/AFR32/002/2010/en/|title=Document|website=Amnesty.org|date=7 July 2010 |language=en|access-date=2017-10-23|archive-date=24 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171024043145/https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/AFR32/002/2010/en/|url-status=live}}</ref> People wey get disability too fit struggle use toilets wey no dey inside di house, especially for night.<ref name="Tsinda 6939–6954">{{cite journal | vauthors = Tsinda A, Abbott P, Pedley S, Charles K, Adogo J, Okurut K, Chenoweth J | title = Challenges to achieving sustainable sanitation in informal settlements of Kigali, Rwanda | journal = International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health | volume = 10 | issue = 12 | pages = 6939–54 | date = December 2013 | pmid = 24336021 | pmc = 3881150 | doi = 10.3390/ijerph10126939 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2013IJERP..10.6939T }}</ref> For some places like Zambia, dem no encourage very small children make dem use pit latrines because dem fit fall inside di hole.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Water and Sanitation Programme and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)|date=2015|title=Child Feces Disposal in Zambia|url=https://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp/files/publications/WSP-Zambia-CFD-Profile.pdf|journal=International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank and UNICEF.|access-date=22 September 2020|archive-date=2 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201002000020/https://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp/files/publications/WSP-Zambia-CFD-Profile.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Some toilets no even get proper door; na cloth dem hang instead. For some communities too, women dey shy use toilets wey dey where men dey.<ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = O'Reilly K |date=2006-11-01|title="Traditional" women, "modern" water: Linking gender and commodification in Rajasthan, India|journal=Geoforum|volume=37|issue=6|pages=958–972|doi=10.1016/j.geoforum.2006.05.008}}</ref><ref name="Tsinda 6939–6954" /><ref name="Routray 880" /> If water no dey near, people go need fetch water before dem fit use toilet.<ref name="Routray 880" /> Dis one dey add more work and take more time. If plenty people wan use one toilet at di same time, some people go decide say make dem just go outside instead of waiting. Some people too fit get diarrhea or emergency wey dem no fit hold. For home pit latrines, some families dey fear say di pit go full quick if everybody dey use am every day, so dem still dey go outside to delay di filling of di pit.<ref name=":0" /><ref name="Tsinda 6939–6954" /> === Unrelated to toilet infrastructure === Some communities get safe and easy-to-use toilets, but people still prefer go ease body outside.<ref name="Cavill" /> For some cases, government or other organizations build di toilets, but people no like dem, no value dem, or no know di benefits of using dem.<ref>In 2016, Kunwar Bai Yadav, a woman claiming to be 105 years old, said she had never heard about a toilet until that year, and had always gone into the nearby woods to defecate. Only when she learned about them, did she have one built in her community. Source: BBC News (India): [https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-37799425 "How a 105-year-old ended open defecation in her village"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181221154407/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-37799425 |date=21 December 2018 }}, 1 November 2016</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://riceinstitute.org/research/revealed-preference-for-open-defecation-evidence-from-a-new-survey-in-rural-north-india-longer-working-paper/|title=Revealed Preference for Open Defecation: Evidence from a new survey in rural north India (longer working paper) {{!}} r.i.c.e.|website=riceinstitute.org|language=en-US|access-date=2017-10-23|archive-date=24 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171024043235/http://riceinstitute.org/research/revealed-preference-for-open-defecation-evidence-from-a-new-survey-in-rural-north-india-longer-working-paper/|url-status=live}}</ref> Dem continue dey ease body outside. Older people too often no want change dia old habit and start use enclosed toilet.<ref name="Routray 880" /> Some people like di feeling of dey for open nature when dem dey ease body instead of inside closed toilet. Dis one common for rural or less populated areas, where people dey waka go fields or bushes early morning go ease body.<ref name="Ahmad" /> Sometimes e fit be because of culture or habit. Some people see am as social activity, especially women wey use dat time chat with other women and look after dia animals while dem dey go fields.<ref name="Routray 880" /> For some regions, open defecation don become part of everyday life. For example, one 2011 survey for rural East Java, Indonesia, show say many men believe say di practice be "normal", and e get benefits like social interaction and physical comfort.<ref name=":3" /> For some cultures too, social taboos dey. For example, father-in-law fit no use di same toilet with daughter-in-law for one household.{{citation needed|date=March 2019}} For some parts of di world, people even prefer open defecation pass toilet use, and many respondents for one 2015 survey talk say "open defecation was more pleasurable and desirable than latrine use".<ref name=":3" /> For some societies, people intentionally use open defecation as way to fertilize land. People wey get fecal incontinence fit suddenly get emergency wey no go give dem enough time to reach toilet, so open defecation fit be dia only option for dat situation. === Public defecation for other reasons === For developed countries, open defecation fit happen because of homelessness. Some people for developed areas too dey do open defecation during outdoor activities like camping for remote places. E hard make anybody know exactly how many people for these communities dey practice open defecation. == Prevalence and trends == [[File:People-practicing-open-defecation-of-population.png|thumb|350x350px|Share of people wey dey practice open defecation for 2022<ref>{{Cite web | author=[[Hannah Ritchie]] | year=2024 | url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/people-practicing-open-defecation-of-population?time=latest | title=Sanitation | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240816121425/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/people-practicing-open-defecation-of-population?time=latest | archive-date=16 August 2024 }}</ref> Government data show say open defecation reduce well well for India after dem launch the Swachh Bharat Mission on 2 October 2014.]] === Countries with high numbers === Open defecation dey happen pass for places wey poverty and social exclusion plenty, especially for rural communities and informal urban settlements for developing countries. The Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) of UNICEF and WHO dey collect data about how open defecation dey happen around the world. Dem separate the figures into rural and urban areas, plus different poverty levels. This programme get responsibility to monitor progress towards the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) for drinking water and sanitation. Since open defecation be one example of unimproved sanitation, JMP dey monitor am for every country, and dem dey publish the results regularly.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/|title = Data and estimates|access-date = 12 March 2015|website = JMP – WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) for Water Supply and Sanitation|publisher = WHO/UNICEF|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150219114756/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates|archive-date = 19 February 2015}}</ref><ref name="JMP2017">WHO and UNICEF (2017) [https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/2805 Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: 2017 Update and SDG Baselines] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227032419/https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/2805 |date=27 February 2020 }}. Geneva: World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)</ref> Before 2010, dem dey join open defecation figures together with other unimproved sanitation figures, but from 2010 go, dem begin collect am separately. The number of people wey dey practice open defecation reduce from 20% for 2000 to 12% for 2015.<ref name="JMP2017" />{{rp|page=34}} For 2016, estimate show say about 892 million people no get any sanitation facility at all, so dem dey do open defecation for gutters, behind bushes, open water bodies and other open places. Most of these people (9 out of every 10) dey live for rural areas, but most of all of dem dey come from two regions (Central Africa and South Asia).<ref name="JMP2017" /> For 2016, about 76% (678 million) of the 892 million people wey dey practice open defecation for the world dey live for only seven countries.<ref name="JMP2017" /> {| class="wikitable sortable" |+Countries with Over 1 Million People Who Defecate openly are listed in the table below, based on available data from different years. !Year ! style="text-align:left;" | Country ! Total population as per respective year<ref>{{Cite web |title=World Population Clock: 8.2 Billion People (LIVE, 2024) - Worldometer |url=https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/ |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=Worldometers.info |language=en |archive-date=22 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222155525/https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ! style="text-align:left;" data-sort-type="number" | Percentage and Number of people who defecate in the open<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |last=If you are viewing it from a mobile device, it would be best to open the link in desktop mode for a complete and convenient experience. |title=JMP |url=https://washdata.org/data/household#!/IND |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=washdata.org |archive-date=11 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190111175434/https://washdata.org/data/household |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=KASHIWASE |first=HARUNA |date=17 November 2023 |title=World Toilet Day: 420 million people are defecating outdoors |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/world-toilet-day-420-million-people-are-defecating-outdoors |access-date=2 September 2024 |website=World Bank Group}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=World Bank Open Data |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.ODFC.ZS |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=World Bank Open Data |archive-date=28 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200828134124/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.ODFC.ZS |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":5" /> |} === India === {{Further|Swachh Bharat Mission|Take Poo to the Loo}} [[File:People-practicing-open-defecation-of-population (1).png|thumb|350x350px|This chart show how open defecation reduce from 2000 to 2022 for countries wey get land border with India, plus World Bank income classifications. According to the data, around 11% of India's population still dey practice open defecation for 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 January 2024 |title=Share of people practicing open defecation |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/people-practicing-open-defecation-of-population?tab=chart&country=MMR/BGD/IND/OWID_WRL/CHN/PAK/BTN/NPL/AFG/High-income+countries/Least+Developed+Countries/Low-income+countries/Lower-middle-income+countries |access-date=2024-08-16 |website=Our World in Data |archive-date=17 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240817114237/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/people-practicing-open-defecation-of-population?tab=chart&country=MMR/BGD/IND/OWID_WRL/CHN/PAK/BTN/NPL/AFG/High-income%20countries/Least%20Developed%20Countries/Low-income%20countries/Lower-middle-income%20countries |url-status=live }}</ref>]] Campaign wey dem start to build toilets for urban and rural areas help reduce open defecation well well between 2014 and 2019. For September 2019, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation honour Indian leader Narendra Modi because of the work wey e do to improve sanitation for the country.<ref>{{cite news|date=25 September 2019|title=Gates Foundation award seen as boost to Swachh Bharat Abhiyan|work=[[Mint (newspaper)|Mint]]|url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/gates-foundation-award-seen-as-boost-to-swachh-bharat-abhiyan-1569432677658.html|url-status=live|access-date=20 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201130113601/https://www.livemint.com/news/india/gates-foundation-award-seen-as-boost-to-swachh-bharat-abhiyan-1569432677658.html|archive-date=30 November 2020}}</ref> According to UNICEF, the five-year Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) reduce the number of people wey dey practice open defecation by about 500 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=A Clean (Sampoorna Swachh) India|url=https://www.unicef.org/india/what-we-do/ending-open-defecation|access-date=2021-07-07|website=Unicef.org|language=en|archive-date=7 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807020542/https://www.unicef.org/india/what-we-do/ending-open-defecation|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2019-03-05|title=93 Percent Households In Rural India Have Access To Toilets, Says Government Survey {{!}} News|url=https://swachhindia.ndtv.com/93-percent-households-rural-india-access-to-toilets-government-survey-31891/|access-date=2021-07-07|website=NDTV-Dettol Banega Swasth Swachh India|language=en-US|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709183528/https://swachhindia.ndtv.com/93-percent-households-rural-india-access-to-toilets-government-survey-31891/|url-status=live}}</ref> Some reports too talk say some people no dey use the toilets even though dem get one. But according to the Indian newspaper The Economic Times, wey quote government sources, World Bank support project survey show say 96% of Indians dey use the toilets wey dem get.<ref>{{cite news|author=Helen Regan and Manveena Suri|date=2019-10-06|title=Half of India couldn't access a toilet 5 years ago. Modi built 110M latrines -- but will people use them?|url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/10/05/asia/india-modi-open-defecation-free-intl-hnk-scli/index.html|access-date=2021-07-07|website=CNN|language=en|archive-date=30 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211130053416/https://www.cnn.com/2019/10/05/asia/india-modi-open-defecation-free-intl-hnk-scli/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Sharma|first=Aman|title=96% usage of toilets under Swachh Bharat, shows a survey by an independent verification agency|work=[[The Economic Times]]|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/96-usage-of-toilets-under-swachh-bharat-shows-survey-by-an-independent-verification-agency/articleshow/68265399.cms?from=mdr|access-date=2021-07-07|archive-date=10 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210710000513/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/96-usage-of-toilets-under-swachh-bharat-shows-survey-by-an-independent-verification-agency/articleshow/68265399.cms?from=mdr|url-status=live}}</ref> For October 2019, Modi announce say India don become "open defecation free".<ref name=":4">{{cite web|url=https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1587023&reg=3&lang=2|title=PM dedicates a Swachh Bharat to Bapu and the people of India|website=Pib.gov.in|access-date=June 1, 2026}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/rural-india-achieved-100-pc-odf-status-govt/articleshow/72337872.cms?from=mdr|title=Rural India achieved 100 pc ODF status: Govt|date=2 December 2019|access-date=1 June 2026|newspaper=[[The Economic Times]]}}</ref> After the success of the Swachh Bharat Mission, Modi launch Phase 2 from 2020 to 2025.<ref>{{Cite news|agency=[[Press Trust of India]]|date=2020-03-04|title=Second phase of Swachh Bharat Mission (Grameen) launched|language=en-IN|work=[[The Hindu]]|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/second-phase-of-swachh-bharat-mission-grameen-launched/article30981702.ece|access-date=2021-07-07|issn=0971-751X|archive-date=28 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220128195604/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/second-phase-of-swachh-bharat-mission-grameen-launched/article30981702.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> During Phase 2, government go focus on waste segregation and continue the work to eliminate open defecation completely.<ref>{{cite web|date=2021-03-03|title=Phase 2 of Swachh Bharat Mission to focus on waste segregation at source|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/India/phase-2-of-swachh-bharat-mission-to-focus-on-waste-segregation-at-source-7210207/|access-date=2021-07-07|website=[[The Indian Express]]|language=en|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709185247/https://indianexpress.com/article/india/phase-2-of-swachh-bharat-mission-to-focus-on-waste-segregation-at-source-7210207/|url-status=live}}</ref> === Pakistan === For 2017–18, about 94% of people for Pakistan get toilet facilities (99% for urban areas and 91% for rural areas), while 6% of the population no get any toilet facility (1% for urban areas and 9% for rural areas).<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/571527-world-toilet-day-20m-pakistanis-have-no-toilet-facility|title=World Toilet Day: 13.2m Pakistanis have no toilet facility|date=2019-11-20|access-date=2026-01-28|last=Mustafa|first=Khalid|website=Thenews.com.pk|language=en-US}}</ref> For 2009, sanitation facilities dey available for only about 42% of the population—65% for urban areas and 30% for rural settlements.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256191560 | title=Sustainability of Sanitation Systems in Pakistan | website=Researchgate.net}}</ref> For 2017, WaterAid report say about 79 million people for Pakistan no get access to proper toilet.<ref name=":6">{{cite web|date=2017-11-23|title=79m Pakistanis still lack a decent toilet: report|url=https://dailytimes.com.pk/145728/79m-pakistanis-still-lack-decent-toilet-report/|access-date=2021-06-23|website=Daily Times|language=en-US|archive-date=22 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122011353/https://dailytimes.com.pk/145728/79m-pakistanis-still-lack-decent-toilet-report/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{cite web|title=Pakistan {{!}} WaterAid Global|url=https://www.wateraid.org/where-we-work/pakistan|access-date=2021-06-23|website=Wateraid.org|language=en|archive-date=13 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613103834/https://www.wateraid.org/where-we-work/pakistan|url-status=live}}</ref> According to UNICEF, for 2018 about 12% of the population, or 26 million people, dey practice open defecation.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.ODFC.ZS?end=2018&locations=PK|title=People practicing open defecation (% of population) - Pakistan|newspaper=World Bank|access-date=29 November 2021|archive-date=29 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211129221532/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.ODFC.ZS?end=2018&locations=PK|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="thehindu24Nov2018">{{cite news|date=24 November 2018|title=Women in Pakistan fight for toilets, while men have 'other priorities'|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/women-in-pakistan-fight-for-toilets-while-men-have-other-priorities/article25587275.ece|work=The Hindu|access-date=27 May 2021|archive-date=17 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210717200628/https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/women-in-pakistan-fight-for-toilets-while-men-have-other-priorities/article25587275.ece|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":2" /> As of 2022, UNICEF report say about 7% of Pakistan population, or 15.92 million people, still dey practice open defecation.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |date=July 2023 |title=Sanitation statistics |url=https://data.unicef.org/topic/water-and-sanitation/sanitation/ |access-date=1 September 2024 |website=[[UNICEF]] |archive-date=22 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240522174203/https://data.unicef.org/topic/water-and-sanitation/sanitation/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":2" /> I'll continue with the next section in the same style and preserve all formatting as requested. === United States === Increase for homelessness plus the rise of tent cities across the United States don make open defecation increase because plenty public toilets no dey available.<ref>{{Cite web | title=America's Tent Cities for the Homeless - The Atlantic | url=https://www.theatlantic.com/photo/2016/02/americas-tent-cities-for-the-homeless/462450/ | access-date=2025-08-05 | website=Theatlantic.com}}</ref> Since the 1970s, plenty cities close their public toilets because dem worry say homeless people go vandalize them or use drugs inside.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2021-11-05 |title=Where Did All the Public Bathrooms Go? |language=en |work=Bloomberg.com |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2021-11-05/why-american-cities-lost-their-public-bathrooms |access-date=2023-09-25 |archive-date=4 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220204040645/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2021-11-05/why-american-cities-lost-their-public-bathrooms |url-status=live }}</ref> For San Francisco, reports about human feces for the streets increase five times between 2011 and 2018, reaching 28,084 complaints. This one mainly happen because homelessness increase for the city. To tackle the problem, San Francisco create the Poop Patrol.<ref>{{cite web| vauthors = Moffitt M |date=3 December 2019|title=San Francisco plans to power-wash the poop out of the Tenderloin|url=https://www.sfgate.com/local/article/City-plans-to-power-wash-the-poop-out-of-the-14878629.php|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191206150800/https://www.sfgate.com/local/article/City-plans-to-power-wash-the-poop-out-of-the-14878629.php|archive-date=6 December 2019|publisher=SFGATE}}</ref> Similar problems too happen for Los Angeles<ref>{{cite web|last1=Grover|first1=Joel|last2=Corral|first2=Amy|date=February 19, 2020|title=Homeless People Are Without Toilets and Going in the Streets. We Asked the Mayor of LA Why|url=https://www.nbclosangeles.com/investigations/homeless-people-are-without-toilets-and-going-in-the-streets-we-asked-the-mayor-of-la-why/2311759/|website=[[NBC Los Angeles]]|language=en-US|access-date=28 September 2021|archive-date=1 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211201190317/https://www.nbclosangeles.com/investigations/homeless-people-are-without-toilets-and-going-in-the-streets-we-asked-the-mayor-of-la-why/2311759/|url-status=live}}</ref> and Miami.<ref>{{Cite news|last=LINDA ROBERTSON|date=October 19, 2019|title=Poop and urine turn downtown streets into outdoor toilet|work=[[Miami Herald]]|url=https://www.miamiherald.com/news/local/community/miami-dade/downtown-miami/article236262158.html|access-date=28 September 2021|archive-date=8 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210908122341/https://www.miamiherald.com/news/local/community/miami-dade/downtown-miami/article236262158.html|url-status=live}}</ref> "The Mad Pooper" be the nickname wey people give one unidentified woman wey dey regularly defecate for public places while she dey jog during the summer of 2017 for the U.S. city of Colorado Springs.<ref name="Runner's World editorial">{{cite news|date=19 September 2017|title=We Urge You 'Mad Pooper,' Stop Crapping in Your Neighbor's Yard|newspaper=[[Runner's World]]|url=https://www.runnersworld.com/poop/we-urge-you-mad-pooper-stop-crapping-in-your-neighbors-yard|url-status=live|access-date=3 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107025928/https://www.runnersworld.com/poop/we-urge-you-mad-pooper-stop-crapping-in-your-neighbors-yard|archive-date=7 November 2017}}</ref> == Impacts == [[File:Dirty pit latrine in Mongolia in winter (5321157342).jpg|thumb|upright|Dirty pit latrine for Mongolia wey dey make some people choose open defecation instead.]] === Public health === {{Further|WASH#Health aspects}} The negative public health effects of open defecation be the same as the effects wey happen when people no get access to sanitation at all. Open defecation—and lack of sanitation and hygiene generally—be major cause of different diseases. The most common ones be diarrhea, intestinal worm infections, typhoid, cholera, hepatitis, polio and trachoma.<ref name="UN2015">{{cite web|title=Call to action on sanitation|url=http://sanitationdrive2015.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/DSG_Sanitation_Fast-Facts_final.pdf|website=United Nations|access-date=15 August 2014|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819084624/http://sanitationdrive2015.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/DSG_Sanitation_Fast-Facts_final.pdf|archive-date=19 August 2014}}</ref><ref name="ChaturvediSpears2013">{{cite journal | vauthors = Spears D, Ghosh A, Cumming O | title = Open defecation and childhood stunting in India: an ecological analysis of new data from 112 districts | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 8 | issue = 9 | article-number = e73784 | year = 2013 | pmid = 24066070 | pmc = 3774764 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0073784 | bibcode = 2013PLoSO...873784S | doi-access = free }}</ref> The bad health effects of open defecation happen because feces contaminate the environment. People wey dey practice open defecation dey expose themselves over and over to different fecal bacteria, including gram-positive ''Staphylococcus aureus'', plus other disease-causing organisms. This matter dey especially serious for small children because their immune systems and brains never fully develop.<ref name=":3" /> Some diseases dey under the group called waterborne diseases, meaning diseases wey spread through fecal pathogens inside water. Open defecation fit pollute water when rain carry feces enter rivers, streams, lakes or unprotected wells. For 2014, WHO identify open defecation as one of the leading causes of deaths from diarrheal diseases. For 2013, about 2,000 children under five years die every day because of diarrhea.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs330/en/ |title=WHO | Diarrhoeal disease |publisher=World Health Organization |date=2013 |access-date=10 March 2014 |archive-date=1 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140401193648/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs330/en/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Small children dey especially at risk because dem dey crawl for ground, waka barefoot and put things inside their mouths without washing their hands. Because of that, dem fit easily swallow feces wey other people leave behind after open defecation. Animal feces too fit cause serious health problems when children dey play around the compound. Countries wey plenty people still dey practice open defecation usually get the highest number of deaths among children under five years, high levels of malnutrition wey fit lead to stunted growth, widespread poverty, and wide gap between rich and poor.<ref name="JMP2014" /> Research from India show say the harmful health effects of open defecation dey even worse for places wey population density high. According to the researchers, "The same amount of open defecation is twice as bad in a place with a high population density average like India versus a low population density average like sub-Saharan Africa."<ref>{{cite book|last1=Vyas|url=http://www.susana.org/_resources/documents/default/3-2089-16-1414062223.pdf|title=Population density and the effect of sanitation on early-life health], slide 19 (presentation at UNC conference in Oct. 2014)|date=2014|publisher=Research Institute for Compassionate Economics, project (r.i.c.e.)|access-date=12 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402092447/http://www.susana.org/_resources/documents/default/3-2089-16-1414062223.pdf|archive-date=2 April 2015|url-status=live|via=[[Sustainable Sanitation Alliance]]}}</ref> Open defecation too dey seriously affect children's health and quality of life, including psychological problems.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.unicef.org/media/media_86283.html |title=UNICEF: Without toilets, childhood is even riskier due to malnutrition | Press centre | UNICEF |access-date=6 April 2021 |archive-date=1 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301000911/https://www.unicef.org/media/media_86283.html }}</ref> == References == 4h5cymcednipv94tqxx5hmdvzpkknhg 102917 102916 2026-06-15T06:15:33Z Achiri Bitamsimli 64 Added more content 102917 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Open defecation''' be de human practice for [[:en:Defecating|defecating]] outside ("for de open") rather than for [[:en:Toilet|toilet]]. People dey choose fields, bushes, forests, ditches, streets, canals, plus oder open spaces for defecation. Dey do so either because dey no get toilet wey be accessible or due to dema archaic traditional cultural practices.<ref>{{Cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Clasen T, Boisson S, Routray P, Torondel B, Bell M, Cumming O, Ensink J, Freeman M, Jenkins M, Odagiri M, Ray S, Sinha A, Suar M, Schmidt WP |date=November 2014 |title=Effectiveness of a rural sanitation program on diarrhea, soil-transmitted helminth infection, and child malnutrition in Odisha, India: a cluster-randomized trial |journal=The Lancet. Global Health |volume=2 |issue=11 |pages=e645-53 |doi=10.1016/S2214-109X(14)70307-9 |pmid=25442689 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De practice be common where sanitation infrastructure den services no dey available. Even if toilets dey available, behavior change efforts go be needed to promote de use of toilets. 'Open defecation free' (ODF) be term used to describe communities dat make de shift to dey use toilets instead of open defecation. Dis go fit happen, for example, afta [[:en:Community-led_total_sanitation|community-led total sanitation]] programs get implemention. Open defecation go fit pollute de environment den cause health problems den diseases. High levels of open defecation dey link to high [[:en:Child_mortality|child mortality]], poor [[:en:Undernutrition|nutrition]], [[:en:Poverty|poverty]], plus large disparities between rich den poor people.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/2036 |title=Progress on drinking water and sanitation, 2014 Update |date=2014 |publisher=WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (JMP) |isbn=978-92-4-150724-0 |access-date=12 March 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> '''Open defecation''' na when person go ease body for outside ("for open place") instead of inside [[toilet]]. People fit go farm, bush, forest, gutter, street, canal, or any oda open place go ease body. Dem dey do am because dem no get toilet wey dey easy for dem to use, or because of old traditional cultural practices.<ref name="ClasenBoisson2014">{{cite journal | vauthors = Clasen T, Boisson S, Routray P, Torondel B, Bell M, Cumming O, Ensink J, Freeman M, Jenkins M, Odagiri M, Ray S, Sinha A, Suar M, Schmidt WP | display-authors = 6 | title = Effectiveness of a rural sanitation program on diarrhea, soil-transmitted helminth infection, and child malnutrition in Odisha, India: a cluster-randomized trial | journal = The Lancet. Global Health | volume = 2 | issue = 11 | pages = e645-53 | date = November 2014 | pmid = 25442689 | doi = 10.1016/S2214-109X(14)70307-9 | doi-access = free }}</ref> This practice dey common for places wey [[sanitation]] infrastructure and services no dey. Even if toilet dey, people fit still need [[Behavior change (public health)|behavior change]] programs make dem start use toilet. "Open defecation free" (ODF) na term wey dem dey use for communities wey stop open defecation and begin dey use toilets. This one fit happen after [[community-led total sanitation]] programs. Open defecation fit pollute environment and cause health problems plus diseases. Plenty open defecation dey linked to high [[child mortality]], poor [[undernutrition|nutrition]], [[poverty]], and big gap between rich and poor people.<ref name="JMP2014">{{cite book|url=http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/2036|title=Progress on drinking water and sanitation, 2014 Update|date=2014|publisher=WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (JMP)|isbn=978-92-4-150724-0|access-date=12 March 2015|archive-date=2 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402115029/http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/2036|url-status=live}}</ref> Ending open defecation be one indicator wey dem dey use check progress toward [[Sustainable Development Goal 6|Sustainable Development Goal Number 6]]. Extreme poverty and lack of sanitation dey strongly linked by statistics. Because of dat, ending open defecation dey be important part of effort to end poverty.<ref name="Ahmad">{{cite news|last=Junaid Ahmad|date=30 October 2014|title=How to eliminate open defecation by 2030|website=Devex|url=https://www.devex.com/news/how-to-eliminate-open-defecation-by-2030-84634|url-status=live|access-date=2 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160601220402/https://www.devex.com/news/how-to-eliminate-open-defecation-by-2030-84634|archive-date=1 June 2016}}</ref> For 2022, about 420 million people (5.25% of the world's population) still dey practice open defecation. This number reduce well from about 1.31 billion people (21.42%) for 2000, wey mean reduction of about 890 million people or 16.17 percentage points within 22 years. Out of everybody wey still dey practice open defecation, 275 million (65.6%) dey live for just seven countries. For example, for India, the number reduce by 62% (from 73% for 2000 to 7% for 2024), showing the country's big effort to achieve [[Sustainable Development Goals]] by 2030.<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=29 June 2024 |title=Sustainable Development Goals National Indicator Framework |url=https://www.mospi.gov.in/sites/default/files/publication_reports/SDG-NIF-ProgressReport-FullFile-v4N.pdf |access-date=2 September 2024 |website=Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation |archive-date=30 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240630172041/https://mospi.gov.in/sites/default/files/publication_reports/SDG-NIF-ProgressReport-FullFile-v4N.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Even though progress don happen,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2019-12-02 |title=Rural India achieved 100 pc ODF status: Govt |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/rural-india-achieved-100-pc-odf-status-govt/articleshow/72337872.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2026-01-25 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}}</ref> India still get the biggest number of people wey dey practice open defecation, followed by Nigeria, Ethiopia, Niger and Pakistan as of 2023 according to the World Bank.<ref name=":2" /> {{TOC limit|3}} == Overview == Long time ago, when land plenty and population no too much, open defecation be common practice and e no bring plenty health and hygiene problems. But as development and urbanization increase, open defecation turn serious [[public health]] matter and issue of human [[dignity]].<ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = O'Reilly K |date=2016-01-01|title=From toilet insecurity to toilet security: creating safe sanitation for women and girls|journal=Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water|language=en|volume=3|issue=1|pages=19–24|doi=10.1002/wat2.1122|bibcode=2016WIRWa...3...19O |s2cid=109965522|issn=2049-1948}}</ref> As population continue increase for towns and cities, people begin pay more attention to hygiene and health. Because of dat, global efforts to reduce open defecation also increase.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2017/08/toilet-defecate-outdoors-stunting-sanitation/|title=Nearly a Billion People Still Defecate Outdoors. Here's Why.|date=2017-07-25|access-date=2017-10-04|archive-date=5 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171005050709/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2017/08/toilet-defecate-outdoors-stunting-sanitation/}}</ref> Open defecation dey continue the cycle of [[Diseases of poverty|disease and poverty]], and many people see am as something wey dey take away human dignity.<ref name="JMP2014" /> Countries wey open defecation dey common pass also get the highest number of [[Child mortality|children under five wey dey die]], high levels of [[Malnutrition|undernutrition]], high poverty, and wide gap between rich and poor people.<ref name="JMP2014" /> <gallery> Waste dumping in a slum of Cap-Haitien.jpg|Indiscriminate waste dumping and open defecation (from animals), Shadda, Cap-Haitien, Haiti Open defecation along the river bank (6908382463).jpg|Evidence of open defecation along a riverbank in Bujumbura, Burundi Child in open sewer in Nigeria (3150664698).jpg|Child wey dey ease body for open canal for Gege slum inside Ibadan, Nigeria Open defecation in Tirin Kowt bazaar (4361881653).jpg|Open defecation for Tirin Kowt bazaar, Afghanistan </gallery> === Public defecation for other reasons === For developed countries, people fit do open defecation because of homelessness. Open defecation for developed areas too dey happen during outdoor activities like camping for remote places. E hard to know the exact number of people wey dey practice open defecation for these communities. == Prevalence and trends == [[File:People-practicing-open-defecation-of-population.png|thumb|350x350px|Percentage of people wey dey practice open defecation for 2022<ref>{{Cite web | author=Hannah Ritchie | year=2024 | url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/people-practicing-open-defecation-of-population?time=latest | title=Sanitation | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240816121425/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/people-practicing-open-defecation-of-population?time=latest | archive-date=16 August 2024 }}</ref>. According to government data, open defecation for India reduce well-well after the launch of the Swachh Bharat Mission on 2 October 2014.]] === Countries with high numbers === Open defecation get strong connection with poverty and social exclusion, especially for rural areas and informal urban settlements for developing countries. The Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (JMP) by UNICEF and WHO dey collect worldwide data about how common open defecation be. Dem separate the figures into rural and urban areas, plus different poverty levels. This programme dey monitor progress toward the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) for drinking water and sanitation. Since open defecation be one example of unimproved sanitation, JMP dey monitor am for every country and dey publish the results regularly.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/|title = Data and estimates|access-date = 12 March 2015|website = JMP – WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) for Water Supply and Sanitation|publisher = WHO/UNICEF|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150219114756/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates|archive-date = 19 February 2015}}</ref><ref name="JMP2017">WHO and UNICEF (2017) [https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/2805 Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: 2017 Update and SDG Baselines] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227032419/https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/2805 |date=27 February 2020 }}. Geneva: World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)</ref> Before, dem dey join open defecation figures together with other unimproved sanitation data, but since 2010 dem dey record am separately. The number of people wey dey practice open defecation reduce from 20% for 2000 to 12% for 2015.<ref name="JMP2017" />{{rp|page=34}} For 2016, estimate show say about 892 million people no get any sanitation facility at all, so dem dey practice open defecation (inside gutters, behind bushes, for open water bodies and other places). Most of these people (9 out of every 10) dey live for rural areas, and plenty of them dey inside two regions (Central Africa and South Asia).<ref name="JMP2017" /> For 2016, 76% (678 million) of the 892 million people wey dey practice open defecation for the world dey live inside just seven countries.<ref name="JMP2017" /> {| class="wikitable sortable" |+Countries with Over 1 Million People Who Defecate openly are listed in the table below, based on available data from different years. !Year ! style="text-align:left;" | Country !<!--Please don't remove it or update it with current year data. The total population is listed as per the respective years.--> Total population as per respective year<ref>{{Cite web |title=World Population Clock: 8.2 Billion People (LIVE, 2024) - Worldometer |url=https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/ |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=Worldometers.info |language=en |archive-date=22 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222155525/https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ! style="text-align:left;" data-sort-type="number" | Percentage and Number of people who defecate in the open<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |last=If you are viewing it from a mobile device, it would be best to open the link in desktop mode for a complete and convenient experience. |title=JMP |url=https://washdata.org/data/household#!/IND |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=washdata.org |archive-date=11 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190111175434/https://washdata.org/data/household |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=KASHIWASE |first=HARUNA |date=17 November 2023 |title=World Toilet Day: 420 million people are defecating outdoors |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/world-toilet-day-420-million-people-are-defecating-outdoors |access-date=2 September 2024 |website=World Bank Group}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=World Bank Open Data |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.ODFC.ZS |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=World Bank Open Data |archive-date=28 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200828134124/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.ODFC.ZS |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":5" /> |- |2022 | Afghanistan |40,578,842 |9% or 3.6 million |- |2022 |Angola |35,635,029 |17% or 6.1 million |- |2022 |Benin |13,759,501 |49% or 6.4 million |- |2022 |Bolivia |12,077,154 |9% or 1 million |- |2022 |Burkina Faso |22,509,038 |34% or 7.6 million |- |2022 |Cambodia |17,201,724 |12% or 2 million |- |2022 |Cameroon |27,632,771 |4% or 1.1 million |- |2022 |Central African Republic |5,098,039 |25% or 1.3 million |- |2022 |Chad |16,244,513 |62.6% or 11 million |- |2022 |Colombia |51,737,944 |2% or 1.2 million |- |2022 |Democratic Republic of the Congo |102,396,968 |12% or 11.7 million |- |2016 |Eritrea |3,124,698 |67% or 2.2 million |- |2022 |Ethiopia |125,384,287 |17.6%–18% or 21.7 million |- |2022 |Ghana |33,149,152 |17% or 5.7 million |- |2022 |Haiti |11,503,606 |18% or 2 million |- |2022 |India |1,425,423,212 |11% or 157.4 million |- |2022 |Indonesia |278,830,529 |4.1% or 11.5 million |- |2022 |Kenya |54,252,461 |6% or 3.4 million |- |2022 |Laos |7,559,007 |16% or 1.2 million |- |2022 |Liberia |5,373,294 |35% or 1.8 million |- |2022 |Ivory Coast |30,395,002 |22% or 5.9 million |- |2022 |Madagascar |30,437,261 |34% or 9.9 million |- |2022 |Mali |23,072,640 |5% or 1 million |- |2022 |Mauritania |4,875,637 |27% or 1.2 million |- |2022 |Mozambique |32,656,246 |20% or 6.4 million |- |2022 |Myanmar |53,756,787 |7% or 3.6 million |- |2022 |Nepal |29,715,436 |7% or 2.1 million |- |2022 |Niger |25,311,973 |64.9% or 17 million |- |2022 |Nigeria |223,150,896 |18.4% or 40.3 million |- |2022 |Pakistan |243,700,667 |6.7%–7% or 15.9 million |- |2022 |Papua New Guinea |10,203,169 |16% or 1.6 million |- |2022 |Philippines |113,964,338 |3% or 3.4 million |- |2022 |Senegal |17,651,103 |8% or 1.3 million |- |2022 |Sierra Leone |8,276,807 |16% or 1.4 million |- |2022 |Somalia |17,801,897 |21% or 3.7 million |- |2022 |South Sudan |11,021,177 |59.7% or 6.5 million |- |2020 |Sudan |46,789,231 |17.3% or 7.6 million |- |2022 |Tanzania |64,711,821 |6% or 4.1 million |- |2022 |Togo |9,089,738 |39% or 3.4 million |- |2022 |Uganda |47,312,719 |4% or 1.8 million |- |2022 |Yemen |38,222,876 |8.5% or 2.8 million |- |2022 |Zambia |20,152,938 |6% or 1.2 million |- |2022 |Zimbabwe |16,069,056 |17% or 2.8 million |} === India === {{Further|Swachh Bharat Mission|Take Poo to the Loo}} [[File:People-practicing-open-defecation-of-population (1).png|thumb|350x350px|This chart show how open defecation reduce from 2000 to 2022 for countries wey share land border with India, together with World Bank income classifications. According to the data, about 11% of India's population still dey practice open defecation for 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 January 2024 |title=Share of people practicing open defecation |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/people-practicing-open-defecation-of-population?tab=chart&country=MMR~BGD~IND~OWID_WRL~CHN~PAK~BTN~NPL~AFG~High-income+countries~Least+Developed+Countries~Low-income+countries~Lower-middle-income+countries |access-date=2024-08-16 |website=Our World in Data |archive-date=17 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240817114237/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/people-practicing-open-defecation-of-population?tab=chart&country=MMR~BGD~IND~OWID_WRL~CHN~PAK~BTN~NPL~AFG~High-income%20countries~Least%20Developed%20Countries~Low-income%20countries~Lower-middle-income%20countries |url-status=live }}</ref>]] Campaign wey build toilets for both urban and rural areas help reduce open defecation plenty between 2014 and 2019. For September 2019, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation honour Indian leader Narendra Modi because of the work wey e do to improve sanitation for the country.<ref>{{cite news|date=25 September 2019|title=Gates Foundation award seen as boost to Swachh Bharat Abhiyan|work=Mint|url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/gates-foundation-award-seen-as-boost-to-swachh-bharat-abhiyan-1569432677658.html|url-status=live|access-date=20 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201130113601/https://www.livemint.com/news/india/gates-foundation-award-seen-as-boost-to-swachh-bharat-abhiyan-1569432677658.html|archive-date=30 November 2020}}</ref> According to UNICEF, the five-year Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) reduce the number of people wey dey practice open defecation by 500 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=A Clean (Sampoorna Swachh) India|url=https://www.unicef.org/india/what-we-do/ending-open-defecation|access-date=2021-07-07|website=Unicef.org|language=en|archive-date=7 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807020542/https://www.unicef.org/india/what-we-do/ending-open-defecation|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2019-03-05|title=93 Percent Households In Rural India Have Access To Toilets, Says Government Survey {{!}} News|url=https://swachhindia.ndtv.com/93-percent-households-rural-india-access-to-toilets-government-survey-31891/|access-date=2021-07-07|website=NDTV-Dettol Banega Swasth Swachh India|language=en-US|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709183528/https://swachhindia.ndtv.com/93-percent-households-rural-india-access-to-toilets-government-survey-31891/|url-status=live}}</ref> Some reports too talk say some people no dey use the toilets even though dem get one. But according to The Economic Times, quoting government sources, 96% of Indians use the toilets wey dem get under one World Bank support project.<ref>{{cite news|author=Helen Regan and Manveena Suri|date=2019-10-06|title=Half of India couldn't access a toilet 5 years ago. Modi built 110M latrines -- but will people use them?|url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/10/05/asia/india-modi-open-defecation-free-intl-hnk-scli/index.html|access-date=2021-07-07|website=CNN|language=en|archive-date=30 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211130053416/https://www.cnn.com/2019/10/05/asia/india-modi-open-defecation-free-intl-hnk-scli/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Sharma|first=Aman|title=96% usage of toilets under Swachh Bharat, shows a survey by an independent verification agency|work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/96-usage-of-toilets-under-swachh-bharat-shows-survey-by-an-independent-verification-agency/articleshow/68265399.cms?from=mdr|access-date=2021-07-07|archive-date=10 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210710000513/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/96-usage-of-toilets-under-swachh-bharat-shows-survey-by-an-independent-verification-agency/articleshow/68265399.cms?from=mdr|url-status=live}}</ref> For October 2019, Modi announce say India don become "open defecation free".<ref name=":4">{{cite web|url=https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1587023&reg=3&lang=2|title=PM dedicates a Swachh Bharat to Bapu and the people of India|website=Pib.gov.in|access-date=June 1, 2026}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/rural-india-achieved-100-pc-odf-status-govt/articleshow/72337872.cms?from=mdr|title=Rural India achieved 100 pc ODF status: Govt|date=2 December 2019|access-date=1 June 2026|newspaper=The Economic Times}}</ref> After the success of the Swachh Bharat Mission, Modi launch Phase 2 from 2020 to 2025.<ref>{{Cite news|agency=Press Trust of India|date=2020-03-04|title=Second phase of Swachh Bharat Mission (Grameen) launched|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/second-phase-of-swachh-bharat-mission-grameen-launched/article30981702.ece|access-date=2021-07-07|issn=0971-751X|archive-date=28 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220128195604/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/second-phase-of-swachh-bharat-mission-grameen-launched/article30981702.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> During Phase 2, government go focus on waste segregation and continue the work to eliminate open defecation.<ref>{{cite web|date=2021-03-03|title=Phase 2 of Swachh Bharat Mission to focus on waste segregation at source|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/India/phase-2-of-swachh-bharat-mission-to-focus-on-waste-segregation-at-source-7210207/|access-date=2021-07-07|website=The Indian Express|language=en|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709185247/https://indianexpress.com/article/india/phase-2-of-swachh-bharat-mission-to-focus-on-waste-segregation-at-source-7210207/|url-status=live}}</ref> == Terminology == The term "open defecation" start become common for the water, sanitation, and hygiene ([[WASH]]) sector around 2008. This happen because of publications by the [[Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] (JMP) and the UN [[International Year of Sanitation]]. The [[Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation|JMP]] na joint program by [[World Health Organization|WHO]] and [[UNICEF]]. Before, dem dey monitor the water and sanitation targets under the [[Millennium Development Goals|Millennium Development Goals]] (MDGs), but now dem dey monitor [[Sustainable Development Goal 6|Sustainable Development Goal Number 6]]. For monitoring MDG Number 7, dem create two categories: (1) [[improved sanitation]] and (2) [[unimproved sanitation]]. Open defecation fall under unimproved sanitation. This mean say people wey dey practice open defecation no get access to improved sanitation facilities.{{citation needed|date=September 2024}} For 2013, [[World Toilet Day]] become official UN day for the first time. The term "open defecation" appear for many high-level speeches, and e help bring worldwide attention to the issue. One example na the "call to action" on sanitation wey the Deputy Secretary-General of the United Nations release for March 2013.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/pdf/DSG%20sanitation%20two-pager%20FINAL.pdf|title=United Nations Deputy Secretary-General's Call to Action on Sanitation|date=2013|website=United Nations|access-date=19 October 2014|archive-date=1 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150601174853/http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/pdf/DSG%20sanitation%20two-pager%20FINAL.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> === Open defecation free === "Open defecation free" (ODF) na term wey dem first use for community-led total sanitation (CLTS) programs. Now, people dey use ODF for different contexts too. Di original meaning of ODF be say everybody for one community dey use sanitation facilities (like toilet) instead of going outside go ease body. Later, some countries wey adopt di CLTS approach improve dis definition plus add more conditions for dia programs wey dey fight open defecation.<ref name="Cavill">{{cite book|last1=Cavill|url=https://opendocs.ids.ac.uk/opendocs/bitstream/handle/20.500.12413/5859/Issue%204%20-%20sustainability.pdf?sequence=13&isAllowed=y|title=Sustainability and CLTS: Taking Stock Frontiers of CLTS: Innovations and Insights Issue 4|last2=Chambers|last3=Vernon|date=2015|publisher=[[Institute of Development Studies]]|isbn=978-1-78118-222-2|page=18|access-date=28 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150703142843/http://www.communityledtotalsanitation.org/resource/frontiers-clts-issue-4-sustainability-and-clts-taking-stock|archive-date=3 July 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> Di Indian Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation for mid-2015 define ODF as "di complete stop of fecal–oral transmission", wey dem define am as: No visible feces for environment or village, and Every household plus public/community institution dey use safe technology option to dispose of feces.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mdws.gov.in/sites/default/files/R_274_1441280478318.pdf|title=Guidelines for ODF Verification|date=2015|publisher=Indian Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation|access-date=3 May 2016|archive-date=11 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160411101355/http://www.mdws.gov.in/sites/default/files/R_274_1441280478318.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> For here, "safe technology option" mean toilet wey dey safely contain feces so e no go contaminate surface soil, groundwater or surface water. Flies or animals no fit touch di open feces, nobody dey handle human waste directly, no bad smell dey, and no visible feces dey around di environment.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://forum.susana.org/71-behaviour-change-and-user-psychology-issues/13746-definition-of-odf-open-defecation-free-indian-government-publication|title=Definition of ODF – Open Defecation Free (Indian government publication)|date=2015-06-18|access-date=2017-10-05|language=en-gb|archive-date=6 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171006012854/http://forum.susana.org/71-behaviour-change-and-user-psychology-issues/13746-definition-of-odf-open-defecation-free-indian-government-publication|url-status=live}}</ref> Dis definition be part of di Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (Clean India Campaign).<ref>{{Cite web | title=UN Vows to Eliminate Open Defecation by 2025 - Our World | url=https://ourworld.unu.edu/en/un-vows-to-eliminate-open-defecation-by-2025 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141122050313/http://ourworld.unu.edu/en/un-vows-to-eliminate-open-defecation-by-2025 | access-date=2025-08-05 | archive-date=22 November 2014 | url-status=live }}</ref> == Reasons == Plenty different reasons dey make people do open defecation. E fit be by choice, partly by choice, or because dem no get any other option. Most times, di main reason be say toilet no dey available. But for some places, even people wey get toilet for dia house still prefer go ease body outside.<ref name="Cavill" /> Some of di main reasons wey dey cause open defecation be these: === No toilet === Open defecation dey happen plenty anytime people no get toilet for dia house or for where dem dey live.<ref name="Routray 880">{{cite journal|vauthors=Routray P, Schmidt WP, Boisson S, Clasen T, Jenkins MW|date=September 2015|title=Socio-cultural and behavioural factors constraining latrine adoption in rural coastal Odisha: an exploratory qualitative study|journal=[[BMC Public Health]]|volume=15|article-number=880|doi=10.1186/s12889-015-2206-3|pmc=4566293|pmid=26357958 |doi-access=free }}</ref> If toilet no dey places like schools or farms too, people go end up dey ease body outside.<ref name="Routray 880" /> Another example be shortage of public toilets for cities, whether businesses no dey allow people use dia toilets or di toilets no dey open all di time (for example, if no 24-hour business dey and somebody need toilet after working hours). Dis one fit be serious problem for homeless people.<ref>{{cite web|title=Public Bathrooms Become Ground Zero in the Opioid Epidemic|url=http://www.wbur.org/commonhealth/2017/04/03/public-bathrooms-opioids|access-date=2018-10-16|website=Wbur.org|date=3 April 2017 |language=en|archive-date=23 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180623141445/http://www.wbur.org/commonhealth/2017/04/03/public-bathrooms-opioids|url-status=live}}</ref> For some rural communities, people dey use toilets for other things like keeping household items, animals, farm produce, or even as kitchen. Because of dat, dem go outside go ease body.<ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = Bardosh K |date=2015-11-01|title=Achieving "Total Sanitation" in Rural African Geographies: Poverty, Participation and Pit Latrines in Eastern Zambia|journal=Geoforum|volume=66|issue=Supplement C|pages=53–63|doi=10.1016/j.geoforum.2015.09.004|s2cid=153649870 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/2762|title=Understanding Gendered Sanitation Vulnerabilities: A Study in Uttar Pradesh - Resources|website=Susana.org|access-date=2017-10-23|archive-date=24 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171024095611/http://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/2762|url-status=live}}</ref> === Uncomfortable or unsafe toilet === [[File:Pit latrines in Zambia (3233256285).jpg|thumb|A pit latrine with failing superstructure in Zambia]] Sometimes people get toilet, but di toilet spoil or e no good. Outdoor toilets, especially pit latrines, mostly no dey clean and dem dey smell bad. Some toilets no get enough light, especially for places wey electricity no dey. Others no get door or water. Some toilets even get maggots or cockroaches, so people prefer go outside go ease body.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/WSP-What-Influences-Open-Defecation-Global-Sanitation-Review.pdf|title=What Influences Open Defecation and Latrine Ownership in Rural Households?: Findings from a Global Review| vauthors = O'Connell K |access-date=23 October 2017|archive-date=18 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171118135242/http://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/WSP-What-Influences-Open-Defecation-Global-Sanitation-Review.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wateraid.org/se/~/media/Files/Sweden/nowhere-to-go.pdf|title=Nowhere to go How a lack of safe toilets threatens to increase violence against women in slums|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140611225519/http://www.wateraid.org/se/%7E/media/Files/Sweden/nowhere%2Dto%2Dgo.pdf|archive-date=2014-06-11}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kwiringira J, Atekyereza P, Niwagaba C, Günther I | title = Descending the sanitation ladder in urban Uganda: evidence from Kampala Slums | journal = BMC Public Health | volume = 14 | article-number = 624 | date = June 2014 | pmid = 24948084 | pmc = 4071028 | doi = 10.1186/1471-2458-14-624 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Routray 880" /> Some toilets no safe to reach. For night, lack of light, criminals, or animals like snakes and dogs fit make am dangerous. Women and children wey no get toilet inside dia house dey fear use shared or public toilets, especially for night.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/AFR32/002/2010/en/|title=Document|website=Amnesty.org|date=7 July 2010 |language=en|access-date=2017-10-23|archive-date=24 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171024043145/https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/AFR32/002/2010/en/|url-status=live}}</ref> People wey get disability too fit struggle use toilets wey no dey inside di house, especially for night.<ref name="Tsinda 6939–6954">{{cite journal | vauthors = Tsinda A, Abbott P, Pedley S, Charles K, Adogo J, Okurut K, Chenoweth J | title = Challenges to achieving sustainable sanitation in informal settlements of Kigali, Rwanda | journal = International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health | volume = 10 | issue = 12 | pages = 6939–54 | date = December 2013 | pmid = 24336021 | pmc = 3881150 | doi = 10.3390/ijerph10126939 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2013IJERP..10.6939T }}</ref> For some places like Zambia, dem no encourage very small children make dem use pit latrines because dem fit fall inside di hole.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Water and Sanitation Programme and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)|date=2015|title=Child Feces Disposal in Zambia|url=https://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp/files/publications/WSP-Zambia-CFD-Profile.pdf|journal=International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank and UNICEF.|access-date=22 September 2020|archive-date=2 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201002000020/https://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp/files/publications/WSP-Zambia-CFD-Profile.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Some toilets no even get proper door; na cloth dem hang instead. For some communities too, women dey shy use toilets wey dey where men dey.<ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = O'Reilly K |date=2006-11-01|title="Traditional" women, "modern" water: Linking gender and commodification in Rajasthan, India|journal=Geoforum|volume=37|issue=6|pages=958–972|doi=10.1016/j.geoforum.2006.05.008}}</ref><ref name="Tsinda 6939–6954" /><ref name="Routray 880" /> If water no dey near, people go need fetch water before dem fit use toilet.<ref name="Routray 880" /> Dis one dey add more work and take more time. If plenty people wan use one toilet at di same time, some people go decide say make dem just go outside instead of waiting. Some people too fit get diarrhea or emergency wey dem no fit hold. For home pit latrines, some families dey fear say di pit go full quick if everybody dey use am every day, so dem still dey go outside to delay di filling of di pit.<ref name=":0" /><ref name="Tsinda 6939–6954" /> === Unrelated to toilet infrastructure === Some communities get safe and easy-to-use toilets, but people still prefer go ease body outside.<ref name="Cavill" /> For some cases, government or other organizations build di toilets, but people no like dem, no value dem, or no know di benefits of using dem.<ref>In 2016, Kunwar Bai Yadav, a woman claiming to be 105 years old, said she had never heard about a toilet until that year, and had always gone into the nearby woods to defecate. Only when she learned about them, did she have one built in her community. Source: BBC News (India): [https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-37799425 "How a 105-year-old ended open defecation in her village"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181221154407/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-37799425 |date=21 December 2018 }}, 1 November 2016</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://riceinstitute.org/research/revealed-preference-for-open-defecation-evidence-from-a-new-survey-in-rural-north-india-longer-working-paper/|title=Revealed Preference for Open Defecation: Evidence from a new survey in rural north India (longer working paper) {{!}} r.i.c.e.|website=riceinstitute.org|language=en-US|access-date=2017-10-23|archive-date=24 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171024043235/http://riceinstitute.org/research/revealed-preference-for-open-defecation-evidence-from-a-new-survey-in-rural-north-india-longer-working-paper/|url-status=live}}</ref> Dem continue dey ease body outside. Older people too often no want change dia old habit and start use enclosed toilet.<ref name="Routray 880" /> Some people like di feeling of dey for open nature when dem dey ease body instead of inside closed toilet. Dis one common for rural or less populated areas, where people dey waka go fields or bushes early morning go ease body.<ref name="Ahmad" /> Sometimes e fit be because of culture or habit. Some people see am as social activity, especially women wey use dat time chat with other women and look after dia animals while dem dey go fields.<ref name="Routray 880" /> For some regions, open defecation don become part of everyday life. For example, one 2011 survey for rural East Java, Indonesia, show say many men believe say di practice be "normal", and e get benefits like social interaction and physical comfort.<ref name=":3" /> For some cultures too, social taboos dey. For example, father-in-law fit no use di same toilet with daughter-in-law for one household.{{citation needed|date=March 2019}} For some parts of di world, people even prefer open defecation pass toilet use, and many respondents for one 2015 survey talk say "open defecation was more pleasurable and desirable than latrine use".<ref name=":3" /> For some societies, people intentionally use open defecation as way to fertilize land. People wey get fecal incontinence fit suddenly get emergency wey no go give dem enough time to reach toilet, so open defecation fit be dia only option for dat situation. === Public defecation for other reasons === For developed countries, open defecation fit happen because of homelessness. Some people for developed areas too dey do open defecation during outdoor activities like camping for remote places. E hard make anybody know exactly how many people for these communities dey practice open defecation. == Prevalence and trends == [[File:People-practicing-open-defecation-of-population.png|thumb|350x350px|Share of people wey dey practice open defecation for 2022<ref>{{Cite web | author=[[Hannah Ritchie]] | year=2024 | url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/people-practicing-open-defecation-of-population?time=latest | title=Sanitation | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240816121425/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/people-practicing-open-defecation-of-population?time=latest | archive-date=16 August 2024 }}</ref> Government data show say open defecation reduce well well for India after dem launch the Swachh Bharat Mission on 2 October 2014.]] === Countries with high numbers === Open defecation dey happen pass for places wey poverty and social exclusion plenty, especially for rural communities and informal urban settlements for developing countries. The Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) of UNICEF and WHO dey collect data about how open defecation dey happen around the world. Dem separate the figures into rural and urban areas, plus different poverty levels. This programme get responsibility to monitor progress towards the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) for drinking water and sanitation. Since open defecation be one example of unimproved sanitation, JMP dey monitor am for every country, and dem dey publish the results regularly.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/|title = Data and estimates|access-date = 12 March 2015|website = JMP – WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) for Water Supply and Sanitation|publisher = WHO/UNICEF|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150219114756/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates|archive-date = 19 February 2015}}</ref><ref name="JMP2017">WHO and UNICEF (2017) [https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/2805 Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: 2017 Update and SDG Baselines] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227032419/https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/2805 |date=27 February 2020 }}. Geneva: World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)</ref> Before 2010, dem dey join open defecation figures together with other unimproved sanitation figures, but from 2010 go, dem begin collect am separately. The number of people wey dey practice open defecation reduce from 20% for 2000 to 12% for 2015.<ref name="JMP2017" />{{rp|page=34}} For 2016, estimate show say about 892 million people no get any sanitation facility at all, so dem dey do open defecation for gutters, behind bushes, open water bodies and other open places. Most of these people (9 out of every 10) dey live for rural areas, but most of all of dem dey come from two regions (Central Africa and South Asia).<ref name="JMP2017" /> For 2016, about 76% (678 million) of the 892 million people wey dey practice open defecation for the world dey live for only seven countries.<ref name="JMP2017" /> {| class="wikitable sortable" |+Countries with Over 1 Million People Who Defecate openly are listed in the table below, based on available data from different years. !Year ! style="text-align:left;" | Country ! Total population as per respective year<ref>{{Cite web |title=World Population Clock: 8.2 Billion People (LIVE, 2024) - Worldometer |url=https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/ |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=Worldometers.info |language=en |archive-date=22 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222155525/https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ! style="text-align:left;" data-sort-type="number" | Percentage and Number of people who defecate in the open<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |last=If you are viewing it from a mobile device, it would be best to open the link in desktop mode for a complete and convenient experience. |title=JMP |url=https://washdata.org/data/household#!/IND |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=washdata.org |archive-date=11 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190111175434/https://washdata.org/data/household |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=KASHIWASE |first=HARUNA |date=17 November 2023 |title=World Toilet Day: 420 million people are defecating outdoors |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/world-toilet-day-420-million-people-are-defecating-outdoors |access-date=2 September 2024 |website=World Bank Group}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=World Bank Open Data |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.ODFC.ZS |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=World Bank Open Data |archive-date=28 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200828134124/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.ODFC.ZS |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":5" /> |} === India === {{Further|Swachh Bharat Mission|Take Poo to the Loo}} [[File:People-practicing-open-defecation-of-population (1).png|thumb|350x350px|This chart show how open defecation reduce from 2000 to 2022 for countries wey get land border with India, plus World Bank income classifications. According to the data, around 11% of India's population still dey practice open defecation for 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 January 2024 |title=Share of people practicing open defecation |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/people-practicing-open-defecation-of-population?tab=chart&country=MMR/BGD/IND/OWID_WRL/CHN/PAK/BTN/NPL/AFG/High-income+countries/Least+Developed+Countries/Low-income+countries/Lower-middle-income+countries |access-date=2024-08-16 |website=Our World in Data |archive-date=17 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240817114237/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/people-practicing-open-defecation-of-population?tab=chart&country=MMR/BGD/IND/OWID_WRL/CHN/PAK/BTN/NPL/AFG/High-income%20countries/Least%20Developed%20Countries/Low-income%20countries/Lower-middle-income%20countries |url-status=live }}</ref>]] Campaign wey dem start to build toilets for urban and rural areas help reduce open defecation well well between 2014 and 2019. For September 2019, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation honour Indian leader Narendra Modi because of the work wey e do to improve sanitation for the country.<ref>{{cite news|date=25 September 2019|title=Gates Foundation award seen as boost to Swachh Bharat Abhiyan|work=[[Mint (newspaper)|Mint]]|url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/gates-foundation-award-seen-as-boost-to-swachh-bharat-abhiyan-1569432677658.html|url-status=live|access-date=20 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201130113601/https://www.livemint.com/news/india/gates-foundation-award-seen-as-boost-to-swachh-bharat-abhiyan-1569432677658.html|archive-date=30 November 2020}}</ref> According to UNICEF, the five-year Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) reduce the number of people wey dey practice open defecation by about 500 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=A Clean (Sampoorna Swachh) India|url=https://www.unicef.org/india/what-we-do/ending-open-defecation|access-date=2021-07-07|website=Unicef.org|language=en|archive-date=7 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807020542/https://www.unicef.org/india/what-we-do/ending-open-defecation|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2019-03-05|title=93 Percent Households In Rural India Have Access To Toilets, Says Government Survey {{!}} News|url=https://swachhindia.ndtv.com/93-percent-households-rural-india-access-to-toilets-government-survey-31891/|access-date=2021-07-07|website=NDTV-Dettol Banega Swasth Swachh India|language=en-US|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709183528/https://swachhindia.ndtv.com/93-percent-households-rural-india-access-to-toilets-government-survey-31891/|url-status=live}}</ref> Some reports too talk say some people no dey use the toilets even though dem get one. But according to the Indian newspaper The Economic Times, wey quote government sources, World Bank support project survey show say 96% of Indians dey use the toilets wey dem get.<ref>{{cite news|author=Helen Regan and Manveena Suri|date=2019-10-06|title=Half of India couldn't access a toilet 5 years ago. Modi built 110M latrines -- but will people use them?|url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/10/05/asia/india-modi-open-defecation-free-intl-hnk-scli/index.html|access-date=2021-07-07|website=CNN|language=en|archive-date=30 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211130053416/https://www.cnn.com/2019/10/05/asia/india-modi-open-defecation-free-intl-hnk-scli/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Sharma|first=Aman|title=96% usage of toilets under Swachh Bharat, shows a survey by an independent verification agency|work=[[The Economic Times]]|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/96-usage-of-toilets-under-swachh-bharat-shows-survey-by-an-independent-verification-agency/articleshow/68265399.cms?from=mdr|access-date=2021-07-07|archive-date=10 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210710000513/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/96-usage-of-toilets-under-swachh-bharat-shows-survey-by-an-independent-verification-agency/articleshow/68265399.cms?from=mdr|url-status=live}}</ref> For October 2019, Modi announce say India don become "open defecation free".<ref name=":4">{{cite web|url=https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1587023&reg=3&lang=2|title=PM dedicates a Swachh Bharat to Bapu and the people of India|website=Pib.gov.in|access-date=June 1, 2026}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/rural-india-achieved-100-pc-odf-status-govt/articleshow/72337872.cms?from=mdr|title=Rural India achieved 100 pc ODF status: Govt|date=2 December 2019|access-date=1 June 2026|newspaper=[[The Economic Times]]}}</ref> After the success of the Swachh Bharat Mission, Modi launch Phase 2 from 2020 to 2025.<ref>{{Cite news|agency=[[Press Trust of India]]|date=2020-03-04|title=Second phase of Swachh Bharat Mission (Grameen) launched|language=en-IN|work=[[The Hindu]]|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/second-phase-of-swachh-bharat-mission-grameen-launched/article30981702.ece|access-date=2021-07-07|issn=0971-751X|archive-date=28 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220128195604/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/second-phase-of-swachh-bharat-mission-grameen-launched/article30981702.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> During Phase 2, government go focus on waste segregation and continue the work to eliminate open defecation completely.<ref>{{cite web|date=2021-03-03|title=Phase 2 of Swachh Bharat Mission to focus on waste segregation at source|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/India/phase-2-of-swachh-bharat-mission-to-focus-on-waste-segregation-at-source-7210207/|access-date=2021-07-07|website=[[The Indian Express]]|language=en|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709185247/https://indianexpress.com/article/india/phase-2-of-swachh-bharat-mission-to-focus-on-waste-segregation-at-source-7210207/|url-status=live}}</ref> === Pakistan === For 2017–18, about 94% of people for Pakistan get toilet facilities (99% for urban areas and 91% for rural areas), while 6% of the population no get any toilet facility (1% for urban areas and 9% for rural areas).<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/571527-world-toilet-day-20m-pakistanis-have-no-toilet-facility|title=World Toilet Day: 13.2m Pakistanis have no toilet facility|date=2019-11-20|access-date=2026-01-28|last=Mustafa|first=Khalid|website=Thenews.com.pk|language=en-US}}</ref> For 2009, sanitation facilities dey available for only about 42% of the population—65% for urban areas and 30% for rural settlements.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256191560 | title=Sustainability of Sanitation Systems in Pakistan | website=Researchgate.net}}</ref> For 2017, WaterAid report say about 79 million people for Pakistan no get access to proper toilet.<ref name=":6">{{cite web|date=2017-11-23|title=79m Pakistanis still lack a decent toilet: report|url=https://dailytimes.com.pk/145728/79m-pakistanis-still-lack-decent-toilet-report/|access-date=2021-06-23|website=Daily Times|language=en-US|archive-date=22 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122011353/https://dailytimes.com.pk/145728/79m-pakistanis-still-lack-decent-toilet-report/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{cite web|title=Pakistan {{!}} WaterAid Global|url=https://www.wateraid.org/where-we-work/pakistan|access-date=2021-06-23|website=Wateraid.org|language=en|archive-date=13 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613103834/https://www.wateraid.org/where-we-work/pakistan|url-status=live}}</ref> According to UNICEF, for 2018 about 12% of the population, or 26 million people, dey practice open defecation.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.ODFC.ZS?end=2018&locations=PK|title=People practicing open defecation (% of population) - Pakistan|newspaper=World Bank|access-date=29 November 2021|archive-date=29 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211129221532/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.ODFC.ZS?end=2018&locations=PK|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="thehindu24Nov2018">{{cite news|date=24 November 2018|title=Women in Pakistan fight for toilets, while men have 'other priorities'|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/women-in-pakistan-fight-for-toilets-while-men-have-other-priorities/article25587275.ece|work=The Hindu|access-date=27 May 2021|archive-date=17 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210717200628/https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/women-in-pakistan-fight-for-toilets-while-men-have-other-priorities/article25587275.ece|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":2" /> As of 2022, UNICEF report say about 7% of Pakistan population, or 15.92 million people, still dey practice open defecation.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |date=July 2023 |title=Sanitation statistics |url=https://data.unicef.org/topic/water-and-sanitation/sanitation/ |access-date=1 September 2024 |website=[[UNICEF]] |archive-date=22 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240522174203/https://data.unicef.org/topic/water-and-sanitation/sanitation/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":2" /> I'll continue with the next section in the same style and preserve all formatting as requested. === United States === Increase for homelessness plus the rise of tent cities across the United States don make open defecation increase because plenty public toilets no dey available.<ref>{{Cite web | title=America's Tent Cities for the Homeless - The Atlantic | url=https://www.theatlantic.com/photo/2016/02/americas-tent-cities-for-the-homeless/462450/ | access-date=2025-08-05 | website=Theatlantic.com}}</ref> Since the 1970s, plenty cities close their public toilets because dem worry say homeless people go vandalize them or use drugs inside.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2021-11-05 |title=Where Did All the Public Bathrooms Go? |language=en |work=Bloomberg.com |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2021-11-05/why-american-cities-lost-their-public-bathrooms |access-date=2023-09-25 |archive-date=4 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220204040645/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2021-11-05/why-american-cities-lost-their-public-bathrooms |url-status=live }}</ref> For San Francisco, reports about human feces for the streets increase five times between 2011 and 2018, reaching 28,084 complaints. This one mainly happen because homelessness increase for the city. To tackle the problem, San Francisco create the Poop Patrol.<ref>{{cite web| vauthors = Moffitt M |date=3 December 2019|title=San Francisco plans to power-wash the poop out of the Tenderloin|url=https://www.sfgate.com/local/article/City-plans-to-power-wash-the-poop-out-of-the-14878629.php|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191206150800/https://www.sfgate.com/local/article/City-plans-to-power-wash-the-poop-out-of-the-14878629.php|archive-date=6 December 2019|publisher=SFGATE}}</ref> Similar problems too happen for Los Angeles<ref>{{cite web|last1=Grover|first1=Joel|last2=Corral|first2=Amy|date=February 19, 2020|title=Homeless People Are Without Toilets and Going in the Streets. We Asked the Mayor of LA Why|url=https://www.nbclosangeles.com/investigations/homeless-people-are-without-toilets-and-going-in-the-streets-we-asked-the-mayor-of-la-why/2311759/|website=[[NBC Los Angeles]]|language=en-US|access-date=28 September 2021|archive-date=1 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211201190317/https://www.nbclosangeles.com/investigations/homeless-people-are-without-toilets-and-going-in-the-streets-we-asked-the-mayor-of-la-why/2311759/|url-status=live}}</ref> and Miami.<ref>{{Cite news|last=LINDA ROBERTSON|date=October 19, 2019|title=Poop and urine turn downtown streets into outdoor toilet|work=[[Miami Herald]]|url=https://www.miamiherald.com/news/local/community/miami-dade/downtown-miami/article236262158.html|access-date=28 September 2021|archive-date=8 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210908122341/https://www.miamiherald.com/news/local/community/miami-dade/downtown-miami/article236262158.html|url-status=live}}</ref> "The Mad Pooper" be the nickname wey people give one unidentified woman wey dey regularly defecate for public places while she dey jog during the summer of 2017 for the U.S. city of Colorado Springs.<ref name="Runner's World editorial">{{cite news|date=19 September 2017|title=We Urge You 'Mad Pooper,' Stop Crapping in Your Neighbor's Yard|newspaper=[[Runner's World]]|url=https://www.runnersworld.com/poop/we-urge-you-mad-pooper-stop-crapping-in-your-neighbors-yard|url-status=live|access-date=3 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107025928/https://www.runnersworld.com/poop/we-urge-you-mad-pooper-stop-crapping-in-your-neighbors-yard|archive-date=7 November 2017}}</ref> == Impacts == [[File:Dirty pit latrine in Mongolia in winter (5321157342).jpg|thumb|upright|Dirty pit latrine for Mongolia wey dey make some people choose open defecation instead.]] === Public health === {{Further|WASH#Health aspects}} The negative public health effects of open defecation be the same as the effects wey happen when people no get access to sanitation at all. Open defecation—and lack of sanitation and hygiene generally—be major cause of different diseases. The most common ones be diarrhea, intestinal worm infections, typhoid, cholera, hepatitis, polio and trachoma.<ref name="UN2015">{{cite web|title=Call to action on sanitation|url=http://sanitationdrive2015.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/DSG_Sanitation_Fast-Facts_final.pdf|website=United Nations|access-date=15 August 2014|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819084624/http://sanitationdrive2015.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/DSG_Sanitation_Fast-Facts_final.pdf|archive-date=19 August 2014}}</ref><ref name="ChaturvediSpears2013">{{cite journal | vauthors = Spears D, Ghosh A, Cumming O | title = Open defecation and childhood stunting in India: an ecological analysis of new data from 112 districts | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 8 | issue = 9 | article-number = e73784 | year = 2013 | pmid = 24066070 | pmc = 3774764 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0073784 | bibcode = 2013PLoSO...873784S | doi-access = free }}</ref> The bad health effects of open defecation happen because feces contaminate the environment. People wey dey practice open defecation dey expose themselves over and over to different fecal bacteria, including gram-positive ''Staphylococcus aureus'', plus other disease-causing organisms. This matter dey especially serious for small children because their immune systems and brains never fully develop.<ref name=":3" /> Some diseases dey under the group called waterborne diseases, meaning diseases wey spread through fecal pathogens inside water. Open defecation fit pollute water when rain carry feces enter rivers, streams, lakes or unprotected wells. For 2014, WHO identify open defecation as one of the leading causes of deaths from diarrheal diseases. For 2013, about 2,000 children under five years die every day because of diarrhea.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs330/en/ |title=WHO | Diarrhoeal disease |publisher=World Health Organization |date=2013 |access-date=10 March 2014 |archive-date=1 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140401193648/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs330/en/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Small children dey especially at risk because dem dey crawl for ground, waka barefoot and put things inside their mouths without washing their hands. Because of that, dem fit easily swallow feces wey other people leave behind after open defecation. Animal feces too fit cause serious health problems when children dey play around the compound. Countries wey plenty people still dey practice open defecation usually get the highest number of deaths among children under five years, high levels of malnutrition wey fit lead to stunted growth, widespread poverty, and wide gap between rich and poor.<ref name="JMP2014" /> Research from India show say the harmful health effects of open defecation dey even worse for places wey population density high. According to the researchers, "The same amount of open defecation is twice as bad in a place with a high population density average like India versus a low population density average like sub-Saharan Africa."<ref>{{cite book|last1=Vyas|url=http://www.susana.org/_resources/documents/default/3-2089-16-1414062223.pdf|title=Population density and the effect of sanitation on early-life health], slide 19 (presentation at UNC conference in Oct. 2014)|date=2014|publisher=Research Institute for Compassionate Economics, project (r.i.c.e.)|access-date=12 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402092447/http://www.susana.org/_resources/documents/default/3-2089-16-1414062223.pdf|archive-date=2 April 2015|url-status=live|via=[[Sustainable Sanitation Alliance]]}}</ref> Open defecation too dey seriously affect children's health and quality of life, including psychological problems.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.unicef.org/media/media_86283.html |title=UNICEF: Without toilets, childhood is even riskier due to malnutrition | Press centre | UNICEF |access-date=6 April 2021 |archive-date=1 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301000911/https://www.unicef.org/media/media_86283.html }}</ref> === Safety of women === Lack of proper sanitation get serious effect on women and girls. Apart from the general health problems wey dey come with open defecation, having to urinate for open place too fit be dangerous for women. When safe and private toilets no dey, women and girls dey become more vulnerable to sexual violence, and e too dey affect girls' education.<ref name=":1" /> Many women dey face the risk of sexual harassment or rape when dem dey find quiet and private places to urinate or defecate, especially for night time.<ref>Lennon, S. (2011). [http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/1758 Fear and anger: Perceptions of risks related to sexual violence against women linked to water and sanitation in Delhi, India] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924112250/http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/1758 |date=24 September 2015 }} – Briefing Note. SHARE (Sanitation and Hygiene Applied Research for Equity) and WaterAid, UK</ref><ref name=":1">House, Sarah, Suzanne Ferron, Marni Sommer and Sue Cavil (2014) [http://violence-wash.lboro.ac.uk/ Violence, Gender & WASH: A Practitioner's Toolkit  – Making water, sanitation and hygiene safer through improved programming and services] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151004081037/http://violence-wash.lboro.ac.uk/ |date=4 October 2015 }}. London, UK: WaterAid/SHARE.</ref> Lack of privacy dey affect the safety and dignity of women and girls pass. Because of shame, many women dey wait till night before dem go urinate or defecate. This one put them for danger because dem fit suffer attack after dark, and e too force dem to hold their urine and feces the whole day.<ref name="autogenerated3">{{cite web| author = Cavil S |title=Violence, gender and WASH: A practitioner's toolkit: Making Water, Sanitation and hygiene safer through improved programming and services|url=http://violence-wash.lboro.ac.uk/|publisher=WaterAid, SHARE Research Consortium |access-date=7 October 2015|archive-date=4 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151004081037/http://violence-wash.lboro.ac.uk/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite journal| author = Lennon S |title=Fear and anger: Perceptions of risks related to sexual violence against women linked to water and sanitation in Delhi, India |journal=SHARE (Sanitation and Hygiene Applied Research for Equity) and WaterAid, UK |date=November 2011|url=http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/1758|access-date=7 October 2015|archive-date=24 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924112250/http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/1758|url-status=live}}</ref> Women for developing countries dey increasingly talk say dem dey fear assault or rape anytime dem need to leave house after dark to urinate or defecate. Reports about attacks and harassment near toilets or around places wey women dey urinate or defecate openly dey common.<ref name="autogenerated3" /><ref name="autogenerated1" /> == Prevention == Strategies wey fit help rural and peri-urban communities become completely free from open defecation and maintain am include sanitation marketing, behavior change communication, and enhanced Community-Led Total Sanitation (CLTS+), together with "nudging".<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Mara D|date=2017|title=The elimination of open defecation and its adverse health effects: a moral imperative for governments and development professionals|url=https://iwaponline.com/washdev/article/7/1/1/30446/The-elimination-of-open-defecation-and-its-adverse|url-status=live|journal=Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development|language=en|publication-place=University of Leeds|volume=7|issue=1|pages=1–12|doi=10.2166/washdev.2017.027|issn=2043-9083|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200517195652/https://iwaponline.com/washdev/article/7/1/1/30446/The-elimination-of-open-defecation-and-its-adverse|archive-date=17 May 2020|access-date=29 June 2020|doi-access=free |bibcode=2017JWSHD...7....1M }}</ref> One of the main ways to end open defecation be to change people's behavior. SaniFOAM (Focus on Opportunity, Ability, and Motivation) be one framework wey dem develop specially to solve sanitation and hygiene problems. Using Focus, Opportunity, Ability and Motivation as the main factors, the SaniFOAM model help identify the barriers wey dey stop people from adopting toilets. At the same time, e serve as a tool to design, monitor and evaluate sanitation programmes.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Introducing Sanifoam: A Framework to Analyze Sanitation Behaviors to Design Effective Sanitation Programs| vauthors = Devine J |publisher=World Bank|year=2009|location=Washington, DC, USA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = Devine J |year=2010|title=Beyond tippt-taps: The role of enabling products in scaling up and sustaining handwashing|journal=Waterlines|volume=29|issue=4|pages=304–314|doi=10.3362/1756-3488.2010.033}}</ref> Some of the major drivers wey dem dey use to eliminate open defecation, apart from behavior change, include:<ref name="Ahmad" /> * Political will * Sanitation solutions wey give better value than open defecation * Strong public-sector local service delivery systems * Creating the right incentive structures === Integrated initiatives === Efforts to reduce open defecation almost be the same as the efforts to achieve the MDG target for access to sanitation.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/274939/9789241514705-eng.pdf|title=GUIDELINES ON SANITATION AND HEALTH|date=2018|website=Apps.who.int|access-date=4 April 2022|archive-date=3 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220403213525/https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/274939/9789241514705-eng.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> One important part of these efforts be creating awareness (for example through the UN World Toilet Day campaign), promoting behavior change campaigns, and increasing political commitment plus public demand for better sanitation. Community-Led Total Sanitation (CLTS) campaigns put special focus on ending open defecation by "triggering" communities to take action by themselves.<ref name="fieldnotes">{{cite web|title=Field Notes: UNICEF Policy and Programming in Practice|url=http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Field_Note_-Community_Approaches_to_Total_Sanitation.pdf|website=UNICEF|access-date=10 March 2015|archive-date=2 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402160413/http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Field_Note-_Community_Approaches_to_Total_Sanitation.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> === Simple sanitation technology options === [[File:Photo by Ashley Wheaton, May 2011 (6376606733).jpg|thumb|Residents for Mymensingh, Bangladesh, dey join workshop to learn more about mobile sanitation options (MoSan) as alternative to open defecation.]] Simple sanitation technologies dey available to help reduce open defecation, especially for places where people no get toilets for house or where shared toilets dey too far or no safe to use, especially during the night. == References == rkn6dneyxg8xto63wgdw93hsr73fcy8 102918 102917 2026-06-15T06:19:47Z Achiri Bitamsimli 64 Added more content 102918 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Open defecation''' be de human practice for [[:en:Defecating|defecating]] outside ("for de open") rather than for [[:en:Toilet|toilet]]. People dey choose fields, bushes, forests, ditches, streets, canals, plus oder open spaces for defecation. Dey do so either because dey no get toilet wey be accessible or due to dema archaic traditional cultural practices.<ref>{{Cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Clasen T, Boisson S, Routray P, Torondel B, Bell M, Cumming O, Ensink J, Freeman M, Jenkins M, Odagiri M, Ray S, Sinha A, Suar M, Schmidt WP |date=November 2014 |title=Effectiveness of a rural sanitation program on diarrhea, soil-transmitted helminth infection, and child malnutrition in Odisha, India: a cluster-randomized trial |journal=The Lancet. Global Health |volume=2 |issue=11 |pages=e645-53 |doi=10.1016/S2214-109X(14)70307-9 |pmid=25442689 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De practice be common where sanitation infrastructure den services no dey available. Even if toilets dey available, behavior change efforts go be needed to promote de use of toilets. 'Open defecation free' (ODF) be term used to describe communities dat make de shift to dey use toilets instead of open defecation. Dis go fit happen, for example, afta [[:en:Community-led_total_sanitation|community-led total sanitation]] programs get implemention. Open defecation go fit pollute de environment den cause health problems den diseases. High levels of open defecation dey link to high [[:en:Child_mortality|child mortality]], poor [[:en:Undernutrition|nutrition]], [[:en:Poverty|poverty]], plus large disparities between rich den poor people.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/2036 |title=Progress on drinking water and sanitation, 2014 Update |date=2014 |publisher=WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (JMP) |isbn=978-92-4-150724-0 |access-date=12 March 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> '''Open defecation''' na when person go ease body for outside ("for open place") instead of inside [[toilet]]. People fit go farm, bush, forest, gutter, street, canal, or any oda open place go ease body. Dem dey do am because dem no get toilet wey dey easy for dem to use, or because of old traditional cultural practices.<ref name="ClasenBoisson2014">{{cite journal | vauthors = Clasen T, Boisson S, Routray P, Torondel B, Bell M, Cumming O, Ensink J, Freeman M, Jenkins M, Odagiri M, Ray S, Sinha A, Suar M, Schmidt WP | display-authors = 6 | title = Effectiveness of a rural sanitation program on diarrhea, soil-transmitted helminth infection, and child malnutrition in Odisha, India: a cluster-randomized trial | journal = The Lancet. Global Health | volume = 2 | issue = 11 | pages = e645-53 | date = November 2014 | pmid = 25442689 | doi = 10.1016/S2214-109X(14)70307-9 | doi-access = free }}</ref> This practice dey common for places wey [[sanitation]] infrastructure and services no dey. Even if toilet dey, people fit still need [[Behavior change (public health)|behavior change]] programs make dem start use toilet. "Open defecation free" (ODF) na term wey dem dey use for communities wey stop open defecation and begin dey use toilets. This one fit happen after [[community-led total sanitation]] programs. Open defecation fit pollute environment and cause health problems plus diseases. Plenty open defecation dey linked to high [[child mortality]], poor [[undernutrition|nutrition]], [[poverty]], and big gap between rich and poor people.<ref name="JMP2014">{{cite book|url=http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/2036|title=Progress on drinking water and sanitation, 2014 Update|date=2014|publisher=WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (JMP)|isbn=978-92-4-150724-0|access-date=12 March 2015|archive-date=2 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402115029/http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/2036|url-status=live}}</ref> Ending open defecation be one indicator wey dem dey use check progress toward [[Sustainable Development Goal 6|Sustainable Development Goal Number 6]]. Extreme poverty and lack of sanitation dey strongly linked by statistics. Because of dat, ending open defecation dey be important part of effort to end poverty.<ref name="Ahmad">{{cite news|last=Junaid Ahmad|date=30 October 2014|title=How to eliminate open defecation by 2030|website=Devex|url=https://www.devex.com/news/how-to-eliminate-open-defecation-by-2030-84634|url-status=live|access-date=2 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160601220402/https://www.devex.com/news/how-to-eliminate-open-defecation-by-2030-84634|archive-date=1 June 2016}}</ref> For 2022, about 420 million people (5.25% of the world's population) still dey practice open defecation. This number reduce well from about 1.31 billion people (21.42%) for 2000, wey mean reduction of about 890 million people or 16.17 percentage points within 22 years. Out of everybody wey still dey practice open defecation, 275 million (65.6%) dey live for just seven countries. For example, for India, the number reduce by 62% (from 73% for 2000 to 7% for 2024), showing the country's big effort to achieve [[Sustainable Development Goals]] by 2030.<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=29 June 2024 |title=Sustainable Development Goals National Indicator Framework |url=https://www.mospi.gov.in/sites/default/files/publication_reports/SDG-NIF-ProgressReport-FullFile-v4N.pdf |access-date=2 September 2024 |website=Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation |archive-date=30 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240630172041/https://mospi.gov.in/sites/default/files/publication_reports/SDG-NIF-ProgressReport-FullFile-v4N.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Even though progress don happen,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2019-12-02 |title=Rural India achieved 100 pc ODF status: Govt |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/rural-india-achieved-100-pc-odf-status-govt/articleshow/72337872.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2026-01-25 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}}</ref> India still get the biggest number of people wey dey practice open defecation, followed by Nigeria, Ethiopia, Niger and Pakistan as of 2023 according to the World Bank.<ref name=":2" /> {{TOC limit|3}} == Overview == Long time ago, when land plenty and population no too much, open defecation be common practice and e no bring plenty health and hygiene problems. But as development and urbanization increase, open defecation turn serious [[public health]] matter and issue of human [[dignity]].<ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = O'Reilly K |date=2016-01-01|title=From toilet insecurity to toilet security: creating safe sanitation for women and girls|journal=Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water|language=en|volume=3|issue=1|pages=19–24|doi=10.1002/wat2.1122|bibcode=2016WIRWa...3...19O |s2cid=109965522|issn=2049-1948}}</ref> As population continue increase for towns and cities, people begin pay more attention to hygiene and health. Because of dat, global efforts to reduce open defecation also increase.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2017/08/toilet-defecate-outdoors-stunting-sanitation/|title=Nearly a Billion People Still Defecate Outdoors. Here's Why.|date=2017-07-25|access-date=2017-10-04|archive-date=5 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171005050709/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2017/08/toilet-defecate-outdoors-stunting-sanitation/}}</ref> Open defecation dey continue the cycle of [[Diseases of poverty|disease and poverty]], and many people see am as something wey dey take away human dignity.<ref name="JMP2014" /> Countries wey open defecation dey common pass also get the highest number of [[Child mortality|children under five wey dey die]], high levels of [[Malnutrition|undernutrition]], high poverty, and wide gap between rich and poor people.<ref name="JMP2014" /> <gallery> Waste dumping in a slum of Cap-Haitien.jpg|Indiscriminate waste dumping and open defecation (from animals), Shadda, Cap-Haitien, Haiti Open defecation along the river bank (6908382463).jpg|Evidence of open defecation along a riverbank in Bujumbura, Burundi Child in open sewer in Nigeria (3150664698).jpg|Child wey dey ease body for open canal for Gege slum inside Ibadan, Nigeria Open defecation in Tirin Kowt bazaar (4361881653).jpg|Open defecation for Tirin Kowt bazaar, Afghanistan </gallery> === Public defecation for other reasons === For developed countries, people fit do open defecation because of homelessness. Open defecation for developed areas too dey happen during outdoor activities like camping for remote places. E hard to know the exact number of people wey dey practice open defecation for these communities. == Prevalence and trends == [[File:People-practicing-open-defecation-of-population.png|thumb|350x350px|Percentage of people wey dey practice open defecation for 2022<ref>{{Cite web | author=Hannah Ritchie | year=2024 | url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/people-practicing-open-defecation-of-population?time=latest | title=Sanitation | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240816121425/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/people-practicing-open-defecation-of-population?time=latest | archive-date=16 August 2024 }}</ref>. According to government data, open defecation for India reduce well-well after the launch of the Swachh Bharat Mission on 2 October 2014.]] === Countries with high numbers === Open defecation get strong connection with poverty and social exclusion, especially for rural areas and informal urban settlements for developing countries. The Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (JMP) by UNICEF and WHO dey collect worldwide data about how common open defecation be. Dem separate the figures into rural and urban areas, plus different poverty levels. This programme dey monitor progress toward the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) for drinking water and sanitation. Since open defecation be one example of unimproved sanitation, JMP dey monitor am for every country and dey publish the results regularly.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/|title = Data and estimates|access-date = 12 March 2015|website = JMP – WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) for Water Supply and Sanitation|publisher = WHO/UNICEF|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150219114756/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates|archive-date = 19 February 2015}}</ref><ref name="JMP2017">WHO and UNICEF (2017) [https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/2805 Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: 2017 Update and SDG Baselines] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227032419/https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/2805 |date=27 February 2020 }}. Geneva: World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)</ref> Before, dem dey join open defecation figures together with other unimproved sanitation data, but since 2010 dem dey record am separately. The number of people wey dey practice open defecation reduce from 20% for 2000 to 12% for 2015.<ref name="JMP2017" />{{rp|page=34}} For 2016, estimate show say about 892 million people no get any sanitation facility at all, so dem dey practice open defecation (inside gutters, behind bushes, for open water bodies and other places). Most of these people (9 out of every 10) dey live for rural areas, and plenty of them dey inside two regions (Central Africa and South Asia).<ref name="JMP2017" /> For 2016, 76% (678 million) of the 892 million people wey dey practice open defecation for the world dey live inside just seven countries.<ref name="JMP2017" /> {| class="wikitable sortable" |+Countries with Over 1 Million People Who Defecate openly are listed in the table below, based on available data from different years. !Year ! style="text-align:left;" | Country !<!--Please don't remove it or update it with current year data. The total population is listed as per the respective years.--> Total population as per respective year<ref>{{Cite web |title=World Population Clock: 8.2 Billion People (LIVE, 2024) - Worldometer |url=https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/ |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=Worldometers.info |language=en |archive-date=22 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222155525/https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ! style="text-align:left;" data-sort-type="number" | Percentage and Number of people who defecate in the open<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |last=If you are viewing it from a mobile device, it would be best to open the link in desktop mode for a complete and convenient experience. |title=JMP |url=https://washdata.org/data/household#!/IND |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=washdata.org |archive-date=11 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190111175434/https://washdata.org/data/household |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=KASHIWASE |first=HARUNA |date=17 November 2023 |title=World Toilet Day: 420 million people are defecating outdoors |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/world-toilet-day-420-million-people-are-defecating-outdoors |access-date=2 September 2024 |website=World Bank Group}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=World Bank Open Data |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.ODFC.ZS |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=World Bank Open Data |archive-date=28 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200828134124/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.ODFC.ZS |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":5" /> |- |2022 | Afghanistan |40,578,842 |9% or 3.6 million |- |2022 |Angola |35,635,029 |17% or 6.1 million |- |2022 |Benin |13,759,501 |49% or 6.4 million |- |2022 |Bolivia |12,077,154 |9% or 1 million |- |2022 |Burkina Faso |22,509,038 |34% or 7.6 million |- |2022 |Cambodia |17,201,724 |12% or 2 million |- |2022 |Cameroon |27,632,771 |4% or 1.1 million |- |2022 |Central African Republic |5,098,039 |25% or 1.3 million |- |2022 |Chad |16,244,513 |62.6% or 11 million |- |2022 |Colombia |51,737,944 |2% or 1.2 million |- |2022 |Democratic Republic of the Congo |102,396,968 |12% or 11.7 million |- |2016 |Eritrea |3,124,698 |67% or 2.2 million |- |2022 |Ethiopia |125,384,287 |17.6%–18% or 21.7 million |- |2022 |Ghana |33,149,152 |17% or 5.7 million |- |2022 |Haiti |11,503,606 |18% or 2 million |- |2022 |India |1,425,423,212 |11% or 157.4 million |- |2022 |Indonesia |278,830,529 |4.1% or 11.5 million |- |2022 |Kenya |54,252,461 |6% or 3.4 million |- |2022 |Laos |7,559,007 |16% or 1.2 million |- |2022 |Liberia |5,373,294 |35% or 1.8 million |- |2022 |Ivory Coast |30,395,002 |22% or 5.9 million |- |2022 |Madagascar |30,437,261 |34% or 9.9 million |- |2022 |Mali |23,072,640 |5% or 1 million |- |2022 |Mauritania |4,875,637 |27% or 1.2 million |- |2022 |Mozambique |32,656,246 |20% or 6.4 million |- |2022 |Myanmar |53,756,787 |7% or 3.6 million |- |2022 |Nepal |29,715,436 |7% or 2.1 million |- |2022 |Niger |25,311,973 |64.9% or 17 million |- |2022 |Nigeria |223,150,896 |18.4% or 40.3 million |- |2022 |Pakistan |243,700,667 |6.7%–7% or 15.9 million |- |2022 |Papua New Guinea |10,203,169 |16% or 1.6 million |- |2022 |Philippines |113,964,338 |3% or 3.4 million |- |2022 |Senegal |17,651,103 |8% or 1.3 million |- |2022 |Sierra Leone |8,276,807 |16% or 1.4 million |- |2022 |Somalia |17,801,897 |21% or 3.7 million |- |2022 |South Sudan |11,021,177 |59.7% or 6.5 million |- |2020 |Sudan |46,789,231 |17.3% or 7.6 million |- |2022 |Tanzania |64,711,821 |6% or 4.1 million |- |2022 |Togo |9,089,738 |39% or 3.4 million |- |2022 |Uganda |47,312,719 |4% or 1.8 million |- |2022 |Yemen |38,222,876 |8.5% or 2.8 million |- |2022 |Zambia |20,152,938 |6% or 1.2 million |- |2022 |Zimbabwe |16,069,056 |17% or 2.8 million |} === India === {{Further|Swachh Bharat Mission|Take Poo to the Loo}} [[File:People-practicing-open-defecation-of-population (1).png|thumb|350x350px|This chart show how open defecation reduce from 2000 to 2022 for countries wey share land border with India, together with World Bank income classifications. According to the data, about 11% of India's population still dey practice open defecation for 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 January 2024 |title=Share of people practicing open defecation |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/people-practicing-open-defecation-of-population?tab=chart&country=MMR~BGD~IND~OWID_WRL~CHN~PAK~BTN~NPL~AFG~High-income+countries~Least+Developed+Countries~Low-income+countries~Lower-middle-income+countries |access-date=2024-08-16 |website=Our World in Data |archive-date=17 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240817114237/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/people-practicing-open-defecation-of-population?tab=chart&country=MMR~BGD~IND~OWID_WRL~CHN~PAK~BTN~NPL~AFG~High-income%20countries~Least%20Developed%20Countries~Low-income%20countries~Lower-middle-income%20countries |url-status=live }}</ref>]] Campaign wey build toilets for both urban and rural areas help reduce open defecation plenty between 2014 and 2019. For September 2019, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation honour Indian leader Narendra Modi because of the work wey e do to improve sanitation for the country.<ref>{{cite news|date=25 September 2019|title=Gates Foundation award seen as boost to Swachh Bharat Abhiyan|work=Mint|url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/gates-foundation-award-seen-as-boost-to-swachh-bharat-abhiyan-1569432677658.html|url-status=live|access-date=20 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201130113601/https://www.livemint.com/news/india/gates-foundation-award-seen-as-boost-to-swachh-bharat-abhiyan-1569432677658.html|archive-date=30 November 2020}}</ref> According to UNICEF, the five-year Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) reduce the number of people wey dey practice open defecation by 500 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=A Clean (Sampoorna Swachh) India|url=https://www.unicef.org/india/what-we-do/ending-open-defecation|access-date=2021-07-07|website=Unicef.org|language=en|archive-date=7 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807020542/https://www.unicef.org/india/what-we-do/ending-open-defecation|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2019-03-05|title=93 Percent Households In Rural India Have Access To Toilets, Says Government Survey {{!}} News|url=https://swachhindia.ndtv.com/93-percent-households-rural-india-access-to-toilets-government-survey-31891/|access-date=2021-07-07|website=NDTV-Dettol Banega Swasth Swachh India|language=en-US|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709183528/https://swachhindia.ndtv.com/93-percent-households-rural-india-access-to-toilets-government-survey-31891/|url-status=live}}</ref> Some reports too talk say some people no dey use the toilets even though dem get one. But according to The Economic Times, quoting government sources, 96% of Indians use the toilets wey dem get under one World Bank support project.<ref>{{cite news|author=Helen Regan and Manveena Suri|date=2019-10-06|title=Half of India couldn't access a toilet 5 years ago. Modi built 110M latrines -- but will people use them?|url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/10/05/asia/india-modi-open-defecation-free-intl-hnk-scli/index.html|access-date=2021-07-07|website=CNN|language=en|archive-date=30 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211130053416/https://www.cnn.com/2019/10/05/asia/india-modi-open-defecation-free-intl-hnk-scli/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Sharma|first=Aman|title=96% usage of toilets under Swachh Bharat, shows a survey by an independent verification agency|work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/96-usage-of-toilets-under-swachh-bharat-shows-survey-by-an-independent-verification-agency/articleshow/68265399.cms?from=mdr|access-date=2021-07-07|archive-date=10 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210710000513/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/96-usage-of-toilets-under-swachh-bharat-shows-survey-by-an-independent-verification-agency/articleshow/68265399.cms?from=mdr|url-status=live}}</ref> For October 2019, Modi announce say India don become "open defecation free".<ref name=":4">{{cite web|url=https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1587023&reg=3&lang=2|title=PM dedicates a Swachh Bharat to Bapu and the people of India|website=Pib.gov.in|access-date=June 1, 2026}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/rural-india-achieved-100-pc-odf-status-govt/articleshow/72337872.cms?from=mdr|title=Rural India achieved 100 pc ODF status: Govt|date=2 December 2019|access-date=1 June 2026|newspaper=The Economic Times}}</ref> After the success of the Swachh Bharat Mission, Modi launch Phase 2 from 2020 to 2025.<ref>{{Cite news|agency=Press Trust of India|date=2020-03-04|title=Second phase of Swachh Bharat Mission (Grameen) launched|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/second-phase-of-swachh-bharat-mission-grameen-launched/article30981702.ece|access-date=2021-07-07|issn=0971-751X|archive-date=28 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220128195604/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/second-phase-of-swachh-bharat-mission-grameen-launched/article30981702.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> During Phase 2, government go focus on waste segregation and continue the work to eliminate open defecation.<ref>{{cite web|date=2021-03-03|title=Phase 2 of Swachh Bharat Mission to focus on waste segregation at source|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/India/phase-2-of-swachh-bharat-mission-to-focus-on-waste-segregation-at-source-7210207/|access-date=2021-07-07|website=The Indian Express|language=en|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709185247/https://indianexpress.com/article/india/phase-2-of-swachh-bharat-mission-to-focus-on-waste-segregation-at-source-7210207/|url-status=live}}</ref> == Terminology == The term "open defecation" start become common for the water, sanitation, and hygiene ([[WASH]]) sector around 2008. This happen because of publications by the [[Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] (JMP) and the UN [[International Year of Sanitation]]. The [[Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation|JMP]] na joint program by [[World Health Organization|WHO]] and [[UNICEF]]. Before, dem dey monitor the water and sanitation targets under the [[Millennium Development Goals|Millennium Development Goals]] (MDGs), but now dem dey monitor [[Sustainable Development Goal 6|Sustainable Development Goal Number 6]]. For monitoring MDG Number 7, dem create two categories: (1) [[improved sanitation]] and (2) [[unimproved sanitation]]. Open defecation fall under unimproved sanitation. This mean say people wey dey practice open defecation no get access to improved sanitation facilities.{{citation needed|date=September 2024}} For 2013, [[World Toilet Day]] become official UN day for the first time. The term "open defecation" appear for many high-level speeches, and e help bring worldwide attention to the issue. One example na the "call to action" on sanitation wey the Deputy Secretary-General of the United Nations release for March 2013.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/pdf/DSG%20sanitation%20two-pager%20FINAL.pdf|title=United Nations Deputy Secretary-General's Call to Action on Sanitation|date=2013|website=United Nations|access-date=19 October 2014|archive-date=1 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150601174853/http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/pdf/DSG%20sanitation%20two-pager%20FINAL.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> === Open defecation free === "Open defecation free" (ODF) na term wey dem first use for community-led total sanitation (CLTS) programs. Now, people dey use ODF for different contexts too. Di original meaning of ODF be say everybody for one community dey use sanitation facilities (like toilet) instead of going outside go ease body. Later, some countries wey adopt di CLTS approach improve dis definition plus add more conditions for dia programs wey dey fight open defecation.<ref name="Cavill">{{cite book|last1=Cavill|url=https://opendocs.ids.ac.uk/opendocs/bitstream/handle/20.500.12413/5859/Issue%204%20-%20sustainability.pdf?sequence=13&isAllowed=y|title=Sustainability and CLTS: Taking Stock Frontiers of CLTS: Innovations and Insights Issue 4|last2=Chambers|last3=Vernon|date=2015|publisher=[[Institute of Development Studies]]|isbn=978-1-78118-222-2|page=18|access-date=28 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150703142843/http://www.communityledtotalsanitation.org/resource/frontiers-clts-issue-4-sustainability-and-clts-taking-stock|archive-date=3 July 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> Di Indian Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation for mid-2015 define ODF as "di complete stop of fecal–oral transmission", wey dem define am as: No visible feces for environment or village, and Every household plus public/community institution dey use safe technology option to dispose of feces.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mdws.gov.in/sites/default/files/R_274_1441280478318.pdf|title=Guidelines for ODF Verification|date=2015|publisher=Indian Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation|access-date=3 May 2016|archive-date=11 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160411101355/http://www.mdws.gov.in/sites/default/files/R_274_1441280478318.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> For here, "safe technology option" mean toilet wey dey safely contain feces so e no go contaminate surface soil, groundwater or surface water. Flies or animals no fit touch di open feces, nobody dey handle human waste directly, no bad smell dey, and no visible feces dey around di environment.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://forum.susana.org/71-behaviour-change-and-user-psychology-issues/13746-definition-of-odf-open-defecation-free-indian-government-publication|title=Definition of ODF – Open Defecation Free (Indian government publication)|date=2015-06-18|access-date=2017-10-05|language=en-gb|archive-date=6 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171006012854/http://forum.susana.org/71-behaviour-change-and-user-psychology-issues/13746-definition-of-odf-open-defecation-free-indian-government-publication|url-status=live}}</ref> Dis definition be part of di Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (Clean India Campaign).<ref>{{Cite web | title=UN Vows to Eliminate Open Defecation by 2025 - Our World | url=https://ourworld.unu.edu/en/un-vows-to-eliminate-open-defecation-by-2025 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141122050313/http://ourworld.unu.edu/en/un-vows-to-eliminate-open-defecation-by-2025 | access-date=2025-08-05 | archive-date=22 November 2014 | url-status=live }}</ref> == Reasons == Plenty different reasons dey make people do open defecation. E fit be by choice, partly by choice, or because dem no get any other option. Most times, di main reason be say toilet no dey available. But for some places, even people wey get toilet for dia house still prefer go ease body outside.<ref name="Cavill" /> Some of di main reasons wey dey cause open defecation be these: === No toilet === Open defecation dey happen plenty anytime people no get toilet for dia house or for where dem dey live.<ref name="Routray 880">{{cite journal|vauthors=Routray P, Schmidt WP, Boisson S, Clasen T, Jenkins MW|date=September 2015|title=Socio-cultural and behavioural factors constraining latrine adoption in rural coastal Odisha: an exploratory qualitative study|journal=[[BMC Public Health]]|volume=15|article-number=880|doi=10.1186/s12889-015-2206-3|pmc=4566293|pmid=26357958 |doi-access=free }}</ref> If toilet no dey places like schools or farms too, people go end up dey ease body outside.<ref name="Routray 880" /> Another example be shortage of public toilets for cities, whether businesses no dey allow people use dia toilets or di toilets no dey open all di time (for example, if no 24-hour business dey and somebody need toilet after working hours). Dis one fit be serious problem for homeless people.<ref>{{cite web|title=Public Bathrooms Become Ground Zero in the Opioid Epidemic|url=http://www.wbur.org/commonhealth/2017/04/03/public-bathrooms-opioids|access-date=2018-10-16|website=Wbur.org|date=3 April 2017 |language=en|archive-date=23 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180623141445/http://www.wbur.org/commonhealth/2017/04/03/public-bathrooms-opioids|url-status=live}}</ref> For some rural communities, people dey use toilets for other things like keeping household items, animals, farm produce, or even as kitchen. Because of dat, dem go outside go ease body.<ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = Bardosh K |date=2015-11-01|title=Achieving "Total Sanitation" in Rural African Geographies: Poverty, Participation and Pit Latrines in Eastern Zambia|journal=Geoforum|volume=66|issue=Supplement C|pages=53–63|doi=10.1016/j.geoforum.2015.09.004|s2cid=153649870 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/2762|title=Understanding Gendered Sanitation Vulnerabilities: A Study in Uttar Pradesh - Resources|website=Susana.org|access-date=2017-10-23|archive-date=24 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171024095611/http://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/2762|url-status=live}}</ref> === Uncomfortable or unsafe toilet === [[File:Pit latrines in Zambia (3233256285).jpg|thumb|A pit latrine with failing superstructure in Zambia]] Sometimes people get toilet, but di toilet spoil or e no good. Outdoor toilets, especially pit latrines, mostly no dey clean and dem dey smell bad. Some toilets no get enough light, especially for places wey electricity no dey. Others no get door or water. Some toilets even get maggots or cockroaches, so people prefer go outside go ease body.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/WSP-What-Influences-Open-Defecation-Global-Sanitation-Review.pdf|title=What Influences Open Defecation and Latrine Ownership in Rural Households?: Findings from a Global Review| vauthors = O'Connell K |access-date=23 October 2017|archive-date=18 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171118135242/http://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/WSP-What-Influences-Open-Defecation-Global-Sanitation-Review.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wateraid.org/se/~/media/Files/Sweden/nowhere-to-go.pdf|title=Nowhere to go How a lack of safe toilets threatens to increase violence against women in slums|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140611225519/http://www.wateraid.org/se/%7E/media/Files/Sweden/nowhere%2Dto%2Dgo.pdf|archive-date=2014-06-11}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kwiringira J, Atekyereza P, Niwagaba C, Günther I | title = Descending the sanitation ladder in urban Uganda: evidence from Kampala Slums | journal = BMC Public Health | volume = 14 | article-number = 624 | date = June 2014 | pmid = 24948084 | pmc = 4071028 | doi = 10.1186/1471-2458-14-624 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Routray 880" /> Some toilets no safe to reach. For night, lack of light, criminals, or animals like snakes and dogs fit make am dangerous. Women and children wey no get toilet inside dia house dey fear use shared or public toilets, especially for night.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/AFR32/002/2010/en/|title=Document|website=Amnesty.org|date=7 July 2010 |language=en|access-date=2017-10-23|archive-date=24 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171024043145/https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/AFR32/002/2010/en/|url-status=live}}</ref> People wey get disability too fit struggle use toilets wey no dey inside di house, especially for night.<ref name="Tsinda 6939–6954">{{cite journal | vauthors = Tsinda A, Abbott P, Pedley S, Charles K, Adogo J, Okurut K, Chenoweth J | title = Challenges to achieving sustainable sanitation in informal settlements of Kigali, Rwanda | journal = International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health | volume = 10 | issue = 12 | pages = 6939–54 | date = December 2013 | pmid = 24336021 | pmc = 3881150 | doi = 10.3390/ijerph10126939 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2013IJERP..10.6939T }}</ref> For some places like Zambia, dem no encourage very small children make dem use pit latrines because dem fit fall inside di hole.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Water and Sanitation Programme and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)|date=2015|title=Child Feces Disposal in Zambia|url=https://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp/files/publications/WSP-Zambia-CFD-Profile.pdf|journal=International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank and UNICEF.|access-date=22 September 2020|archive-date=2 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201002000020/https://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp/files/publications/WSP-Zambia-CFD-Profile.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Some toilets no even get proper door; na cloth dem hang instead. For some communities too, women dey shy use toilets wey dey where men dey.<ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = O'Reilly K |date=2006-11-01|title="Traditional" women, "modern" water: Linking gender and commodification in Rajasthan, India|journal=Geoforum|volume=37|issue=6|pages=958–972|doi=10.1016/j.geoforum.2006.05.008}}</ref><ref name="Tsinda 6939–6954" /><ref name="Routray 880" /> If water no dey near, people go need fetch water before dem fit use toilet.<ref name="Routray 880" /> Dis one dey add more work and take more time. If plenty people wan use one toilet at di same time, some people go decide say make dem just go outside instead of waiting. Some people too fit get diarrhea or emergency wey dem no fit hold. For home pit latrines, some families dey fear say di pit go full quick if everybody dey use am every day, so dem still dey go outside to delay di filling of di pit.<ref name=":0" /><ref name="Tsinda 6939–6954" /> === Unrelated to toilet infrastructure === Some communities get safe and easy-to-use toilets, but people still prefer go ease body outside.<ref name="Cavill" /> For some cases, government or other organizations build di toilets, but people no like dem, no value dem, or no know di benefits of using dem.<ref>In 2016, Kunwar Bai Yadav, a woman claiming to be 105 years old, said she had never heard about a toilet until that year, and had always gone into the nearby woods to defecate. Only when she learned about them, did she have one built in her community. Source: BBC News (India): [https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-37799425 "How a 105-year-old ended open defecation in her village"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181221154407/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-37799425 |date=21 December 2018 }}, 1 November 2016</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://riceinstitute.org/research/revealed-preference-for-open-defecation-evidence-from-a-new-survey-in-rural-north-india-longer-working-paper/|title=Revealed Preference for Open Defecation: Evidence from a new survey in rural north India (longer working paper) {{!}} r.i.c.e.|website=riceinstitute.org|language=en-US|access-date=2017-10-23|archive-date=24 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171024043235/http://riceinstitute.org/research/revealed-preference-for-open-defecation-evidence-from-a-new-survey-in-rural-north-india-longer-working-paper/|url-status=live}}</ref> Dem continue dey ease body outside. Older people too often no want change dia old habit and start use enclosed toilet.<ref name="Routray 880" /> Some people like di feeling of dey for open nature when dem dey ease body instead of inside closed toilet. Dis one common for rural or less populated areas, where people dey waka go fields or bushes early morning go ease body.<ref name="Ahmad" /> Sometimes e fit be because of culture or habit. Some people see am as social activity, especially women wey use dat time chat with other women and look after dia animals while dem dey go fields.<ref name="Routray 880" /> For some regions, open defecation don become part of everyday life. For example, one 2011 survey for rural East Java, Indonesia, show say many men believe say di practice be "normal", and e get benefits like social interaction and physical comfort.<ref name=":3" /> For some cultures too, social taboos dey. For example, father-in-law fit no use di same toilet with daughter-in-law for one household.{{citation needed|date=March 2019}} For some parts of di world, people even prefer open defecation pass toilet use, and many respondents for one 2015 survey talk say "open defecation was more pleasurable and desirable than latrine use".<ref name=":3" /> For some societies, people intentionally use open defecation as way to fertilize land. People wey get fecal incontinence fit suddenly get emergency wey no go give dem enough time to reach toilet, so open defecation fit be dia only option for dat situation. === Public defecation for other reasons === For developed countries, open defecation fit happen because of homelessness. Some people for developed areas too dey do open defecation during outdoor activities like camping for remote places. E hard make anybody know exactly how many people for these communities dey practice open defecation. == Prevalence and trends == [[File:People-practicing-open-defecation-of-population.png|thumb|350x350px|Share of people wey dey practice open defecation for 2022<ref>{{Cite web | author=[[Hannah Ritchie]] | year=2024 | url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/people-practicing-open-defecation-of-population?time=latest | title=Sanitation | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240816121425/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/people-practicing-open-defecation-of-population?time=latest | archive-date=16 August 2024 }}</ref> Government data show say open defecation reduce well well for India after dem launch the Swachh Bharat Mission on 2 October 2014.]] === Countries with high numbers === Open defecation dey happen pass for places wey poverty and social exclusion plenty, especially for rural communities and informal urban settlements for developing countries. The Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) of UNICEF and WHO dey collect data about how open defecation dey happen around the world. Dem separate the figures into rural and urban areas, plus different poverty levels. This programme get responsibility to monitor progress towards the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) for drinking water and sanitation. Since open defecation be one example of unimproved sanitation, JMP dey monitor am for every country, and dem dey publish the results regularly.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/|title = Data and estimates|access-date = 12 March 2015|website = JMP – WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) for Water Supply and Sanitation|publisher = WHO/UNICEF|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150219114756/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates|archive-date = 19 February 2015}}</ref><ref name="JMP2017">WHO and UNICEF (2017) [https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/2805 Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: 2017 Update and SDG Baselines] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227032419/https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/2805 |date=27 February 2020 }}. Geneva: World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)</ref> Before 2010, dem dey join open defecation figures together with other unimproved sanitation figures, but from 2010 go, dem begin collect am separately. The number of people wey dey practice open defecation reduce from 20% for 2000 to 12% for 2015.<ref name="JMP2017" />{{rp|page=34}} For 2016, estimate show say about 892 million people no get any sanitation facility at all, so dem dey do open defecation for gutters, behind bushes, open water bodies and other open places. Most of these people (9 out of every 10) dey live for rural areas, but most of all of dem dey come from two regions (Central Africa and South Asia).<ref name="JMP2017" /> For 2016, about 76% (678 million) of the 892 million people wey dey practice open defecation for the world dey live for only seven countries.<ref name="JMP2017" /> {| class="wikitable sortable" |+Countries with Over 1 Million People Who Defecate openly are listed in the table below, based on available data from different years. !Year ! style="text-align:left;" | Country ! Total population as per respective year<ref>{{Cite web |title=World Population Clock: 8.2 Billion People (LIVE, 2024) - Worldometer |url=https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/ |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=Worldometers.info |language=en |archive-date=22 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222155525/https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ! style="text-align:left;" data-sort-type="number" | Percentage and Number of people who defecate in the open<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |last=If you are viewing it from a mobile device, it would be best to open the link in desktop mode for a complete and convenient experience. |title=JMP |url=https://washdata.org/data/household#!/IND |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=washdata.org |archive-date=11 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190111175434/https://washdata.org/data/household |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=KASHIWASE |first=HARUNA |date=17 November 2023 |title=World Toilet Day: 420 million people are defecating outdoors |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/world-toilet-day-420-million-people-are-defecating-outdoors |access-date=2 September 2024 |website=World Bank Group}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=World Bank Open Data |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.ODFC.ZS |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=World Bank Open Data |archive-date=28 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200828134124/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.ODFC.ZS |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":5" /> |} === India === {{Further|Swachh Bharat Mission|Take Poo to the Loo}} [[File:People-practicing-open-defecation-of-population (1).png|thumb|350x350px|This chart show how open defecation reduce from 2000 to 2022 for countries wey get land border with India, plus World Bank income classifications. According to the data, around 11% of India's population still dey practice open defecation for 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 January 2024 |title=Share of people practicing open defecation |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/people-practicing-open-defecation-of-population?tab=chart&country=MMR/BGD/IND/OWID_WRL/CHN/PAK/BTN/NPL/AFG/High-income+countries/Least+Developed+Countries/Low-income+countries/Lower-middle-income+countries |access-date=2024-08-16 |website=Our World in Data |archive-date=17 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240817114237/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/people-practicing-open-defecation-of-population?tab=chart&country=MMR/BGD/IND/OWID_WRL/CHN/PAK/BTN/NPL/AFG/High-income%20countries/Least%20Developed%20Countries/Low-income%20countries/Lower-middle-income%20countries |url-status=live }}</ref>]] Campaign wey dem start to build toilets for urban and rural areas help reduce open defecation well well between 2014 and 2019. For September 2019, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation honour Indian leader Narendra Modi because of the work wey e do to improve sanitation for the country.<ref>{{cite news|date=25 September 2019|title=Gates Foundation award seen as boost to Swachh Bharat Abhiyan|work=[[Mint (newspaper)|Mint]]|url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/gates-foundation-award-seen-as-boost-to-swachh-bharat-abhiyan-1569432677658.html|url-status=live|access-date=20 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201130113601/https://www.livemint.com/news/india/gates-foundation-award-seen-as-boost-to-swachh-bharat-abhiyan-1569432677658.html|archive-date=30 November 2020}}</ref> According to UNICEF, the five-year Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) reduce the number of people wey dey practice open defecation by about 500 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=A Clean (Sampoorna Swachh) India|url=https://www.unicef.org/india/what-we-do/ending-open-defecation|access-date=2021-07-07|website=Unicef.org|language=en|archive-date=7 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807020542/https://www.unicef.org/india/what-we-do/ending-open-defecation|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2019-03-05|title=93 Percent Households In Rural India Have Access To Toilets, Says Government Survey {{!}} News|url=https://swachhindia.ndtv.com/93-percent-households-rural-india-access-to-toilets-government-survey-31891/|access-date=2021-07-07|website=NDTV-Dettol Banega Swasth Swachh India|language=en-US|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709183528/https://swachhindia.ndtv.com/93-percent-households-rural-india-access-to-toilets-government-survey-31891/|url-status=live}}</ref> Some reports too talk say some people no dey use the toilets even though dem get one. But according to the Indian newspaper The Economic Times, wey quote government sources, World Bank support project survey show say 96% of Indians dey use the toilets wey dem get.<ref>{{cite news|author=Helen Regan and Manveena Suri|date=2019-10-06|title=Half of India couldn't access a toilet 5 years ago. Modi built 110M latrines -- but will people use them?|url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/10/05/asia/india-modi-open-defecation-free-intl-hnk-scli/index.html|access-date=2021-07-07|website=CNN|language=en|archive-date=30 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211130053416/https://www.cnn.com/2019/10/05/asia/india-modi-open-defecation-free-intl-hnk-scli/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Sharma|first=Aman|title=96% usage of toilets under Swachh Bharat, shows a survey by an independent verification agency|work=[[The Economic Times]]|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/96-usage-of-toilets-under-swachh-bharat-shows-survey-by-an-independent-verification-agency/articleshow/68265399.cms?from=mdr|access-date=2021-07-07|archive-date=10 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210710000513/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/96-usage-of-toilets-under-swachh-bharat-shows-survey-by-an-independent-verification-agency/articleshow/68265399.cms?from=mdr|url-status=live}}</ref> For October 2019, Modi announce say India don become "open defecation free".<ref name=":4">{{cite web|url=https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1587023&reg=3&lang=2|title=PM dedicates a Swachh Bharat to Bapu and the people of India|website=Pib.gov.in|access-date=June 1, 2026}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/rural-india-achieved-100-pc-odf-status-govt/articleshow/72337872.cms?from=mdr|title=Rural India achieved 100 pc ODF status: Govt|date=2 December 2019|access-date=1 June 2026|newspaper=[[The Economic Times]]}}</ref> After the success of the Swachh Bharat Mission, Modi launch Phase 2 from 2020 to 2025.<ref>{{Cite news|agency=[[Press Trust of India]]|date=2020-03-04|title=Second phase of Swachh Bharat Mission (Grameen) launched|language=en-IN|work=[[The Hindu]]|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/second-phase-of-swachh-bharat-mission-grameen-launched/article30981702.ece|access-date=2021-07-07|issn=0971-751X|archive-date=28 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220128195604/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/second-phase-of-swachh-bharat-mission-grameen-launched/article30981702.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> During Phase 2, government go focus on waste segregation and continue the work to eliminate open defecation completely.<ref>{{cite web|date=2021-03-03|title=Phase 2 of Swachh Bharat Mission to focus on waste segregation at source|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/India/phase-2-of-swachh-bharat-mission-to-focus-on-waste-segregation-at-source-7210207/|access-date=2021-07-07|website=[[The Indian Express]]|language=en|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709185247/https://indianexpress.com/article/india/phase-2-of-swachh-bharat-mission-to-focus-on-waste-segregation-at-source-7210207/|url-status=live}}</ref> === Pakistan === For 2017–18, about 94% of people for Pakistan get toilet facilities (99% for urban areas and 91% for rural areas), while 6% of the population no get any toilet facility (1% for urban areas and 9% for rural areas).<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/571527-world-toilet-day-20m-pakistanis-have-no-toilet-facility|title=World Toilet Day: 13.2m Pakistanis have no toilet facility|date=2019-11-20|access-date=2026-01-28|last=Mustafa|first=Khalid|website=Thenews.com.pk|language=en-US}}</ref> For 2009, sanitation facilities dey available for only about 42% of the population—65% for urban areas and 30% for rural settlements.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256191560 | title=Sustainability of Sanitation Systems in Pakistan | website=Researchgate.net}}</ref> For 2017, WaterAid report say about 79 million people for Pakistan no get access to proper toilet.<ref name=":6">{{cite web|date=2017-11-23|title=79m Pakistanis still lack a decent toilet: report|url=https://dailytimes.com.pk/145728/79m-pakistanis-still-lack-decent-toilet-report/|access-date=2021-06-23|website=Daily Times|language=en-US|archive-date=22 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122011353/https://dailytimes.com.pk/145728/79m-pakistanis-still-lack-decent-toilet-report/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{cite web|title=Pakistan {{!}} WaterAid Global|url=https://www.wateraid.org/where-we-work/pakistan|access-date=2021-06-23|website=Wateraid.org|language=en|archive-date=13 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613103834/https://www.wateraid.org/where-we-work/pakistan|url-status=live}}</ref> According to UNICEF, for 2018 about 12% of the population, or 26 million people, dey practice open defecation.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.ODFC.ZS?end=2018&locations=PK|title=People practicing open defecation (% of population) - Pakistan|newspaper=World Bank|access-date=29 November 2021|archive-date=29 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211129221532/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.ODFC.ZS?end=2018&locations=PK|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="thehindu24Nov2018">{{cite news|date=24 November 2018|title=Women in Pakistan fight for toilets, while men have 'other priorities'|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/women-in-pakistan-fight-for-toilets-while-men-have-other-priorities/article25587275.ece|work=The Hindu|access-date=27 May 2021|archive-date=17 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210717200628/https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/women-in-pakistan-fight-for-toilets-while-men-have-other-priorities/article25587275.ece|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":2" /> As of 2022, UNICEF report say about 7% of Pakistan population, or 15.92 million people, still dey practice open defecation.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |date=July 2023 |title=Sanitation statistics |url=https://data.unicef.org/topic/water-and-sanitation/sanitation/ |access-date=1 September 2024 |website=[[UNICEF]] |archive-date=22 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240522174203/https://data.unicef.org/topic/water-and-sanitation/sanitation/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":2" /> I'll continue with the next section in the same style and preserve all formatting as requested. === United States === Increase for homelessness plus the rise of tent cities across the United States don make open defecation increase because plenty public toilets no dey available.<ref>{{Cite web | title=America's Tent Cities for the Homeless - The Atlantic | url=https://www.theatlantic.com/photo/2016/02/americas-tent-cities-for-the-homeless/462450/ | access-date=2025-08-05 | website=Theatlantic.com}}</ref> Since the 1970s, plenty cities close their public toilets because dem worry say homeless people go vandalize them or use drugs inside.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2021-11-05 |title=Where Did All the Public Bathrooms Go? |language=en |work=Bloomberg.com |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2021-11-05/why-american-cities-lost-their-public-bathrooms |access-date=2023-09-25 |archive-date=4 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220204040645/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2021-11-05/why-american-cities-lost-their-public-bathrooms |url-status=live }}</ref> For San Francisco, reports about human feces for the streets increase five times between 2011 and 2018, reaching 28,084 complaints. This one mainly happen because homelessness increase for the city. To tackle the problem, San Francisco create the Poop Patrol.<ref>{{cite web| vauthors = Moffitt M |date=3 December 2019|title=San Francisco plans to power-wash the poop out of the Tenderloin|url=https://www.sfgate.com/local/article/City-plans-to-power-wash-the-poop-out-of-the-14878629.php|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191206150800/https://www.sfgate.com/local/article/City-plans-to-power-wash-the-poop-out-of-the-14878629.php|archive-date=6 December 2019|publisher=SFGATE}}</ref> Similar problems too happen for Los Angeles<ref>{{cite web|last1=Grover|first1=Joel|last2=Corral|first2=Amy|date=February 19, 2020|title=Homeless People Are Without Toilets and Going in the Streets. We Asked the Mayor of LA Why|url=https://www.nbclosangeles.com/investigations/homeless-people-are-without-toilets-and-going-in-the-streets-we-asked-the-mayor-of-la-why/2311759/|website=[[NBC Los Angeles]]|language=en-US|access-date=28 September 2021|archive-date=1 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211201190317/https://www.nbclosangeles.com/investigations/homeless-people-are-without-toilets-and-going-in-the-streets-we-asked-the-mayor-of-la-why/2311759/|url-status=live}}</ref> and Miami.<ref>{{Cite news|last=LINDA ROBERTSON|date=October 19, 2019|title=Poop and urine turn downtown streets into outdoor toilet|work=[[Miami Herald]]|url=https://www.miamiherald.com/news/local/community/miami-dade/downtown-miami/article236262158.html|access-date=28 September 2021|archive-date=8 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210908122341/https://www.miamiherald.com/news/local/community/miami-dade/downtown-miami/article236262158.html|url-status=live}}</ref> "The Mad Pooper" be the nickname wey people give one unidentified woman wey dey regularly defecate for public places while she dey jog during the summer of 2017 for the U.S. city of Colorado Springs.<ref name="Runner's World editorial">{{cite news|date=19 September 2017|title=We Urge You 'Mad Pooper,' Stop Crapping in Your Neighbor's Yard|newspaper=[[Runner's World]]|url=https://www.runnersworld.com/poop/we-urge-you-mad-pooper-stop-crapping-in-your-neighbors-yard|url-status=live|access-date=3 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107025928/https://www.runnersworld.com/poop/we-urge-you-mad-pooper-stop-crapping-in-your-neighbors-yard|archive-date=7 November 2017}}</ref> == Impacts == [[File:Dirty pit latrine in Mongolia in winter (5321157342).jpg|thumb|upright|Dirty pit latrine for Mongolia wey dey make some people choose open defecation instead.]] === Public health === {{Further|WASH#Health aspects}} The negative public health effects of open defecation be the same as the effects wey happen when people no get access to sanitation at all. Open defecation—and lack of sanitation and hygiene generally—be major cause of different diseases. The most common ones be diarrhea, intestinal worm infections, typhoid, cholera, hepatitis, polio and trachoma.<ref name="UN2015">{{cite web|title=Call to action on sanitation|url=http://sanitationdrive2015.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/DSG_Sanitation_Fast-Facts_final.pdf|website=United Nations|access-date=15 August 2014|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819084624/http://sanitationdrive2015.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/DSG_Sanitation_Fast-Facts_final.pdf|archive-date=19 August 2014}}</ref><ref name="ChaturvediSpears2013">{{cite journal | vauthors = Spears D, Ghosh A, Cumming O | title = Open defecation and childhood stunting in India: an ecological analysis of new data from 112 districts | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 8 | issue = 9 | article-number = e73784 | year = 2013 | pmid = 24066070 | pmc = 3774764 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0073784 | bibcode = 2013PLoSO...873784S | doi-access = free }}</ref> The bad health effects of open defecation happen because feces contaminate the environment. People wey dey practice open defecation dey expose themselves over and over to different fecal bacteria, including gram-positive ''Staphylococcus aureus'', plus other disease-causing organisms. This matter dey especially serious for small children because their immune systems and brains never fully develop.<ref name=":3" /> Some diseases dey under the group called waterborne diseases, meaning diseases wey spread through fecal pathogens inside water. Open defecation fit pollute water when rain carry feces enter rivers, streams, lakes or unprotected wells. For 2014, WHO identify open defecation as one of the leading causes of deaths from diarrheal diseases. For 2013, about 2,000 children under five years die every day because of diarrhea.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs330/en/ |title=WHO | Diarrhoeal disease |publisher=World Health Organization |date=2013 |access-date=10 March 2014 |archive-date=1 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140401193648/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs330/en/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Small children dey especially at risk because dem dey crawl for ground, waka barefoot and put things inside their mouths without washing their hands. Because of that, dem fit easily swallow feces wey other people leave behind after open defecation. Animal feces too fit cause serious health problems when children dey play around the compound. Countries wey plenty people still dey practice open defecation usually get the highest number of deaths among children under five years, high levels of malnutrition wey fit lead to stunted growth, widespread poverty, and wide gap between rich and poor.<ref name="JMP2014" /> Research from India show say the harmful health effects of open defecation dey even worse for places wey population density high. According to the researchers, "The same amount of open defecation is twice as bad in a place with a high population density average like India versus a low population density average like sub-Saharan Africa."<ref>{{cite book|last1=Vyas|url=http://www.susana.org/_resources/documents/default/3-2089-16-1414062223.pdf|title=Population density and the effect of sanitation on early-life health], slide 19 (presentation at UNC conference in Oct. 2014)|date=2014|publisher=Research Institute for Compassionate Economics, project (r.i.c.e.)|access-date=12 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402092447/http://www.susana.org/_resources/documents/default/3-2089-16-1414062223.pdf|archive-date=2 April 2015|url-status=live|via=[[Sustainable Sanitation Alliance]]}}</ref> Open defecation too dey seriously affect children's health and quality of life, including psychological problems.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.unicef.org/media/media_86283.html |title=UNICEF: Without toilets, childhood is even riskier due to malnutrition | Press centre | UNICEF |access-date=6 April 2021 |archive-date=1 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301000911/https://www.unicef.org/media/media_86283.html }}</ref> === Safety of women === Lack of proper sanitation get serious effect on women and girls. Apart from the general health problems wey dey come with open defecation, having to urinate for open place too fit be dangerous for women. When safe and private toilets no dey, women and girls dey become more vulnerable to sexual violence, and e too dey affect girls' education.<ref name=":1" /> Many women dey face the risk of sexual harassment or rape when dem dey find quiet and private places to urinate or defecate, especially for night time.<ref>Lennon, S. (2011). [http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/1758 Fear and anger: Perceptions of risks related to sexual violence against women linked to water and sanitation in Delhi, India] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924112250/http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/1758 |date=24 September 2015 }} – Briefing Note. SHARE (Sanitation and Hygiene Applied Research for Equity) and WaterAid, UK</ref><ref name=":1">House, Sarah, Suzanne Ferron, Marni Sommer and Sue Cavil (2014) [http://violence-wash.lboro.ac.uk/ Violence, Gender & WASH: A Practitioner's Toolkit  – Making water, sanitation and hygiene safer through improved programming and services] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151004081037/http://violence-wash.lboro.ac.uk/ |date=4 October 2015 }}. London, UK: WaterAid/SHARE.</ref> Lack of privacy dey affect the safety and dignity of women and girls pass. Because of shame, many women dey wait till night before dem go urinate or defecate. This one put them for danger because dem fit suffer attack after dark, and e too force dem to hold their urine and feces the whole day.<ref name="autogenerated3">{{cite web| author = Cavil S |title=Violence, gender and WASH: A practitioner's toolkit: Making Water, Sanitation and hygiene safer through improved programming and services|url=http://violence-wash.lboro.ac.uk/|publisher=WaterAid, SHARE Research Consortium |access-date=7 October 2015|archive-date=4 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151004081037/http://violence-wash.lboro.ac.uk/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite journal| author = Lennon S |title=Fear and anger: Perceptions of risks related to sexual violence against women linked to water and sanitation in Delhi, India |journal=SHARE (Sanitation and Hygiene Applied Research for Equity) and WaterAid, UK |date=November 2011|url=http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/1758|access-date=7 October 2015|archive-date=24 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924112250/http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/1758|url-status=live}}</ref> Women for developing countries dey increasingly talk say dem dey fear assault or rape anytime dem need to leave house after dark to urinate or defecate. Reports about attacks and harassment near toilets or around places wey women dey urinate or defecate openly dey common.<ref name="autogenerated3" /><ref name="autogenerated1" /> == Prevention == Strategies wey fit help rural and peri-urban communities become completely free from open defecation and maintain am include sanitation marketing, behavior change communication, and enhanced Community-Led Total Sanitation (CLTS+), together with "nudging".<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Mara D|date=2017|title=The elimination of open defecation and its adverse health effects: a moral imperative for governments and development professionals|url=https://iwaponline.com/washdev/article/7/1/1/30446/The-elimination-of-open-defecation-and-its-adverse|url-status=live|journal=Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development|language=en|publication-place=University of Leeds|volume=7|issue=1|pages=1–12|doi=10.2166/washdev.2017.027|issn=2043-9083|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200517195652/https://iwaponline.com/washdev/article/7/1/1/30446/The-elimination-of-open-defecation-and-its-adverse|archive-date=17 May 2020|access-date=29 June 2020|doi-access=free |bibcode=2017JWSHD...7....1M }}</ref> One of the main ways to end open defecation be to change people's behavior. SaniFOAM (Focus on Opportunity, Ability, and Motivation) be one framework wey dem develop specially to solve sanitation and hygiene problems. Using Focus, Opportunity, Ability and Motivation as the main factors, the SaniFOAM model help identify the barriers wey dey stop people from adopting toilets. At the same time, e serve as a tool to design, monitor and evaluate sanitation programmes.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Introducing Sanifoam: A Framework to Analyze Sanitation Behaviors to Design Effective Sanitation Programs| vauthors = Devine J |publisher=World Bank|year=2009|location=Washington, DC, USA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = Devine J |year=2010|title=Beyond tippt-taps: The role of enabling products in scaling up and sustaining handwashing|journal=Waterlines|volume=29|issue=4|pages=304–314|doi=10.3362/1756-3488.2010.033}}</ref> Some of the major drivers wey dem dey use to eliminate open defecation, apart from behavior change, include:<ref name="Ahmad" /> * Political will * Sanitation solutions wey give better value than open defecation * Strong public-sector local service delivery systems * Creating the right incentive structures === Integrated initiatives === Efforts to reduce open defecation almost be the same as the efforts to achieve the MDG target for access to sanitation.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/274939/9789241514705-eng.pdf|title=GUIDELINES ON SANITATION AND HEALTH|date=2018|website=Apps.who.int|access-date=4 April 2022|archive-date=3 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220403213525/https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/274939/9789241514705-eng.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> One important part of these efforts be creating awareness (for example through the UN World Toilet Day campaign), promoting behavior change campaigns, and increasing political commitment plus public demand for better sanitation. Community-Led Total Sanitation (CLTS) campaigns put special focus on ending open defecation by "triggering" communities to take action by themselves.<ref name="fieldnotes">{{cite web|title=Field Notes: UNICEF Policy and Programming in Practice|url=http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Field_Note_-Community_Approaches_to_Total_Sanitation.pdf|website=UNICEF|access-date=10 March 2015|archive-date=2 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402160413/http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Field_Note-_Community_Approaches_to_Total_Sanitation.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> === Simple sanitation technology options === [[File:Photo by Ashley Wheaton, May 2011 (6376606733).jpg|thumb|Residents for Mymensingh, Bangladesh, dey join workshop to learn more about mobile sanitation options (MoSan) as alternative to open defecation.]] Simple sanitation technologies dey available to help reduce open defecation, especially for places where people no get toilets for house or where shared toilets dey too far or no safe to use, especially during the night. === Safety of women === Women and girls dey suffer pass when better toilet no dey. Apart from the general health problems wey open defecation bring, women and girls dey face extra danger when dem need place to wee or ease body. Lack of safe and private toilet fit expose dem to violence, and e fit also stop plenty girls from going school regularly.<ref name=":1" /> Many women dey search for hidden and private places to ease body, mostly for night, and during that time dem fit face sexual harassment or rape.<ref>Lennon, S. (2011). [http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/1758 Fear and anger: Perceptions of risks related to sexual violence against women linked to water and sanitation in Delhi, India] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924112250/http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/1758 |date=24 September 2015 }} – Briefing Note. SHARE (Sanitation and Hygiene Applied Research for Equity) and WaterAid, UK</ref><ref name=":1">House, Sarah, Suzanne Ferron, Marni Sommer and Sue Cavil (2014) [http://violence-wash.lboro.ac.uk/ Violence, Gender & WASH: A Practitioner's Toolkit &nbsp;– Making water, sanitation and hygiene safer through improved programming and services] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151004081037/http://violence-wash.lboro.ac.uk/ |date=4 October 2015 }}. London, UK: WaterAid/SHARE.</ref> Lack of privacy dey affect women and girls plenty, especially for developing countries. Because of shame, many of dem go hold their urine or faeces till night before dem go ease body. This one dey put dem for danger because dem fit get attacked after dark, and e also fit affect their health because dem dey hold their bladder and bowels for long time.<ref name="autogenerated3">{{cite web| author = Cavil S |title=Violence, gender and WASH: A practitioner's toolkit: Making Water, Sanitation and hygiene safer through improved programming and services|url=http://violence-wash.lboro.ac.uk/|publisher=WaterAid, SHARE Research Consortium |access-date=7 October 2015|archive-date=4 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151004081037/http://violence-wash.lboro.ac.uk/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite journal| author = Lennon S |title=Fear and anger: Perceptions of risks related to sexual violence against women linked to water and sanitation in Delhi, India |journal=SHARE (Sanitation and Hygiene Applied Research for Equity) and WaterAid, UK |date=November 2011|url=http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/1758|access-date=7 October 2015|archive-date=24 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924112250/http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/1758|url-status=live}}</ref> Reports from different places show say attacks and harassment near toilet facilities or places wey women dey go wee or ease body for open be common.<ref name="autogenerated3" /><ref name="autogenerated1" /> == Prevention == Different strategies fit help rural and peri-urban communities stop open defecation completely and make sure say e no come back. Some of the main methods be sanitation marketing, behaviour change communication, and improved Community-Led Total Sanitation (CLTS+), plus other "nudging" approaches.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Mara D|date=2017|title=The elimination of open defecation and its adverse health effects: a moral imperative for governments and development professionals|url=https://iwaponline.com/washdev/article/7/1/1/30446/The-elimination-of-open-defecation-and-its-adverse|url-status=live|journal=Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development|language=en|publication-place=University of Leeds|volume=7|issue=1|pages=1–12|doi=10.2166/washdev.2017.027|issn=2043-9083|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200517195652/https://iwaponline.com/washdev/article/7/1/1/30446/The-elimination-of-open-defecation-and-its-adverse|archive-date=17 May 2020|access-date=29 June 2020|doi-access=free |bibcode=2017JWSHD...7....1M }}</ref> One important way to end open defecation be to change people's behaviour. SaniFOAM (Focus on Opportunity, Ability, and Motivation) be framework wey people develop specially for sanitation and hygiene issues. E dey help identify why people no dey use toilets and e also dey help when dem dey plan, monitor and evaluate sanitation programmes.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Introducing Sanifoam: A Framework to Analyze Sanitation Behaviors to Design Effective Sanitation Programs| vauthors = Devine J |publisher=World Bank|year=2009|location=Washington, DC, USA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = Devine J |year=2010|title=Beyond tippt-taps: The role of enabling products in scaling up and sustaining handwashing|journal=Waterlines|volume=29|issue=4|pages=304–314|doi=10.3362/1756-3488.2010.033}}</ref> Other important things wey fit help stop open defecation include:<ref name="Ahmad" /> * Strong political will * Toilet and sanitation solutions wey better pass open defecation * Strong local government sanitation services * Good incentive systems wey encourage people make dem use toilets === Integrated initiatives === Most efforts wey dey reduce open defecation be the same efforts wey people use achieve the MDG sanitation target.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/274939/9789241514705-eng.pdf|title=GUIDELINES ON SANITATION AND HEALTH|date=2018|website=Apps.who.int|access-date=4 April 2022|archive-date=3 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220403213525/https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/274939/9789241514705-eng.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> One important part be creating awareness, like through the UN World Toilet Day, behaviour change campaigns, and making governments show stronger commitment to sanitation. Community-Led Total Sanitation (CLTS) campaigns especially dey encourage communities make dem take action by themselves to end open defecation.<ref name="fieldnotes">{{cite web|title=Field Notes: UNICEF Policy and Programming in Practice|url=http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Field_Note_-_Community_Approaches_to_Total_Sanitation.pdf|website=UNICEF|access-date=10 March 2015|archive-date=2 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402160413/http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Field_Note_-_Community_Approaches_to_Total_Sanitation.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> === Simple sanitation technology options === [[File:Photo by Ashley Wheaton, May 2011 (6376606733).jpg|thumb|Residents of Mymensingh, Bangladesh, participate in a workshop to discover more about mobile sanitation options (MoSan) as an alternative to open defecation.]] Simple and affordable toilet technologies dey available to help reduce open defecation, especially where households no get toilets or shared toilets dey too far or dangerous to use, especially during night. ==== Toilet bags ==== Some people already dey use plastic bags (also called flying toilets) to collect faeces for night. But one better option be the "Peepoo bag", wey Swedish company People produce. This one be personal, single-use, self-sanitising and biodegradable toilet bag wey prevent faeces from contaminating the environment.<ref>Wheaton, A. (2009). [http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/1125 Results of a medium-scale trial of single-use, self-sanitising toilet bags in poor urban settlements in Bangladesh] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150427111520/http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/1125 |date=27 April 2015 }}. Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit GmbH (GTZ), Dhaka, Bangladesh</ref> People dey use this bag for humanitarian emergencies, schools and urban slums for developing countries.<ref>Owako, E. (2012). [http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/1612 Nyando peepoo trial project report] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407064759/http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/1612 |date=7 April 2015 }}. Kenya Red Cross, Kenya</ref><ref>Naeem, K., Berndtsson, M. (2011). [http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/1611 Peepoo Try Pakistan – Sindh Floods] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407014736/http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/1611 |date=7 April 2015 }}, November 2011. UN-HABITAT, Pakistan</ref> ==== Bucket toilets and urine diversion ==== Bucket toilets be simple portable toilets wey people fit improve in different ways. One improvement be urine diversion, wey make am work almost like urine-diverting dry toilets. This system dey reduce bad smell from dry toilets. Examples include the MoSan toilet wey dem use for Kenya,<ref>Mijthab M., Woods E., Lokey H., Foote A., Rieck. C (2013). [http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/2021 Sanivation and MoSan Toilet – 4 week Service Pilot in Karagita Naivasha, Kenya] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141020111441/http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/2021 |date=20 October 2014 }}. GIZ and Sanivation</ref> and the urine-diverting dry toilet wey SOIL dey promote for Haiti.<ref>Russel, K. (2013). [http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/1753 Mobile sanitation services for dense urban slums – Various documents on results from research grant.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018221935/http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/1753 |date=18 October 2014 }} Stanford University, U.S.</ref> == References == cp6uzazn4ja3fdvgau7jnvmem7uvsw9 102919 102918 2026-06-15T06:21:36Z Achiri Bitamsimli 64 Added more content 102919 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Open defecation''' be de human practice for [[:en:Defecating|defecating]] outside ("for de open") rather than for [[:en:Toilet|toilet]]. People dey choose fields, bushes, forests, ditches, streets, canals, plus oder open spaces for defecation. Dey do so either because dey no get toilet wey be accessible or due to dema archaic traditional cultural practices.<ref>{{Cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Clasen T, Boisson S, Routray P, Torondel B, Bell M, Cumming O, Ensink J, Freeman M, Jenkins M, Odagiri M, Ray S, Sinha A, Suar M, Schmidt WP |date=November 2014 |title=Effectiveness of a rural sanitation program on diarrhea, soil-transmitted helminth infection, and child malnutrition in Odisha, India: a cluster-randomized trial |journal=The Lancet. Global Health |volume=2 |issue=11 |pages=e645-53 |doi=10.1016/S2214-109X(14)70307-9 |pmid=25442689 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De practice be common where sanitation infrastructure den services no dey available. Even if toilets dey available, behavior change efforts go be needed to promote de use of toilets. 'Open defecation free' (ODF) be term used to describe communities dat make de shift to dey use toilets instead of open defecation. Dis go fit happen, for example, afta [[:en:Community-led_total_sanitation|community-led total sanitation]] programs get implemention. Open defecation go fit pollute de environment den cause health problems den diseases. High levels of open defecation dey link to high [[:en:Child_mortality|child mortality]], poor [[:en:Undernutrition|nutrition]], [[:en:Poverty|poverty]], plus large disparities between rich den poor people.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/2036 |title=Progress on drinking water and sanitation, 2014 Update |date=2014 |publisher=WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (JMP) |isbn=978-92-4-150724-0 |access-date=12 March 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> '''Open defecation''' na when person go ease body for outside ("for open place") instead of inside [[toilet]]. People fit go farm, bush, forest, gutter, street, canal, or any oda open place go ease body. Dem dey do am because dem no get toilet wey dey easy for dem to use, or because of old traditional cultural practices.<ref name="ClasenBoisson2014">{{cite journal | vauthors = Clasen T, Boisson S, Routray P, Torondel B, Bell M, Cumming O, Ensink J, Freeman M, Jenkins M, Odagiri M, Ray S, Sinha A, Suar M, Schmidt WP | display-authors = 6 | title = Effectiveness of a rural sanitation program on diarrhea, soil-transmitted helminth infection, and child malnutrition in Odisha, India: a cluster-randomized trial | journal = The Lancet. Global Health | volume = 2 | issue = 11 | pages = e645-53 | date = November 2014 | pmid = 25442689 | doi = 10.1016/S2214-109X(14)70307-9 | doi-access = free }}</ref> This practice dey common for places wey [[sanitation]] infrastructure and services no dey. Even if toilet dey, people fit still need [[Behavior change (public health)|behavior change]] programs make dem start use toilet. "Open defecation free" (ODF) na term wey dem dey use for communities wey stop open defecation and begin dey use toilets. This one fit happen after [[community-led total sanitation]] programs. Open defecation fit pollute environment and cause health problems plus diseases. Plenty open defecation dey linked to high [[child mortality]], poor [[undernutrition|nutrition]], [[poverty]], and big gap between rich and poor people.<ref name="JMP2014">{{cite book|url=http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/2036|title=Progress on drinking water and sanitation, 2014 Update|date=2014|publisher=WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (JMP)|isbn=978-92-4-150724-0|access-date=12 March 2015|archive-date=2 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402115029/http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/2036|url-status=live}}</ref> Ending open defecation be one indicator wey dem dey use check progress toward [[Sustainable Development Goal 6|Sustainable Development Goal Number 6]]. Extreme poverty and lack of sanitation dey strongly linked by statistics. Because of dat, ending open defecation dey be important part of effort to end poverty.<ref name="Ahmad">{{cite news|last=Junaid Ahmad|date=30 October 2014|title=How to eliminate open defecation by 2030|website=Devex|url=https://www.devex.com/news/how-to-eliminate-open-defecation-by-2030-84634|url-status=live|access-date=2 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160601220402/https://www.devex.com/news/how-to-eliminate-open-defecation-by-2030-84634|archive-date=1 June 2016}}</ref> For 2022, about 420 million people (5.25% of the world's population) still dey practice open defecation. This number reduce well from about 1.31 billion people (21.42%) for 2000, wey mean reduction of about 890 million people or 16.17 percentage points within 22 years. Out of everybody wey still dey practice open defecation, 275 million (65.6%) dey live for just seven countries. For example, for India, the number reduce by 62% (from 73% for 2000 to 7% for 2024), showing the country's big effort to achieve [[Sustainable Development Goals]] by 2030.<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=29 June 2024 |title=Sustainable Development Goals National Indicator Framework |url=https://www.mospi.gov.in/sites/default/files/publication_reports/SDG-NIF-ProgressReport-FullFile-v4N.pdf |access-date=2 September 2024 |website=Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation |archive-date=30 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240630172041/https://mospi.gov.in/sites/default/files/publication_reports/SDG-NIF-ProgressReport-FullFile-v4N.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Even though progress don happen,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2019-12-02 |title=Rural India achieved 100 pc ODF status: Govt |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/rural-india-achieved-100-pc-odf-status-govt/articleshow/72337872.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2026-01-25 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}}</ref> India still get the biggest number of people wey dey practice open defecation, followed by Nigeria, Ethiopia, Niger and Pakistan as of 2023 according to the World Bank.<ref name=":2" /> {{TOC limit|3}} == Overview == Long time ago, when land plenty and population no too much, open defecation be common practice and e no bring plenty health and hygiene problems. But as development and urbanization increase, open defecation turn serious [[public health]] matter and issue of human [[dignity]].<ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = O'Reilly K |date=2016-01-01|title=From toilet insecurity to toilet security: creating safe sanitation for women and girls|journal=Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water|language=en|volume=3|issue=1|pages=19–24|doi=10.1002/wat2.1122|bibcode=2016WIRWa...3...19O |s2cid=109965522|issn=2049-1948}}</ref> As population continue increase for towns and cities, people begin pay more attention to hygiene and health. Because of dat, global efforts to reduce open defecation also increase.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2017/08/toilet-defecate-outdoors-stunting-sanitation/|title=Nearly a Billion People Still Defecate Outdoors. Here's Why.|date=2017-07-25|access-date=2017-10-04|archive-date=5 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171005050709/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2017/08/toilet-defecate-outdoors-stunting-sanitation/}}</ref> Open defecation dey continue the cycle of [[Diseases of poverty|disease and poverty]], and many people see am as something wey dey take away human dignity.<ref name="JMP2014" /> Countries wey open defecation dey common pass also get the highest number of [[Child mortality|children under five wey dey die]], high levels of [[Malnutrition|undernutrition]], high poverty, and wide gap between rich and poor people.<ref name="JMP2014" /> <gallery> Waste dumping in a slum of Cap-Haitien.jpg|Indiscriminate waste dumping and open defecation (from animals), Shadda, Cap-Haitien, Haiti Open defecation along the river bank (6908382463).jpg|Evidence of open defecation along a riverbank in Bujumbura, Burundi Child in open sewer in Nigeria (3150664698).jpg|Child wey dey ease body for open canal for Gege slum inside Ibadan, Nigeria Open defecation in Tirin Kowt bazaar (4361881653).jpg|Open defecation for Tirin Kowt bazaar, Afghanistan </gallery> === Public defecation for other reasons === For developed countries, people fit do open defecation because of homelessness. Open defecation for developed areas too dey happen during outdoor activities like camping for remote places. E hard to know the exact number of people wey dey practice open defecation for these communities. == Prevalence and trends == [[File:People-practicing-open-defecation-of-population.png|thumb|350x350px|Percentage of people wey dey practice open defecation for 2022<ref>{{Cite web | author=Hannah Ritchie | year=2024 | url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/people-practicing-open-defecation-of-population?time=latest | title=Sanitation | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240816121425/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/people-practicing-open-defecation-of-population?time=latest | archive-date=16 August 2024 }}</ref>. According to government data, open defecation for India reduce well-well after the launch of the Swachh Bharat Mission on 2 October 2014.]] === Countries with high numbers === Open defecation get strong connection with poverty and social exclusion, especially for rural areas and informal urban settlements for developing countries. The Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (JMP) by UNICEF and WHO dey collect worldwide data about how common open defecation be. Dem separate the figures into rural and urban areas, plus different poverty levels. This programme dey monitor progress toward the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) for drinking water and sanitation. Since open defecation be one example of unimproved sanitation, JMP dey monitor am for every country and dey publish the results regularly.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/|title = Data and estimates|access-date = 12 March 2015|website = JMP – WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) for Water Supply and Sanitation|publisher = WHO/UNICEF|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150219114756/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates|archive-date = 19 February 2015}}</ref><ref name="JMP2017">WHO and UNICEF (2017) [https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/2805 Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: 2017 Update and SDG Baselines] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227032419/https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/2805 |date=27 February 2020 }}. Geneva: World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)</ref> Before, dem dey join open defecation figures together with other unimproved sanitation data, but since 2010 dem dey record am separately. The number of people wey dey practice open defecation reduce from 20% for 2000 to 12% for 2015.<ref name="JMP2017" />{{rp|page=34}} For 2016, estimate show say about 892 million people no get any sanitation facility at all, so dem dey practice open defecation (inside gutters, behind bushes, for open water bodies and other places). Most of these people (9 out of every 10) dey live for rural areas, and plenty of them dey inside two regions (Central Africa and South Asia).<ref name="JMP2017" /> For 2016, 76% (678 million) of the 892 million people wey dey practice open defecation for the world dey live inside just seven countries.<ref name="JMP2017" /> {| class="wikitable sortable" |+Countries with Over 1 Million People Who Defecate openly are listed in the table below, based on available data from different years. !Year ! style="text-align:left;" | Country !<!--Please don't remove it or update it with current year data. The total population is listed as per the respective years.--> Total population as per respective year<ref>{{Cite web |title=World Population Clock: 8.2 Billion People (LIVE, 2024) - Worldometer |url=https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/ |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=Worldometers.info |language=en |archive-date=22 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222155525/https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ! style="text-align:left;" data-sort-type="number" | Percentage and Number of people who defecate in the open<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |last=If you are viewing it from a mobile device, it would be best to open the link in desktop mode for a complete and convenient experience. |title=JMP |url=https://washdata.org/data/household#!/IND |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=washdata.org |archive-date=11 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190111175434/https://washdata.org/data/household |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=KASHIWASE |first=HARUNA |date=17 November 2023 |title=World Toilet Day: 420 million people are defecating outdoors |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/world-toilet-day-420-million-people-are-defecating-outdoors |access-date=2 September 2024 |website=World Bank Group}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=World Bank Open Data |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.ODFC.ZS |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=World Bank Open Data |archive-date=28 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200828134124/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.ODFC.ZS |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":5" /> |- |2022 | Afghanistan |40,578,842 |9% or 3.6 million |- |2022 |Angola |35,635,029 |17% or 6.1 million |- |2022 |Benin |13,759,501 |49% or 6.4 million |- |2022 |Bolivia |12,077,154 |9% or 1 million |- |2022 |Burkina Faso |22,509,038 |34% or 7.6 million |- |2022 |Cambodia |17,201,724 |12% or 2 million |- |2022 |Cameroon |27,632,771 |4% or 1.1 million |- |2022 |Central African Republic |5,098,039 |25% or 1.3 million |- |2022 |Chad |16,244,513 |62.6% or 11 million |- |2022 |Colombia |51,737,944 |2% or 1.2 million |- |2022 |Democratic Republic of the Congo |102,396,968 |12% or 11.7 million |- |2016 |Eritrea |3,124,698 |67% or 2.2 million |- |2022 |Ethiopia |125,384,287 |17.6%–18% or 21.7 million |- |2022 |Ghana |33,149,152 |17% or 5.7 million |- |2022 |Haiti |11,503,606 |18% or 2 million |- |2022 |India |1,425,423,212 |11% or 157.4 million |- |2022 |Indonesia |278,830,529 |4.1% or 11.5 million |- |2022 |Kenya |54,252,461 |6% or 3.4 million |- |2022 |Laos |7,559,007 |16% or 1.2 million |- |2022 |Liberia |5,373,294 |35% or 1.8 million |- |2022 |Ivory Coast |30,395,002 |22% or 5.9 million |- |2022 |Madagascar |30,437,261 |34% or 9.9 million |- |2022 |Mali |23,072,640 |5% or 1 million |- |2022 |Mauritania |4,875,637 |27% or 1.2 million |- |2022 |Mozambique |32,656,246 |20% or 6.4 million |- |2022 |Myanmar |53,756,787 |7% or 3.6 million |- |2022 |Nepal |29,715,436 |7% or 2.1 million |- |2022 |Niger |25,311,973 |64.9% or 17 million |- |2022 |Nigeria |223,150,896 |18.4% or 40.3 million |- |2022 |Pakistan |243,700,667 |6.7%–7% or 15.9 million |- |2022 |Papua New Guinea |10,203,169 |16% or 1.6 million |- |2022 |Philippines |113,964,338 |3% or 3.4 million |- |2022 |Senegal |17,651,103 |8% or 1.3 million |- |2022 |Sierra Leone |8,276,807 |16% or 1.4 million |- |2022 |Somalia |17,801,897 |21% or 3.7 million |- |2022 |South Sudan |11,021,177 |59.7% or 6.5 million |- |2020 |Sudan |46,789,231 |17.3% or 7.6 million |- |2022 |Tanzania |64,711,821 |6% or 4.1 million |- |2022 |Togo |9,089,738 |39% or 3.4 million |- |2022 |Uganda |47,312,719 |4% or 1.8 million |- |2022 |Yemen |38,222,876 |8.5% or 2.8 million |- |2022 |Zambia |20,152,938 |6% or 1.2 million |- |2022 |Zimbabwe |16,069,056 |17% or 2.8 million |} === India === {{Further|Swachh Bharat Mission|Take Poo to the Loo}} [[File:People-practicing-open-defecation-of-population (1).png|thumb|350x350px|This chart show how open defecation reduce from 2000 to 2022 for countries wey share land border with India, together with World Bank income classifications. According to the data, about 11% of India's population still dey practice open defecation for 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 January 2024 |title=Share of people practicing open defecation |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/people-practicing-open-defecation-of-population?tab=chart&country=MMR~BGD~IND~OWID_WRL~CHN~PAK~BTN~NPL~AFG~High-income+countries~Least+Developed+Countries~Low-income+countries~Lower-middle-income+countries |access-date=2024-08-16 |website=Our World in Data |archive-date=17 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240817114237/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/people-practicing-open-defecation-of-population?tab=chart&country=MMR~BGD~IND~OWID_WRL~CHN~PAK~BTN~NPL~AFG~High-income%20countries~Least%20Developed%20Countries~Low-income%20countries~Lower-middle-income%20countries |url-status=live }}</ref>]] Campaign wey build toilets for both urban and rural areas help reduce open defecation plenty between 2014 and 2019. For September 2019, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation honour Indian leader Narendra Modi because of the work wey e do to improve sanitation for the country.<ref>{{cite news|date=25 September 2019|title=Gates Foundation award seen as boost to Swachh Bharat Abhiyan|work=Mint|url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/gates-foundation-award-seen-as-boost-to-swachh-bharat-abhiyan-1569432677658.html|url-status=live|access-date=20 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201130113601/https://www.livemint.com/news/india/gates-foundation-award-seen-as-boost-to-swachh-bharat-abhiyan-1569432677658.html|archive-date=30 November 2020}}</ref> According to UNICEF, the five-year Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) reduce the number of people wey dey practice open defecation by 500 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=A Clean (Sampoorna Swachh) India|url=https://www.unicef.org/india/what-we-do/ending-open-defecation|access-date=2021-07-07|website=Unicef.org|language=en|archive-date=7 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807020542/https://www.unicef.org/india/what-we-do/ending-open-defecation|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2019-03-05|title=93 Percent Households In Rural India Have Access To Toilets, Says Government Survey {{!}} News|url=https://swachhindia.ndtv.com/93-percent-households-rural-india-access-to-toilets-government-survey-31891/|access-date=2021-07-07|website=NDTV-Dettol Banega Swasth Swachh India|language=en-US|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709183528/https://swachhindia.ndtv.com/93-percent-households-rural-india-access-to-toilets-government-survey-31891/|url-status=live}}</ref> Some reports too talk say some people no dey use the toilets even though dem get one. But according to The Economic Times, quoting government sources, 96% of Indians use the toilets wey dem get under one World Bank support project.<ref>{{cite news|author=Helen Regan and Manveena Suri|date=2019-10-06|title=Half of India couldn't access a toilet 5 years ago. Modi built 110M latrines -- but will people use them?|url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/10/05/asia/india-modi-open-defecation-free-intl-hnk-scli/index.html|access-date=2021-07-07|website=CNN|language=en|archive-date=30 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211130053416/https://www.cnn.com/2019/10/05/asia/india-modi-open-defecation-free-intl-hnk-scli/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Sharma|first=Aman|title=96% usage of toilets under Swachh Bharat, shows a survey by an independent verification agency|work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/96-usage-of-toilets-under-swachh-bharat-shows-survey-by-an-independent-verification-agency/articleshow/68265399.cms?from=mdr|access-date=2021-07-07|archive-date=10 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210710000513/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/96-usage-of-toilets-under-swachh-bharat-shows-survey-by-an-independent-verification-agency/articleshow/68265399.cms?from=mdr|url-status=live}}</ref> For October 2019, Modi announce say India don become "open defecation free".<ref name=":4">{{cite web|url=https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1587023&reg=3&lang=2|title=PM dedicates a Swachh Bharat to Bapu and the people of India|website=Pib.gov.in|access-date=June 1, 2026}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/rural-india-achieved-100-pc-odf-status-govt/articleshow/72337872.cms?from=mdr|title=Rural India achieved 100 pc ODF status: Govt|date=2 December 2019|access-date=1 June 2026|newspaper=The Economic Times}}</ref> After the success of the Swachh Bharat Mission, Modi launch Phase 2 from 2020 to 2025.<ref>{{Cite news|agency=Press Trust of India|date=2020-03-04|title=Second phase of Swachh Bharat Mission (Grameen) launched|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/second-phase-of-swachh-bharat-mission-grameen-launched/article30981702.ece|access-date=2021-07-07|issn=0971-751X|archive-date=28 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220128195604/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/second-phase-of-swachh-bharat-mission-grameen-launched/article30981702.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> During Phase 2, government go focus on waste segregation and continue the work to eliminate open defecation.<ref>{{cite web|date=2021-03-03|title=Phase 2 of Swachh Bharat Mission to focus on waste segregation at source|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/India/phase-2-of-swachh-bharat-mission-to-focus-on-waste-segregation-at-source-7210207/|access-date=2021-07-07|website=The Indian Express|language=en|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709185247/https://indianexpress.com/article/india/phase-2-of-swachh-bharat-mission-to-focus-on-waste-segregation-at-source-7210207/|url-status=live}}</ref> == Terminology == The term "open defecation" start become common for the water, sanitation, and hygiene ([[WASH]]) sector around 2008. This happen because of publications by the [[Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] (JMP) and the UN [[International Year of Sanitation]]. The [[Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation|JMP]] na joint program by [[World Health Organization|WHO]] and [[UNICEF]]. Before, dem dey monitor the water and sanitation targets under the [[Millennium Development Goals|Millennium Development Goals]] (MDGs), but now dem dey monitor [[Sustainable Development Goal 6|Sustainable Development Goal Number 6]]. For monitoring MDG Number 7, dem create two categories: (1) [[improved sanitation]] and (2) [[unimproved sanitation]]. Open defecation fall under unimproved sanitation. This mean say people wey dey practice open defecation no get access to improved sanitation facilities.{{citation needed|date=September 2024}} For 2013, [[World Toilet Day]] become official UN day for the first time. The term "open defecation" appear for many high-level speeches, and e help bring worldwide attention to the issue. One example na the "call to action" on sanitation wey the Deputy Secretary-General of the United Nations release for March 2013.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/pdf/DSG%20sanitation%20two-pager%20FINAL.pdf|title=United Nations Deputy Secretary-General's Call to Action on Sanitation|date=2013|website=United Nations|access-date=19 October 2014|archive-date=1 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150601174853/http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/pdf/DSG%20sanitation%20two-pager%20FINAL.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> === Open defecation free === "Open defecation free" (ODF) na term wey dem first use for community-led total sanitation (CLTS) programs. Now, people dey use ODF for different contexts too. Di original meaning of ODF be say everybody for one community dey use sanitation facilities (like toilet) instead of going outside go ease body. Later, some countries wey adopt di CLTS approach improve dis definition plus add more conditions for dia programs wey dey fight open defecation.<ref name="Cavill">{{cite book|last1=Cavill|url=https://opendocs.ids.ac.uk/opendocs/bitstream/handle/20.500.12413/5859/Issue%204%20-%20sustainability.pdf?sequence=13&isAllowed=y|title=Sustainability and CLTS: Taking Stock Frontiers of CLTS: Innovations and Insights Issue 4|last2=Chambers|last3=Vernon|date=2015|publisher=[[Institute of Development Studies]]|isbn=978-1-78118-222-2|page=18|access-date=28 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150703142843/http://www.communityledtotalsanitation.org/resource/frontiers-clts-issue-4-sustainability-and-clts-taking-stock|archive-date=3 July 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> Di Indian Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation for mid-2015 define ODF as "di complete stop of fecal–oral transmission", wey dem define am as: No visible feces for environment or village, and Every household plus public/community institution dey use safe technology option to dispose of feces.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mdws.gov.in/sites/default/files/R_274_1441280478318.pdf|title=Guidelines for ODF Verification|date=2015|publisher=Indian Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation|access-date=3 May 2016|archive-date=11 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160411101355/http://www.mdws.gov.in/sites/default/files/R_274_1441280478318.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> For here, "safe technology option" mean toilet wey dey safely contain feces so e no go contaminate surface soil, groundwater or surface water. Flies or animals no fit touch di open feces, nobody dey handle human waste directly, no bad smell dey, and no visible feces dey around di environment.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://forum.susana.org/71-behaviour-change-and-user-psychology-issues/13746-definition-of-odf-open-defecation-free-indian-government-publication|title=Definition of ODF – Open Defecation Free (Indian government publication)|date=2015-06-18|access-date=2017-10-05|language=en-gb|archive-date=6 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171006012854/http://forum.susana.org/71-behaviour-change-and-user-psychology-issues/13746-definition-of-odf-open-defecation-free-indian-government-publication|url-status=live}}</ref> Dis definition be part of di Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (Clean India Campaign).<ref>{{Cite web | title=UN Vows to Eliminate Open Defecation by 2025 - Our World | url=https://ourworld.unu.edu/en/un-vows-to-eliminate-open-defecation-by-2025 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141122050313/http://ourworld.unu.edu/en/un-vows-to-eliminate-open-defecation-by-2025 | access-date=2025-08-05 | archive-date=22 November 2014 | url-status=live }}</ref> == Reasons == Plenty different reasons dey make people do open defecation. E fit be by choice, partly by choice, or because dem no get any other option. Most times, di main reason be say toilet no dey available. But for some places, even people wey get toilet for dia house still prefer go ease body outside.<ref name="Cavill" /> Some of di main reasons wey dey cause open defecation be these: === No toilet === Open defecation dey happen plenty anytime people no get toilet for dia house or for where dem dey live.<ref name="Routray 880">{{cite journal|vauthors=Routray P, Schmidt WP, Boisson S, Clasen T, Jenkins MW|date=September 2015|title=Socio-cultural and behavioural factors constraining latrine adoption in rural coastal Odisha: an exploratory qualitative study|journal=[[BMC Public Health]]|volume=15|article-number=880|doi=10.1186/s12889-015-2206-3|pmc=4566293|pmid=26357958 |doi-access=free }}</ref> If toilet no dey places like schools or farms too, people go end up dey ease body outside.<ref name="Routray 880" /> Another example be shortage of public toilets for cities, whether businesses no dey allow people use dia toilets or di toilets no dey open all di time (for example, if no 24-hour business dey and somebody need toilet after working hours). Dis one fit be serious problem for homeless people.<ref>{{cite web|title=Public Bathrooms Become Ground Zero in the Opioid Epidemic|url=http://www.wbur.org/commonhealth/2017/04/03/public-bathrooms-opioids|access-date=2018-10-16|website=Wbur.org|date=3 April 2017 |language=en|archive-date=23 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180623141445/http://www.wbur.org/commonhealth/2017/04/03/public-bathrooms-opioids|url-status=live}}</ref> For some rural communities, people dey use toilets for other things like keeping household items, animals, farm produce, or even as kitchen. Because of dat, dem go outside go ease body.<ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = Bardosh K |date=2015-11-01|title=Achieving "Total Sanitation" in Rural African Geographies: Poverty, Participation and Pit Latrines in Eastern Zambia|journal=Geoforum|volume=66|issue=Supplement C|pages=53–63|doi=10.1016/j.geoforum.2015.09.004|s2cid=153649870 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/2762|title=Understanding Gendered Sanitation Vulnerabilities: A Study in Uttar Pradesh - Resources|website=Susana.org|access-date=2017-10-23|archive-date=24 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171024095611/http://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/2762|url-status=live}}</ref> === Uncomfortable or unsafe toilet === [[File:Pit latrines in Zambia (3233256285).jpg|thumb|A pit latrine with failing superstructure in Zambia]] Sometimes people get toilet, but di toilet spoil or e no good. Outdoor toilets, especially pit latrines, mostly no dey clean and dem dey smell bad. Some toilets no get enough light, especially for places wey electricity no dey. Others no get door or water. Some toilets even get maggots or cockroaches, so people prefer go outside go ease body.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/WSP-What-Influences-Open-Defecation-Global-Sanitation-Review.pdf|title=What Influences Open Defecation and Latrine Ownership in Rural Households?: Findings from a Global Review| vauthors = O'Connell K |access-date=23 October 2017|archive-date=18 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171118135242/http://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/WSP-What-Influences-Open-Defecation-Global-Sanitation-Review.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wateraid.org/se/~/media/Files/Sweden/nowhere-to-go.pdf|title=Nowhere to go How a lack of safe toilets threatens to increase violence against women in slums|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140611225519/http://www.wateraid.org/se/%7E/media/Files/Sweden/nowhere%2Dto%2Dgo.pdf|archive-date=2014-06-11}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kwiringira J, Atekyereza P, Niwagaba C, Günther I | title = Descending the sanitation ladder in urban Uganda: evidence from Kampala Slums | journal = BMC Public Health | volume = 14 | article-number = 624 | date = June 2014 | pmid = 24948084 | pmc = 4071028 | doi = 10.1186/1471-2458-14-624 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Routray 880" /> Some toilets no safe to reach. For night, lack of light, criminals, or animals like snakes and dogs fit make am dangerous. Women and children wey no get toilet inside dia house dey fear use shared or public toilets, especially for night.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/AFR32/002/2010/en/|title=Document|website=Amnesty.org|date=7 July 2010 |language=en|access-date=2017-10-23|archive-date=24 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171024043145/https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/AFR32/002/2010/en/|url-status=live}}</ref> People wey get disability too fit struggle use toilets wey no dey inside di house, especially for night.<ref name="Tsinda 6939–6954">{{cite journal | vauthors = Tsinda A, Abbott P, Pedley S, Charles K, Adogo J, Okurut K, Chenoweth J | title = Challenges to achieving sustainable sanitation in informal settlements of Kigali, Rwanda | journal = International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health | volume = 10 | issue = 12 | pages = 6939–54 | date = December 2013 | pmid = 24336021 | pmc = 3881150 | doi = 10.3390/ijerph10126939 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2013IJERP..10.6939T }}</ref> For some places like Zambia, dem no encourage very small children make dem use pit latrines because dem fit fall inside di hole.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Water and Sanitation Programme and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)|date=2015|title=Child Feces Disposal in Zambia|url=https://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp/files/publications/WSP-Zambia-CFD-Profile.pdf|journal=International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank and UNICEF.|access-date=22 September 2020|archive-date=2 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201002000020/https://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp/files/publications/WSP-Zambia-CFD-Profile.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Some toilets no even get proper door; na cloth dem hang instead. For some communities too, women dey shy use toilets wey dey where men dey.<ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = O'Reilly K |date=2006-11-01|title="Traditional" women, "modern" water: Linking gender and commodification in Rajasthan, India|journal=Geoforum|volume=37|issue=6|pages=958–972|doi=10.1016/j.geoforum.2006.05.008}}</ref><ref name="Tsinda 6939–6954" /><ref name="Routray 880" /> If water no dey near, people go need fetch water before dem fit use toilet.<ref name="Routray 880" /> Dis one dey add more work and take more time. If plenty people wan use one toilet at di same time, some people go decide say make dem just go outside instead of waiting. Some people too fit get diarrhea or emergency wey dem no fit hold. For home pit latrines, some families dey fear say di pit go full quick if everybody dey use am every day, so dem still dey go outside to delay di filling of di pit.<ref name=":0" /><ref name="Tsinda 6939–6954" /> === Unrelated to toilet infrastructure === Some communities get safe and easy-to-use toilets, but people still prefer go ease body outside.<ref name="Cavill" /> For some cases, government or other organizations build di toilets, but people no like dem, no value dem, or no know di benefits of using dem.<ref>In 2016, Kunwar Bai Yadav, a woman claiming to be 105 years old, said she had never heard about a toilet until that year, and had always gone into the nearby woods to defecate. Only when she learned about them, did she have one built in her community. Source: BBC News (India): [https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-37799425 "How a 105-year-old ended open defecation in her village"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181221154407/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-37799425 |date=21 December 2018 }}, 1 November 2016</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://riceinstitute.org/research/revealed-preference-for-open-defecation-evidence-from-a-new-survey-in-rural-north-india-longer-working-paper/|title=Revealed Preference for Open Defecation: Evidence from a new survey in rural north India (longer working paper) {{!}} r.i.c.e.|website=riceinstitute.org|language=en-US|access-date=2017-10-23|archive-date=24 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171024043235/http://riceinstitute.org/research/revealed-preference-for-open-defecation-evidence-from-a-new-survey-in-rural-north-india-longer-working-paper/|url-status=live}}</ref> Dem continue dey ease body outside. Older people too often no want change dia old habit and start use enclosed toilet.<ref name="Routray 880" /> Some people like di feeling of dey for open nature when dem dey ease body instead of inside closed toilet. Dis one common for rural or less populated areas, where people dey waka go fields or bushes early morning go ease body.<ref name="Ahmad" /> Sometimes e fit be because of culture or habit. Some people see am as social activity, especially women wey use dat time chat with other women and look after dia animals while dem dey go fields.<ref name="Routray 880" /> For some regions, open defecation don become part of everyday life. For example, one 2011 survey for rural East Java, Indonesia, show say many men believe say di practice be "normal", and e get benefits like social interaction and physical comfort.<ref name=":3" /> For some cultures too, social taboos dey. For example, father-in-law fit no use di same toilet with daughter-in-law for one household.{{citation needed|date=March 2019}} For some parts of di world, people even prefer open defecation pass toilet use, and many respondents for one 2015 survey talk say "open defecation was more pleasurable and desirable than latrine use".<ref name=":3" /> For some societies, people intentionally use open defecation as way to fertilize land. People wey get fecal incontinence fit suddenly get emergency wey no go give dem enough time to reach toilet, so open defecation fit be dia only option for dat situation. === Public defecation for other reasons === For developed countries, open defecation fit happen because of homelessness. Some people for developed areas too dey do open defecation during outdoor activities like camping for remote places. E hard make anybody know exactly how many people for these communities dey practice open defecation. == Prevalence and trends == [[File:People-practicing-open-defecation-of-population.png|thumb|350x350px|Share of people wey dey practice open defecation for 2022<ref>{{Cite web | author=[[Hannah Ritchie]] | year=2024 | url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/people-practicing-open-defecation-of-population?time=latest | title=Sanitation | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240816121425/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/people-practicing-open-defecation-of-population?time=latest | archive-date=16 August 2024 }}</ref> Government data show say open defecation reduce well well for India after dem launch the Swachh Bharat Mission on 2 October 2014.]] === Countries with high numbers === Open defecation dey happen pass for places wey poverty and social exclusion plenty, especially for rural communities and informal urban settlements for developing countries. The Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) of UNICEF and WHO dey collect data about how open defecation dey happen around the world. Dem separate the figures into rural and urban areas, plus different poverty levels. This programme get responsibility to monitor progress towards the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) for drinking water and sanitation. Since open defecation be one example of unimproved sanitation, JMP dey monitor am for every country, and dem dey publish the results regularly.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/|title = Data and estimates|access-date = 12 March 2015|website = JMP – WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) for Water Supply and Sanitation|publisher = WHO/UNICEF|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150219114756/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates|archive-date = 19 February 2015}}</ref><ref name="JMP2017">WHO and UNICEF (2017) [https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/2805 Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: 2017 Update and SDG Baselines] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227032419/https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/2805 |date=27 February 2020 }}. Geneva: World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)</ref> Before 2010, dem dey join open defecation figures together with other unimproved sanitation figures, but from 2010 go, dem begin collect am separately. The number of people wey dey practice open defecation reduce from 20% for 2000 to 12% for 2015.<ref name="JMP2017" />{{rp|page=34}} For 2016, estimate show say about 892 million people no get any sanitation facility at all, so dem dey do open defecation for gutters, behind bushes, open water bodies and other open places. Most of these people (9 out of every 10) dey live for rural areas, but most of all of dem dey come from two regions (Central Africa and South Asia).<ref name="JMP2017" /> For 2016, about 76% (678 million) of the 892 million people wey dey practice open defecation for the world dey live for only seven countries.<ref name="JMP2017" /> {| class="wikitable sortable" |+Countries with Over 1 Million People Who Defecate openly are listed in the table below, based on available data from different years. !Year ! style="text-align:left;" | Country ! Total population as per respective year<ref>{{Cite web |title=World Population Clock: 8.2 Billion People (LIVE, 2024) - Worldometer |url=https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/ |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=Worldometers.info |language=en |archive-date=22 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222155525/https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ! style="text-align:left;" data-sort-type="number" | Percentage and Number of people who defecate in the open<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |last=If you are viewing it from a mobile device, it would be best to open the link in desktop mode for a complete and convenient experience. |title=JMP |url=https://washdata.org/data/household#!/IND |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=washdata.org |archive-date=11 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190111175434/https://washdata.org/data/household |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=KASHIWASE |first=HARUNA |date=17 November 2023 |title=World Toilet Day: 420 million people are defecating outdoors |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/world-toilet-day-420-million-people-are-defecating-outdoors |access-date=2 September 2024 |website=World Bank Group}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=World Bank Open Data |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.ODFC.ZS |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=World Bank Open Data |archive-date=28 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200828134124/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.ODFC.ZS |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":5" /> |} === India === {{Further|Swachh Bharat Mission|Take Poo to the Loo}} [[File:People-practicing-open-defecation-of-population (1).png|thumb|350x350px|This chart show how open defecation reduce from 2000 to 2022 for countries wey get land border with India, plus World Bank income classifications. According to the data, around 11% of India's population still dey practice open defecation for 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 January 2024 |title=Share of people practicing open defecation |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/people-practicing-open-defecation-of-population?tab=chart&country=MMR/BGD/IND/OWID_WRL/CHN/PAK/BTN/NPL/AFG/High-income+countries/Least+Developed+Countries/Low-income+countries/Lower-middle-income+countries |access-date=2024-08-16 |website=Our World in Data |archive-date=17 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240817114237/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/people-practicing-open-defecation-of-population?tab=chart&country=MMR/BGD/IND/OWID_WRL/CHN/PAK/BTN/NPL/AFG/High-income%20countries/Least%20Developed%20Countries/Low-income%20countries/Lower-middle-income%20countries |url-status=live }}</ref>]] Campaign wey dem start to build toilets for urban and rural areas help reduce open defecation well well between 2014 and 2019. For September 2019, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation honour Indian leader Narendra Modi because of the work wey e do to improve sanitation for the country.<ref>{{cite news|date=25 September 2019|title=Gates Foundation award seen as boost to Swachh Bharat Abhiyan|work=[[Mint (newspaper)|Mint]]|url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/gates-foundation-award-seen-as-boost-to-swachh-bharat-abhiyan-1569432677658.html|url-status=live|access-date=20 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201130113601/https://www.livemint.com/news/india/gates-foundation-award-seen-as-boost-to-swachh-bharat-abhiyan-1569432677658.html|archive-date=30 November 2020}}</ref> According to UNICEF, the five-year Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) reduce the number of people wey dey practice open defecation by about 500 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=A Clean (Sampoorna Swachh) India|url=https://www.unicef.org/india/what-we-do/ending-open-defecation|access-date=2021-07-07|website=Unicef.org|language=en|archive-date=7 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807020542/https://www.unicef.org/india/what-we-do/ending-open-defecation|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2019-03-05|title=93 Percent Households In Rural India Have Access To Toilets, Says Government Survey {{!}} News|url=https://swachhindia.ndtv.com/93-percent-households-rural-india-access-to-toilets-government-survey-31891/|access-date=2021-07-07|website=NDTV-Dettol Banega Swasth Swachh India|language=en-US|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709183528/https://swachhindia.ndtv.com/93-percent-households-rural-india-access-to-toilets-government-survey-31891/|url-status=live}}</ref> Some reports too talk say some people no dey use the toilets even though dem get one. But according to the Indian newspaper The Economic Times, wey quote government sources, World Bank support project survey show say 96% of Indians dey use the toilets wey dem get.<ref>{{cite news|author=Helen Regan and Manveena Suri|date=2019-10-06|title=Half of India couldn't access a toilet 5 years ago. Modi built 110M latrines -- but will people use them?|url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/10/05/asia/india-modi-open-defecation-free-intl-hnk-scli/index.html|access-date=2021-07-07|website=CNN|language=en|archive-date=30 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211130053416/https://www.cnn.com/2019/10/05/asia/india-modi-open-defecation-free-intl-hnk-scli/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Sharma|first=Aman|title=96% usage of toilets under Swachh Bharat, shows a survey by an independent verification agency|work=[[The Economic Times]]|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/96-usage-of-toilets-under-swachh-bharat-shows-survey-by-an-independent-verification-agency/articleshow/68265399.cms?from=mdr|access-date=2021-07-07|archive-date=10 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210710000513/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/96-usage-of-toilets-under-swachh-bharat-shows-survey-by-an-independent-verification-agency/articleshow/68265399.cms?from=mdr|url-status=live}}</ref> For October 2019, Modi announce say India don become "open defecation free".<ref name=":4">{{cite web|url=https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1587023&reg=3&lang=2|title=PM dedicates a Swachh Bharat to Bapu and the people of India|website=Pib.gov.in|access-date=June 1, 2026}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/rural-india-achieved-100-pc-odf-status-govt/articleshow/72337872.cms?from=mdr|title=Rural India achieved 100 pc ODF status: Govt|date=2 December 2019|access-date=1 June 2026|newspaper=[[The Economic Times]]}}</ref> After the success of the Swachh Bharat Mission, Modi launch Phase 2 from 2020 to 2025.<ref>{{Cite news|agency=[[Press Trust of India]]|date=2020-03-04|title=Second phase of Swachh Bharat Mission (Grameen) launched|language=en-IN|work=[[The Hindu]]|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/second-phase-of-swachh-bharat-mission-grameen-launched/article30981702.ece|access-date=2021-07-07|issn=0971-751X|archive-date=28 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220128195604/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/second-phase-of-swachh-bharat-mission-grameen-launched/article30981702.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> During Phase 2, government go focus on waste segregation and continue the work to eliminate open defecation completely.<ref>{{cite web|date=2021-03-03|title=Phase 2 of Swachh Bharat Mission to focus on waste segregation at source|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/India/phase-2-of-swachh-bharat-mission-to-focus-on-waste-segregation-at-source-7210207/|access-date=2021-07-07|website=[[The Indian Express]]|language=en|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709185247/https://indianexpress.com/article/india/phase-2-of-swachh-bharat-mission-to-focus-on-waste-segregation-at-source-7210207/|url-status=live}}</ref> === Pakistan === For 2017–18, about 94% of people for Pakistan get toilet facilities (99% for urban areas and 91% for rural areas), while 6% of the population no get any toilet facility (1% for urban areas and 9% for rural areas).<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/571527-world-toilet-day-20m-pakistanis-have-no-toilet-facility|title=World Toilet Day: 13.2m Pakistanis have no toilet facility|date=2019-11-20|access-date=2026-01-28|last=Mustafa|first=Khalid|website=Thenews.com.pk|language=en-US}}</ref> For 2009, sanitation facilities dey available for only about 42% of the population—65% for urban areas and 30% for rural settlements.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256191560 | title=Sustainability of Sanitation Systems in Pakistan | website=Researchgate.net}}</ref> For 2017, WaterAid report say about 79 million people for Pakistan no get access to proper toilet.<ref name=":6">{{cite web|date=2017-11-23|title=79m Pakistanis still lack a decent toilet: report|url=https://dailytimes.com.pk/145728/79m-pakistanis-still-lack-decent-toilet-report/|access-date=2021-06-23|website=Daily Times|language=en-US|archive-date=22 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122011353/https://dailytimes.com.pk/145728/79m-pakistanis-still-lack-decent-toilet-report/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{cite web|title=Pakistan {{!}} WaterAid Global|url=https://www.wateraid.org/where-we-work/pakistan|access-date=2021-06-23|website=Wateraid.org|language=en|archive-date=13 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613103834/https://www.wateraid.org/where-we-work/pakistan|url-status=live}}</ref> According to UNICEF, for 2018 about 12% of the population, or 26 million people, dey practice open defecation.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.ODFC.ZS?end=2018&locations=PK|title=People practicing open defecation (% of population) - Pakistan|newspaper=World Bank|access-date=29 November 2021|archive-date=29 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211129221532/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.ODFC.ZS?end=2018&locations=PK|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="thehindu24Nov2018">{{cite news|date=24 November 2018|title=Women in Pakistan fight for toilets, while men have 'other priorities'|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/women-in-pakistan-fight-for-toilets-while-men-have-other-priorities/article25587275.ece|work=The Hindu|access-date=27 May 2021|archive-date=17 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210717200628/https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/women-in-pakistan-fight-for-toilets-while-men-have-other-priorities/article25587275.ece|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":2" /> As of 2022, UNICEF report say about 7% of Pakistan population, or 15.92 million people, still dey practice open defecation.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |date=July 2023 |title=Sanitation statistics |url=https://data.unicef.org/topic/water-and-sanitation/sanitation/ |access-date=1 September 2024 |website=[[UNICEF]] |archive-date=22 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240522174203/https://data.unicef.org/topic/water-and-sanitation/sanitation/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":2" /> I'll continue with the next section in the same style and preserve all formatting as requested. === United States === Increase for homelessness plus the rise of tent cities across the United States don make open defecation increase because plenty public toilets no dey available.<ref>{{Cite web | title=America's Tent Cities for the Homeless - The Atlantic | url=https://www.theatlantic.com/photo/2016/02/americas-tent-cities-for-the-homeless/462450/ | access-date=2025-08-05 | website=Theatlantic.com}}</ref> Since the 1970s, plenty cities close their public toilets because dem worry say homeless people go vandalize them or use drugs inside.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2021-11-05 |title=Where Did All the Public Bathrooms Go? |language=en |work=Bloomberg.com |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2021-11-05/why-american-cities-lost-their-public-bathrooms |access-date=2023-09-25 |archive-date=4 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220204040645/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2021-11-05/why-american-cities-lost-their-public-bathrooms |url-status=live }}</ref> For San Francisco, reports about human feces for the streets increase five times between 2011 and 2018, reaching 28,084 complaints. This one mainly happen because homelessness increase for the city. To tackle the problem, San Francisco create the Poop Patrol.<ref>{{cite web| vauthors = Moffitt M |date=3 December 2019|title=San Francisco plans to power-wash the poop out of the Tenderloin|url=https://www.sfgate.com/local/article/City-plans-to-power-wash-the-poop-out-of-the-14878629.php|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191206150800/https://www.sfgate.com/local/article/City-plans-to-power-wash-the-poop-out-of-the-14878629.php|archive-date=6 December 2019|publisher=SFGATE}}</ref> Similar problems too happen for Los Angeles<ref>{{cite web|last1=Grover|first1=Joel|last2=Corral|first2=Amy|date=February 19, 2020|title=Homeless People Are Without Toilets and Going in the Streets. We Asked the Mayor of LA Why|url=https://www.nbclosangeles.com/investigations/homeless-people-are-without-toilets-and-going-in-the-streets-we-asked-the-mayor-of-la-why/2311759/|website=[[NBC Los Angeles]]|language=en-US|access-date=28 September 2021|archive-date=1 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211201190317/https://www.nbclosangeles.com/investigations/homeless-people-are-without-toilets-and-going-in-the-streets-we-asked-the-mayor-of-la-why/2311759/|url-status=live}}</ref> and Miami.<ref>{{Cite news|last=LINDA ROBERTSON|date=October 19, 2019|title=Poop and urine turn downtown streets into outdoor toilet|work=[[Miami Herald]]|url=https://www.miamiherald.com/news/local/community/miami-dade/downtown-miami/article236262158.html|access-date=28 September 2021|archive-date=8 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210908122341/https://www.miamiherald.com/news/local/community/miami-dade/downtown-miami/article236262158.html|url-status=live}}</ref> "The Mad Pooper" be the nickname wey people give one unidentified woman wey dey regularly defecate for public places while she dey jog during the summer of 2017 for the U.S. city of Colorado Springs.<ref name="Runner's World editorial">{{cite news|date=19 September 2017|title=We Urge You 'Mad Pooper,' Stop Crapping in Your Neighbor's Yard|newspaper=[[Runner's World]]|url=https://www.runnersworld.com/poop/we-urge-you-mad-pooper-stop-crapping-in-your-neighbors-yard|url-status=live|access-date=3 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107025928/https://www.runnersworld.com/poop/we-urge-you-mad-pooper-stop-crapping-in-your-neighbors-yard|archive-date=7 November 2017}}</ref> == Impacts == [[File:Dirty pit latrine in Mongolia in winter (5321157342).jpg|thumb|upright|Dirty pit latrine for Mongolia wey dey make some people choose open defecation instead.]] === Public health === {{Further|WASH#Health aspects}} The negative public health effects of open defecation be the same as the effects wey happen when people no get access to sanitation at all. Open defecation—and lack of sanitation and hygiene generally—be major cause of different diseases. The most common ones be diarrhea, intestinal worm infections, typhoid, cholera, hepatitis, polio and trachoma.<ref name="UN2015">{{cite web|title=Call to action on sanitation|url=http://sanitationdrive2015.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/DSG_Sanitation_Fast-Facts_final.pdf|website=United Nations|access-date=15 August 2014|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819084624/http://sanitationdrive2015.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/DSG_Sanitation_Fast-Facts_final.pdf|archive-date=19 August 2014}}</ref><ref name="ChaturvediSpears2013">{{cite journal | vauthors = Spears D, Ghosh A, Cumming O | title = Open defecation and childhood stunting in India: an ecological analysis of new data from 112 districts | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 8 | issue = 9 | article-number = e73784 | year = 2013 | pmid = 24066070 | pmc = 3774764 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0073784 | bibcode = 2013PLoSO...873784S | doi-access = free }}</ref> The bad health effects of open defecation happen because feces contaminate the environment. People wey dey practice open defecation dey expose themselves over and over to different fecal bacteria, including gram-positive ''Staphylococcus aureus'', plus other disease-causing organisms. This matter dey especially serious for small children because their immune systems and brains never fully develop.<ref name=":3" /> Some diseases dey under the group called waterborne diseases, meaning diseases wey spread through fecal pathogens inside water. Open defecation fit pollute water when rain carry feces enter rivers, streams, lakes or unprotected wells. For 2014, WHO identify open defecation as one of the leading causes of deaths from diarrheal diseases. For 2013, about 2,000 children under five years die every day because of diarrhea.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs330/en/ |title=WHO | Diarrhoeal disease |publisher=World Health Organization |date=2013 |access-date=10 March 2014 |archive-date=1 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140401193648/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs330/en/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Small children dey especially at risk because dem dey crawl for ground, waka barefoot and put things inside their mouths without washing their hands. Because of that, dem fit easily swallow feces wey other people leave behind after open defecation. Animal feces too fit cause serious health problems when children dey play around the compound. Countries wey plenty people still dey practice open defecation usually get the highest number of deaths among children under five years, high levels of malnutrition wey fit lead to stunted growth, widespread poverty, and wide gap between rich and poor.<ref name="JMP2014" /> Research from India show say the harmful health effects of open defecation dey even worse for places wey population density high. According to the researchers, "The same amount of open defecation is twice as bad in a place with a high population density average like India versus a low population density average like sub-Saharan Africa."<ref>{{cite book|last1=Vyas|url=http://www.susana.org/_resources/documents/default/3-2089-16-1414062223.pdf|title=Population density and the effect of sanitation on early-life health], slide 19 (presentation at UNC conference in Oct. 2014)|date=2014|publisher=Research Institute for Compassionate Economics, project (r.i.c.e.)|access-date=12 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402092447/http://www.susana.org/_resources/documents/default/3-2089-16-1414062223.pdf|archive-date=2 April 2015|url-status=live|via=[[Sustainable Sanitation Alliance]]}}</ref> Open defecation too dey seriously affect children's health and quality of life, including psychological problems.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.unicef.org/media/media_86283.html |title=UNICEF: Without toilets, childhood is even riskier due to malnutrition | Press centre | UNICEF |access-date=6 April 2021 |archive-date=1 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301000911/https://www.unicef.org/media/media_86283.html }}</ref> === Safety of women === Lack of proper sanitation get serious effect on women and girls. Apart from the general health problems wey dey come with open defecation, having to urinate for open place too fit be dangerous for women. When safe and private toilets no dey, women and girls dey become more vulnerable to sexual violence, and e too dey affect girls' education.<ref name=":1" /> Many women dey face the risk of sexual harassment or rape when dem dey find quiet and private places to urinate or defecate, especially for night time.<ref>Lennon, S. (2011). [http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/1758 Fear and anger: Perceptions of risks related to sexual violence against women linked to water and sanitation in Delhi, India] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924112250/http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/1758 |date=24 September 2015 }} – Briefing Note. SHARE (Sanitation and Hygiene Applied Research for Equity) and WaterAid, UK</ref><ref name=":1">House, Sarah, Suzanne Ferron, Marni Sommer and Sue Cavil (2014) [http://violence-wash.lboro.ac.uk/ Violence, Gender & WASH: A Practitioner's Toolkit  – Making water, sanitation and hygiene safer through improved programming and services] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151004081037/http://violence-wash.lboro.ac.uk/ |date=4 October 2015 }}. London, UK: WaterAid/SHARE.</ref> Lack of privacy dey affect the safety and dignity of women and girls pass. Because of shame, many women dey wait till night before dem go urinate or defecate. This one put them for danger because dem fit suffer attack after dark, and e too force dem to hold their urine and feces the whole day.<ref name="autogenerated3">{{cite web| author = Cavil S |title=Violence, gender and WASH: A practitioner's toolkit: Making Water, Sanitation and hygiene safer through improved programming and services|url=http://violence-wash.lboro.ac.uk/|publisher=WaterAid, SHARE Research Consortium |access-date=7 October 2015|archive-date=4 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151004081037/http://violence-wash.lboro.ac.uk/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite journal| author = Lennon S |title=Fear and anger: Perceptions of risks related to sexual violence against women linked to water and sanitation in Delhi, India |journal=SHARE (Sanitation and Hygiene Applied Research for Equity) and WaterAid, UK |date=November 2011|url=http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/1758|access-date=7 October 2015|archive-date=24 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924112250/http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/1758|url-status=live}}</ref> Women for developing countries dey increasingly talk say dem dey fear assault or rape anytime dem need to leave house after dark to urinate or defecate. Reports about attacks and harassment near toilets or around places wey women dey urinate or defecate openly dey common.<ref name="autogenerated3" /><ref name="autogenerated1" /> == Prevention == Strategies wey fit help rural and peri-urban communities become completely free from open defecation and maintain am include sanitation marketing, behavior change communication, and enhanced Community-Led Total Sanitation (CLTS+), together with "nudging".<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Mara D|date=2017|title=The elimination of open defecation and its adverse health effects: a moral imperative for governments and development professionals|url=https://iwaponline.com/washdev/article/7/1/1/30446/The-elimination-of-open-defecation-and-its-adverse|url-status=live|journal=Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development|language=en|publication-place=University of Leeds|volume=7|issue=1|pages=1–12|doi=10.2166/washdev.2017.027|issn=2043-9083|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200517195652/https://iwaponline.com/washdev/article/7/1/1/30446/The-elimination-of-open-defecation-and-its-adverse|archive-date=17 May 2020|access-date=29 June 2020|doi-access=free |bibcode=2017JWSHD...7....1M }}</ref> One of the main ways to end open defecation be to change people's behavior. SaniFOAM (Focus on Opportunity, Ability, and Motivation) be one framework wey dem develop specially to solve sanitation and hygiene problems. Using Focus, Opportunity, Ability and Motivation as the main factors, the SaniFOAM model help identify the barriers wey dey stop people from adopting toilets. At the same time, e serve as a tool to design, monitor and evaluate sanitation programmes.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Introducing Sanifoam: A Framework to Analyze Sanitation Behaviors to Design Effective Sanitation Programs| vauthors = Devine J |publisher=World Bank|year=2009|location=Washington, DC, USA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = Devine J |year=2010|title=Beyond tippt-taps: The role of enabling products in scaling up and sustaining handwashing|journal=Waterlines|volume=29|issue=4|pages=304–314|doi=10.3362/1756-3488.2010.033}}</ref> Some of the major drivers wey dem dey use to eliminate open defecation, apart from behavior change, include:<ref name="Ahmad" /> * Political will * Sanitation solutions wey give better value than open defecation * Strong public-sector local service delivery systems * Creating the right incentive structures === Integrated initiatives === Efforts to reduce open defecation almost be the same as the efforts to achieve the MDG target for access to sanitation.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/274939/9789241514705-eng.pdf|title=GUIDELINES ON SANITATION AND HEALTH|date=2018|website=Apps.who.int|access-date=4 April 2022|archive-date=3 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220403213525/https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/274939/9789241514705-eng.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> One important part of these efforts be creating awareness (for example through the UN World Toilet Day campaign), promoting behavior change campaigns, and increasing political commitment plus public demand for better sanitation. Community-Led Total Sanitation (CLTS) campaigns put special focus on ending open defecation by "triggering" communities to take action by themselves.<ref name="fieldnotes">{{cite web|title=Field Notes: UNICEF Policy and Programming in Practice|url=http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Field_Note_-Community_Approaches_to_Total_Sanitation.pdf|website=UNICEF|access-date=10 March 2015|archive-date=2 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402160413/http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Field_Note-_Community_Approaches_to_Total_Sanitation.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> === Simple sanitation technology options === [[File:Photo by Ashley Wheaton, May 2011 (6376606733).jpg|thumb|Residents for Mymensingh, Bangladesh, dey join workshop to learn more about mobile sanitation options (MoSan) as alternative to open defecation.]] Simple sanitation technologies dey available to help reduce open defecation, especially for places where people no get toilets for house or where shared toilets dey too far or no safe to use, especially during the night. === Safety of women === Women and girls dey suffer pass when better toilet no dey. Apart from the general health problems wey open defecation bring, women and girls dey face extra danger when dem need place to wee or ease body. Lack of safe and private toilet fit expose dem to violence, and e fit also stop plenty girls from going school regularly.<ref name=":1" /> Many women dey search for hidden and private places to ease body, mostly for night, and during that time dem fit face sexual harassment or rape.<ref>Lennon, S. (2011). [http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/1758 Fear and anger: Perceptions of risks related to sexual violence against women linked to water and sanitation in Delhi, India] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924112250/http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/1758 |date=24 September 2015 }} – Briefing Note. SHARE (Sanitation and Hygiene Applied Research for Equity) and WaterAid, UK</ref><ref name=":1">House, Sarah, Suzanne Ferron, Marni Sommer and Sue Cavil (2014) [http://violence-wash.lboro.ac.uk/ Violence, Gender & WASH: A Practitioner's Toolkit &nbsp;– Making water, sanitation and hygiene safer through improved programming and services] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151004081037/http://violence-wash.lboro.ac.uk/ |date=4 October 2015 }}. London, UK: WaterAid/SHARE.</ref> Lack of privacy dey affect women and girls plenty, especially for developing countries. Because of shame, many of dem go hold their urine or faeces till night before dem go ease body. This one dey put dem for danger because dem fit get attacked after dark, and e also fit affect their health because dem dey hold their bladder and bowels for long time.<ref name="autogenerated3">{{cite web| author = Cavil S |title=Violence, gender and WASH: A practitioner's toolkit: Making Water, Sanitation and hygiene safer through improved programming and services|url=http://violence-wash.lboro.ac.uk/|publisher=WaterAid, SHARE Research Consortium |access-date=7 October 2015|archive-date=4 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151004081037/http://violence-wash.lboro.ac.uk/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite journal| author = Lennon S |title=Fear and anger: Perceptions of risks related to sexual violence against women linked to water and sanitation in Delhi, India |journal=SHARE (Sanitation and Hygiene Applied Research for Equity) and WaterAid, UK |date=November 2011|url=http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/1758|access-date=7 October 2015|archive-date=24 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924112250/http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/1758|url-status=live}}</ref> Reports from different places show say attacks and harassment near toilet facilities or places wey women dey go wee or ease body for open be common.<ref name="autogenerated3" /><ref name="autogenerated1" /> == Prevention == Different strategies fit help rural and peri-urban communities stop open defecation completely and make sure say e no come back. Some of the main methods be sanitation marketing, behaviour change communication, and improved Community-Led Total Sanitation (CLTS+), plus other "nudging" approaches.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Mara D|date=2017|title=The elimination of open defecation and its adverse health effects: a moral imperative for governments and development professionals|url=https://iwaponline.com/washdev/article/7/1/1/30446/The-elimination-of-open-defecation-and-its-adverse|url-status=live|journal=Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development|language=en|publication-place=University of Leeds|volume=7|issue=1|pages=1–12|doi=10.2166/washdev.2017.027|issn=2043-9083|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200517195652/https://iwaponline.com/washdev/article/7/1/1/30446/The-elimination-of-open-defecation-and-its-adverse|archive-date=17 May 2020|access-date=29 June 2020|doi-access=free |bibcode=2017JWSHD...7....1M }}</ref> One important way to end open defecation be to change people's behaviour. SaniFOAM (Focus on Opportunity, Ability, and Motivation) be framework wey people develop specially for sanitation and hygiene issues. E dey help identify why people no dey use toilets and e also dey help when dem dey plan, monitor and evaluate sanitation programmes.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Introducing Sanifoam: A Framework to Analyze Sanitation Behaviors to Design Effective Sanitation Programs| vauthors = Devine J |publisher=World Bank|year=2009|location=Washington, DC, USA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = Devine J |year=2010|title=Beyond tippt-taps: The role of enabling products in scaling up and sustaining handwashing|journal=Waterlines|volume=29|issue=4|pages=304–314|doi=10.3362/1756-3488.2010.033}}</ref> Other important things wey fit help stop open defecation include:<ref name="Ahmad" /> * Strong political will * Toilet and sanitation solutions wey better pass open defecation * Strong local government sanitation services * Good incentive systems wey encourage people make dem use toilets === Integrated initiatives === Most efforts wey dey reduce open defecation be the same efforts wey people use achieve the MDG sanitation target.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/274939/9789241514705-eng.pdf|title=GUIDELINES ON SANITATION AND HEALTH|date=2018|website=Apps.who.int|access-date=4 April 2022|archive-date=3 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220403213525/https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/274939/9789241514705-eng.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> One important part be creating awareness, like through the UN World Toilet Day, behaviour change campaigns, and making governments show stronger commitment to sanitation. Community-Led Total Sanitation (CLTS) campaigns especially dey encourage communities make dem take action by themselves to end open defecation.<ref name="fieldnotes">{{cite web|title=Field Notes: UNICEF Policy and Programming in Practice|url=http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Field_Note_-_Community_Approaches_to_Total_Sanitation.pdf|website=UNICEF|access-date=10 March 2015|archive-date=2 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402160413/http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Field_Note_-_Community_Approaches_to_Total_Sanitation.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> === Simple sanitation technology options === [[File:Photo by Ashley Wheaton, May 2011 (6376606733).jpg|thumb|Residents of Mymensingh, Bangladesh, participate in a workshop to discover more about mobile sanitation options (MoSan) as an alternative to open defecation.]] Simple and affordable toilet technologies dey available to help reduce open defecation, especially where households no get toilets or shared toilets dey too far or dangerous to use, especially during night. ==== Toilet bags ==== Some people already dey use plastic bags (also called flying toilets) to collect faeces for night. But one better option be the "Peepoo bag", wey Swedish company People produce. This one be personal, single-use, self-sanitising and biodegradable toilet bag wey prevent faeces from contaminating the environment.<ref>Wheaton, A. (2009). [http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/1125 Results of a medium-scale trial of single-use, self-sanitising toilet bags in poor urban settlements in Bangladesh] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150427111520/http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/1125 |date=27 April 2015 }}. Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit GmbH (GTZ), Dhaka, Bangladesh</ref> People dey use this bag for humanitarian emergencies, schools and urban slums for developing countries.<ref>Owako, E. (2012). [http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/1612 Nyando peepoo trial project report] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407064759/http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/1612 |date=7 April 2015 }}. Kenya Red Cross, Kenya</ref><ref>Naeem, K., Berndtsson, M. (2011). [http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/1611 Peepoo Try Pakistan – Sindh Floods] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407014736/http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/1611 |date=7 April 2015 }}, November 2011. UN-HABITAT, Pakistan</ref> ==== Bucket toilets and urine diversion ==== Bucket toilets be simple portable toilets wey people fit improve in different ways. One improvement be urine diversion, wey make am work almost like urine-diverting dry toilets. This system dey reduce bad smell from dry toilets. Examples include the MoSan toilet wey dem use for Kenya,<ref>Mijthab M., Woods E., Lokey H., Foote A., Rieck. C (2013). [http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/2021 Sanivation and MoSan Toilet – 4 week Service Pilot in Karagita Naivasha, Kenya] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141020111441/http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/2021 |date=20 October 2014 }}. GIZ and Sanivation</ref> and the urine-diverting dry toilet wey SOIL dey promote for Haiti.<ref>Russel, K. (2013). [http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/1753 Mobile sanitation services for dense urban slums – Various documents on results from research grant.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018221935/http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/1753 |date=18 October 2014 }} Stanford University, U.S.</ref> == Society and culture == === Media === Mainstream media for some countries wey open defecation dey affect, including India,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-29502603 |title=Why India's sanitation crisis needs more than toilets |publisher=BBC |date=2014-10-06 |access-date=10 March 2015 |work=BBC News |vauthors = Biswas S | archive-date=17 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150317202558/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-29502603 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-india-has-highest-number-of-people-practicing-open-defecation-2036591|title=India has highest number of people practicing open defecation &#124|publisher=DNA India|date=19 November 2014|access-date=10 March 2015|archive-date=2 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402111413/http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-india-has-highest-number-of-people-practicing-open-defecation-2036591|url-status=live}}</ref> and Pakistan,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1168181 |title=More than 40m Pakistanis defecate openly: Unicef – Pakistan |publisher=Dawn |date=2015-03-08 |access-date=10 March 2015 |archive-date=10 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150310030633/http://www.dawn.com/news/1168181 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/850024/lack-of-toilets-tied-to-stunted-growth-in-pakistan-unicef/ |title=Lack of toilets tied to stunted growth in Pakistan: UNICEF |publisher=The Express Tribune |date=13 March 2012 |access-date=10 March 2015 |archive-date=11 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150311155013/http://tribune.com.pk/story/850024/lack-of-toilets-tied-to-stunted-growth-in-pakistan-unicef/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thenews.com.pk/Todays-News-6-215001-Over-43-million-people-in-Pakistan-defecate-in-the-open |title=Over 43 million people in Pakistan defecate in the open |publisher=The News International |access-date=10 March 2015 |archive-date=2 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402162853/http://www.thenews.com.pk/Todays-News-6-215001-Over-43-million-people-in-Pakistan-defecate-in-the-open |url-status=live }}</ref> don begin talk plenty about the issue of open defecation in recent years. === Legal status === For some places, open defecation or public defecation be against the law. Person wey do am fit pay fine or even go prison.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://library.municode.com/oh/columbus/codes/code_of_ordinances?nodeId=TIT23GEOFCO_CH2317PUCO_2317.14PUURDE|title=Municode Library|website=library.municode.com|language=en|access-date=2018-01-30|archive-date=16 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180116135043/https://library.municode.com/oh/columbus/codes/code_of_ordinances?nodeId=TIT23GEOFCO_CH2317PUCO_2317.14PUURDE|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://wnep.com/2017/09/19/mad-pooper-jogger-wanted-for-repeatedly-defecating-in-colorado-front-yards/|title='Mad Pooper': Jogger Wanted for Defecating in Front Yards of Colorado Homes|date=2017-09-19|work=WNEP.com|access-date=2018-01-30|language=en-US|archive-date=16 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180116004459/http://wnep.com/2017/09/19/mad-pooper-jogger-wanted-for-repeatedly-defecating-in-colorado-front-yards/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.dispatch.com/content/stories/local/2014/12/01/the-world-is-not-your-toilet-police-note.html|title=The world is NOT your toilet, Columbus police note| vauthors = Manning A |work=The Columbus Dispatch|access-date=2018-01-30|language=en|archive-date=16 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180116081232/http://www.dispatch.com/content/stories/local/2014/12/01/the-world-is-not-your-toilet-police-note.html|url-status=live}}</ref> === In popular culture === David Sedaris im essay "Adventures at Poo Corner" talk about people wey dey defecate openly inside commercial businesses.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thisamericanlife.org/303/david-and-goliath/act-three|title=Adventures at Poo Corner|date=2017-12-12|website=This American Life|access-date=2019-08-18|archive-date=18 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190818192955/https://www.thisamericanlife.org/303/david-and-goliath/act-three|url-status=live}}</ref> === Open defecation during outdoor activities === Some national parks no allow people make dem defecate openly for certain areas.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nps.gov/dena/planyourvisit/leavenotrace.htm |title=Leave No Trace |publisher=National Park Service |access-date=20 September 2020 |archive-date=26 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200926090555/https://www.nps.gov/dena/planyourvisit/leavenotrace.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="roadtrippers.com">{{cite web| vauthors = Martineau C |date=5 June 2019|title=Nature is calling: Here's how to poop properly in the great outdoors|url=https://roadtrippers.com/magazine/pooping-properly-great-outdoors/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201027072508/https://roadtrippers.com/magazine/pooping-properly-great-outdoors/|archive-date=27 October 2020|work=Roadtrippers}}</ref> If person need ease body for bush or outdoor place, the common advice be make the person dig small hole, ease body inside, then cover am well with soil.<ref name="roadtrippers.com" /> == See also == * EToilet * Free bleeding * Public urination * Sanitation worker * Spitting ==Notes== {{notelist}} == References == {{reflist}} == External links == {{offline|med}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20141020010145/http://opendefecation.org/news/ UN Call to action to end open defecation] * [https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library?search=open+defecation Documents about open defecation] in library of Sustainable Sanitation Alliance {{Toilets}} {{Public health}} [[Category:Sanitation]] [[Category:Defecation]] == References == 8zezr7tyoso2fcy8vritgg35s95gyis 0 27434 102843 101472 2026-06-14T21:14:14Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 5 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 102843 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Boy drinks from a tap at a NEWAH WASH water project in Puware Shikhar, Udayapur District, Nepal. (10677936093).jpg|thumb|A boy dey drink from tap for NEWAH WASH water project for Nepal]] [[File:Sanitation work 3.jpg|thumb|People dey sanitize environment for Nigeria]] The '''human right to water and sanitation''' ('''HRWS''') na principle wey talk say clean [[drinking water]] and [[sanitation]] be universal [[Human rights|human right]] because dem very important for supporting every person life.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|title=International Decade for Action 'Water for Life' 2005-2015. Focus Areas: The human right to water and sanitation|url=https://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/human_right_to_water.shtml|access-date=12 December 2020|website=United Nations|language=EN}}</ref> United Nations General Assembly recognize am as human right on 28 July 2010.<ref name="HRWS">{{cite web|url=http://undocs.org/A/RES/64/292|title=Resolution 64/292: The human right to water and sanitation|date=August 2010|website=United Nations|access-date=13 October 2018}}</ref> HRWS dey recognized inside international law through human rights treaties, declarations and other standards. Some commentators don argue say human right to water dey exist independent of 2010 General Assembly resolution, based on things like Article 11.1 of International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR); among those wey accept international ''[[ius cogens]]'', dem believe say this right be binding principle of international law. Other treaties wey explicitly recognize HRWS include 1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) and 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC). The clearest definition of human right to water come from United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights for General Comment 15 wey dem draft for 2002.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Refugees |first=United Nations High Commissioner for |title=Refworld {{!}} General Comment No. 15: The Right to Water (Arts. 11 and 12 of the Covenant) |url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/4538838d11.html |access-date=27 November 2020 |website=Refworld |language=en}}</ref> E be non-binding interpretation wey explain say access to water be condition for enjoying the right to adequate standard of living, and e closely link to right to highest attainable health standard, so e be human right. E talk say: "The human right to water entitle everybody to enough, safe, acceptable, physically accessible and affordable water for personal and domestic use."<ref name=":3" /> The first resolutions about HRWS come from UN General Assembly and UN Human Rights Council for 2010.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Resolution adopted by the General Assembly|url=https://s3.amazonaws.com/berkley-center/100308UNARES64292.pdf|access-date=27 November 2020}}</ref> Dem state say sanitation right dey connected to water right, because poor sanitation fit spoil water quality downstream, so later discussions continue to treat both together. For July 2010, UN General Assembly Resolution 64/292 confirm again say people get human right to safe, affordable, clean and accessible water and sanitation services.<ref>Baer, M. 2015. From Water Wars to Water Rights: Implementing the Human Right to Water in Bolivia, Journal of Human Rights, 14:3, 353-376, {{doi|10.1080/14754835.2014.988782}}</ref> During that General Assembly, dem emphasize say for people to enjoy life and all other human rights well, safe clean drinking water and sanitation be necessary human right.<ref>UN (United Nations). 2010. Resolution adopted by the general assembly. 64/292. The human right to water and sanitation. A/RES/64/292. New York: United Nations.</ref> This resolution raise questions about how government suppose manage and provide water and sanitation responsibilities. United Nations Development Programme talk say when access to clean water and sanitation become widely recognized, e go improve people life quality and health.<ref>UNDP (United Nations Development Programme). 1997. Governance for Sustainable Human Development: A UNDP Policy Document. UNDP, New York, NY, USA. See http://mirror.undp.org/magnet/policy/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010713151912/http://mirror.undp.org/magnet/policy/ |date=13 July 2001 }} (accessed 21 June 2012)</ref><ref>[[World Health Organization]] (WHO) and United Nation Children's Fund (UNICEF). 2011. Drinking water: Equity, Satefy and sustainability. New York: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) for Water and Sanitation.</ref><ref>[[World Health Organization]] (WHO) and United Nation Children's Fund (UNICEF). 2012. Progress on drinking water and sanitation. 2012 update. New York: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation.</ref> Revised UN resolution for 2015 emphasize say the two rights separate but equal.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|title=The human rights to safe drinking water and sanitation|url=http://www.endwaterpoverty.org/sites/endwaterpoverty.org/files/The%20Human%20Rights%20To%20Water%20And%20Sanitation%20UN%20resolution.pdf|access-date=27 November 2020|archive-date=25 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170825141743/http://www.endwaterpoverty.org/sites/endwaterpoverty.org/files/The|url-status=dead}}</ref> HRWS dey put obligation on governments make dem ensure say people fit enjoy quality, available, acceptable, accessible and affordable water and sanitation.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Water/Handbook/Book1_intro_.pdf|title=Realising the human rights to water and sanitation: A Handbook by the UN Special Rapporteur|last=de Albuquerque|first=Catarina|publisher=United Nations|year=2014|location=Portugal|pages=Introduction}}</ref> Water affordability dey look how cost fit become burden wey go force people sacrifice other basic needs.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last1=Roaf|first1=Virginia|title=The Human Rights to Water and Sanitation|date=26 July 2018|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315471532-2|series=Equality in Water and Sanitation Services|pages=26–43|location=Abingdon, Oxon; New York |publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-315-47153-2|access-date=29 October 2020|last2=Albuquerque|first2=Catarina de|last3=Heller|first3=Léo|doi=10.4324/9781315471532-2|s2cid=204491938}}</ref> Normally, guideline for water affordability be say e no suppose pass 3–5% of household income.<ref>{{Cite book|chapter=III.S.8 United Nations General Assembly Resolution 64/292 (On the Right to Water and Sanitation) (28 July 2010) |title=International Law & World Order|year=2012|pages=1–2|publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers|doi=10.1163/ilwo-iiis8|isbn=978-90-04-20870-4}}</ref> Accessibility of water dey consider time wey person take reach source, convenience, and risk involved.<ref name=":4" /> Water suppose be reachable for every citizen, meaning say e no suppose be more than 1,000 meters or 3,280 feet away and must fit be accessed within 30 minutes.<ref>{{Cite web|title=International Decade for Action 'Water for Life' 2005-2015. Focus Areas: The human right to water and sanitation|url=https://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/human_right_to_water.shtml|access-date=27 April 2021|publisher=United Nations}}</ref> Availability of water dey consider whether supply dey enough, reliable and sustainable.<ref name=":4" /> Water quality dey check whether e safe for drinking and other use.<ref name=":4" /> For acceptability, water no suppose get bad smell or strange color.<ref name=":8" /> ICESCR require say countries wey sign am must progressively achieve and respect all human rights, including water and sanitation rights.<ref name=":1" /> Dem suppose work fast and effective to improve access and service.<ref name=":1" /> {{TOC limit|3}} == International context == The WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation report say 663 million people no get access to improved drinking water sources and more than 2.4 billion people no get basic sanitation services for 2015.<ref name="JMP report 2013">[https://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/JMPreport2013.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703112631/https://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/JMPreport2013.pdf|date=3 July 2017}} ,2015 report of the WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> Clean water access still be big global problem. Acceptable water sources include "household connections, public standpipes, boreholes, protected dug wells, protected springs and rainwater collections."<ref name="ref1">General Assembly Declares Access to Clean Water and Sanitation Is a Human Right." UN News Center. 28 July 2010. Accessed 20 March 2014.</ref> Even though about 9% of global population no get water access, some regions still lag behind, especially Sub-Saharan Africa.<ref name="ref1" /> UN also highlight say "about 1.5 million children under five dey die every year and 443 million school days dey lost because of water and sanitation related diseases."<ref name="ref2">Global Issues at the United Nations." UN News Center. n.d. Accessed 20 March 2014.</ref> For 2022, over 2 billion people (25% of world population) no get steady access to clean drinking water.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Drinking-water |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/drinking-water |access-date=16 June 2023 |website=www.who.int |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Transforming Water Access: How the "World's Lifeblood" is Under Attack. |url=https://www.usglc.org/blog/transforming-water-access-how-the-worlds-lifeblood-is-under-attack/ |access-date=16 June 2023 |website=USGLC |language=en-US}}</ref> 4.2 billion people no get access to safe sanitation services.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=SeventhQueen |last2=Wolf |first2=Jared |date=8 June 2022 |title=The truth behind clean water in Africa 2022 |url=https://sustainablereview.com/billions-still-lack-access-to-clean-water-2022/ |access-date=16 June 2023 |website=Sustainable Review |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Advocacy |first=W. V. |date=22 March 2022 |title=How Improving Clean Water Access Can Fight Global Hunger |url=https://worldvisionadvocacy.org/2022/03/22/clean-water-global-hunger/ |access-date=16 June 2023 |website=World Vision Advocacy |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Building access to clean water in support of Sustainable Development Goal 6 {{!}} UNICEF Supply Division |url=https://www.unicef.org/supply/stories/building-access-clean-water-support-sustainable-development-goal-6 |access-date=16 June 2023 |website=www.unicef.org |language=en}}</ref> By 2024, new estimates show say about 4.4 billion people for low and middle income countries no get access to safe household drinking water.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Greenwood |first1=Esther E. |last2=Lauber |first2=Thomas |last3=van den Hoogen |first3=Johan |last4=Donmez |first4=Ayca |last5=Bain |first5=Robert E. S. |last6=Johnston |first6=Richard |last7=Crowther |first7=Thomas W. |last8=Julian |first8=Timothy R. |date=16 August 2024 |title=Mapping safe drinking water use in low- and middle-income countries |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adh9578 |journal=Science |language=en |volume=385 |issue=6710 |pages=784–790 |doi=10.1126/science.adh9578 |pmid=39146419 |bibcode=2024Sci...385..784G |issn=0036-8075}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Ford |first=Celia |date=15 August 2024 |title=More than 4 billion people don't have access to clean water at home |url=https://www.vox.com/future-perfect/367224/clean-drinking-water-access-four-billion-science-study |access-date=30 August 2024 |website=Vox |language=en-US}}</ref> ==Legal foundations and recognition== The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) of 1966 na document wey bring together the economic, social and cultural rights wey dey inside the Universal Declaration on Human Rights (UDHR) of 1948. None of these early documents explicitly recognize human rights to water and sanitation. But later international human rights conventions come include provisions wey directly recognize water and sanitation rights. The 1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) get Article 14.2 wey talk say "parties shall take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women in rural areas to ensure, on a basis of equality of men and women, that they participate in and benefit from rural development and, in particular shall ensure to women the right: ... (h) To enjoy adequate living conditions, particularly in relation to housing, sanitation, electricity and water supply, transport and communications."<ref>{{Cite web|title=Text of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women |publisher=United Nations |url=https://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/cedaw.htm |access-date=27 November 2020}}</ref> The 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) get Article 24 wey recognize say children get right to enjoy highest attainable standard of health and access to facilities for treatment of illness and rehabilitation… and states must take steps like provision of adequate nutritious food and clean drinking water…<ref>The full text of the Convention on the rights of the child is available at: {{cite web |title=Convention on the Rights of the Child |publisher=Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights |date=20 November 1989 |url=http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/crc.htm |access-date=21 April 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100611182141/http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/crc.htm |archive-date=11 June 2010 }}.</ref> The 2006 Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) get Article 28(2)(a) wey require say persons with disabilities must get equal access to social protection and clean water services, plus access to appropriate and affordable services and support devices.<ref>The text of the Convention is available here: https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/convention-rights-persons-disabilities</ref> "The International Bill of Human Rights"—wey include the 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), 1966 Articles 11 and 12 of ICESCR, and 1948 Article 25 of UDHR—don help show how human right to water and sanitation evolve come become recognized worldwide.<ref>Gupta, J., Ahlers, R., and Ahmed, L. 2010. The human right to water: Moving towards consensus in a fragmented world. Review of European Community and International Environmental Law, 19(3), 294–305</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Meier|first1=Benjamin Mason|last2=Kayser|first2=Georgia|last3=Amjad|first3=Urooj|last4=Bartram|first4=Jamie|date=15 November 2012|title=Implementing an Evolving Human Right Through Water and Sanitation Policy |journal=Water Policy |volume=15 |url=https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2015424|language=en|location=Rochester, N.Y.|ssrn=2015424}}</ref> Scholars also emphasize importance of UN recognition of water and sanitation rights near end of 20th century. Early definitions come from law professor Stephen McCaffrey of University of the Pacific in 1992<ref name=":2">[http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/gintenlr5&div=7&id=&page=], McCaffrey, S.C. "A Human Right to Water: Domestic and International Implications" (1992) V Georgetown International Environmental Law Review, Issue 1, pp.1-24.</ref> and Dr. Peter Gleick in 1999.<ref name="pacinst.org">[http://pacinst.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/21/2012/10/basic_water_needs_human_right_to_water.pdf], Gleick, P.H. "The Human Right to Water" (1999) Water Policy, Vol. 1, Issue 5, pp. 487-503.</ref> McCaffrey talk say this right fit link to right to food, health or even right to life.<ref name=":2" /> Gleick add say access to basic water requirement be human right supported by international law and state practice.<ref name="pacinst.org" /> The UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR) wey dey monitor ICESCR compliance come agree with these scholars through General Comment 15 for 2002.<ref name=":0" /> Dem conclude say right to water dey part of right to adequate standard of living and also connect to health, housing and food rights.<ref name=":0" /> E define say: "The human right to water entitles everyone to sufficient, safe, acceptable, physically accessible and affordable water for personal and domestic uses..."<ref>{{Cite web|title=Resources and Information|url=http://ww1.unhchr.ch/|access-date=27 November 2020|website=ww1.unhchr.ch}}</ref> Some countries formally accept say water right be part of ICESCR obligations, like Germany, United Kingdom,<ref>{{Cite web|title=righttowater - Just another WordPress site|url=https://www.righttowater.info/|access-date=27 November 2020|website=righttowater|language=en-US}}</ref> and Netherlands.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Human rights: the Netherlands officially recognises the right to water|url=http://www.irc.nl/page/39765|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090222211635/http://www.irc.nl/page/39765|archive-date=22 February 2009|access-date=27 November 2020}}</ref> For 2005, UN Sub-Commission on Promotion and Protection of Human Rights issue guidelines to help governments implement water and sanitation rights.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: Realization of the right to drinking water and sanitation Report of the Special Rapporteur, El Hadji Guissé|url=http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/water/docs/SUb_Com_Guisse_guidelines.pdf|access-date=27 November 2020}}</ref> This lead Human Rights Council to appoint Catarina de Albuquerque as independent expert in 2008.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Independent Expert on the issue of human rights obligations related to access to safe drinking water and sanitation|url=http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/water/iexpert/overview.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100706011034/http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/water/iexpert/overview.htm|archive-date=6 July 2010|access-date=27 November 2020}}</ref> She later report in 2009 and CESCR confirm say sanitation must be recognized by all states.<ref name=":1" /> After long negotiation, 122 countries accept “Human Right to Water and Sanitation” through UN General Assembly Resolution 64/292 for 28 July 2010.<ref>{{Cite web|title=United Nations Official Document |publisher=United Nations |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/64/292 |access-date=27 November 2020}}</ref> E recognize say every person suppose get access to enough water for personal and domestic use (50–100 liters per person per day), safe, acceptable, affordable (cost no pass 3% of income), and accessible (source no pass 1,000 meters or 30 minutes collection time).<ref name= ref2 /> UN General Assembly also declare say clean drinking water be "essential to the full enjoyment of life and all other human rights".<ref name= ref2 /> For September 2010, UN Human Rights Council pass resolution wey confirm say water and sanitation be part of right to adequate standard of living.<ref>{{Cite press release |title=UN united to make the right to water and sanitation legally binding |date=1 October 2010 |publisher=Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights |url=https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=10403&LangID=E |access-date=27 November 2020 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101129163313/https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=10403&LangID=E |archivedate=29 November 2010}}</ref> Catarina de Albuquerque later become Special Rapporteur and continue report on issues like non-state service provision (2010), financing (2011), wastewater management (2013), and sustainability/non-retrogression (2013).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://newsarchive.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=10356&LangID=E|title=Statement by the Independent Expert on the issue of human rights obligations related to safe drinking water and sanitation, Ms Catarina de Albuquerque at the 15th session of the Human Rights Council|website=newsarchive.ohchr.org|access-date=19 November 2019|archive-date=2 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201102053934/https://newsarchive.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=10356&LangID=E|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://newsarchive.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=11542&LangID=E|title=Statement by the Special Rapporteur on the right to access to safe drinking water and sanitation at the 66th Session of the General Assembly|website=newsarchive.ohchr.org|access-date=19 November 2019|archive-date=26 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201026102841/https://newsarchive.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=11542&LangID=E|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/WaterAndSanitation/SRWater/Pages/WasteWaterManagement.aspx|title=OHCHR {{!}} Wastewater management|website=www.ohchr.org|access-date=19 November 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/WaterAndSanitation/SRWater/Pages/Sustainabilityretrogressionrealisationofwaterandsanitation.aspx|title=OHCHR {{!}} Sustainability and non-retrogression in the realisation of the rights to water and sanitation|website=www.ohchr.org|access-date=19 November 2019}}</ref> Léo Heller later take over as Special Rapporteur in 2014. Later General Assembly Resolution 7/169 of 2015 confirm distinction between right to water and right to sanitation, because sanitation matter dey get less attention compared to water.<ref name=":3" /> --- International jurisprudence Inter-American Court of Human Rights Right to water appear for Inter-American Court of Human Rights case of Sawhoyamaxa Indigenous Community v. Paraguay.<ref name=para>[https://web.archive.org/web/20170329234132/https://www.escr-net.org/sites/default/files/Judgment,%20Case%20of%20the%20Sawhoyamaxa%20Indigenous%20Community%20v.%20Paraguay.pdf ''Sawhoyamaxa Indigenous Community v. Paraguay''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170329234132/https://www.escr-net.org/sites/default/files/Judgment,%20Case%20of%20the%20Sawhoyamaxa%20Indigenous%20Community%20v.%20Paraguay.pdf |date=29 March 2017 }} (Inter-American Court of Human Rights, 29 March 2006).</ref> The case involve state failure to recognize indigenous land rights. For 1991, government remove Sawhoyamaxa community from their land, and dem lose access to water, food, education and health services.<ref name=para/> This fall under American Convention on Human Rights and affect right to life.<ref>{{cite web |title=American Convention on Human Rights |publisher=Inter-American Commission on Human Rights |date=22 November 1969 |url=http://www.cidh.org/Basicos/English/Basic3.American%20Convention.htm |access-date=26 May 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130618195529/http://www.cidh.org/Basicos/English/Basic3.American%20Convention.htm |archive-date=18 June 2013 }}</ref> Water form part of this right as access to land. Court order say land must return and basic services provide during transition period.<ref>[http://www.escr-net.org/node/365163f] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140507013122/http://www.escr-net.org/node/365163f|date=7 May 2014}}, International Network for Economic, Social & Cultural RIghts, Case of Sawhoyamaxa Indigenous Community v. Paraguay.</ref> International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) ICSID cases concern contracts between governments and private companies for water services. Even though cases be about investment, some commentators note say right to water influence outcomes indirectly.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=hUwgAwAAQBAJ&dq=Azurix+Corp+v+Argentina+right+to+water&pg=PA296], Global Public Interest in International Investment Law, Andreas Kulick, 2012 at 303.</ref> Water privatization increase sharply from 1990s according to World Bank data.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bakker|first=Karen|date=27 February 2013|title=Neoliberal Versus Postneoliberal Water: Geographies of Privatization and Resistance|journal=Annals of the Association of American Geographers|volume=103|issue=2|pages=253–260|doi=10.1080/00045608.2013.756246|bibcode=2013AAAG..103..253B |s2cid=143834419}}</ref> ==== Azurix Corp v. Argentina ==== This case involve dispute between Argentine Republic and Azurix Corporation over 30-year water contract.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160304003503/https://icsid.worldbank.org/ICSID/FrontServlet?requestType=CasesRH&actionVal=showDoc&docId=DC507_En&caseId=C5 ''Azurix Corp v. Argentina''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304003503/https://icsid.worldbank.org/ICSID/FrontServlet?requestType=CasesRH&actionVal=showDoc&docId=DC507_En&caseId=C5 |date=4 March 2016 }}, ICSID Case No ARB/01/12.</ref> Tribunal decide say Azurix deserve fair return on investment but reject full claim of US$438.6 million because expectation for profit must be reasonable given water pricing limits and service obligations.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160304003503/https://icsid.worldbank.org/ICSID/FrontServlet?requestType=CasesRH&actionVal=showDoc&docId=DC507_En&caseId=C5] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304003503/https://icsid.worldbank.org/ICSID/FrontServlet?requestType=CasesRH&actionVal=showDoc&docId=DC507_En&caseId=C5|date=4 March 2016}}, Azurix Corp v Argentina ICSID Case No ARB/01/12 at 149.</ref> ==== Biwater Gauff Ltd v. Tanzania ==== This case involve private water company dispute with Tanzania government over Dar es Salaam water system contract.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160304003519/https://icsid.worldbank.org/ICSID/FrontServlet?requestType=CasesRH&actionVal=showDoc&docId=DC1590_En&caseId=C67 ''Biwater Gauff (Tanzania) Ltd v. Tanzania''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304003519/https://icsid.worldbank.org/ICSID/FrontServlet?requestType=CasesRH&actionVal=showDoc&docId=DC1590_En&caseId=C67 |date=4 March 2016 }}, ICSID Case No ARB/05/22.</ref> Government cancel contract in 2005 over performance issues. Tribunal later rule say government breach agreement but no award damages to company due to public interest concerns.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Biwater v. Tanzania|url=https://investmentpolicy.unctad.org/investment-dispute-settlement/cases/202/biwater-v-tanzania|access-date=12 December 2020|website=UNCTAD Investment Policy Hub}}</ref> --- Right to water in domestic law Without international enforcement body, human right to water depend on national courts.<ref>[http://lawecommons.luc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1020&context=lucilr], McGraw, George S. "Defining and Defending the Right to Water and its Minimum Core: Legal Construction and the Role of National Jurisprudence" ''Loyola University Chicago International Law Review'' Vol. 8, No. 2, 127-204 (2011) at 137.</ref> Countries implement am through constitutions and laws, either as non-justiciable principles or enforceable rights.<ref>[http://www.kaupapature.org.nz/store/doc/Pickard_-Poole.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180129135516/http://www.kaupapature.org.nz/store/doc/Pickard-_Poole.pdf|date=29 January 2018}}, Natalie Baird and Diana Pickard "Economic, social and cultural rights: a proposal for a constitutional peg in the ground" [2013] NZLJ 289 at 297</ref> South Africa [[File:Communal tap for drinking water (2941731238).jpg|thumb|A group of people gathering around a communal tap in Johannesburg, South Africa]] For South Africa, constitution explicitly recognize right to water and implementation happen through national laws. This show model where constitution set principle and laws handle details.<ref name="kaupapature.org.nz">[http://www.kaupapature.org.nz/store/doc/Pickard_-Poole.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180129135516/http://www.kaupapature.org.nz/store/doc/Pickard-_Poole.pdf|date=29 January 2018}}, Natalie Baird and Diana Pickard "Economic, social and cultural rights: a proposal for a constitutional peg in the ground" [2013] NZLJ 289 at 298</ref> Residents of Bon Vista Mansions v. Southern Metropolitan Local Council This case involve residents of Bon Vista Mansions after local council disconnect water due to unpaid bills. Court rule say people must get access to water under South African Constitution.<ref>[http://www.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/a108-96.pdf], South African Constitution, Section 27(1)(a).</ref> Court also rely on UN General Comment 12 on right to food which require states not to interfere with existing access to basic needs.<ref>[http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/gencomm/escgencom12.htm], Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment 12, Right to adequate food (Twentieth session, 1999), U.N. Doc. E/C.12/1999/5 (1999), reprinted in Compilation of General Comments and General Recommendations Adopted by Human Rights Treaty Bodies, U.N. Doc. HRI/GEN/1/Rev.6 at 62 (2003).</ref> Court find say stopping water supply violate law under South African Water Services Act because procedure no fair or reasonable.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171031003941/http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf|date=31 October 2017}}, South African Water Services Act [No. 108 of 1997] Section 4 (3)</ref> This decision come before UN General Comment 15 be officially adopted.<ref>[https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2010/ga10967.doc.htm], UN General Comment No. 15</ref> ====''Mazibuko v. City of Johannesburg''==== {{Main|Mazibuko v City of Johannesburg}} The question of how much water people suppose receive come be discussed further in ''[[Mazibuko v City of Johannesburg]]''.<ref>[http://www.saflii.org/za/cases/ZAGPHC/2008/491.pdf ''Mazibuko v. City of Johannesburg''], (06/13865) [2008] ZAGPHC 491;[2008] All SA 471 (W) (30 April 2008)</ref> The case center on how water dey distribute through pipes to Phiri, one of the oldest areas for Soweto. The case bring two main issues: first, whether the city policy on free basic water—6 kilolitres per month for each account holder—conflict with Section 27 of the South African Constitution or Section 11 of the Water Services Act.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171031003941/http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf|date=31 October 2017}}, South African Water Services Act. [No. 108 of 1997] Section 11</ref> Second issue be whether installation of pre-paid water meters be lawful or not. The High Court hold say the city by-laws no allow installation of meters, so the meters installation be illegal. The court also hold say because the meters stop water supply after free basic water finish, that count as unlawful discontinuation of water supply. The court then rule say residents of Phiri must receive free basic water of 50 litres per person per day.<ref>[http://www.saflii.org/za/cases/ZAGPHC/2008/491.pdf ''Mazibuko v. City of Johannesburg''], (06/13865) [2008] ZAGPHC 491;[2008] All SA 471 (W) (30 April 2008) at 181</ref> Centre for Applied Legal Studies (CALS) of University of the Witwatersrand for Johannesburg and Pacific Institute for Oakland, California, share 2008 Business Ethics Network (BENNY) Award for their work on this case.<ref>[http://businessethicsnetwork.org/] Business Ethics Network</ref> Pacific Institute also provide legal testimony based on work of Dr. Peter Gleick wey help define human right to water and explain minimum water needs.<ref>[http://pacinst.org/news/350/], Pacific Institute "Pacific Institute Shares BENNY Award for Efforts in South African Water Rights Decision." (2008), Pacific Institute, Oakland, California</ref> The main respondents carry the case go Supreme Court of Appeal (SCA), wey rule say city water policy suffer from error of law about minimum obligation under South African National Standard, so dem set am aside.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.iso.org/sites/PEG/docs/PEG%20Documents/10_SANS1-1.pdf?stdsid=14017755&pid=free, |title=South African National Standard 3(b) |access-date=6 May 2014 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304071006/http://www.iso.org/sites/PEG/docs/PEG%20Documents/10_SANS1-1.pdf?stdsid=14017755&pid=free, |url-status=dead }}</ref> Court also hold say minimum quantity for dignified human life under Section 27 be 42 litres per person per day, not 50 litres. SCA declare say installation of water meters be illegal, but dem suspend the order for two years make city fit correct the system.<ref>[http://www.saflii.org/cgi-bin/disp.pl?file=za/cases/ZASCA/2009/52.html&query=mazibuko], Mazibuko and Another v National Director of Public Prosecutions (113/08) [2009] ZASCA 52; 2009 (6) SA 479 (SCA); [2009] 3 All SA 548 (SCA) (26 May 2009)</ref> The matter later go Constitutional Court. The court hold say constitution require state to take reasonable steps—through laws and policies—to progressively realize access to water, based on available resources. Court also say government policy decisions must stay within budget limits, and courts no suppose replace government role in deciding social and economic policy. So the minimum basic water policy was held constitutional, and government fit even go above am, but court no get power to prescribe exact quantity for social rights implementation.<ref>[http://www.saflii.org/cgi-bin/disp.pl?file=za/cases/ZACC/2009/28.html&query=mazibuko ''Mazibuko and Other v. City of Johannesburg and Others''] (CCt 39/09) [2009] ZACC 28; 2010 (3) BCLR 239 (CC); 2010 (4) SA 1 (CC) (8 October 2009)</ref> The court focus instead on whether government steps be reasonable and whether dem dey review their policies regularly.<ref name="kaupapature.org.nz"/> Some critics argue say the judgment use too much judicial restraint and limit strong enforcement of social rights.<ref>Alston & Goodman, International Human Rights, Oxford University Press (2013), Lucy A. Williams, "The Role of Courts In The Quantitative-Implementation of Social and Economic Rights: A Comparative Study", 3 ''Constitutional Court Review'' 2010 [South Africa] (2011) 141</ref> --- India Two major cases for India show how courts interpret right to water even though e no explicitly written inside Constitution, but as part of right to life, courts include am under safe and sufficient water access.<ref>[http://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1037&context=njihr], Amy Hardberger "Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of Water: Evaluating Water as a Human Right and the Duties and Obligations it Creates" (2005) 4 ''Northwestern Journal of International Human Rights'' 331 at 352</ref> [[File:Jamuna River 04.jpg|thumb|The Yamuna River, river wey Haryana state and Delhi dey use]] ====''Delhi Water Supply v. State of Haryana''==== This dispute start because Haryana dey use Yamuna River water for irrigation while Delhi need am for drinking and domestic use. Court rule say domestic use get priority over commercial use, so Haryana must release enough water for Delhi residents.<ref name="indiankanoon.org">[http://www.indiankanoon.org/doc/1520766/ ''Delhi Water Supply & Sewage v. State Of Haryana & Ors''], 1999 SCC(2) 572, JT 1996 (6) 107</ref> ====''Subhash Kumar v. State of Bihar''==== For this case, petitioner challenge pollution of Bokaro River due to waste discharge from washeries. Court hold say right to life under Article 21 include right to clean and pollution-free water.<ref>[http://lawmin.nic.in/olwing/coi/coi-english/coi-indexenglish.htm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402064301/http://lawmin.nic.in/olwing/coi/coi-english/coi-indexenglish.htm|date=2 April 2012}}, The Constitution of India</ref> However, case fail because court find say petition no be genuine public interest but personal interest, so continuation of case go count as abuse of process.<ref name="indiankanoon.org"/> ==== World Rights to Water Day ==== Water be essential for life of all living beings, including humans. So access to clean and enough water be considered inalienable human right. Eco Needs Foundation (ENF) believe say this right suppose be clearly recognized by law, including minimum per capita water access. United Nations already set obligations on countries through different covenants to ensure fair distribution of water to citizens. Because of this, ENF start observe and promote World Rights to Water Day on 20 March, date wey Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar lead first water satyagraha in 1927. The day encourage adoption of laws wey guarantee universal right to water. Under guidance of founder Dr Priyanand Agale, ENF organize programmes to promote access to water rights for citizens.<ref>econeeds.org</ref> --- New Zealand Economic, social and cultural rights no get explicit protection under New Zealand Human Rights Act or Bill of Rights Act, so right to water no get direct legal protection there.<ref>Natalie Baird and Diana Pickard, [http://www.kaupapature.org.nz/store/doc/Pickard_-Poole.pdf "Economic, social and cultural rights: a proposal for a constitutional peg in the ground"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180129135516/http://www.kaupapature.org.nz/store/doc/Pickard-_Poole.pdf |date=29 January 2018 }}, [2013] NZLJ 289 at 299</ref> New Zealand Law Society don indicate recently say dem go still consider legal recognition of these rights.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20180304033140/http://www.lawsociety.org.nz/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/76530/l-HR-Committee-ICCPR-List-of-Issues-Prior-to-Reporting-5-3-14-with-annexure,-UPR-submission-17-6-13.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180304033140/http://www.lawsociety.org.nz/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/76530/l-HR-Committee-ICCPR-List-of-Issues-Prior-to-Reporting-5-3-14-with-annexure,-UPR-submission-17-6-13.pdf|date=4 March 2018}}, New Zealand Law Society Human Rights & Privacy Committee, Submission to the 18th Session of The Human Rights Council, Shadow Report to New Zealand's 2nd Universal Periodic Review</ref> --- United States For United States, no federal law officially recognize human right to water.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://law.northeastern.edu/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/phrge-water-primer.pdf |title=The Human Right to Water in the United States |author1=Kevin Murray |author2=Sara Kominers |publisher=Northeastern University School of Law}}</ref> But some federal laws protect water quality, including: Safe Drinking Water Act (public water systems, not private wells or bottled water) Clean Water Act (surface waters of the United States) Resource Conservation and Recovery Act Superfund (CERCLA) National Environmental Policy Act (environmental impact requirements) --- Australia Attention for Australia focus mainly on Indigenous Australians’ water rights. Settler-colonial history still influence how water resources dey managed today. Even though government make agreements, many still no fully address Indigenous access to water and sanitation. In ''Mabo v Queensland (No 2)'', native title rights get legal recognition for first time in 1992. Indigenous Australians often connect land and water to cultural identity, but legal system still struggle to fully recognize spiritual and cultural water rights.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last1=Poirier|first1=Robert|last2=Schartmueller|first2=Doris|date=1 September 2012|title=Indigenous water rights in Australia|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2011.11.002|journal=The Social Science Journal|volume=49|issue=3|pages=317–324|doi=10.1016/j.soscij.2011.11.002|s2cid=144101999|issn=0362-3319|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last1=Burdon|first1=Peter|last2=Drew|first2=Georgina|last3=Stubbs|first3=Matthew|last4=Webster|first4=Adam|last5=Barber|first5=Marcus|date=2 October 2015|title=Decolonising Indigenous water 'rights' in Australia: flow, difference, and the limits of law|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/2201473X.2014.1000907|journal=Settler Colonial Studies|volume=5|issue=4|pages=334–349|doi=10.1080/2201473X.2014.1000907|s2cid=154484189|issn=2201-473X|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Australian water law allow citizens use surface water but no own am. Inland and river water rights mostly under state control, while Commonwealth get power through external affairs, trade and grants powers.<ref name=":5" /> For 2000, Federal Court allow Indigenous people use water for traditional purposes, but irrigation no count as traditional use.<ref name=":5" /> For 2004, National Water Initiative recognize Indigenous water interests, but critics say it no fully address historical inequality in water distribution.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|date=1 December 2014|title=Indigenous people's right to water under international law: a legal pluralism perspective|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1877343514000700|journal=Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability|language=en|volume=11|pages=26–33|doi=10.1016/j.cosust.2014.09.015|issn=1877-3435|last1=Gupta|first1=Joyeeta|last2=Hildering|first2=Antoinette|last3=Misiedjan|first3=Daphina|bibcode=2014COES...11...26G |url-access=subscription}}</ref> == Remaining discussions == === Transboundary effects === [[File:Nile River and delta from orbit.jpg|thumb|Ethiopia move to fill [[Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam]] reservoir fit reduce [[Nile]] flow reach up to 25% and spoil Egypt farmland.<ref>{{cite news |title=In Africa, War Over Water Looms As Ethiopia Nears Completion Of Nile River Dam |url=https://www.npr.org/2018/02/27/589240174/in-africa-war-over-water-looms-as-ethiopia-nears-completion-of-nile-river-dam?t=1595668819363 |work=[[NPR]] |date=27 February 2018}}</ref>]] [[File:Nord-Krim-Kanal.png|right|thumb|After Russia annex Crimea, Ukraine block the [[North Crimean Canal]], wey dey give about 85% of Crimea fresh water.<ref>{{cite news |title=Pray For Rain: Crimea's Dry-Up A Headache For Moscow, Dilemma For Kyiv |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/pray-for-rain-crimea-s-dry-up-a-headache-for-moscow-dilemma-for-kyiv/30515986.html |work=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |date=29 March 2020}}</ref>]] Since access to water dey cross borders and fit cause tension for areas like Middle East, South Asia, Eastern Mediterranean and some parts of North America, some NGOs and scholars dey argue say right to water get trans-national side too. Dem believe say because water no dey respect borders, countries suppose avoid actions wey fit spoil other people human rights.<ref>{{Cite web|title=FIAN International|url=https://fian.org/en/|access-date=30 March 2021|website=fian.org}}</ref> Dis idea also fit help reduce global "water crunch" wey population increase dey cause. But as population dey grow, water scarcity go still create serious problem. E also raise question whether water fit dey move from one country go another or not.<ref name= ref3>McCaffrey, Stephen C. "Human Right to Water: Domestic and International Implications, A." ''Geo. Int'l Envtl. L. Rev.'' 5 (1992): 1.</ref> ==== Water Dispute Between India and Pakistan ==== Water matter between [[India]] and [[Pakistan]] dey connected to water shortage for South Asia.<ref name=":03">{{Cite journal|last=Bakhtawar|first=Saadia|date=2012|title=Water: an Economic Resource Conflict between India and Pakistan|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3597519|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|doi=10.2139/ssrn.3597519|issn=1556-5068|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Dem get agreement called [[Indus Waters Treaty]] wey dey divide river use between di two countries after independence.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Salman|first1=Salman M. A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8GEr4fyDbqgC&pg=PA42|title=Conflict and Cooperation on South Asia's International Rivers: A Legal Perspective|last2=Uprety|first2=Kishor|date=2002|publisher=World Bank Publications|isbn=978-0-8213-5352-3|language=en}}</ref> Even with di treaty, wahala still dey. Pakistan dey fear say India dam projects fit reduce water wey go reach dem and cause scarcity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sharma|first=Pankaj Kumar|date=2012|title=Conflict over Water Between India and Pakistan: Fear and Hopes?|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41856568|journal=The Indian Journal of Political Science|volume=73|issue=1|pages=133–140|jstor=41856568|issn=0019-5510}}</ref> === Water commercialization versus state provision === Debate still dey whether government or private companies suppose handle water supply and sanitation. Some people believe say water scarcity make private sector management better because e fit increase efficiency and reduce waste. Dem argue say government water system cost too much and no dey always effective, so market approach fit help manage water better.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wilder|first1=Margaret|last2=Romero Lankao|first2=Patricia|date=November 2006|title=Paradoxes of Decentralization: Water Reform and Social Implications in Mexico|journal=World Development|volume=34|issue=11|pages=1977–1995|doi=10.1016/j.worlddev.2005.11.026}}</ref> But other side talk say water be human right, so e no suppose depend on profit or private companies. Dem believe say water suppose dey available for everybody because e dey essential for life.<ref name="ref4">Bakker, Karen. "The "Commons" Versus the "Commodity": Alter‐globalization, Anti‐privatization and the Human Right to Water in the Global South". ''Antipode'' 39.3 (2007): 430-455.</ref> === Organizations === Organizations wey dey work for water and sanitation rights include: ==== United Nations organizations ==== * [[OHCHR]] * [[UNDP]] * [[UNICEF]] * Sanitation and Water for All ==== Governmental cooperation agencies ==== * [[DFID]] * [[GIZ]] * [[Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation|SDC]] * [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|EPA]] ==== International NGOs and networks ==== * [[Action against Hunger]] * [[Blood:Water]] * Center for Water Security and Cooperation * Freshwater Action Network (FAN) * Pure Water for the World * The DigDeep Right to Water Project * [[Pacific Institute]] * The Water Project * [[Transnational Institute]] * UUSC * [[WaterAid]] * WaterLex * [[PeaceJam]] * [[Thirst Project]] == See also == {{Portal|Water|Law|Politics}} {{Columns-list|colwidth=30em| * Climate migration and water rights * Environmental law * International human rights law * Water conflict * Water law * Water security * Water supply * World Water Day * WASH - Water, sanitation and hygiene * Workers' right to access toilet }} == References == {{Reflist|2}} == External links == * Special Rapporteur on the human right to safe drinking water and sanitation – UN * WaterLex Archive * Human Right to Water and Sanitation: Translating Theory into Practice * Right to Water: Understanding children's right to water {{offline|med}} {{Particular human rights}} {{Nutritional pathology}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Water]] [[Category:Sanitation]] [[Category:Right to health]] 2tx8802fzrtfg1mare1wojamfpnc0ic 0 27437 102928 101827 2026-06-15T07:27:09Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 2 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 102928 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image ([[:en:SeaWiFS|SeaWiFS]]) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]] [[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]] De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast [[:en:Inland_delta|inland delta]] for [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]] dey reach a [[:en:Tectonic_plate|tectonic trough]] at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)<ref name="ramsar1996">{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref> for de central part of de [[:en:Endorheic_basin|endorheic basin]] of de [[:en:Kalahari_Desert|Kalahari Desert]] insyd. E be a [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]] as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref> Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately [[:en:Evaporated|evaporate]] den [[:en:Transpiration|transpire]]. Each year, about 11 km³ (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km² (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into [[:en:Lake_Ngami|Lake Ngami]]. De area be once part of [[:en:Lake_Makgadikgadi|Lake Makgadikgadi]], an ancient lake dat de early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] already mostly dry up. De [[:en:Moremi_Game_Reserve|Moremi Game Reserve]] dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de [[:en:Seven_Natural_Wonders_of_Africa|Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]], wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for [[:en:Arusha|Arusha]], [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}</ref> For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}</ref><ref name="unesco" /> == Name == Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[:en:Okavango_River|Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de [[:en:Kavango_people|Kavango pippoe]] of northern Namibia. Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German colonial]] reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to [[:en:Herero_language|Herero]] influence.<ref name="eckl-2007">{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == Geography == ==== Floods ==== Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[:en:Angola|Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km² (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June). De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid [[:en:Transpiration|transpiration]] den [[:en:Evaporation|evaporation]], wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd<ref>{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}</ref> dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during [[:en:Botswana|Botswana]] ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of [[:en:Wildlife|wildlife]]. De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.<ref name="ramsar1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity & Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}</ref> ==== Water flow ==== ==== Lagoons ==== [[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger [[:en:Lagoon|lagoons]] insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be: * Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) * Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}}) * Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}}) * Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}}) * Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}}) * Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}}) * Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}}) * Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}}) * Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}}) * Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}}) * Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}}) ==== Salt islands ==== De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant [[:en:Arecaceae|palm tree]]. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. About 70% of de islands begin as [[:en:Termite|termite]] mounds (often ''[[:en:Macrotermes|Macrotermes]]'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ==== Chief ein Island ==== Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a [[:en:Fault_line|fault line]] form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}</ref> == Climate == [[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an [[:en:Oasis|oasis]] for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}</ref> Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}</ref> De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> == Fauna of de delta == [[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de [[:en:Big_five_game|big five game]] animals, de [[:en:Lion|lion]], [[:en:Leopard|leopard]], [[:en:African_buffalo|African buffalo]], [[:en:African_bush_elephant|African bush elephant]], [[:en:Black_rhinoceros|black]] den [[:en:White_rhinoceros|white rhinoceros]] dey present.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of [[:en:Lechwe|lechwe]] antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de [[:en:Lechwe|red lechwe]], plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Oda species dey include de [[:en:Giraffe|giraffe]], [[:en:Blue_wildebeest|blue wildebeest]], [[:en:Plains_zebra|plains zebra]], [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}</ref> [[:en:Impala|impala]], [[:en:Common_eland|common eland]], [[:en:Greater_kudu|greater kudu]], [[:en:Sable_antelope|sable antelope]], [[:en:Roan_antelope|roan antelope]], [[:en:Puku|puku]], [[:en:Waterbuck|waterbuck]], [[:en:Sitatunga|sitatunga]], [[:en:Tsessebe|tsessebe]], [[:en:Cheetah|cheetah]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> [[:en:African_wild_dog|African wild dog]], [[:en:Spotted_hyena|spotted hyena]], [[:en:Black-backed_jackal|black-backed jackal]], [[:en:Caracal|caracal]], [[:en:Serval|serval]], [[:en:Aardvark|aardvark]], [[:en:Aardwolf|aardwolf]], [[:en:Bat-eared_fox|bat-eared fox]], [[:en:African_savanna_hare|African savanna hare]], [[:en:Honey_badger|honey badger]], [[:en:Common_warthog|common warthog]], [[:en:Chacma_baboon|chacma baboon]], [[:en:Vervet_monkey|vervet monkey]] den [[:en:Nile_crocodile|Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}</ref> De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de [[:en:Helmeted_guineafowl|helmeted guineafowl]], [[:en:African_fish_eagle|African fish eagle]], [[:en:Pel's_fishing_owl|Pel's fishing owl]], [[:en:Egyptian_goose|Egyptian goose]], [[:en:South_African_shelduck|South African shelduck]], [[:en:African_jacana|African jacana]], [[:en:African_skimmer|African skimmer]], [[:en:Marabou_stork|marabou stork]], [[:en:Crested_crane|crested crane]], [[:en:African_spoonbill|African spoonbill]], [[:en:African_darter|African darter]], [[:en:Southern_ground_hornbill|southern ground hornbill]], [[:en:Wattled_crane|wattled crane]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}</ref> [[:en:Lilac-breasted_roller|lilac-breasted roller]], [[:en:Secretary_bird|secretary bird]] den [[:en:Common_ostrich|common ostrich]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}</ref> Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus [[:en:Hwange_National_Park|Hwange National Park]].<ref>{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}</ref> By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}</ref> From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta. ==== Fish ==== De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de [[:en:Hydrocynus_vittatus|tigerfish]], species of [[:en:Tilapia|tilapia]], den various species of [[:en:Catfish|catfish]]. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) [[:en:Sickle_barb|sickle barb]]. De same species dey occur for de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Flora == De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''[[:en:Cyperus_papyrus|Papyrus cyperus]]'' for de deeper waters insyd'', [[:en:Miscanthus|Miscanthus]]'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''[[:en:Phragmites_australis|Phragmites australis]]'', ''[[:en:Typha_capensis|Typha capensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Cyperus_polystachyos|Pycreus]]'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}</ref> ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''[[:en:Philenoptera_violacea|Philenoptera violacea]]'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''[[:en:Hyphaene|Hyphaene]]'' ''[[:en:Hyphaene_petersiana|petersiana]]'' den [[:en:Vachellia|acacias]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top. Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist. == Pippoe == [[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein [[:en:Makoro|makoro]] for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language: * de [[:en:Mbukushu|Hambukushu]] (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva), * de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku), * de [[:en:Yeyi_people|Wayeyi]] (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei), * de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda) * de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, [[:en:River_Bushmen|River Bushmen]], Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe). De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd. De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]], wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de [[:en:Caprivi_Strip|Caprivi Strip]] of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de [[:en:Boteti_River|Boteti River]]. De Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}</ref> inhabit de area around [[:en:Seronga|Seronga]] as well as de southern delta around [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]], den a few Wayeyi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around [[:en:Etsha|Etsha]] for de western Panhandle insyd. De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de [[:en:Batawana|Batawana]] (a [[:en:Tswana_people|Tswana]] nation) since de late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a [[:en:Bangwato|Bangwato]] offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de [[:en:Tsetse_fly|tsetse fly]] dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations. == Tourism == De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of [[:en:Maun,_Botswana|Maun]] dey serve as a gateway de region.<ref name="odmp-2021">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den [[:en:Mokoro|mokoro]] canoe excursions.<ref name="mbaiwa-2005">{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.<ref name="iucn-2014">{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.<ref name="statsbots-2023">{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}</ref> == ''Molapos'' (water streams) == [[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''. During 1974 to 1978, de floods be more intensive dan normal den flood recession cropping no dey possible, so severe food den fodder shortages occur. For response insyd, dem initiate de Molapo Development Project. E protect de ''molapo'' areas plus bunds to control de flooding den prevent severe flooding. Dem provide de bunds plus sluice gates so de water wey dem store dem fi release am den flood recession cropping fi start.<ref>[[File:PD-icon.svg|link=|alt=|15x15px]] {{cite book |last1=Kortenhorst |first1=L. F. |url=https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |title=Development of flood-recession cropping in the molapo's of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |last2=Oosterbaan |first2=R. J. |last3=Sprey |first3=L. H. |publisher=International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement |year=1986 |location=Wageningen, The Netherlands |pages=8–19 |display-authors=1 |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810013033/https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Possible threats == One possible threat be oil exploration by Canadian company ReconAfrica. Initial exploration for April 2021 insyd reveal oil deposits for sedimentary rock insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ltd |first=Reconnaissance Energy Africa |title=ReconAfrica's First of Three Wells Confirms a Working Petroleum System in the Kavango Basin, Namibia |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055430/https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Newswire.ca |language=en}}</ref> Environmentalists dey concern dat de project go get a negative ecological impact den dat dem fi threaten sam of de main bodies of water.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Big Oil Project in Africa Threatens Fragile Okavango Region |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055427/https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Yale E360 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-22 |title=Growing concern over Okavango oil exploration as community alleges shutout |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055426/https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-12 |title=Test drilling for oil in Namibia's Okavango region poses toxic risk |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427143948/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |archive-date=27 April 2021 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Animals |language=en}}</ref> <!--ReconAfrica and the Government of Botswana have amended the license to exclude the Tsodilo Hills UNESCO site<ref>{{cite web |title=Republic of Botswana and ReconAfrica amend Exploration License to Exclude Entire Tsodilo Hills Area |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/republic-of-botswana-and-reconafrica-amend-exploration-license-to-exclude-entire-tsodilo-hills-area-837436712.html |website=newswire.ca |access-date=30 April 2021}}</ref> << This passage was removed on April 20th 2022 without explanation. Is there a reason it should not be published here. -Yes, it is a separate UNESCO site outside the Okavango Delta. See talk page.--> ReconAfrica state say, "Der go be no damage to de ecosystem from de activities wey dem plan."<ref>{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions: ReconAfrica Initial Drilling Project |url=https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429185250/https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |archive-date=29 April 2021 |access-date=30 April 2021 |website=reconafrica.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Wilson-Spath |first=Andreas |date=2020-12-15 |title=OP-ED: Paradise is closing down: The ghastly spectre of oil drilling and fracking in fragile Okavango Delta |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602220224/https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> De Namibian government present plans to build a [[:en:Hydropower|hydropower]] station for de [[:en:Zambezi_Region|Zambezi Region]] insyd, wey go regulate de Okavango ein flow to sam extent. While proponents dey argue say de effect go dey minimal, environmentalists argue say dis project fi destroy most of de rich animal den plant life for de delta insyd. Oda threats dey include local human encroachment den regional extraction of water for both Angola den Namibia insyd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Threats - Okavango Delta |url=http://www.okavangodelta.com/about/threats/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222105527/https://www.okavangodelta.com/general-information/threats/ |archive-date=22 February 2020 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Okavangodelta.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=11 March 2016 |title=Chinese-Angolan project in Angola harvests over 1,200 tons of rice |url=http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104002158/http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |archive-date=4 November 2016 |access-date=2 November 2016 |work=Macauhub English}}</ref> South African filmmaker den conservationist [[:en:Rick_Lomba|Rick Lomba]] warn for de 1980s insyd of de threat of cattle invasion to de area. Ein documentary ''[[:en:The_End_of_Eden|The End of Eden]]'' portray ein lobbying for behalf of de delta top. Dem project de Okavango catchment to experience decreasing annual rainfall as well as increasing temperatures as a result of global warming.<ref>{{cite book |author=ASSAR |url=http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |title=What global warming of 1.5°C and higher means for Botswana |publisher=Adaptation at Scale in Semi Arid Regions (ASSAR) |year=2019 |access-date=6 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> De effects of global warming dey likely to result for reductions insyd for de extent of floodplains insyd for de Okavango Delta insyd, wey go get significant impacts for water availability top as well as livestock rearing den agricultural activities for de region insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Murray-Hudson |first1=M. |last2=Wolski |first2=P. |last3=Ringrose |first3=S. |date=2006 |title=Scenarios of the impact of local and upstream changes in climate and water use on hydro-ecology in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=331 |issue=1 |pages=73–84 |bibcode=2006JHyd..331...73M |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2006.04.041}}</ref> Conservation work by [[:en:Conservation_International_Botswana|Conservation International Botswana]] for de Okavango Delta region insyd include education den policy engagement as well as research den monitoring such as aerial wildlife surveys den rapid biological appraisal work.<ref name="CIBotswanaAbout">{{cite web |title=About Conservation International Botswana |url=https://botswana.conservation.org/about-us |website=Conservation International Botswana}}</ref><ref name="WBDGFTechNote2003">{{cite report |url=https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/725891468153271873/pdf/313330Delivering0Global0Public0Goods.pdf |title=Delivering Global Public Goods Locally: Lessons Learned and Successful Approaches |date=February 2003 |publisher=World Bank, Development Grant Facility (DGF) |page=8 |format=PDF}}</ref> == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Kalahari_Basin|Kalahari Basin]] == References == <references /> == Further reading == * {{cite book |last=Allison |first=P. |url=https://archive.org/details/whateveryoudodon00alli |title=Whatever You Do, Don't Run: True Tales Of A Botswana Safari Guide |publisher=Globe Pequot |year=2007 |isbn=9780762745654 |url-access=registration}} * Bock, J. (2002). "Learning, Life History, and Productivity: Children's lives in the Okavango Delta of Botswana". ''Human Nature''. '''13''' (2): 161–198. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1007/s12110-002-1007-4|10.1007/s12110-002-1007-4]]. [[PMID (identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26192757 26192757]. [[S2CID (identifier)|S2CID]] [https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:28985956 28985956]. == External links == {{Wikivoyage}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070408083625/http://www.conservation.org/xp/CIWEB/regions/africa/safrica.xml Conservation International] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070408083625/http://www.conservation.org/xp/CIWEB/regions/africa/safrica.xml|date=8 April 2007}} * [https://www.okavango.com/concessions.php Okavango Delta concession areas] * [http://flowhoorc.blogspot.com/ Flow : information give Okavango Delta planning be de weblog of de Library of de Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Institute] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160205022203/http://www.ngamitimes.com/ De Ngami Times be Ngamiland ein weekly newspaper] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20061006083431/http://www.botswana-tourism.gov.bw/attractions/moremi.html Official Botswana Government site for Moremi Game Reserve top, insyd de Okavango Delta] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20170929000710/http://www.wildentrust.org/ Wild Entrust International] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ Seven Natural Wonders of Africa] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120319185832/http://dsc.discovery.com/tv/natures-most-amazing-events/how-stuff-works/kalahari-elephants.html Discovery Channel - Kalahari Flood] * [http://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf Flood-recession cropping for de molapos of de Okavango Delta insyd] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20150401231635/http://www.orc.ub.bw/ Okavango Research Institute] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120807161048/http://168.167.30.198/ori/ Current Okavango water levels, weather data and satellite images] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807161048/http://168.167.30.198/ori/|date=7 August 2012}} * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_J-ODVl9Omg/ 1986 Documentary The End of Eden by Rick Lomba] * [http://www.southern-african-game-reserves.co.za/botswana/okavango-delta/index.html Southern African Game Reserves - Okavango Delta] 883d2km3kpewf6dxzjhwx51iugj1yvw 0 27464 102880 101752 2026-06-14T22:45:21Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 102880 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Rainwater harvesting''' ('''RWH''') be de collection den storage of rain[[water]], rather dan allowing am to run off. Rainwater be collected from a roof-like surface den redirected to a tank, cistern, deep pit (well, shaft, anaa [[borehole]]), aquifer, anaa a reservoir plus percolation, so say e dey seep down den restore de ground water. Rainwater harvesting dey differ from stormwater harvesting as de runoff typically be collected from roofs den oda area surfaces for storage den subsequent reuse.<ref name="NSW Managing Urban Stormwater">{{cite report |title=Managing Urban Stormwater: Harvesting and reuse |date=2006-04-01 |publisher=[[New South Wales Department of Environment and Conservation]] |location=Sydney, Australia |isbn=1-74137-875-3 |url=https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/-/media/OEH/Corporate-Site/Documents/Water/Water-quality/managing-urban-stormwater-harvesting-reuse-060137.pdf |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200716180541/https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/-/media/OEH/Corporate-Site/Documents/Water/Water-quality/managing-urban-stormwater-harvesting-reuse-060137.pdf |archive-date=2020-07-16}}</ref>{{rp|10}} Ein uses dey include watering gardens, livestock,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ntotank.com/blog/rainwater-harvesting-for-livestock |title=Rainwater Harvesting for Livestock |website=ntotank.com |access-date=2018-11-21 |archive-date=2018-11-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181121120251/https://www.ntotank.com/blog/rainwater-harvesting-for-livestock/ |url-status=live}}</ref> [[irrigation]], [[drinking water|domestic use]] plus proper treatment, den domestic heating. De harvested water sanso fi be used for long-term storage anaa groundwater recharge.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kinkade-Levario|first=Heather |title=Design for Water: Rainwater Harvesting, Stormwater Catchment, and Alternate Water Reuse |publisher=[[Douglas & McIntyre|New Society Publishers]] |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-86571-580-6 |location=[[Gabriola Island]], BC |page=27 |language=en}}</ref> Rainwater harvesting be one of de simplest den oldest methods of self-supply of water give households, dem dey use am insyd South Asia den oda countries for chaw thousands of years.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bagel|first1=Ravi |last2=Stepan|first2=Lea |last3=Hill|first3=Joseph K. W. |title=Water, knowledge and the environment in Asia: epistemologies, practices and locales |date=2017 |location=London |isbn=978-1-315-54316-1}}</ref> Civilizations such as de Romans develop extensive water collection systems, wey dey include aqueducts den rooftop channels, wich lay de groundwork give chaw of de modern gutter-based systems still in use today.<ref>{{cite web |date=2025-05-09 |title=The History of Rainwater Harvesting: From Roman Aqueducts to Modern Gutters |url=https://rockstarraingutters.com/the-history-of-rainwater-harvesting-from-roman-aqueducts-to-modern-gutters |access-date=2025-05-09 |language=en-US}}</ref> Installations fi be designed for different scales, wey dey include households, neighbourhoods, den communities, wey sanso fi serve institutions such as schools, hospitals, den oda public facilities.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://rural-water-supply.net/en/self-supply |title=Rural Water Supply Network Self-supply site |last=Rural Water Supply Network |website=rural-water-supply.net |access-date=2017-03-19 |archive-date=2019-01-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190114211852/http://www.rural-water-supply.net/en/self-supply |url-status=live}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == daabt13pmw51xw8ftqlfemw48a6owtj 102881 102880 2026-06-14T22:48:25Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 102881 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Rainwater harvesting''' ('''RWH''') be de collection den storage of rain[[water]], rather dan allowing am to run off. Rainwater be collected from a roof-like surface den redirected to a tank, cistern, deep pit (well, shaft, anaa [[borehole]]), aquifer, anaa a reservoir plus percolation, so say e dey seep down den restore de ground water. Rainwater harvesting dey differ from stormwater harvesting as de runoff typically be collected from roofs den oda area surfaces for storage den subsequent reuse.<ref name="NSW Managing Urban Stormwater">{{cite report |title=Managing Urban Stormwater: Harvesting and reuse |date=2006-04-01 |publisher=[[New South Wales Department of Environment and Conservation]] |location=Sydney, Australia |isbn=1-74137-875-3 |url=https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/-/media/OEH/Corporate-Site/Documents/Water/Water-quality/managing-urban-stormwater-harvesting-reuse-060137.pdf |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200716180541/https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/-/media/OEH/Corporate-Site/Documents/Water/Water-quality/managing-urban-stormwater-harvesting-reuse-060137.pdf |archive-date=2020-07-16}}</ref>{{rp|10}} Ein uses dey include watering gardens, livestock,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ntotank.com/blog/rainwater-harvesting-for-livestock |title=Rainwater Harvesting for Livestock |website=ntotank.com |access-date=2018-11-21 |archive-date=2018-11-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181121120251/https://www.ntotank.com/blog/rainwater-harvesting-for-livestock/ |url-status=live}}</ref> [[irrigation]], [[drinking water|domestic use]] plus proper treatment, den domestic heating. De harvested water sanso fi be used for long-term storage anaa groundwater recharge.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kinkade-Levario|first=Heather |title=Design for Water: Rainwater Harvesting, Stormwater Catchment, and Alternate Water Reuse |publisher=[[Douglas & McIntyre|New Society Publishers]] |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-86571-580-6 |location=[[Gabriola Island]], BC |page=27 |language=en}}</ref> Rainwater harvesting be one of de simplest den oldest methods of self-supply of water give households, dem dey use am insyd South Asia den oda countries for chaw thousands of years.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bagel|first1=Ravi |last2=Stepan|first2=Lea |last3=Hill|first3=Joseph K. W. |title=Water, knowledge and the environment in Asia: epistemologies, practices and locales |date=2017 |location=London |isbn=978-1-315-54316-1}}</ref> Civilizations such as de Romans develop extensive water collection systems, wey dey include aqueducts den rooftop channels, wich lay de groundwork give chaw of de modern gutter-based systems still in use today.<ref>{{cite web |date=2025-05-09 |title=The History of Rainwater Harvesting: From Roman Aqueducts to Modern Gutters |url=https://rockstarraingutters.com/the-history-of-rainwater-harvesting-from-roman-aqueducts-to-modern-gutters |access-date=2025-05-09 |language=en-US}}</ref> Installations fi be designed for different scales, wey dey include households, neighbourhoods, den communities, wey sanso fi serve institutions such as schools, hospitals, den oda public facilities.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://rural-water-supply.net/en/self-supply |title=Rural Water Supply Network Self-supply site |last=Rural Water Supply Network |website=rural-water-supply.net |access-date=2017-03-19 |archive-date=2019-01-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190114211852/http://www.rural-water-supply.net/en/self-supply |url-status=live}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Sister project links | wikt=no | n=no | q=no | s=no |v=yes}} [[Category:Rainwater harvesting| ]] [[Category:Water supply]] [[Category:Water conservation]] [[Category:Irrigation]] [[Category:Appropriate technology]] [[Category:Hydrology den urban planning]] [[Category:Sustainable gardening]] [[Category:DIY culture]] aj1winjdehargr7w5n51rl6j23x30zl 0 27470 102888 102812 2026-06-14T23:09:09Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 102888 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Sustainable Development Goal 6''' ('''SDG 6''' anaa '''Global Goal 6''') dey declare de importance of achieving "clean water den [[sanitation]] for all". E be one of de 17 Sustainable Development Goals wey dem establish by de [[United Nations General Assembly]] to succeed de former Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). According to de United Nations, de overall goal be to: "Ensure availability den sustainable management of water den sanitation for all."<ref name="SDG6">{{cite web |title=Goal 6: Clean water and sanitation |url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-6-clean-water-and-sanitation.html |access-date=28 September 2015 |website=UNDP}}</ref> De goal get eight targets to be achieved by 2030 wey dey cover de main areas of water supply den sanitation den sustainable water resource management. Progress toward de targets will be measured by using eleven indicators.<ref name=":17" /> De six key ''outcome targets'' to be achieved by 2030 dey include: De two ''means of implementing targets<ref name=":22">{{cite journal |last1=Bartram |first1=Jamie |last2=Brocklehurst |first2=Clarissa |last3=Bradley |first3=David |last4=Muller |first4=Mike |last5=Evans |first5=Barbara |date=December 2018 |title=Policy review of the means of implementation targets and indicators for the sustainable development goal for water and sanitation |url=https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/128504/9/s41545-018-0003-0.pdf |journal=npj Clean Water |volume=1 |issue=1 |page=3 |bibcode=2018npjCW...1....3B |doi=10.1038/s41545-018-0003-0 |s2cid=169226066 |doi-access=free}} </ref>'' be to expand international cooperation den capacity-building support to developing countries, den to support local engagement insyd sustainable den participatory water den sanitation management.<ref name=":110">{{Cite book |last=United Nations |url=https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/3637 |title=Sustainable Development Goal. 6, Synthesis report 2018 on water and sanitation |publisher=United Nations, New York |year=2018 |isbn=978-92-1-101370-2 |oclc=1107804829}}</ref> # Achieve universal den equitable access to safe den affordable [[drinking water]] for all; # Achieve access to adequate den equitable sanitation den hygiene for all den end [[open defecation]], paying special attention to de needs of women den girls den those insyd vulnerable situations; # Improve water quality, by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping den minimizing release of hazardous chemicals den materials, halving de proportion of untreated wastewater (wastewater treatment) den substantially increasing recycling den safe reuse globally; # Substantially increase water-use efficiency across all sectors den ensure sustainable withdrawals den supply of fresh water to address water scarcity den substantially reduce de number of people wey dey suffer from water scarcity; # Implement integrated water resources management (IWRM), at all levels, wey dey include thru transboundary cooperation as appropriate; # Protect den restore water-related ecosystems, wey dey include mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers den lakes. Despite Official Development Assistance (ODA) disbursements to de water sector increasing to $9 billion insyd 2018.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019 |title=Special edition: progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals. Report of the Secretary-General |url=https://docs.un.org/E/2019/68 |access-date=2026-06-14 |website=docs.un.org}}</ref> De Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) of WHO den UNICEF report insyd 2017 dat 4.5 billion people still did not have safely managed sanitation.<ref name="UNICEF_WHO_Progress_201906"/> Insyd 2017 only 71 percent of de global population use safely managed drinking water, den 2.2 billion persons still be widout safely managed drinking water. Oda water-related hazards wey relate to flooding den drought sanso remain significant threats to human development den well being. Like de oda, dis Sustainable Development Goal be closely interwoven plus de oda SDGs. For example, access to clean water fit improve health den wellbeing, wey dey lead to a progress insyd SDG3; den, better health leads to a higher school attendance, progressing SDG4, improving quality education. Achieving SDG6 fi only happen if oda SDGs sanso be achieved. == Background == [[File:Niger, Margou (13), water well with tree.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Families collecting water from a water well insyd Niger]] De [[United Nations]] (UN) determine dat access to clean water den sanitation facilities be a fundamental human right.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-02-11 |title=World Water Development Report 2019 - Leaving No One Behind |url=https://en.unesco.org/themes/water-security/wwap/wwdr/2019 |access-date=2019-08-01 |website=UNESCO |language=en}}</ref> However, only a few countries wrep de human right to water into enforceable legislation wey dey create serious problems for people wey dey wish to use legal means to promote better access.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Staddon |first1=C. |last2=Appleby |first2=T |last3=Grant |first3=E. |date=2011 |editor-last=Sultana |editor-first=F. |editor2-last=Loftus |editor2-first=A. |title=A right to water? Geographico-legal perspectives |journal=The Right to Water: Politics, Governance and Social Struggles |publisher=Routledge |pages=61–77 |isbn=978-1-84971-359-7}}</ref> Even insyd those countries, such as [[South Africa]], plus a clear constitutional commitment to de human right to water den sanitation. E dey prove difficult to obtain legal redress. A review of de progress by de UN insyd 2020 find dat "increasing donor commitments to de water sector fi remain crucial to make progress towards Goal 6".<ref name="UNESC2020">United Nations Economic and Social Council (2020) [https://undocs.org/en/E/2020/57 Progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals Report of the Secretary-General], High-level political forum on sustainable development, convened under the auspices of the Economic and Social Council (E/2020/57), 28 April 2020</ref> Insyd 2022, de OECD estimate dat to achieve SDG 6, current global spending on water needs approximately $1 trillion per year.<ref>{{Cite web |title=OECD policy highlights: financing a water secure future. |url=https://www.oecd.org/environment/resources/policy-highlights-financing-a-water-secure-future.pdf}}</ref> ==Targets, indicators den progress== [[File:Share of the population using safely managed drinking water, OWID.svg|thumb|World map for Indicator 6.1.1 insyd 2022: Proportion of population using safely managed drinking water services<ref name=":3">Ritchie, Roser, Mispy, Ortiz-Ospina (2018) [https://sdg-tracker.org/water-and-sanitation "Measuring progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals." (SDG 6)] ''SDG-Tracker.org, website'' </ref>|300x300px]] [[File:Share of population using safely managed sanitation facilities, OWID.svg|thumb|World map for Indicator 6.2.1a insyd 2022: Share of population using safely managed sanitation facilities<ref name=":3" />|300x300px]] [[File:Proportion of population with basic handwashing facilities on premises, OWID.svg|thumb|World map for Indicator 6.2.1b insyd 2022: "Share of de population plus basic handwashing facilities on premises"<ref name=":3"/>|300x300px]] SDG 6 get eight targets wey dey include two so-called "implementing targets". Six of dem be to be achieved by de year 2030, one by de year 2020, den one get no target year.<ref name="SDG6_targets">{{Cite web |title=Goal 6 Targets |url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-6-clean-water-and-sanitation/targets/ |access-date=16 November 2017 |website=United Nations Development Programme}}</ref> Each of de targets sanso get one anaa two indicators wich fit be used to measure progress. Insyd total der be 11 indicators to monitor progress for SDG6.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |title=SDGs |url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg6 |access-date=17 November 2017 |website=Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform}}</ref> De main data sources for de SDG 6 targets den indicators cam from de Integrated Monitoring Initiative for SDG 6 coordinated by UN-Water.<ref name=":110" /> De six "outcome-oriented targets" dey include: Safe den affordable [[drinking water]]; end [[open defecation]] den provide access to sanitation, den hygiene, improve water quality, wastewater treatment den safe reuse, increase water-use efficiency den ensure fresh water supplies, implement IWRM, protect den restore water-related ecosystems. De two "means of achieving" targets be to expand water den sanitation support to developing countries, den to support local engagement insyd water den sanitation management.<ref name=":110" /> De first three targets relate to drinking water supply, [[sanitation]] services, den wastewater treatment den reuse.<ref name="SDG6_targets" /> An SDG 6 Baseline Report insyd 2018 find dat "less dan 50 percent of countries get comparable baseline estimates for chaw SDG 6 global indicators".<ref name=":110" />{{rp|31}} === Target 6.1: Safe den affordable drinking water === De full title of Target 6.1 be: "By 2030, achieve universal den equitable access to safe den affordable [[drinking water]] for all".<ref name=":17">United Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017, [[:File:A RES 71 313 E.pdf|Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development]] ([https://undocs.org/A/RES/71/313 A/RES/71/313])</ref> Dis target get one indicator: Indicator 6.1.1 be de "Proportion of population using safely managed drinking water services".<ref name=":3" /> De definition of "safely managed drinking water service" be: "Drinking water from an improved water source dat be located on premises, available wen needed den free from fecal den priority [[Water pollution|chemical contamination]]."<ref name="JMP2017">WHO and UNICEF (2017) [https://web.archive.org/web/20170716004247/http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/jmp-2017/en/ Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: 2017 Update and SDG Baselines]. Geneva: World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), 2017</ref>{{rp|8}} === Target 6.2: End open defecation den provide access to sanitation den hygiene === De full title of Target 6.2 be: "By 2030, achieve access to adequate den equitable [[sanitation]] den hygiene for all and den [[open defecation]], paying special attention to de needs of women den girls den those insyd vulnerable situations."<ref name=":17" /> Attending school den work without disruption supports education den employment. Therefore, toilets at school den de workplace be included insyd de second target ("achieve access to adequate den equitable sanitation den hygiene for all"). Equitable sanitation den hygiene solutions address de needs of women den girls den those insyd vulnerable situations, such as de elderly or people plus disabilities.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wilbur |first1=Jane |last2=Dreibelbis |first2=Robert |last3=Mactaggart |first3=Islay |date=June 11, 2024 |editor-last=Winkler |editor-first=Inga T. |title=Addressing water, sanitation and hygiene inequalities: A review of evidence, gaps, and recommendations for disability-inclusive WASH by 2030 |journal=PLOS Water |language=en |volume=3 |issue=6 |article-number=e0000257 |doi=10.1371/journal.pwat.0000257 |issn=2767-3219 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Dis target get one indicator: Indicator 6.2.1 be de "Proportion of population using (a) safely managed sanitation services den (b) a hand-washing facility plus soap den water".<ref name="UN20172">United Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017, [[:File:A RES 71 313 E.pdf|Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (A/RES/71/313)]]</ref> De definition of "safely managed sanitation" service be: "Use of improved facilities dat are not shared plus oda households den where excreta are safely disposed of insyd situ anaa transported den treated offsite."<ref name="JMP2017" />{{rp|8}} Improved sanitation facilities are those designed to hygienically separate excreta from human contact.<ref name="JMP2017" />{{rp|6}} Ending [[open defecation]] fit require de provision of toilets den sanitation for 2.6 billion people as well as behavior change of de population.<ref name="JMP2017" /> To meet SDG targets for sanitation by 2030, nearly "a third of countries fit need to accelerate progress to end open defecation, including [[Brazil]], [[China]], [[Ethiopia]], [[India]], [[Indonesia]], [[Nigeria]], den Pakistan".<ref name="SDGChildren20182">{{cite web |title=Progress for Every Child in the SDG Era |url=https://data.unicef.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/Progress_for_Every_Child_V4.pdf |access-date=2 April 2018 |website=UNICEF}}</ref>{{rp|79}} Dis fi require cooperation between governments, civil society den de private sector.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kellogg |first=Diane M. |title=Beyond the bottom line: integrating sustainability into business and management practice |publisher=Greenleaf Publishing |others=Gudić, Milenko,, Tan, Tay Keong,, Flynn, Patricia M. |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-78353-327-5 |location=Saltaire, UK |chapter=The Global Sanitation Crisis: A Role for Business |oclc=982187046}}</ref> ==== Report from 2019 for Target 6.1 den 6.2 ==== Targets 6.1 den 6.2 are usually reported on together because they are both part of de WASH sector den have de same custodian agency, de Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply den Sanitation (JMP).<ref name="JMP2017" /> Insyd June 2019, de JMP released their 138-page report "Progress on household drinking water, sanitation, den hygiene 2000-2017: special focus on inequalities."<ref name="UNICEF_WHO_Progress_201906">{{Cite report |url=https://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/jmp-2019-full-report.pdf |title=Progress on household drinking water, sanitation and hygiene 2000-2017: Special focus on inequalities |date=June 2019 |location=New York |page=138 |isbn=978-92-415-1623-5 |access-date=30 March 2021 |work=[[United Nations Children's Fund]] (UNICEF) and [[World Health Organization]]}}</ref> ===== Drinking water (Target 6.1) ===== De report say dat insyd 2017, 5.3 billion people—representing 71% of de population of de world—used a "safely managed drinking-water service—one dat be "located on premises, available wen needed, den free from contamination".<ref name="UNICEF_WHO_Progress_201906" /> By 2017, 6.8 billion people—representing 90% of de world's population—used "at least a basic service", wich included "an improved drinking-water source within a round trip of 30 minutes to collect water".<ref name="UNICEF_WHO_Progress_201906" /> However, insyd 2017, there were still 785 million people hu lacked "even a basic drinking-water service, including 144 million people hu [were] dependent on surface water."<ref name="UNICEF_WHO_Progress_201906" /> De report say dat approximately 2 billion people used a "drinking water source contaminated plus feces".<ref name="UNICEF_WHO_Progress_201906" /> De report warned dat diseases, including "[[Diarrhea|diarrhoea,]] [[Cholera|,cholera]] [[dysentery]], [[Typhoid fever|typhoid]], den [[polio]]" are transmitted by [[Water pollution|contaminated water]], wich cause about 485, 000 diarrhea deaths each year.<ref name="UNICEF_WHO_Progress_201906" /> E cautioned dat 50% of de global population fit be "living insyd water-stressed areas" by 2025.<ref name="UNICEF_WHO_Progress_201906" /> By 2017, eighty countries provided access to clean water for more dan 99% of their population.<ref name="UNICEF_WHO_Progress_2014">{{Cite report |title=Progress on sanitation and drinking-water: 2014 update |date=28 July 2014 |publisher=World Health Organization |isbn=978-92-4-069281-7 |oclc=889699199 |work=[[United Nations Children's Fund]] (UNICEF) and [[World Health Organization]]}}</ref> From 2000 to 2017, de global population dat lacked access to clean water decreased from nearly 20% to roughly 10%.<ref name="UNICEF_WHO_Progress_201906" /> ===== Sanitation den hygiene (Target 6.2) ===== == References == <references /> == External links == [[Category:Sanitation]] [[Category:United Nations documents]] [[Category:Global policy organizations]] [[Category:Projects wey establish insyd 2015]] [[Category:Water management]] [[Category:AWC2026]] n4kxhptezv7w2zxvraxe6fmyp3solr0 102889 102888 2026-06-14T23:16:21Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 102889 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Sustainable Development Goal 6''' ('''SDG 6''' anaa '''Global Goal 6''') dey declare de importance of achieving "clean water den [[sanitation]] for all". E be one of de 17 Sustainable Development Goals wey dem establish by de [[United Nations General Assembly]] to succeed de former Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). According to de United Nations, de overall goal be to: "Ensure availability den sustainable management of water den sanitation for all."<ref name="SDG6">{{cite web |title=Goal 6: Clean water and sanitation |url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-6-clean-water-and-sanitation.html |access-date=28 September 2015 |website=UNDP}}</ref> De goal get eight targets to be achieved by 2030 wey dey cover de main areas of water supply den sanitation den sustainable water resource management. Progress toward de targets will be measured by using eleven indicators.<ref name=":17" /> De six key ''outcome targets'' to be achieved by 2030 dey include: De two ''means of implementing targets<ref name=":22">{{cite journal |last1=Bartram |first1=Jamie |last2=Brocklehurst |first2=Clarissa |last3=Bradley |first3=David |last4=Muller |first4=Mike |last5=Evans |first5=Barbara |date=December 2018 |title=Policy review of the means of implementation targets and indicators for the sustainable development goal for water and sanitation |url=https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/128504/9/s41545-018-0003-0.pdf |journal=npj Clean Water |volume=1 |issue=1 |page=3 |bibcode=2018npjCW...1....3B |doi=10.1038/s41545-018-0003-0 |s2cid=169226066 |doi-access=free}} </ref>'' be to expand international cooperation den capacity-building support to developing countries, den to support local engagement insyd sustainable den participatory water den sanitation management.<ref name=":110">{{Cite book |last=United Nations |url=https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/3637 |title=Sustainable Development Goal. 6, Synthesis report 2018 on water and sanitation |publisher=United Nations, New York |year=2018 |isbn=978-92-1-101370-2 |oclc=1107804829}}</ref> # Achieve universal den equitable access to safe den affordable [[drinking water]] for all; # Achieve access to adequate den equitable sanitation den hygiene for all den end [[open defecation]], paying special attention to de needs of women den girls den those insyd vulnerable situations; # Improve water quality, by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping den minimizing release of hazardous chemicals den materials, halving de proportion of untreated wastewater (wastewater treatment) den substantially increasing recycling den safe reuse globally; # Substantially increase water-use efficiency across all sectors den ensure sustainable withdrawals den supply of fresh water to address water scarcity den substantially reduce de number of people wey dey suffer from water scarcity; # Implement integrated water resources management (IWRM), at all levels, wey dey include thru transboundary cooperation as appropriate; # Protect den restore water-related ecosystems, wey dey include mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers den lakes. Despite Official Development Assistance (ODA) disbursements to de water sector increasing to $9 billion insyd 2018.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019 |title=Special edition: progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals. Report of the Secretary-General |url=https://docs.un.org/E/2019/68 |access-date=2026-06-14 |website=docs.un.org}}</ref> De Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) of WHO den UNICEF report insyd 2017 dat 4.5 billion people still did not have safely managed sanitation.<ref name="UNICEF_WHO_Progress_201906"/> Insyd 2017 only 71 percent of de global population use safely managed drinking water, den 2.2 billion persons still be widout safely managed drinking water. Oda water-related hazards wey relate to flooding den drought sanso remain significant threats to human development den well being. Like de oda, dis Sustainable Development Goal be closely interwoven plus de oda SDGs. For example, access to clean water fit improve health den wellbeing, wey dey lead to a progress insyd SDG3; den, better health leads to a higher school attendance, progressing SDG4, improving quality education. Achieving SDG6 fi only happen if oda SDGs sanso be achieved. == Background == [[File:Niger, Margou (13), water well with tree.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Families collecting water from a water well insyd Niger]] De [[United Nations]] (UN) determine dat access to clean water den sanitation facilities be a fundamental human right.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-02-11 |title=World Water Development Report 2019 - Leaving No One Behind |url=https://en.unesco.org/themes/water-security/wwap/wwdr/2019 |access-date=2019-08-01 |website=UNESCO |language=en}}</ref> However, only a few countries wrep de human right to water into enforceable legislation wey dey create serious problems for people wey dey wish to use legal means to promote better access.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Staddon |first1=C. |last2=Appleby |first2=T |last3=Grant |first3=E. |date=2011 |editor-last=Sultana |editor-first=F. |editor2-last=Loftus |editor2-first=A. |title=A right to water? Geographico-legal perspectives |journal=The Right to Water: Politics, Governance and Social Struggles |publisher=Routledge |pages=61–77 |isbn=978-1-84971-359-7}}</ref> Even insyd those countries, such as [[South Africa]], plus a clear constitutional commitment to de human right to water den sanitation. E dey prove difficult to obtain legal redress. A review of de progress by de UN insyd 2020 find dat "increasing donor commitments to de water sector fi remain crucial to make progress towards Goal 6".<ref name="UNESC2020">United Nations Economic and Social Council (2020) [https://undocs.org/en/E/2020/57 Progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals Report of the Secretary-General], High-level political forum on sustainable development, convened under the auspices of the Economic and Social Council (E/2020/57), 28 April 2020</ref> Insyd 2022, de OECD estimate dat to achieve SDG 6, current global spending on water needs approximately $1 trillion per year.<ref>{{Cite web |title=OECD policy highlights: financing a water secure future. |url=https://www.oecd.org/environment/resources/policy-highlights-financing-a-water-secure-future.pdf}}</ref> ==Targets, indicators den progress== [[File:Share of the population using safely managed drinking water, OWID.svg|thumb|World map for Indicator 6.1.1 insyd 2022: Proportion of population using safely managed drinking water services<ref name=":3">Ritchie, Roser, Mispy, Ortiz-Ospina (2018) [https://sdg-tracker.org/water-and-sanitation "Measuring progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals." (SDG 6)] ''SDG-Tracker.org, website'' </ref>|300x300px]] [[File:Share of population using safely managed sanitation facilities, OWID.svg|thumb|World map for Indicator 6.2.1a insyd 2022: Share of population using safely managed sanitation facilities<ref name=":3" />|300x300px]] [[File:Proportion of population with basic handwashing facilities on premises, OWID.svg|thumb|World map for Indicator 6.2.1b insyd 2022: "Share of de population plus basic handwashing facilities on premises"<ref name=":3"/>|300x300px]] SDG 6 get eight targets wey dey include two so-called "implementing targets". Six of dem be to be achieved by de year 2030, one by de year 2020, den one get no target year.<ref name="SDG6_targets">{{Cite web |title=Goal 6 Targets |url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-6-clean-water-and-sanitation/targets/ |access-date=16 November 2017 |website=United Nations Development Programme}}</ref> Each of de targets sanso get one anaa two indicators wich fit be used to measure progress. Insyd total der be 11 indicators to monitor progress for SDG6.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |title=SDGs |url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg6 |access-date=17 November 2017 |website=Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform}}</ref> De main data sources for de SDG 6 targets den indicators cam from de Integrated Monitoring Initiative for SDG 6 coordinated by UN-Water.<ref name=":110" /> De six "outcome-oriented targets" dey include: Safe den affordable [[drinking water]]; end [[open defecation]] den provide access to sanitation, den hygiene, improve water quality, wastewater treatment den safe reuse, increase water-use efficiency den ensure fresh water supplies, implement IWRM, protect den restore water-related ecosystems. De two "means of achieving" targets be to expand water den sanitation support to developing countries, den to support local engagement insyd water den sanitation management.<ref name=":110" /> De first three targets relate to drinking water supply, [[sanitation]] services, den wastewater treatment den reuse.<ref name="SDG6_targets" /> An SDG 6 Baseline Report insyd 2018 find dat "less dan 50 percent of countries get comparable baseline estimates for chaw SDG 6 global indicators".<ref name=":110" />{{rp|31}} === Target 6.1: Safe den affordable drinking water === De full title of Target 6.1 be: "By 2030, achieve universal den equitable access to safe den affordable [[drinking water]] for all".<ref name=":17">United Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017, [[:File:A RES 71 313 E.pdf|Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development]] ([https://undocs.org/A/RES/71/313 A/RES/71/313])</ref> Dis target get one indicator: Indicator 6.1.1 be de "Proportion of population using safely managed drinking water services".<ref name=":3" /> De definition of "safely managed drinking water service" be: "Drinking water from an improved water source dat be located on premises, available wen needed den free from fecal den priority [[Water pollution|chemical contamination]]."<ref name="JMP2017">WHO and UNICEF (2017) [https://web.archive.org/web/20170716004247/http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/jmp-2017/en/ Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: 2017 Update and SDG Baselines]. Geneva: World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), 2017</ref>{{rp|8}} === Target 6.2: End open defecation den provide access to sanitation den hygiene === De full title of Target 6.2 be: "By 2030, achieve access to adequate den equitable [[sanitation]] den hygiene for all and den [[open defecation]], paying special attention to de needs of women den girls den those insyd vulnerable situations."<ref name=":17" /> Attending school den work without disruption supports education den employment. Therefore, toilets at school den de workplace be included insyd de second target ("achieve access to adequate den equitable sanitation den hygiene for all"). Equitable sanitation den hygiene solutions address de needs of women den girls den those insyd vulnerable situations, such as de elderly or people plus disabilities.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wilbur |first1=Jane |last2=Dreibelbis |first2=Robert |last3=Mactaggart |first3=Islay |date=June 11, 2024 |editor-last=Winkler |editor-first=Inga T. |title=Addressing water, sanitation and hygiene inequalities: A review of evidence, gaps, and recommendations for disability-inclusive WASH by 2030 |journal=PLOS Water |language=en |volume=3 |issue=6 |article-number=e0000257 |doi=10.1371/journal.pwat.0000257 |issn=2767-3219 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Dis target get one indicator: Indicator 6.2.1 be de "Proportion of population using (a) safely managed sanitation services den (b) a hand-washing facility plus soap den water".<ref name="UN20172">United Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017, [[:File:A RES 71 313 E.pdf|Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (A/RES/71/313)]]</ref> De definition of "safely managed sanitation" service be: "Use of improved facilities dat are not shared plus oda households den where excreta are safely disposed of insyd situ anaa transported den treated offsite."<ref name="JMP2017" />{{rp|8}} Improved sanitation facilities are those designed to hygienically separate excreta from human contact.<ref name="JMP2017" />{{rp|6}} Ending [[open defecation]] fit require de provision of toilets den sanitation for 2.6 billion people as well as behavior change of de population.<ref name="JMP2017" /> To meet SDG targets for sanitation by 2030, nearly "a third of countries fit need to accelerate progress to end open defecation, including [[Brazil]], [[China]], [[Ethiopia]], [[India]], [[Indonesia]], [[Nigeria]], den Pakistan".<ref name="SDGChildren20182">{{cite web |title=Progress for Every Child in the SDG Era |url=https://data.unicef.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/Progress_for_Every_Child_V4.pdf |access-date=2 April 2018 |website=UNICEF}}</ref>{{rp|79}} Dis fi require cooperation between governments, civil society den de private sector.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kellogg |first=Diane M. |title=Beyond the bottom line: integrating sustainability into business and management practice |publisher=Greenleaf Publishing |others=Gudić, Milenko,, Tan, Tay Keong,, Flynn, Patricia M. |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-78353-327-5 |location=Saltaire, UK |chapter=The Global Sanitation Crisis: A Role for Business |oclc=982187046}}</ref> ==== Report from 2019 for Target 6.1 den 6.2 ==== Targets 6.1 den 6.2 are usually reported on together because they are both part of de WASH sector den have de same custodian agency, de Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply den Sanitation (JMP).<ref name="JMP2017" /> Insyd June 2019, de JMP released their 138-page report "Progress on household drinking water, sanitation, den hygiene 2000-2017: special focus on inequalities."<ref name="UNICEF_WHO_Progress_201906">{{Cite report |url=https://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/jmp-2019-full-report.pdf |title=Progress on household drinking water, sanitation and hygiene 2000-2017: Special focus on inequalities |date=June 2019 |location=New York |page=138 |isbn=978-92-415-1623-5 |access-date=30 March 2021 |work=[[United Nations Children's Fund]] (UNICEF) and [[World Health Organization]]}}</ref> ===== Drinking water (Target 6.1) ===== De report say dat insyd 2017, 5.3 billion people—representing 71% of de population of de world—used a "safely managed drinking-water service—one dat be "located on premises, available wen needed, den free from contamination".<ref name="UNICEF_WHO_Progress_201906" /> By 2017, 6.8 billion people—representing 90% of de world's population—used "at least a basic service", wich included "an improved drinking-water source within a round trip of 30 minutes to collect water".<ref name="UNICEF_WHO_Progress_201906" /> However, insyd 2017, there were still 785 million people hu lacked "even a basic drinking-water service, including 144 million people hu [were] dependent on surface water."<ref name="UNICEF_WHO_Progress_201906" /> De report say dat approximately 2 billion people used a "drinking water source contaminated plus feces".<ref name="UNICEF_WHO_Progress_201906" /> De report warned dat diseases, including "[[Diarrhea|diarrhoea,]] [[Cholera|,cholera]] [[dysentery]], [[Typhoid fever|typhoid]], den [[polio]]" are transmitted by [[Water pollution|contaminated water]], wich cause about 485, 000 diarrhea deaths each year.<ref name="UNICEF_WHO_Progress_201906" /> E cautioned dat 50% of de global population fit be "living insyd water-stressed areas" by 2025.<ref name="UNICEF_WHO_Progress_201906" /> By 2017, eighty countries provided access to clean water for more dan 99% of their population.<ref name="UNICEF_WHO_Progress_2014">{{Cite report |title=Progress on sanitation and drinking-water: 2014 update |date=28 July 2014 |publisher=World Health Organization |isbn=978-92-4-069281-7 |oclc=889699199 |work=[[United Nations Children's Fund]] (UNICEF) and [[World Health Organization]]}}</ref> From 2000 to 2017, de global population dat lacked access to clean water decreased from nearly 20% to roughly 10%.<ref name="UNICEF_WHO_Progress_201906" /> ===== Sanitation den hygiene (Target 6.2) ===== == References == <references /> == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q48741129|c=Category:Sustainable Development Goal 6|n=no|q=no|b=no|v=Sustainable Development Goal 6|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} * [https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg6 Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform] * [https://www.watersecurityhub.org/ Water Security and Sustainable Development Hub] * [https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal6 UN Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform – SDG 6] * [https://www.globalgoals.org/6-clean-water-and-sanitation "Global Goals" Campaign - SDG 6] * [https://sdg-tracker.org/water-and-sanitation SDG-Track.org - SDG 6] [[Category:Sanitation]] [[Category:United Nations documents]] [[Category:Global policy organizations]] [[Category:Sustainable Development Goals]] [[Category:2015 establishments insyd New York City]] [[Category:Projects dem establish insyd 2015]] [[Category:Water management]] 5osqkc5jry5ewuhd2j9zm2mjv4b32s0 0 27490 102829 102070 2026-06-14T16:16:44Z Yaw tuba 7 improved article #AWC2026 102829 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox|item=Q10990705}} De '''Olifants River''' (Afrikaans: Olifantsrivier) be sam river for de northwestern side of de [[Western Cape Province]] of [[South Africa]]. De upper den main catchment area of de Olifants River dey around [[Ceres, Western Cape|Ceres]] den de [[Cederberg]] mountains. De Clanwilliam and Bulshoek dams dey on top de river wey dem dey provide water for de towns den farms wey dey along de watercourse. De river dey about 285 km long wey e get catchment area of 46,220 km². E dey flow enter de [[Atlantic Ocean]] for [[Papendorp]], about 250 km north of [[Cape Town]]. ==Ein Watershed== De Olifants River rise for de [[Groot Winterhoek|Winterhoek Mountains]] north of Ceres. De mainstem be about 265 km long. De river dey flow go northwest through sam deep, narrow valley wey later widen den flatten become broad floodplain below [[Clanwilliam, Western Cape|Clanwilliam]]. De river eventually drain enter de Atlantic Ocean near [[Papendorp, Western Cape|Papendorp]]. For de mouth, de Olifants River split into two by sam island wey get interesting rock formations.<ref>Cornel Truter, ''West Coast tourist guide'', University of Cape Town Press, {{ISBN|9781919713243}}</ref> ===Ein Tributaries=== E main tributary be de [[Doring River]], wey e change name cam turn Melkboom/Oudrif before e join de Olifants. De tributaries wey dey flow from de east, like de [[Thee River]], [[Noordhoek River]], [[Boontjies River]], [[Rondegat River]] den de [[Jan Dissels River]], dem usually dey perennial, except de Sout River. De ones wey dey flow cam from de west, like de [[Ratel River]], [[Elandskloof River]] den de [[Seekoeivlei River]], dem be small-small den seasonal, so dem no dey contribute much to de flow for de system. <ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/iwqs/rhp/eco/FROC/WMA17OlifantsDoorn.jpg Olifants/Doorn WMA 17]</ref> ==Ein Dams== Dams wey dey insyd de catchment area of de Olifants River: * [[Clanwilliam Dam]], plus storage capacity of {{convert|127000000|m3}} * [[Bulshoek Dam]], plus storage capacity of {{convert|7500000|m3}} De major towns below de Olifants/Doring river catchment include [[Lutzville]], [[Vredendal]] den [[Vanrhynsdorp]] wey dey insyd de lower catchment area den [[Clanwilliam, Western Cape|Clanwilliam]] den [[Citrusdal]] insyd de middle catchment areas. == Ein Ecology == Endemism for de rivers of de Olifants/Doring basin insyd be unusually high for South Africa, plus eight species wey dey only for dis system. De upper Olifants River be one of de main places where adult sawfins (''Pseudobarbus serra'') dey live.<ref>Impson, D.; Van der Walt, R.; Jordaan, M. (2017). "''[https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/2569/100148283 Pseudobarbus serra]''". ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2017''' e.T2569A100148283. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T2569A100148283.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T2569A100148283.en.]] Retrieved 12 November 2021.</ref> Dis local endemic species dem classify am as Endangered by de IUCN. For now, e don become so rare say fishing or angling fit even put am for danger, so people no suppose catch or kill am. E be long-lived den slow-growing species, e need several years make e grow well without disturbance, but e fit reach about 40 cm when e become adult after like ten years. CapeNature don try some trials to adapt am for aquaculture or fishery, but dis one need better conservation of de river ecosystem. De Clanwilliam redfin ("P." calidus)<ref>Van der Walt, R.; Jordaan, M.; Impson, D. (2017). "''[https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/2562/100139530 Pseudobarbus calidus]''". [[:en:IUCN_Red_List|''IUCN Red List of Threatened Species''.]] '''2017''' e.T2562A100139530. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T2562A100139530.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T2562A100139530.en.]] Retrieved 12 November 2021.</ref> be another threatened den legally protected species wey dey Olifants River; ebe chao.<ref>Impson & Swartz (2007ab)</ref> De Clanwilliam yellowfish (''Labeobarbus seeberi'') be another big cyprinid for dis basin wey be endemic to de Western Cape region. Dem don try some captive breeding work for am den e stocks dey in better shape. However, e fit don disappear for Olifants River, den at least e almost sure say e no dey again between [[Olifants Gorge]] den [[Clanwilliam Dam]].<ref>Impson, D.; Van der Walt, R.; Jordaan, M. (2017). "''[https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/63290/100163027 Labeobarbus seeberi]''". ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2017''' e.T63290A100163027. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T63290A100163027.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T63290A100163027.en.]] Retrieved 12 November 2021.</ref> Whether dem go reintroduce am no clear, because sawfin den Clanwilliam yellowfish adults probably dey compete for same ecological space, den until dem restore Olifants River well well for ecological level, both of dem fit no fit survive well at di same time.<ref>Impson & Swartz (2007b)</ref> De Olifants River mark de northern limit of de [[Cape galaxias]] (''Galaxias zebratus''), sam South African fish species wey dey share de same habitat with imported trout species den dey live for area between de Olifants den de [[Keurbooms River]]. Although for South Africa dis relatively delicate fish be only Near Threatened, for [[Australia]] species of de same genus don dey driven go extinction by competing salmonids.<ref>[http://www.ru.ac.za/static/affiliates/am/m&g/mg17.htm Albany Museum - Freshwater Ichthyology]</ref> Other species wey dey occur for de Olifants riverine system include [[Twee River redfin]] (''Pseudobarbus erubescens''), [[Fiery redfin]] (''Pseudobarbus phlegethon''), Austroglanis barnardi, Clanwilliam rock-catfish (''Austroglanis gilli''), Chubbyhead barb (''Enteromius anoplus''), den Clanwilliam sandfish (''Labeo seeberi''). De most severe biological threat to de river ecosystem be probably de [[Smallmouth Bass]] (''Micropterus dolomieu''). Originally dem introduce am for sport fishing, but ecam turn sam kind pest by depleting de stocks of other fish species. Dem dey encourage e eradication under de Cape Action for People den de Environment program. Non-biological threats be mainly excessive removal of river water for irrigation, wey de resultant toxic surface runoff from plantations (especially agrumes). Dem often dey grow these crops right up to de river bank, without leaving enough natural vegetation to filter out pesticides den fertilizer den stop erosion, den dis dey cause both de river den adjacent cropland to degrade.<ref>Impson & Swartz (2007abc)</ref> == Sana spy == * [[:en:List_of_rivers_of_South_Africa|List of rivers of South Africa]] ==References== <references /> ==External links== *[https://web.archive.org/web/20110115064450/http://www.floatinglines.com/2008/04/03/flyfishing-olifants-river-ceres-western-cape-2/ Flyfishing Olifants River] *[http://samilitaryhistory.org/vol091jj.html Military History Journal Vol 9 No 1 - June 1992] *[http://www.capeadventurezone.com/adventure-activities/River-Rafting River Rafting Adventures / Cape Town - Cape Adventure Zone] *[http://academic.sun.ac.za/cib/team/students/jeremy/jeremy.htm Invasion biology] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20131231001907/http://www.nisc.co.za/oneAbstract?absId=1420 A preliminary assessment of the impact of alien rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) on indigenous fishes of the upper Berg River, Western Cape Province, South Africa] [[Category:Rivers of de Western Cape]] eodyh6otley0ezuejq853uffawc9khi 0 27491 102871 102327 2026-06-14T22:18:11Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 102871 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Nigerdelta_NASA.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nigerdelta_NASA.jpg|thumb|384x384px|View of de Niger Delta from space (north/land at top).]] De '''Niger Delta''' be de [[:en:River_delta|delta]] of de Niger River wey dey sit directly for de Gulf of Guinea top for de Atlantic Ocean top for Nigeria insyd.<ref>C. Michael Hogan, [http://www.eoearth.org/article/Niger_River?topic=78166 "Niger River", in M. McGinley (ed.), ''Encyclopedia of Earth''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130420075935/http://www.eoearth.org/article/Niger_River?topic=78166|date=2013-04-20}}, Washington, DC: National Council for Science and Environment, 2013</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Umoh |first1=Unyime U. |last2=Li |first2=Li |last3=Wang |first3=Junjian |last4=Kauluma |first4=Ndamononghenda |last5=Asuquo |first5=Francis E. |last6=Akpan |first6=Ekom R. |date=August 2022 |title=Glycerol dialkyl glycerol tetraether signatures in tropical mesotidal estuary sediments of Qua Iboe River, Gulf of Guinea |journal=Organic Geochemistry |volume=170 |bibcode=2022OrGeo.17004461U |doi=10.1016/j.orggeochem.2022.104461 |s2cid=249615285 |article-number=104461}}</ref> Dem locate am within nine coastal southern Nigerian states, wey dey include: all six states from de South South geopolitical zone, one state (Ondo) from South West geopolitical zone den two states (Abia den Imo) from South East geopolitical zone. De Niger Delta be a very densely populated region wey dem samtimes bell am de '''Oil Rivers''' sekof e once be a major producer of palm oil.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Otoabasi |first=Akpan |title=The Niger Delta Question and the peace plan |publisher=Spectrum Books |year=2011}}</ref> De area be de British Oil Rivers Protectorate from 1885 until 1893, wen dem expand am den becam de Niger Coast Protectorate. De delta be a petroleum-rich region den e already get de center of international concern ova extensive pollution wey dem often use am as an example of ecocide.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=2021-04-07 |title='Ecocide' movement pushes for a new international crime: Environmental destruction |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/ecocide-movement-pushes-new-international-crime-environmental-destruction-n1263142 |access-date=2023-07-06 |website=NBC News |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=5 February 2014 |title=Fighting ecocide in Nigeria |url=https://theecologist.org/2014/feb/05/fighting-ecocide-nigeria |access-date=2023-07-06 |website=theecologist.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=UNPO: Ogoni: An Ecocide in the Making? |url=https://unpo.org/article/19131 |access-date=2023-07-06 |website=unpo.org}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite news|date=2011-08-22|title=How an ecocide law could prevent another Nigerian oil disaster|language=en-GB|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2011/aug/22/ecocide-law-nigerian-oil-disaster|access-date=2023-07-06|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> De principal cause be major oil spills by multinational corporations of de petroleum industry.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Aghalino |first=S.O |title=Combating the Niger Delta Crisis: an appraisal of Federal Government response to Anti-Oil protect in Niger Delta, 1958-2002. |publisher=Maiduguri journal of Historical studies |year=2004}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dakolo |first=Bubaraye |title=The Riddle of the Oil Thief |publisher=Purple Shelves |year=2021 |isbn=978-978-988-990-7 |location=Lagos |pages=117–170}}</ref> == Geography == De Niger Delta, as rydee dem define am officially by de Nigerian government, dey extend ova 70,000 km² (27,000 sq mi) den dey make up 7.5% of Nigeria ein land mass.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Chukwu|first=Ignatius|date=2023-10-01|title=What Nigeria’s independence means for Niger Delta|url=https://businessday.ng/life/article/what-nigerias-independence-means-for-niger-delta/|location=Lagos, Nigeria|access-date=2025-11-21|newspaper=[[BusinessDay (Nigeria)|BusinessDay]]|language=en-US}}</ref> Historically den cartographically, e dey consist of present-day Bayelsa, Delta, den Rivers States. For 2000 insyd, howeva, Obasanjo ein regime wey e include Abia, Akwa-Ibom, Cross River State, Edo, Imo den Ondo States for de region insyd.<ref name=":0" /> De Niger Delta den de South-South geopolitical zone (wey dey contain six of de states for de Niger Delta insyd) be two different entities. De Niger Delta dey separate de Bight of Benin from de Bight of Bonny within de larger Gulf of Guinea.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Akpan |first=D. |title=Oil Exploration and environmental degradation in the Niger Delta. A paper presented at the first regional conference. |year=2006}}</ref> == Demographics == De political Niger Delta be home to approximately 31 million pippoe from ova 40 ethnic groups, wey dey include de Ijaws—such as de Kalabari, Okrika, Epie-Atissa, Ogbia, Abua, Obolo, Opobo, Ibani, Apoi, Arogbo, Olodiama, Biseni, Akinima, Ibibio, Urhobo, Annang, Oron, Efik, Ogoni, Edo, Esan, Isoko, Igbo den Okpe among odas. Dem communities dey speak around 250 different dialects. De Ijaw be de largest ethnic group for de Niger Delta insyd, plus a widespread presence across six states for de region insyd. De major language groups wey dem speak for de Niger Delta insyd dey include de Ijaw languages, Ibibio-Efik,<ref name="nigerdeltabudget.org">{{Cite web |title=The Niger Delta – Niger Delta Budget Monitoring Group |url=https://www.nigerdeltabudget.org/the-niger-delta/ |access-date=2023-05-24 |language=en-US}}</ref> Edoid languages.<ref name=":1" /> == History == === Colonial period === De area be de British Oil Rivers Protectorate from 1885 until 1893 wen dem expand am den becam de Niger Coast Protectorate. De core Niger Delta later becam a part of de eastern region of Nigeria, wey cam into being for 1951 insyd (one of de three regions, den later one of de four regions). De majority of de pippoe be dem pippoe from de colonial Calabar den Ogoja divisions, de present-day Ogoja, Annang, Ibibio, Oron, Efik, Ijaw den Ogoni pippoe. De National Council of Nigeria and Cameroon (NCNC) be de ruling political party of de region. De NCNC later becam de National Convention of Nigerian Citizens, after western Cameroon decide to separate from Nigeria. De ruling party of eastern Nigeria no seek to preclude de separation den even encourage am. De then Eastern Region get de third, fourth, den fifth largest indigenous ethnic groups for de country, wey be de Igbo, Ijaw den Ibibio. For 1953 insyd, de Old Eastern region get a major crisis wen dem expel professor Eyo Ita from office by de majority Igbo tribe of de Old Eastern region. Ita, an Efik man from Calabar, be one of de pioneer nationalists give Nigerian independence. De non-igbo of den then eastern region, de Ibibio, Annang, Efik, Ijaw den Ogoja, wey dem situate along de southeastern coast den for de delta region insyd den demand a state of demma own, wey dem bell am de Calabar-Ogoja-Rivers (COR) state. De Ibibio pippoe of de present Akwa Ibom State den Cross River State wey dem sanso champion give demma state thru de Ibibio State Union. De struggle give de creation of de COR state continue den be a major issue wey dey concern de status of minorities for Nigeria insyd during debates for Europe insyd for Nigerian independence top. As a result of dis crisis, Professor Eyo Ita lef de NCNC to form a new political party wey dem bell am National Independence Party wey be one of de five Nigerian political parties wey dem represent am at de conferences for Nigerian Constitution den Independence top.<ref name="nigerdeltabudget.org" /> === Post-colonial period === For 1961 insyd, anoda major crisis occur wen de then-eastern region of Nigeria allow present-day southwestern Cameroon to separate from Nigeria (from de region of wat rydee be Akwa Ibom den Cross River states) thru a plebiscite while de leadership of de Northern Region take de necessary steps to keep northwestern Cameroon for Nigeria insyd, for present-day Adamawa den Taraba states insyd. De aftermath of de 1961 plebiscite lead to a dispute between Cameroon den Nigeria ova de small territory of Bakassi. A new phase of de struggle see de declaration of an Independent Niger Delta Republic by Isaac Adaka Boro during Nigerian presido Ironsi ein administration, just before de Nigerian Civil War.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Writer|first=Guest|date=2018-05-22|title=The revolutionist as the true national knight: Retelling the tale of Isaac Boro 50 years after|url=https://www.thecable.ng/the-revolutionist-as-the-true-national-knight-retelling-major-isaac-boro-fifty-years-after/|access-date=2024-07-04|newspaper=[[TheCable]]|language=en-US}}</ref> Sanso just before de Nigerian civil war, dem create Southeastern State of Nigeria (dem sanso know am Southeastern Nigeria anaa Coastal Southeastern Nigeria), wey get de colonial Calabar division, den colonial Ogoja division. Rivers State wey dem sanso create am. Southeastern State den River State becam two states give de minorities of de old eastern region, den de majority Igbo of de old eastern region get a state wey dem bell am East Central State. Dem rename Southeastern State as Cross River State den dem later split am into Cross River State den Akwa Ibom State. Dem later divide Rivers State into Rivers State den Bayelsa State. === Nigerian Civil War === Niger Delta pippoe suffer heavily plus de great loss of lives den properties, hunger den starvation, den sustain many deaths during 1967–1970 Nigerian Civil War, wey dem sanso know am de Biafran War, for wey de eastern region declare an independent state wey dem name am Biafra wey dem eventually defeat am.<ref>{{Citation |title=The International Politics of the Nigerian Civil War, 1967-1970 |date=2015-12-31 |pages=xv–xx |chapter=Chronology of Important Events in the Nigerian Civil War |publisher=Princeton University Press |doi=10.1515/9781400871285-003 |isbn=978-1-4008-7128-5}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last1=Heerten |first1=Lasse |title=The Nigeria-Biafra War |date=2017-07-06 |work=Postcolonial Conflict and the Question of Genocide |pages=3–43 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9781315229294-1 |isbn=978-1-315-22929-4 |last2=Moses |first2=A. Dirk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ekwe-Ekwe, Herbert. |title=The Biafra War: Nigeria and the aftermath. |date=1991 |publisher=[[Edwin Mellen Press]] |isbn=0-88946-235-6 |location=[[Lewiston, New York]] |oclc=476261625}}</ref> During dis period, dem shut down schools completely, den gunfire becam a daily occurrence. === Non-violent resistance === <blockquote>''Make you sanso see: [[:en:Movement_for_the_Survival_of_the_Ogoni_People|Movement]] [[:en:Movement_for_the_Survival_of_the_Ogoni_People|give de Survival of de Ogoni Pippoe]]''</blockquote>Following de civil war, local communities increasingly social den environmental justice wey dem demand from de federal government, plus Ken Saro Wiwa den de Ogoni tribe as de lead figures give dis phase of de struggle. Cohesive oil protests becam most pronounced for 1990 insyd plus de publication of de Ogoni Bill of Rights. Indigenous pippoe protest against de lack of economic development, e.g. schools, good roads, den hospitals, for de region insyd, despite all de oil wealth wey dem create. Dem sanso complain about environmental pollution den de destruction of demma land den rivers by foreign oil companies. Dem arrest den kill Ken Saro Wiwa den nine oda oil activists from Movement give de Survival of de Ogoni Pippoe (MOSOP) under Sani Abacha for 1995 insyd.<ref>Strutton, Laine (2014). ''The New Mobilization from Below: Women's Oil Protests in the Niger Delta, Nigeria'' (Thesis). [[:en:ProQuest|ProQuest]] [https://www.proquest.com/docview/1666393541 1666393541].</ref> === Recent armed conflict === <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Conflict_in_the_Niger_Delta|Conflict]] [[:en:Conflict_in_the_Niger_Delta|for de Niger Delta insyd]]''</blockquote>Wen long-held dey concern about loss of control ova resources to de oil companies wey de Ijaw pippoe voice am for de Kaiama Declaration insyd for 1998 insyd, de Nigerian government send troops to occupy de Bayelsa den Delta states. Soldiers open fire plus rifles, machine guns, den tear gas, wey e kill at least three protesters den dey arrest twenty-five more.<ref>{{cite web |date=1998-12-30 |title=State of Emergency Declared in the Niger Delta |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/1998/12/31/state-emergency-declared-niger-delta |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120805220129/http://www.hrw.org/news/1998/12/31/state-emergency-declared-niger-delta |archive-date=2012-08-05 |access-date=2018-01-19 |publisher=Human Rights Watch}}</ref> Since then, local Indigenous activity against commercial oil refineries den pipelines for de region insyd increase for frequency den militancy insyd. Recently foreign employees of Shell, de primary corporation wey dey operate for de region insyd, dem take hostage by local pippoe. Such activities sanso result for greater governmental intervention insyd for de area insyd den de mobilization of de Nigerian Army den State Security Service into de region, wey e result for violence den human rights abuses insyd. For April 2006 insyd, a bomb explode near an oil refinery for de Niger Delta region insyd, a warning against Chinese expansion for de region insyd. De Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND) state: "We wish to warn de Chinese government den ein oil companies to steer well clear of de Niger Delta. De Chinese government, by investing for stolen crude insyd, dey places ein citizens for our line of fire insyd."<ref>Ian Taylor, [http://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/741-China-s-environmental-footprint-in-Africa "China's environmental footprint in Africa"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070223061935/http://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/741-China-s-environmental-footprint-in-Africa|date=2007-02-23}}, ''China Dialogue'', 2 February 2007.</ref> Government den private initiatives to develop de Niger Delta region, dem already introduce dem recently. Dem dey include de Niger Delta Development Commission, a government initiative, den de Development Initiative, a community development non-governmental organization wey dey base for Port Harcourt insyd. Uz den Uz Transnational, a company plus a strong commitment to de Niger Delta, wey introduce ways of developing de poor for de Niger Delta insyd, especially for Rivers State insyd. For September 2008 insyd, MEND release a statement wey dey proclaim dat demma militants launch an "oil war" thruout de Niger Delta against both, pipelines den oil-production facilities, den de Nigerian soldiers dat dey protect dem. Both MEND den de Nigerian Government dey claim to have inflicted heavy casualties for one anoda top.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7615498.stm "Nigeria militants warn of oil war"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080915064938/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7615498.stm|date=2008-09-15}}, BBC News, 14 September 2008.</ref> For August 2009 insyd, de Nigerian government grant amnesty to de militants; many militants subsequently surrender demma weapons for exchange give a presidential pardon insyd, rehabilitation programme, den education. == Sub-regions == '''Western Niger Delta''' dey consist of de western section of coastal South-South Nigeria wey dey include Delta, den de southernmost parts of Edo, den Ondo States. De western (anaa Northern) Niger Delta be a heterogeneous society plus several ethnic groups wey dey include de Urhobo, De Western Igbos; Ika pippoe, Aniocha Pippoe, Isoko, Ijaw (anaa Izon) den Ukwuani, Itsekiri de Bini, Esan, Auchi, Esako, oral, den Afenmai for Edo State insyd; den de Ilaje Yoruba for Ondo State insyd. Demma livelihoods be primarily dey base for fishing den farming top. History get am say de Kings of de four primary ethnic groups control Western Niger de Urhobo, Isoko, Ijaw, den, Itsekiri plus wey de British government get to sign separate "Treaties of Protection" for demma formation of "Protectorates" insyd dat later becam southern Nigeria. '''Central Niger Delta''' dey consist of de central section of coastal South-South Nigeria wey dey include Bayelsa, Rivers, Abia, den Imo States. De Central Niger Delta region get de Ijaw (wey dey include de Nembe-Brass, Ogbia, Kalabari pippoe, Ibani of Opobo & Bonny, Abua, Okrika, Engenni den Andoni clans), de Ogoni pippoe (Khana, Gokana, Tai den Eleme), De Igbos (de Etche, Egbema, Omuma, Ogba, Ikwerre, Ndoni, Ekpeye den Ndoki) for Rivers State insyd. '''Eastern Niger Delta''' dey consist of Cross River State den Akwa Ibom State. E get de homogeneous Annang, Efik, Ibibio den Oron pippoe, Ogoja (dat dey include Ekoi den Bekwara). == Nigerian oil == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Petroleum_industry_in_Nigeria|Petroleum industry]]'' [[:en:Petroleum_industry_in_Nigeria|''for Nigeria insyd'']]</blockquote>Nigeria becam West Africa ein biggest producer of petroleum. Dem extract sam 2 million barrels (320,000 m³) per day for de Niger Delta insyd, plus an estimated 38 billion barrels of reserves.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Isumonah |first=V. Adelfemi |year=2013 |title=Armed Society in the Niger Delta |journal=Armed Forces & Society |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=331–358 |doi=10.1177/0095327x12446925 |s2cid=110566551}}</ref> De first oil operations for de region insyd begin for de 1950s insyd den dem undertake am by multinational corporations, wey provide Nigeria plus necessary technological den financial resources to extract oil.<ref>{{cite book |last=Pearson |first=Scott R. |title=Petroleum and the Nigerian Economy |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=1970 |isbn=0-8047-0749-9 |location=Stanford |page=13}}</ref> Since 1975, de region account give more dan 75% of Nigeria ein export earnings.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Akpeninor |first=James Ohwofasa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ESk7b8iKIU0C&pg=PA576 |title=Giant in the Sun: Echoes of Looming Revolution? |date=2012-08-28 |publisher=AuthorHouse |isbn=978-1-4772-1868-6 |language=en}}</ref> Togeda oil den natural gas extraction dey comprise "97 percent of Nigeria ein foreign exchange revenues".<ref>''Nigeria: Petroleum Pollution and Poverty in the Niger Delta''. United Kingdom: Amnesty International Publications International Secretariat, 2009, p. 10.</ref> More dan 70% of de natural gas wey dem extract for oil wells insyd for de delta insyd, dem immediately burn, anaa flared, into de air at a rate of approximately 70 million m³ per day.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=July 4, 2024 |title=A review of the effects of gas flaring on the Niger Delta |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233298409_A_review_of_the_effects_of_gas_flaring_on_the_Niger_Delta_environment |journal=ResearchGate}}</ref> Dis be equivalent to 41% of African natural gas consumption den dey form de largest single source of greenhouse gas emissions for de planet top. For 2003 insyd, dem flare about 99% of excess gas for de Niger Delta insyd, <ref>{{cite web |date=Nov 2003 |title=Nigeria's First National Communication Under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change |url=http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/niganc1.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090115182631/http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/niganc1.pdf |archive-date=15 January 2009 |access-date=24 January 2009 |work=UNFCC}}</ref> although dis value fall to 11% for 2010 insyd.<ref>[http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTOGMC/EXTGGFR/0,,contentMDK:22137498~pagePK:64168445~piPK:64168309~theSitePK:578069,00.html Global Gas Flaring reduction, The World Bank] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301124210/http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTOGMC/EXTGGFR/0,,contentMDK:22137498~pagePK:64168445~piPK:64168309~theSitePK:578069,00.html|date=2012-03-01}}, "Estimated Flared Volumes from Satellite Data, 2006–2010."</ref> (Make you sanso see [[:en:Gas_flaring#Volume|gas flaring volumes]]). De biggest gas flaring company be de Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria Ltd, a joint venture dat be majority-owned by de Nigerian government. For Nigeria insyd, "...despite regulations wey dem introduce 20 years ago to outlaw de practice, dem flare most associated gas, wey e cause local pollution den dey contribute to climate change."<ref>{{cite web |date=October 2004 |title=Gas Flaring in Nigeria |url=http://www.foe.co.uk/resource/media_briefing/gasflaringinnigeria.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225211133/http://www.foe.co.uk/resource/media_briefing/gasflaringinnigeria.pdf |archive-date=25 February 2009 |access-date=24 January 2009 |work=Friends of the Earth}}</ref> De environmental devastation wey dem associate plus de industry den de lack of distribution of oil wealth already be de source den/anaa key aggravating factors of numerous environmental movements den inter-ethnic conflicts for de region insyd, wey dey include recent guerrilla activity by MEND. For September 2012 insyd Eland Oil & Gas purchase a 45% interest for OML 40 insyd, plus ein partner Starcrest Energy Nigeria Limited, from de Shell Group. Dem intend to recommission de existing infrastructure den restart existing wells to re-commence production at an initial gross rate of 2,500 barrels (400 m³) of oil per day plus a target to grow gross production to 50,000 barrels (7,900 m³) of oil per day within four years. === Oil revenue derivation === Oil revenue allocation already be de subject of much contention well before Nigeria gain ein independence. Allocations have varied from as much as 50%, wey e owe to de First Republic ein high degree of regional autonomy, den as low as 10% during de military dictatorships. {| class="wikitable" |+Oil revenue sharing formula !Year !Federal !State* !Local !Special Projects !Derivation Formula** |- |1958 |40% |60% |0% |0% |50% |- |1968 |80% |20% |0% |0% |10% |- |1977 |75% |22% |3% |0% |10% |- |1982 |55% |32.5% |10% |2.5% |10% |- |1989 |50% |24% |15% |11% |10% |- |1995 |48.5% |24% |20% |7.5% |13% |- |2001 |48.5% |24% |20% |7.5% |13% |} ''* State allocations are based on 5 criteria: equality (equal shares per state), population, social development, land mass, and revenue generation.'' ''**The derivation formula refers to the percentage of the revenue oil-producing states retain from taxes on oil and other natural resources produced in the state.'' [http://info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/library/5783/State_and_Governance_Nigeria.htm World Bank Report] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160921053829/http://info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/library/5783/State_and_Governance_Nigeria.htm|date=2016-09-21}} == Media == De documentary film ''[[:en:Sweet_Crude|Sweet Crude]]'', wey dem premier April 2009 at de Full Frame Documentary Film Festival, dey tell de story of Nigeria ein Niger Delta.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sweet Crude: A New Documentary on the Niger Delta by Sandy Cioffi |url=http://www.sweetcrudemovie.com/ |access-date=2023-05-24 |website=www.sweetcrudemovie.com}}</ref> == Environmental issues == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Environmental_issues_in_the_Niger_Delta|Environmental issues]] [[:en:Environmental_issues_in_the_Niger_Delta|for de Niger Delta insyd]]''</blockquote>De Niger Delta be a region of unparalleled ecological richness, wey ein intricate network of waterways characterize am, lush mangrove forests, den diverse ecosystems. Howeva, dem damage de serene beauty of dis landscape by a persistent environmental menace, oil spills. Ova de years, de Niger Delta experience a series of devastating oil spills, wey industrial activities wey relate to de extraction den transportation of oil den gas primarily cause am. Sekof dis high amount of spills, dem consider de Niger Delta as one of de most polluted areas for Earth top.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Anejionu |first1=Obinna Chukwubuikem Diony |last2=Blackburn |first2=George Alan |last3=Whyatt |first3=J. Duncan |date=4 March 2014 |title=Satellite survey of gas flares: development and application of a Landsat-based technique in the Niger Delta |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01431161.2013.879351 |journal=International Journal of Remote Sensing |language=en |volume=35 |issue=5 |pages=1900–1925 |bibcode=2014IJRS...35.1900A |doi=10.1080/01431161.2013.879351 |s2cid=53705868 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Dem spills inflict severe den continuous damage for de delicate balance of de region ein ecosystems top. Dem impact both de environment den de livelihoods of de communities dat dey depend for ein resources top. Two spills for 2008 den 2009 insyd already be de largest den most harmful by far, collectively dey last give almost 150 days den dey cause flora death thruout 393 km². De extensive network of tidal rivers den mangrove swamps dey make am even easier give de oil to spread quickly, den de delta dey becam a sink, wey e trap de oil dat dem no remove am.<ref name="sciencedirect.com">{{cite journal |last1=Obida |first1=Christopher B. |last2=Blackburn |first2=George A. |last3=Whyatt |first3=James D. |last4=Semple |first4=Kirk T. |date=25 June 2021 |title=Counting the cost of the Niger Delta's largest oil spills: Satellite remote sensing reveals extensive environmental damage with >1million people in the impact zone |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969721009219 |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=775 |bibcode=2021ScTEn.775n5854O |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.145854 |s2cid=233538622 |url-access=subscription |article-number=145854}}</ref> De spills cam from a pipeline wey Shell Petroleum Development Company operate am. For addition to smaller spills insyd dat take place ova de years 2006–2019, dem estimate am dat dem release a total of 92,479,170 liters (anaa 24430412.139 gallons) of crude oil into de area wey dem study.<ref name="sciencedirect.com" /> Since then, following spills continue to exacerbate de ecological damage. De exact impact of spills like dem be hard to know sekof traditional field studies dey nearly impossible for dis region. Howeva, techniques such as de normalized difference vegetation index already be successful for measuring de impact of oil spills insyd for de river ein plant health top. Additionally, field samples wey dem independently collect am, dem confirm de presence of hydrocarbon pollutants for high concentrations insyd for de impacted areas insyd.<ref name="sciencedirect.com" /> Oil den gas pollution/spills dey greatly increase de possibility of human exposure to dangerous chemicals. Many components of crude oil be particularly concerning sekof demma link to de health problems wey exposure cause am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ugochukwu |first1=Uzochukwu C. |last2=Ochonogor |first2=Alfred |last3=Jidere |first3=Chika M. |last4=Agu |first4=Chizoba |last5=Nkoloagu |first5=Frida |last6=Ewoh |first6=John |last7=Okwu-Delunzu |first7=Virginia U. |date=1 June 2018 |title=Exposure risks to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by humans and livestock (cattle) due to hydrocarbon spill from petroleum products in Niger-delta wetland |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S016041201732158X |journal=Environment International |volume=115 |pages=38–47 |bibcode=2018EnInt.115...38U |doi=10.1016/j.envint.2018.03.010 |pmid=29547867 |s2cid=3902367 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Dis dey include organic contaminants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene den xylene,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Philibert |first1=Danielle A. |last2=Lyons |first2=Danielle |last3=Philibert |first3=Clara |last4=Tierney |first4=Keith B. |date=10 January 2019 |title=Field-collected crude oil, weathered oil and dispersants differentially affect the early life stages of freshwater and saltwater fishes |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969718330213 |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=647 |pages=1148–1157 |bibcode=2019ScTEn.647.1148P |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.08.052 |pmid=30180323 |s2cid=52156999 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> as well as heavy metals such as lead, vanadium den cadmium. In fact, according to de Scientific Committee for Health, Environmental den Emerging Risks top, dem fi put more dan 1300 different chemicals into de environment as a result of oil den gas exploration.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bertollini |first1=Roberto |last2=Teresa |first2=Borges |last3=Pim |first3=deVoogt |last4=Peter |first4=Hoet |date=30 November 2018 |title=OPINION ON the public health impacts and risks resulting from onshore oil and gas exploration and exploitation in the EU |journal=Scientific Committee on Health, Environmental and Emerging Risks SCHEER}}</ref> Then, humans cam for contact insyd plus dem harmful substances thru eating contaminated food as well as breathing for de air pollution insyd.<ref name="The human health risk estimation of">{{cite journal |last1=Afshar-Mohajer |first1=Nima |last2=Fox |first2=Mary A. |last3=Koehler |first3=Kirsten |date=1 March 2019 |title=The human health risk estimation of inhaled oil spill emissions with and without adding dispersant |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969718344656 |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=654 |pages=924–932 |bibcode=2019ScTEn.654..924A |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.11.110 |pmid=30453262 |s2cid=53946118 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons be especially concerning sekof demma persistence for de environment insyd. Even for low amounts insyd, prolonged exposure fi cause serious health issues such as cancer den oda chronic illnesses.<ref name="The human health risk estimation of" /> For general insyd, de harmful pollutants wey dem emit from oil spills den oda pollution dey include cancer, metabolic syndrome, miscarriages, stillbirths, den infertility.<ref name="The human health risk estimation of" /> Less deadly, but still serious, health problems dey include headache, watery eyes, sore throat, respiratory problems, itchy skin, rashes for face den neck top, sneezing, coughing, nausea, dizziness, chest pain, den diarrhea be common issues wey oil spills cause am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nriagu |first1=Jerome |last2=Udofia |first2=Emilia A. |last3=Ekong |first3=Ibanga |last4=Ebuk |first4=Godwin |date=March 2016 |title=Health Risks Associated with Oil Pollution in the Niger Delta, Nigeria |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |volume=13 |issue=3 |page=346 |doi=10.3390/ijerph13030346 |pmc=4809009 |pmid=27007391 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Collectively, more dan 1 million pippoe dey live for de area insyd dat oil/gas pollution already contaminate am. Dis population be especially vulnerable to chronic illnesses sekof demma pre-existing low life expectancy den large ratio of young pippoe.<ref name="sciencedirect.com" /> Additionally, a 2006 report wey de United Nations Development Programme do am dey say "De Niger Delta be a region wey dey suffer from administrative neglect, wey dey crumble social infrastructure den services, high unemployment, social deprivation, abject poverty, filth den squalor, den endemic conflict,"<ref>{{cite web |author1=United Nations |date=1 January 2006 |title=Human Development Report |url=https://hdr.undp.org/content/human-development-report#:~:text=%22The%20Niger%20Delta%20is%20a,conflict%2C%22%20says%20the%20report. |publisher=United Nations |language=en}}</ref>. Dem factors dey make am increasingly harder give de local communities to deal plus de negative effects wey foreign oil exploration cause am. De pippoe wey oil spills affect am for de Niger Delta insyd be diverse communities wey dey reside for de region insyd. Dem intricately connect demma lives to de natural environment. Dem communities, often make up of indigenous groups, dey rely for de Niger Delta ein resources top give demma food, water, livelihoods, den cultural practices. De impact of oil spills for dem communities top be multi-faceted den dey extend beyond health problems. Fishing den agriculture be central to de livelihoods of many Niger Delta communities. Oil spills dey contaminate water sources den farmlands, wey e severely affect fish stocks den crops. Dis disruption fi lead to food shortages den economic hardship give dem dependent for dem activities top.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Osuagwu |first1=Eze Simpson |last2=Olaifa |first2=Eseoghene |date=25 October 2018 |title=Effects of oil spills on fish production in the Niger Delta |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=13 |issue=10 |bibcode=2018PLoSO..1305114O |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0205114 |pmc=6201865 |pmid=30359365 |doi-access=free |article-number=e0205114}}</ref> Anoda facet of de pippoe ein livelihoods be demma culture. De Niger Delta ein pippoe get strong spiritual den cultural ties to demma environment. De harm inflict for demma land top den waterways wey oil spills cause am dey deeply disrupt sacred sites den dey interfere plus demma cultural practices. De loss of dem cultural elements dey contribute to a sense of displacement den identity crisis among de affected groups/communities.<ref name="soa">{{cite journal |last=Aghalino |first=S.O. |date=February 2011 |title=Oil and Cultural Crisis: The Case of the Niger Delta |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301637735 |journal=Africana |volume=5 |issue=1 |page=15 |access-date=December 14, 2023}}</ref> Additionally, wen communities fight back against de oil industries as an act of protest, violence be often perpetuated. Since de 1990s der already be continuous violence for an effort insyd to give local communities control of de oil for de delta insyd. Dem acts of violence dey include de kidnapping of foreign oil workers den dey hold dem give ransom, vandalization, den even de blowing up of oil installations.<ref name="soa" /> == Notes == <references /> == References == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090805174150/http://nigerdeltavine.com/ Niger Delta-Archive of News, Interviews, Articles, Analysis from 1999 to Present] * ''Proceedings of the Ibibio Union 1928–1937''. Edited by Monday Efiong Noah. Modern Business Press Ltd, Uyo. * Urhobo Historical Society (4 August 2003). Urhobo Historical Society Responds to Itsekiri Claims on Warri City and Western Niger Delta. * [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/may/30/oil-spills-nigeria-niger-delta-shell/ "Nigeria's agony dwarfs the Gulf oil spill. The US and Europe ignore it"] == External links == * [http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/02/nigerian-oil/oneill-text National Geographic Magazine: "Curse of the Black Gold, Hope, and betrayal on the Niger Delta"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080826021356/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/02/nigerian-oil/oneill-text|date=2008-08-26}} — ''February 2007 issue''. * [http://nigerdeltaforum.com/index.php/topic,158.0.html, Nigerdeltaforum.com: forum] [http://nigerdeltaforum.com/index.php/topic,158.0.html, for de Niger Delta top den ein pippoe] *Niger-Delta Development Commission, [https://web.archive.org/web/20051025160835/http://www.nddconline.org/The_Niger_Delta/ Niger Delta: A Brief History] *American Association give de Advancement of Science, [https://web.archive.org/web/20051119105233/http://www.aaas.org/international/ssd/nigerdelta/ Niger Delta] *[http://www.eraction.org/ Environmental Rights Action] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050810081722/http://www.eraction.org/|date=2005-08-10}} *[http://www.my-nigeria.com/?tag=niger-delta News] [http://www.my-nigeria.com/?tag=niger-delta for de Niger Delta top] iajactebn97tmyesq49n67m393vxp6w 102872 102871 2026-06-14T22:19:07Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 102872 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Nigerdelta_NASA.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nigerdelta_NASA.jpg|thumb|384x384px|View of de Niger Delta from space (north/land at top).]] De '''Niger Delta''' be de [[:en:River_delta|delta]] of de [[:en:Niger_River|Niger River]] wey dey sit directly for de Gulf of Guinea top for de Atlantic Ocean top for Nigeria insyd.<ref>C. Michael Hogan, [http://www.eoearth.org/article/Niger_River?topic=78166 "Niger River", in M. McGinley (ed.), ''Encyclopedia of Earth''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130420075935/http://www.eoearth.org/article/Niger_River?topic=78166|date=2013-04-20}}, Washington, DC: National Council for Science and Environment, 2013</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Umoh |first1=Unyime U. |last2=Li |first2=Li |last3=Wang |first3=Junjian |last4=Kauluma |first4=Ndamononghenda |last5=Asuquo |first5=Francis E. |last6=Akpan |first6=Ekom R. |date=August 2022 |title=Glycerol dialkyl glycerol tetraether signatures in tropical mesotidal estuary sediments of Qua Iboe River, Gulf of Guinea |journal=Organic Geochemistry |volume=170 |bibcode=2022OrGeo.17004461U |doi=10.1016/j.orggeochem.2022.104461 |s2cid=249615285 |article-number=104461}}</ref> Dem locate am within nine coastal southern Nigerian states, wey dey include: all six states from de South South geopolitical zone, one state (Ondo) from South West geopolitical zone den two states (Abia den Imo) from South East geopolitical zone. De Niger Delta be a very densely populated region wey dem samtimes bell am de '''Oil Rivers''' sekof e once be a major producer of palm oil.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Otoabasi |first=Akpan |title=The Niger Delta Question and the peace plan |publisher=Spectrum Books |year=2011}}</ref> De area be de British Oil Rivers Protectorate from 1885 until 1893, wen dem expand am den becam de Niger Coast Protectorate. De delta be a petroleum-rich region den e already get de center of international concern ova extensive pollution wey dem often use am as an example of ecocide.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=2021-04-07 |title='Ecocide' movement pushes for a new international crime: Environmental destruction |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/ecocide-movement-pushes-new-international-crime-environmental-destruction-n1263142 |access-date=2023-07-06 |website=NBC News |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=5 February 2014 |title=Fighting ecocide in Nigeria |url=https://theecologist.org/2014/feb/05/fighting-ecocide-nigeria |access-date=2023-07-06 |website=theecologist.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=UNPO: Ogoni: An Ecocide in the Making? |url=https://unpo.org/article/19131 |access-date=2023-07-06 |website=unpo.org}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite news|date=2011-08-22|title=How an ecocide law could prevent another Nigerian oil disaster|language=en-GB|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2011/aug/22/ecocide-law-nigerian-oil-disaster|access-date=2023-07-06|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> De principal cause be major oil spills by multinational corporations of de petroleum industry.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Aghalino |first=S.O |title=Combating the Niger Delta Crisis: an appraisal of Federal Government response to Anti-Oil protect in Niger Delta, 1958-2002. |publisher=Maiduguri journal of Historical studies |year=2004}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dakolo |first=Bubaraye |title=The Riddle of the Oil Thief |publisher=Purple Shelves |year=2021 |isbn=978-978-988-990-7 |location=Lagos |pages=117–170}}</ref> == Geography == De Niger Delta, as rydee dem define am officially by de Nigerian government, dey extend ova 70,000 km² (27,000 sq mi) den dey make up 7.5% of Nigeria ein land mass.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Chukwu|first=Ignatius|date=2023-10-01|title=What Nigeria’s independence means for Niger Delta|url=https://businessday.ng/life/article/what-nigerias-independence-means-for-niger-delta/|location=Lagos, Nigeria|access-date=2025-11-21|newspaper=[[BusinessDay (Nigeria)|BusinessDay]]|language=en-US}}</ref> Historically den cartographically, e dey consist of present-day Bayelsa, Delta, den Rivers States. For 2000 insyd, howeva, Obasanjo ein regime wey e include Abia, Akwa-Ibom, Cross River State, Edo, Imo den Ondo States for de region insyd.<ref name=":0" /> De Niger Delta den de South-South geopolitical zone (wey dey contain six of de states for de Niger Delta insyd) be two different entities. De Niger Delta dey separate de Bight of Benin from de Bight of Bonny within de larger Gulf of Guinea.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Akpan |first=D. |title=Oil Exploration and environmental degradation in the Niger Delta. A paper presented at the first regional conference. |year=2006}}</ref> == Demographics == De political Niger Delta be home to approximately 31 million pippoe from ova 40 ethnic groups, wey dey include de Ijaws—such as de Kalabari, Okrika, Epie-Atissa, Ogbia, Abua, Obolo, Opobo, Ibani, Apoi, Arogbo, Olodiama, Biseni, Akinima, Ibibio, Urhobo, Annang, Oron, Efik, Ogoni, Edo, Esan, Isoko, Igbo den Okpe among odas. Dem communities dey speak around 250 different dialects. De Ijaw be de largest ethnic group for de Niger Delta insyd, plus a widespread presence across six states for de region insyd. De major language groups wey dem speak for de Niger Delta insyd dey include de Ijaw languages, Ibibio-Efik,<ref name="nigerdeltabudget.org">{{Cite web |title=The Niger Delta – Niger Delta Budget Monitoring Group |url=https://www.nigerdeltabudget.org/the-niger-delta/ |access-date=2023-05-24 |language=en-US}}</ref> Edoid languages.<ref name=":1" /> == History == === Colonial period === De area be de British Oil Rivers Protectorate from 1885 until 1893 wen dem expand am den becam de Niger Coast Protectorate. De core Niger Delta later becam a part of de eastern region of Nigeria, wey cam into being for 1951 insyd (one of de three regions, den later one of de four regions). De majority of de pippoe be dem pippoe from de colonial Calabar den Ogoja divisions, de present-day Ogoja, Annang, Ibibio, Oron, Efik, Ijaw den Ogoni pippoe. De National Council of Nigeria and Cameroon (NCNC) be de ruling political party of de region. De NCNC later becam de National Convention of Nigerian Citizens, after western Cameroon decide to separate from Nigeria. De ruling party of eastern Nigeria no seek to preclude de separation den even encourage am. De then Eastern Region get de third, fourth, den fifth largest indigenous ethnic groups for de country, wey be de Igbo, Ijaw den Ibibio. For 1953 insyd, de Old Eastern region get a major crisis wen dem expel professor Eyo Ita from office by de majority Igbo tribe of de Old Eastern region. Ita, an Efik man from Calabar, be one of de pioneer nationalists give Nigerian independence. De non-igbo of den then eastern region, de Ibibio, Annang, Efik, Ijaw den Ogoja, wey dem situate along de southeastern coast den for de delta region insyd den demand a state of demma own, wey dem bell am de Calabar-Ogoja-Rivers (COR) state. De Ibibio pippoe of de present Akwa Ibom State den Cross River State wey dem sanso champion give demma state thru de Ibibio State Union. De struggle give de creation of de COR state continue den be a major issue wey dey concern de status of minorities for Nigeria insyd during debates for Europe insyd for Nigerian independence top. As a result of dis crisis, Professor Eyo Ita lef de NCNC to form a new political party wey dem bell am National Independence Party wey be one of de five Nigerian political parties wey dem represent am at de conferences for Nigerian Constitution den Independence top.<ref name="nigerdeltabudget.org" /> === Post-colonial period === For 1961 insyd, anoda major crisis occur wen de then-eastern region of Nigeria allow present-day southwestern Cameroon to separate from Nigeria (from de region of wat rydee be Akwa Ibom den Cross River states) thru a plebiscite while de leadership of de Northern Region take de necessary steps to keep northwestern Cameroon for Nigeria insyd, for present-day Adamawa den Taraba states insyd. De aftermath of de 1961 plebiscite lead to a dispute between Cameroon den Nigeria ova de small territory of Bakassi. A new phase of de struggle see de declaration of an Independent Niger Delta Republic by Isaac Adaka Boro during Nigerian presido Ironsi ein administration, just before de Nigerian Civil War.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Writer|first=Guest|date=2018-05-22|title=The revolutionist as the true national knight: Retelling the tale of Isaac Boro 50 years after|url=https://www.thecable.ng/the-revolutionist-as-the-true-national-knight-retelling-major-isaac-boro-fifty-years-after/|access-date=2024-07-04|newspaper=[[TheCable]]|language=en-US}}</ref> Sanso just before de Nigerian civil war, dem create Southeastern State of Nigeria (dem sanso know am Southeastern Nigeria anaa Coastal Southeastern Nigeria), wey get de colonial Calabar division, den colonial Ogoja division. Rivers State wey dem sanso create am. Southeastern State den River State becam two states give de minorities of de old eastern region, den de majority Igbo of de old eastern region get a state wey dem bell am East Central State. Dem rename Southeastern State as Cross River State den dem later split am into Cross River State den Akwa Ibom State. Dem later divide Rivers State into Rivers State den Bayelsa State. === Nigerian Civil War === Niger Delta pippoe suffer heavily plus de great loss of lives den properties, hunger den starvation, den sustain many deaths during 1967–1970 Nigerian Civil War, wey dem sanso know am de Biafran War, for wey de eastern region declare an independent state wey dem name am Biafra wey dem eventually defeat am.<ref>{{Citation |title=The International Politics of the Nigerian Civil War, 1967-1970 |date=2015-12-31 |pages=xv–xx |chapter=Chronology of Important Events in the Nigerian Civil War |publisher=Princeton University Press |doi=10.1515/9781400871285-003 |isbn=978-1-4008-7128-5}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last1=Heerten |first1=Lasse |title=The Nigeria-Biafra War |date=2017-07-06 |work=Postcolonial Conflict and the Question of Genocide |pages=3–43 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9781315229294-1 |isbn=978-1-315-22929-4 |last2=Moses |first2=A. Dirk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ekwe-Ekwe, Herbert. |title=The Biafra War: Nigeria and the aftermath. |date=1991 |publisher=[[Edwin Mellen Press]] |isbn=0-88946-235-6 |location=[[Lewiston, New York]] |oclc=476261625}}</ref> During dis period, dem shut down schools completely, den gunfire becam a daily occurrence. === Non-violent resistance === <blockquote>''Make you sanso see: [[:en:Movement_for_the_Survival_of_the_Ogoni_People|Movement]] [[:en:Movement_for_the_Survival_of_the_Ogoni_People|give de Survival of de Ogoni Pippoe]]''</blockquote>Following de civil war, local communities increasingly social den environmental justice wey dem demand from de federal government, plus Ken Saro Wiwa den de Ogoni tribe as de lead figures give dis phase of de struggle. Cohesive oil protests becam most pronounced for 1990 insyd plus de publication of de Ogoni Bill of Rights. Indigenous pippoe protest against de lack of economic development, e.g. schools, good roads, den hospitals, for de region insyd, despite all de oil wealth wey dem create. Dem sanso complain about environmental pollution den de destruction of demma land den rivers by foreign oil companies. Dem arrest den kill Ken Saro Wiwa den nine oda oil activists from Movement give de Survival of de Ogoni Pippoe (MOSOP) under Sani Abacha for 1995 insyd.<ref>Strutton, Laine (2014). ''The New Mobilization from Below: Women's Oil Protests in the Niger Delta, Nigeria'' (Thesis). [[:en:ProQuest|ProQuest]] [https://www.proquest.com/docview/1666393541 1666393541].</ref> === Recent armed conflict === <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Conflict_in_the_Niger_Delta|Conflict]] [[:en:Conflict_in_the_Niger_Delta|for de Niger Delta insyd]]''</blockquote>Wen long-held dey concern about loss of control ova resources to de oil companies wey de Ijaw pippoe voice am for de Kaiama Declaration insyd for 1998 insyd, de Nigerian government send troops to occupy de Bayelsa den Delta states. Soldiers open fire plus rifles, machine guns, den tear gas, wey e kill at least three protesters den dey arrest twenty-five more.<ref>{{cite web |date=1998-12-30 |title=State of Emergency Declared in the Niger Delta |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/1998/12/31/state-emergency-declared-niger-delta |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120805220129/http://www.hrw.org/news/1998/12/31/state-emergency-declared-niger-delta |archive-date=2012-08-05 |access-date=2018-01-19 |publisher=Human Rights Watch}}</ref> Since then, local Indigenous activity against commercial oil refineries den pipelines for de region insyd increase for frequency den militancy insyd. Recently foreign employees of Shell, de primary corporation wey dey operate for de region insyd, dem take hostage by local pippoe. Such activities sanso result for greater governmental intervention insyd for de area insyd den de mobilization of de Nigerian Army den State Security Service into de region, wey e result for violence den human rights abuses insyd. For April 2006 insyd, a bomb explode near an oil refinery for de Niger Delta region insyd, a warning against Chinese expansion for de region insyd. De Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND) state: "We wish to warn de Chinese government den ein oil companies to steer well clear of de Niger Delta. De Chinese government, by investing for stolen crude insyd, dey places ein citizens for our line of fire insyd."<ref>Ian Taylor, [http://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/741-China-s-environmental-footprint-in-Africa "China's environmental footprint in Africa"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070223061935/http://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/741-China-s-environmental-footprint-in-Africa|date=2007-02-23}}, ''China Dialogue'', 2 February 2007.</ref> Government den private initiatives to develop de Niger Delta region, dem already introduce dem recently. Dem dey include de Niger Delta Development Commission, a government initiative, den de Development Initiative, a community development non-governmental organization wey dey base for Port Harcourt insyd. Uz den Uz Transnational, a company plus a strong commitment to de Niger Delta, wey introduce ways of developing de poor for de Niger Delta insyd, especially for Rivers State insyd. For September 2008 insyd, MEND release a statement wey dey proclaim dat demma militants launch an "oil war" thruout de Niger Delta against both, pipelines den oil-production facilities, den de Nigerian soldiers dat dey protect dem. Both MEND den de Nigerian Government dey claim to have inflicted heavy casualties for one anoda top.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7615498.stm "Nigeria militants warn of oil war"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080915064938/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7615498.stm|date=2008-09-15}}, BBC News, 14 September 2008.</ref> For August 2009 insyd, de Nigerian government grant amnesty to de militants; many militants subsequently surrender demma weapons for exchange give a presidential pardon insyd, rehabilitation programme, den education. == Sub-regions == '''Western Niger Delta''' dey consist of de western section of coastal South-South Nigeria wey dey include Delta, den de southernmost parts of Edo, den Ondo States. De western (anaa Northern) Niger Delta be a heterogeneous society plus several ethnic groups wey dey include de Urhobo, De Western Igbos; Ika pippoe, Aniocha Pippoe, Isoko, Ijaw (anaa Izon) den Ukwuani, Itsekiri de Bini, Esan, Auchi, Esako, oral, den Afenmai for Edo State insyd; den de Ilaje Yoruba for Ondo State insyd. Demma livelihoods be primarily dey base for fishing den farming top. History get am say de Kings of de four primary ethnic groups control Western Niger de Urhobo, Isoko, Ijaw, den, Itsekiri plus wey de British government get to sign separate "Treaties of Protection" for demma formation of "Protectorates" insyd dat later becam southern Nigeria. '''Central Niger Delta''' dey consist of de central section of coastal South-South Nigeria wey dey include Bayelsa, Rivers, Abia, den Imo States. De Central Niger Delta region get de Ijaw (wey dey include de Nembe-Brass, Ogbia, Kalabari pippoe, Ibani of Opobo & Bonny, Abua, Okrika, Engenni den Andoni clans), de Ogoni pippoe (Khana, Gokana, Tai den Eleme), De Igbos (de Etche, Egbema, Omuma, Ogba, Ikwerre, Ndoni, Ekpeye den Ndoki) for Rivers State insyd. '''Eastern Niger Delta''' dey consist of Cross River State den Akwa Ibom State. E get de homogeneous Annang, Efik, Ibibio den Oron pippoe, Ogoja (dat dey include Ekoi den Bekwara). == Nigerian oil == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Petroleum_industry_in_Nigeria|Petroleum industry]]'' [[:en:Petroleum_industry_in_Nigeria|''for Nigeria insyd'']]</blockquote>Nigeria becam West Africa ein biggest producer of petroleum. Dem extract sam 2 million barrels (320,000 m³) per day for de Niger Delta insyd, plus an estimated 38 billion barrels of reserves.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Isumonah |first=V. Adelfemi |year=2013 |title=Armed Society in the Niger Delta |journal=Armed Forces & Society |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=331–358 |doi=10.1177/0095327x12446925 |s2cid=110566551}}</ref> De first oil operations for de region insyd begin for de 1950s insyd den dem undertake am by multinational corporations, wey provide Nigeria plus necessary technological den financial resources to extract oil.<ref>{{cite book |last=Pearson |first=Scott R. |title=Petroleum and the Nigerian Economy |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=1970 |isbn=0-8047-0749-9 |location=Stanford |page=13}}</ref> Since 1975, de region account give more dan 75% of Nigeria ein export earnings.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Akpeninor |first=James Ohwofasa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ESk7b8iKIU0C&pg=PA576 |title=Giant in the Sun: Echoes of Looming Revolution? |date=2012-08-28 |publisher=AuthorHouse |isbn=978-1-4772-1868-6 |language=en}}</ref> Togeda oil den natural gas extraction dey comprise "97 percent of Nigeria ein foreign exchange revenues".<ref>''Nigeria: Petroleum Pollution and Poverty in the Niger Delta''. United Kingdom: Amnesty International Publications International Secretariat, 2009, p. 10.</ref> More dan 70% of de natural gas wey dem extract for oil wells insyd for de delta insyd, dem immediately burn, anaa flared, into de air at a rate of approximately 70 million m³ per day.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=July 4, 2024 |title=A review of the effects of gas flaring on the Niger Delta |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233298409_A_review_of_the_effects_of_gas_flaring_on_the_Niger_Delta_environment |journal=ResearchGate}}</ref> Dis be equivalent to 41% of African natural gas consumption den dey form de largest single source of greenhouse gas emissions for de planet top. For 2003 insyd, dem flare about 99% of excess gas for de Niger Delta insyd, <ref>{{cite web |date=Nov 2003 |title=Nigeria's First National Communication Under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change |url=http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/niganc1.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090115182631/http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/niganc1.pdf |archive-date=15 January 2009 |access-date=24 January 2009 |work=UNFCC}}</ref> although dis value fall to 11% for 2010 insyd.<ref>[http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTOGMC/EXTGGFR/0,,contentMDK:22137498~pagePK:64168445~piPK:64168309~theSitePK:578069,00.html Global Gas Flaring reduction, The World Bank] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301124210/http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTOGMC/EXTGGFR/0,,contentMDK:22137498~pagePK:64168445~piPK:64168309~theSitePK:578069,00.html|date=2012-03-01}}, "Estimated Flared Volumes from Satellite Data, 2006–2010."</ref> (Make you sanso see [[:en:Gas_flaring#Volume|gas flaring volumes]]). De biggest gas flaring company be de Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria Ltd, a joint venture dat be majority-owned by de Nigerian government. For Nigeria insyd, "...despite regulations wey dem introduce 20 years ago to outlaw de practice, dem flare most associated gas, wey e cause local pollution den dey contribute to climate change."<ref>{{cite web |date=October 2004 |title=Gas Flaring in Nigeria |url=http://www.foe.co.uk/resource/media_briefing/gasflaringinnigeria.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225211133/http://www.foe.co.uk/resource/media_briefing/gasflaringinnigeria.pdf |archive-date=25 February 2009 |access-date=24 January 2009 |work=Friends of the Earth}}</ref> De environmental devastation wey dem associate plus de industry den de lack of distribution of oil wealth already be de source den/anaa key aggravating factors of numerous environmental movements den inter-ethnic conflicts for de region insyd, wey dey include recent guerrilla activity by MEND. For September 2012 insyd Eland Oil & Gas purchase a 45% interest for OML 40 insyd, plus ein partner Starcrest Energy Nigeria Limited, from de Shell Group. Dem intend to recommission de existing infrastructure den restart existing wells to re-commence production at an initial gross rate of 2,500 barrels (400 m³) of oil per day plus a target to grow gross production to 50,000 barrels (7,900 m³) of oil per day within four years. === Oil revenue derivation === Oil revenue allocation already be de subject of much contention well before Nigeria gain ein independence. Allocations have varied from as much as 50%, wey e owe to de First Republic ein high degree of regional autonomy, den as low as 10% during de military dictatorships. {| class="wikitable" |+Oil revenue sharing formula !Year !Federal !State* !Local !Special Projects !Derivation Formula** |- |1958 |40% |60% |0% |0% |50% |- |1968 |80% |20% |0% |0% |10% |- |1977 |75% |22% |3% |0% |10% |- |1982 |55% |32.5% |10% |2.5% |10% |- |1989 |50% |24% |15% |11% |10% |- |1995 |48.5% |24% |20% |7.5% |13% |- |2001 |48.5% |24% |20% |7.5% |13% |} ''* State allocations are based on 5 criteria: equality (equal shares per state), population, social development, land mass, and revenue generation.'' ''**The derivation formula refers to the percentage of the revenue oil-producing states retain from taxes on oil and other natural resources produced in the state.'' [http://info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/library/5783/State_and_Governance_Nigeria.htm World Bank Report] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160921053829/http://info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/library/5783/State_and_Governance_Nigeria.htm|date=2016-09-21}} == Media == De documentary film ''[[:en:Sweet_Crude|Sweet Crude]]'', wey dem premier April 2009 at de Full Frame Documentary Film Festival, dey tell de story of Nigeria ein Niger Delta.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sweet Crude: A New Documentary on the Niger Delta by Sandy Cioffi |url=http://www.sweetcrudemovie.com/ |access-date=2023-05-24 |website=www.sweetcrudemovie.com}}</ref> == Environmental issues == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Environmental_issues_in_the_Niger_Delta|Environmental issues]] [[:en:Environmental_issues_in_the_Niger_Delta|for de Niger Delta insyd]]''</blockquote>De Niger Delta be a region of unparalleled ecological richness, wey ein intricate network of waterways characterize am, lush mangrove forests, den diverse ecosystems. Howeva, dem damage de serene beauty of dis landscape by a persistent environmental menace, oil spills. Ova de years, de Niger Delta experience a series of devastating oil spills, wey industrial activities wey relate to de extraction den transportation of oil den gas primarily cause am. Sekof dis high amount of spills, dem consider de Niger Delta as one of de most polluted areas for Earth top.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Anejionu |first1=Obinna Chukwubuikem Diony |last2=Blackburn |first2=George Alan |last3=Whyatt |first3=J. Duncan |date=4 March 2014 |title=Satellite survey of gas flares: development and application of a Landsat-based technique in the Niger Delta |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01431161.2013.879351 |journal=International Journal of Remote Sensing |language=en |volume=35 |issue=5 |pages=1900–1925 |bibcode=2014IJRS...35.1900A |doi=10.1080/01431161.2013.879351 |s2cid=53705868 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Dem spills inflict severe den continuous damage for de delicate balance of de region ein ecosystems top. Dem impact both de environment den de livelihoods of de communities dat dey depend for ein resources top. Two spills for 2008 den 2009 insyd already be de largest den most harmful by far, collectively dey last give almost 150 days den dey cause flora death thruout 393 km². De extensive network of tidal rivers den mangrove swamps dey make am even easier give de oil to spread quickly, den de delta dey becam a sink, wey e trap de oil dat dem no remove am.<ref name="sciencedirect.com">{{cite journal |last1=Obida |first1=Christopher B. |last2=Blackburn |first2=George A. |last3=Whyatt |first3=James D. |last4=Semple |first4=Kirk T. |date=25 June 2021 |title=Counting the cost of the Niger Delta's largest oil spills: Satellite remote sensing reveals extensive environmental damage with >1million people in the impact zone |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969721009219 |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=775 |bibcode=2021ScTEn.775n5854O |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.145854 |s2cid=233538622 |url-access=subscription |article-number=145854}}</ref> De spills cam from a pipeline wey Shell Petroleum Development Company operate am. For addition to smaller spills insyd dat take place ova de years 2006–2019, dem estimate am dat dem release a total of 92,479,170 liters (anaa 24430412.139 gallons) of crude oil into de area wey dem study.<ref name="sciencedirect.com" /> Since then, following spills continue to exacerbate de ecological damage. De exact impact of spills like dem be hard to know sekof traditional field studies dey nearly impossible for dis region. Howeva, techniques such as de normalized difference vegetation index already be successful for measuring de impact of oil spills insyd for de river ein plant health top. Additionally, field samples wey dem independently collect am, dem confirm de presence of hydrocarbon pollutants for high concentrations insyd for de impacted areas insyd.<ref name="sciencedirect.com" /> Oil den gas pollution/spills dey greatly increase de possibility of human exposure to dangerous chemicals. Many components of crude oil be particularly concerning sekof demma link to de health problems wey exposure cause am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ugochukwu |first1=Uzochukwu C. |last2=Ochonogor |first2=Alfred |last3=Jidere |first3=Chika M. |last4=Agu |first4=Chizoba |last5=Nkoloagu |first5=Frida |last6=Ewoh |first6=John |last7=Okwu-Delunzu |first7=Virginia U. |date=1 June 2018 |title=Exposure risks to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by humans and livestock (cattle) due to hydrocarbon spill from petroleum products in Niger-delta wetland |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S016041201732158X |journal=Environment International |volume=115 |pages=38–47 |bibcode=2018EnInt.115...38U |doi=10.1016/j.envint.2018.03.010 |pmid=29547867 |s2cid=3902367 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Dis dey include organic contaminants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene den xylene,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Philibert |first1=Danielle A. |last2=Lyons |first2=Danielle |last3=Philibert |first3=Clara |last4=Tierney |first4=Keith B. |date=10 January 2019 |title=Field-collected crude oil, weathered oil and dispersants differentially affect the early life stages of freshwater and saltwater fishes |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969718330213 |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=647 |pages=1148–1157 |bibcode=2019ScTEn.647.1148P |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.08.052 |pmid=30180323 |s2cid=52156999 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> as well as heavy metals such as lead, vanadium den cadmium. In fact, according to de Scientific Committee for Health, Environmental den Emerging Risks top, dem fi put more dan 1300 different chemicals into de environment as a result of oil den gas exploration.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bertollini |first1=Roberto |last2=Teresa |first2=Borges |last3=Pim |first3=deVoogt |last4=Peter |first4=Hoet |date=30 November 2018 |title=OPINION ON the public health impacts and risks resulting from onshore oil and gas exploration and exploitation in the EU |journal=Scientific Committee on Health, Environmental and Emerging Risks SCHEER}}</ref> Then, humans cam for contact insyd plus dem harmful substances thru eating contaminated food as well as breathing for de air pollution insyd.<ref name="The human health risk estimation of">{{cite journal |last1=Afshar-Mohajer |first1=Nima |last2=Fox |first2=Mary A. |last3=Koehler |first3=Kirsten |date=1 March 2019 |title=The human health risk estimation of inhaled oil spill emissions with and without adding dispersant |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969718344656 |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=654 |pages=924–932 |bibcode=2019ScTEn.654..924A |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.11.110 |pmid=30453262 |s2cid=53946118 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons be especially concerning sekof demma persistence for de environment insyd. Even for low amounts insyd, prolonged exposure fi cause serious health issues such as cancer den oda chronic illnesses.<ref name="The human health risk estimation of" /> For general insyd, de harmful pollutants wey dem emit from oil spills den oda pollution dey include cancer, metabolic syndrome, miscarriages, stillbirths, den infertility.<ref name="The human health risk estimation of" /> Less deadly, but still serious, health problems dey include headache, watery eyes, sore throat, respiratory problems, itchy skin, rashes for face den neck top, sneezing, coughing, nausea, dizziness, chest pain, den diarrhea be common issues wey oil spills cause am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nriagu |first1=Jerome |last2=Udofia |first2=Emilia A. |last3=Ekong |first3=Ibanga |last4=Ebuk |first4=Godwin |date=March 2016 |title=Health Risks Associated with Oil Pollution in the Niger Delta, Nigeria |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |volume=13 |issue=3 |page=346 |doi=10.3390/ijerph13030346 |pmc=4809009 |pmid=27007391 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Collectively, more dan 1 million pippoe dey live for de area insyd dat oil/gas pollution already contaminate am. Dis population be especially vulnerable to chronic illnesses sekof demma pre-existing low life expectancy den large ratio of young pippoe.<ref name="sciencedirect.com" /> Additionally, a 2006 report wey de United Nations Development Programme do am dey say "De Niger Delta be a region wey dey suffer from administrative neglect, wey dey crumble social infrastructure den services, high unemployment, social deprivation, abject poverty, filth den squalor, den endemic conflict,"<ref>{{cite web |author1=United Nations |date=1 January 2006 |title=Human Development Report |url=https://hdr.undp.org/content/human-development-report#:~:text=%22The%20Niger%20Delta%20is%20a,conflict%2C%22%20says%20the%20report. |publisher=United Nations |language=en}}</ref>. Dem factors dey make am increasingly harder give de local communities to deal plus de negative effects wey foreign oil exploration cause am. De pippoe wey oil spills affect am for de Niger Delta insyd be diverse communities wey dey reside for de region insyd. Dem intricately connect demma lives to de natural environment. Dem communities, often make up of indigenous groups, dey rely for de Niger Delta ein resources top give demma food, water, livelihoods, den cultural practices. De impact of oil spills for dem communities top be multi-faceted den dey extend beyond health problems. Fishing den agriculture be central to de livelihoods of many Niger Delta communities. Oil spills dey contaminate water sources den farmlands, wey e severely affect fish stocks den crops. Dis disruption fi lead to food shortages den economic hardship give dem dependent for dem activities top.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Osuagwu |first1=Eze Simpson |last2=Olaifa |first2=Eseoghene |date=25 October 2018 |title=Effects of oil spills on fish production in the Niger Delta |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=13 |issue=10 |bibcode=2018PLoSO..1305114O |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0205114 |pmc=6201865 |pmid=30359365 |doi-access=free |article-number=e0205114}}</ref> Anoda facet of de pippoe ein livelihoods be demma culture. De Niger Delta ein pippoe get strong spiritual den cultural ties to demma environment. De harm inflict for demma land top den waterways wey oil spills cause am dey deeply disrupt sacred sites den dey interfere plus demma cultural practices. De loss of dem cultural elements dey contribute to a sense of displacement den identity crisis among de affected groups/communities.<ref name="soa">{{cite journal |last=Aghalino |first=S.O. |date=February 2011 |title=Oil and Cultural Crisis: The Case of the Niger Delta |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301637735 |journal=Africana |volume=5 |issue=1 |page=15 |access-date=December 14, 2023}}</ref> Additionally, wen communities fight back against de oil industries as an act of protest, violence be often perpetuated. Since de 1990s der already be continuous violence for an effort insyd to give local communities control of de oil for de delta insyd. Dem acts of violence dey include de kidnapping of foreign oil workers den dey hold dem give ransom, vandalization, den even de blowing up of oil installations.<ref name="soa" /> == Notes == <references /> == References == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090805174150/http://nigerdeltavine.com/ Niger Delta-Archive of News, Interviews, Articles, Analysis from 1999 to Present] * ''Proceedings of the Ibibio Union 1928–1937''. Edited by Monday Efiong Noah. Modern Business Press Ltd, Uyo. * Urhobo Historical Society (4 August 2003). Urhobo Historical Society Responds to Itsekiri Claims on Warri City and Western Niger Delta. * [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/may/30/oil-spills-nigeria-niger-delta-shell/ "Nigeria's agony dwarfs the Gulf oil spill. The US and Europe ignore it"] == External links == * [http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/02/nigerian-oil/oneill-text National Geographic Magazine: "Curse of the Black Gold, Hope, and betrayal on the Niger Delta"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080826021356/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/02/nigerian-oil/oneill-text|date=2008-08-26}} — ''February 2007 issue''. * [http://nigerdeltaforum.com/index.php/topic,158.0.html, Nigerdeltaforum.com: forum] [http://nigerdeltaforum.com/index.php/topic,158.0.html, for de Niger Delta top den ein pippoe] *Niger-Delta Development Commission, [https://web.archive.org/web/20051025160835/http://www.nddconline.org/The_Niger_Delta/ Niger Delta: A Brief History] *American Association give de Advancement of Science, [https://web.archive.org/web/20051119105233/http://www.aaas.org/international/ssd/nigerdelta/ Niger Delta] *[http://www.eraction.org/ Environmental Rights Action] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050810081722/http://www.eraction.org/|date=2005-08-10}} *[http://www.my-nigeria.com/?tag=niger-delta News] [http://www.my-nigeria.com/?tag=niger-delta for de Niger Delta top] js9udxy9ot1vitb7vllbtspoiah3n16 102873 102872 2026-06-14T22:19:45Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 102873 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Nigerdelta_NASA.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nigerdelta_NASA.jpg|thumb|384x384px|View of de Niger Delta from space (north/land at top).]] De '''Niger Delta''' be de [[:en:River_delta|delta]] of de [[:en:Niger_River|Niger River]] wey dey sit directly for de [[:en:Gulf_of_Guinea|Gulf of Guinea]] top for de Atlantic Ocean top for Nigeria insyd.<ref>C. Michael Hogan, [http://www.eoearth.org/article/Niger_River?topic=78166 "Niger River", in M. McGinley (ed.), ''Encyclopedia of Earth''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130420075935/http://www.eoearth.org/article/Niger_River?topic=78166|date=2013-04-20}}, Washington, DC: National Council for Science and Environment, 2013</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Umoh |first1=Unyime U. |last2=Li |first2=Li |last3=Wang |first3=Junjian |last4=Kauluma |first4=Ndamononghenda |last5=Asuquo |first5=Francis E. |last6=Akpan |first6=Ekom R. |date=August 2022 |title=Glycerol dialkyl glycerol tetraether signatures in tropical mesotidal estuary sediments of Qua Iboe River, Gulf of Guinea |journal=Organic Geochemistry |volume=170 |bibcode=2022OrGeo.17004461U |doi=10.1016/j.orggeochem.2022.104461 |s2cid=249615285 |article-number=104461}}</ref> Dem locate am within nine coastal southern Nigerian states, wey dey include: all six states from de South South geopolitical zone, one state (Ondo) from South West geopolitical zone den two states (Abia den Imo) from South East geopolitical zone. De Niger Delta be a very densely populated region wey dem samtimes bell am de '''Oil Rivers''' sekof e once be a major producer of palm oil.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Otoabasi |first=Akpan |title=The Niger Delta Question and the peace plan |publisher=Spectrum Books |year=2011}}</ref> De area be de British Oil Rivers Protectorate from 1885 until 1893, wen dem expand am den becam de Niger Coast Protectorate. De delta be a petroleum-rich region den e already get de center of international concern ova extensive pollution wey dem often use am as an example of ecocide.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=2021-04-07 |title='Ecocide' movement pushes for a new international crime: Environmental destruction |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/ecocide-movement-pushes-new-international-crime-environmental-destruction-n1263142 |access-date=2023-07-06 |website=NBC News |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=5 February 2014 |title=Fighting ecocide in Nigeria |url=https://theecologist.org/2014/feb/05/fighting-ecocide-nigeria |access-date=2023-07-06 |website=theecologist.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=UNPO: Ogoni: An Ecocide in the Making? |url=https://unpo.org/article/19131 |access-date=2023-07-06 |website=unpo.org}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite news|date=2011-08-22|title=How an ecocide law could prevent another Nigerian oil disaster|language=en-GB|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2011/aug/22/ecocide-law-nigerian-oil-disaster|access-date=2023-07-06|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> De principal cause be major oil spills by multinational corporations of de petroleum industry.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Aghalino |first=S.O |title=Combating the Niger Delta Crisis: an appraisal of Federal Government response to Anti-Oil protect in Niger Delta, 1958-2002. |publisher=Maiduguri journal of Historical studies |year=2004}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dakolo |first=Bubaraye |title=The Riddle of the Oil Thief |publisher=Purple Shelves |year=2021 |isbn=978-978-988-990-7 |location=Lagos |pages=117–170}}</ref> == Geography == De Niger Delta, as rydee dem define am officially by de Nigerian government, dey extend ova 70,000 km² (27,000 sq mi) den dey make up 7.5% of Nigeria ein land mass.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Chukwu|first=Ignatius|date=2023-10-01|title=What Nigeria’s independence means for Niger Delta|url=https://businessday.ng/life/article/what-nigerias-independence-means-for-niger-delta/|location=Lagos, Nigeria|access-date=2025-11-21|newspaper=[[BusinessDay (Nigeria)|BusinessDay]]|language=en-US}}</ref> Historically den cartographically, e dey consist of present-day Bayelsa, Delta, den Rivers States. For 2000 insyd, howeva, Obasanjo ein regime wey e include Abia, Akwa-Ibom, Cross River State, Edo, Imo den Ondo States for de region insyd.<ref name=":0" /> De Niger Delta den de South-South geopolitical zone (wey dey contain six of de states for de Niger Delta insyd) be two different entities. De Niger Delta dey separate de Bight of Benin from de Bight of Bonny within de larger Gulf of Guinea.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Akpan |first=D. |title=Oil Exploration and environmental degradation in the Niger Delta. A paper presented at the first regional conference. |year=2006}}</ref> == Demographics == De political Niger Delta be home to approximately 31 million pippoe from ova 40 ethnic groups, wey dey include de Ijaws—such as de Kalabari, Okrika, Epie-Atissa, Ogbia, Abua, Obolo, Opobo, Ibani, Apoi, Arogbo, Olodiama, Biseni, Akinima, Ibibio, Urhobo, Annang, Oron, Efik, Ogoni, Edo, Esan, Isoko, Igbo den Okpe among odas. Dem communities dey speak around 250 different dialects. De Ijaw be de largest ethnic group for de Niger Delta insyd, plus a widespread presence across six states for de region insyd. De major language groups wey dem speak for de Niger Delta insyd dey include de Ijaw languages, Ibibio-Efik,<ref name="nigerdeltabudget.org">{{Cite web |title=The Niger Delta – Niger Delta Budget Monitoring Group |url=https://www.nigerdeltabudget.org/the-niger-delta/ |access-date=2023-05-24 |language=en-US}}</ref> Edoid languages.<ref name=":1" /> == History == === Colonial period === De area be de British Oil Rivers Protectorate from 1885 until 1893 wen dem expand am den becam de Niger Coast Protectorate. De core Niger Delta later becam a part of de eastern region of Nigeria, wey cam into being for 1951 insyd (one of de three regions, den later one of de four regions). De majority of de pippoe be dem pippoe from de colonial Calabar den Ogoja divisions, de present-day Ogoja, Annang, Ibibio, Oron, Efik, Ijaw den Ogoni pippoe. De National Council of Nigeria and Cameroon (NCNC) be de ruling political party of de region. De NCNC later becam de National Convention of Nigerian Citizens, after western Cameroon decide to separate from Nigeria. De ruling party of eastern Nigeria no seek to preclude de separation den even encourage am. De then Eastern Region get de third, fourth, den fifth largest indigenous ethnic groups for de country, wey be de Igbo, Ijaw den Ibibio. For 1953 insyd, de Old Eastern region get a major crisis wen dem expel professor Eyo Ita from office by de majority Igbo tribe of de Old Eastern region. Ita, an Efik man from Calabar, be one of de pioneer nationalists give Nigerian independence. De non-igbo of den then eastern region, de Ibibio, Annang, Efik, Ijaw den Ogoja, wey dem situate along de southeastern coast den for de delta region insyd den demand a state of demma own, wey dem bell am de Calabar-Ogoja-Rivers (COR) state. De Ibibio pippoe of de present Akwa Ibom State den Cross River State wey dem sanso champion give demma state thru de Ibibio State Union. De struggle give de creation of de COR state continue den be a major issue wey dey concern de status of minorities for Nigeria insyd during debates for Europe insyd for Nigerian independence top. As a result of dis crisis, Professor Eyo Ita lef de NCNC to form a new political party wey dem bell am National Independence Party wey be one of de five Nigerian political parties wey dem represent am at de conferences for Nigerian Constitution den Independence top.<ref name="nigerdeltabudget.org" /> === Post-colonial period === For 1961 insyd, anoda major crisis occur wen de then-eastern region of Nigeria allow present-day southwestern Cameroon to separate from Nigeria (from de region of wat rydee be Akwa Ibom den Cross River states) thru a plebiscite while de leadership of de Northern Region take de necessary steps to keep northwestern Cameroon for Nigeria insyd, for present-day Adamawa den Taraba states insyd. De aftermath of de 1961 plebiscite lead to a dispute between Cameroon den Nigeria ova de small territory of Bakassi. A new phase of de struggle see de declaration of an Independent Niger Delta Republic by Isaac Adaka Boro during Nigerian presido Ironsi ein administration, just before de Nigerian Civil War.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Writer|first=Guest|date=2018-05-22|title=The revolutionist as the true national knight: Retelling the tale of Isaac Boro 50 years after|url=https://www.thecable.ng/the-revolutionist-as-the-true-national-knight-retelling-major-isaac-boro-fifty-years-after/|access-date=2024-07-04|newspaper=[[TheCable]]|language=en-US}}</ref> Sanso just before de Nigerian civil war, dem create Southeastern State of Nigeria (dem sanso know am Southeastern Nigeria anaa Coastal Southeastern Nigeria), wey get de colonial Calabar division, den colonial Ogoja division. Rivers State wey dem sanso create am. Southeastern State den River State becam two states give de minorities of de old eastern region, den de majority Igbo of de old eastern region get a state wey dem bell am East Central State. Dem rename Southeastern State as Cross River State den dem later split am into Cross River State den Akwa Ibom State. Dem later divide Rivers State into Rivers State den Bayelsa State. === Nigerian Civil War === Niger Delta pippoe suffer heavily plus de great loss of lives den properties, hunger den starvation, den sustain many deaths during 1967–1970 Nigerian Civil War, wey dem sanso know am de Biafran War, for wey de eastern region declare an independent state wey dem name am Biafra wey dem eventually defeat am.<ref>{{Citation |title=The International Politics of the Nigerian Civil War, 1967-1970 |date=2015-12-31 |pages=xv–xx |chapter=Chronology of Important Events in the Nigerian Civil War |publisher=Princeton University Press |doi=10.1515/9781400871285-003 |isbn=978-1-4008-7128-5}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last1=Heerten |first1=Lasse |title=The Nigeria-Biafra War |date=2017-07-06 |work=Postcolonial Conflict and the Question of Genocide |pages=3–43 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9781315229294-1 |isbn=978-1-315-22929-4 |last2=Moses |first2=A. Dirk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ekwe-Ekwe, Herbert. |title=The Biafra War: Nigeria and the aftermath. |date=1991 |publisher=[[Edwin Mellen Press]] |isbn=0-88946-235-6 |location=[[Lewiston, New York]] |oclc=476261625}}</ref> During dis period, dem shut down schools completely, den gunfire becam a daily occurrence. === Non-violent resistance === <blockquote>''Make you sanso see: [[:en:Movement_for_the_Survival_of_the_Ogoni_People|Movement]] [[:en:Movement_for_the_Survival_of_the_Ogoni_People|give de Survival of de Ogoni Pippoe]]''</blockquote>Following de civil war, local communities increasingly social den environmental justice wey dem demand from de federal government, plus Ken Saro Wiwa den de Ogoni tribe as de lead figures give dis phase of de struggle. Cohesive oil protests becam most pronounced for 1990 insyd plus de publication of de Ogoni Bill of Rights. Indigenous pippoe protest against de lack of economic development, e.g. schools, good roads, den hospitals, for de region insyd, despite all de oil wealth wey dem create. Dem sanso complain about environmental pollution den de destruction of demma land den rivers by foreign oil companies. Dem arrest den kill Ken Saro Wiwa den nine oda oil activists from Movement give de Survival of de Ogoni Pippoe (MOSOP) under Sani Abacha for 1995 insyd.<ref>Strutton, Laine (2014). ''The New Mobilization from Below: Women's Oil Protests in the Niger Delta, Nigeria'' (Thesis). [[:en:ProQuest|ProQuest]] [https://www.proquest.com/docview/1666393541 1666393541].</ref> === Recent armed conflict === <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Conflict_in_the_Niger_Delta|Conflict]] [[:en:Conflict_in_the_Niger_Delta|for de Niger Delta insyd]]''</blockquote>Wen long-held dey concern about loss of control ova resources to de oil companies wey de Ijaw pippoe voice am for de Kaiama Declaration insyd for 1998 insyd, de Nigerian government send troops to occupy de Bayelsa den Delta states. Soldiers open fire plus rifles, machine guns, den tear gas, wey e kill at least three protesters den dey arrest twenty-five more.<ref>{{cite web |date=1998-12-30 |title=State of Emergency Declared in the Niger Delta |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/1998/12/31/state-emergency-declared-niger-delta |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120805220129/http://www.hrw.org/news/1998/12/31/state-emergency-declared-niger-delta |archive-date=2012-08-05 |access-date=2018-01-19 |publisher=Human Rights Watch}}</ref> Since then, local Indigenous activity against commercial oil refineries den pipelines for de region insyd increase for frequency den militancy insyd. Recently foreign employees of Shell, de primary corporation wey dey operate for de region insyd, dem take hostage by local pippoe. Such activities sanso result for greater governmental intervention insyd for de area insyd den de mobilization of de Nigerian Army den State Security Service into de region, wey e result for violence den human rights abuses insyd. For April 2006 insyd, a bomb explode near an oil refinery for de Niger Delta region insyd, a warning against Chinese expansion for de region insyd. De Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND) state: "We wish to warn de Chinese government den ein oil companies to steer well clear of de Niger Delta. De Chinese government, by investing for stolen crude insyd, dey places ein citizens for our line of fire insyd."<ref>Ian Taylor, [http://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/741-China-s-environmental-footprint-in-Africa "China's environmental footprint in Africa"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070223061935/http://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/741-China-s-environmental-footprint-in-Africa|date=2007-02-23}}, ''China Dialogue'', 2 February 2007.</ref> Government den private initiatives to develop de Niger Delta region, dem already introduce dem recently. Dem dey include de Niger Delta Development Commission, a government initiative, den de Development Initiative, a community development non-governmental organization wey dey base for Port Harcourt insyd. Uz den Uz Transnational, a company plus a strong commitment to de Niger Delta, wey introduce ways of developing de poor for de Niger Delta insyd, especially for Rivers State insyd. For September 2008 insyd, MEND release a statement wey dey proclaim dat demma militants launch an "oil war" thruout de Niger Delta against both, pipelines den oil-production facilities, den de Nigerian soldiers dat dey protect dem. Both MEND den de Nigerian Government dey claim to have inflicted heavy casualties for one anoda top.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7615498.stm "Nigeria militants warn of oil war"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080915064938/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7615498.stm|date=2008-09-15}}, BBC News, 14 September 2008.</ref> For August 2009 insyd, de Nigerian government grant amnesty to de militants; many militants subsequently surrender demma weapons for exchange give a presidential pardon insyd, rehabilitation programme, den education. == Sub-regions == '''Western Niger Delta''' dey consist of de western section of coastal South-South Nigeria wey dey include Delta, den de southernmost parts of Edo, den Ondo States. De western (anaa Northern) Niger Delta be a heterogeneous society plus several ethnic groups wey dey include de Urhobo, De Western Igbos; Ika pippoe, Aniocha Pippoe, Isoko, Ijaw (anaa Izon) den Ukwuani, Itsekiri de Bini, Esan, Auchi, Esako, oral, den Afenmai for Edo State insyd; den de Ilaje Yoruba for Ondo State insyd. Demma livelihoods be primarily dey base for fishing den farming top. History get am say de Kings of de four primary ethnic groups control Western Niger de Urhobo, Isoko, Ijaw, den, Itsekiri plus wey de British government get to sign separate "Treaties of Protection" for demma formation of "Protectorates" insyd dat later becam southern Nigeria. '''Central Niger Delta''' dey consist of de central section of coastal South-South Nigeria wey dey include Bayelsa, Rivers, Abia, den Imo States. De Central Niger Delta region get de Ijaw (wey dey include de Nembe-Brass, Ogbia, Kalabari pippoe, Ibani of Opobo & Bonny, Abua, Okrika, Engenni den Andoni clans), de Ogoni pippoe (Khana, Gokana, Tai den Eleme), De Igbos (de Etche, Egbema, Omuma, Ogba, Ikwerre, Ndoni, Ekpeye den Ndoki) for Rivers State insyd. '''Eastern Niger Delta''' dey consist of Cross River State den Akwa Ibom State. E get de homogeneous Annang, Efik, Ibibio den Oron pippoe, Ogoja (dat dey include Ekoi den Bekwara). == Nigerian oil == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Petroleum_industry_in_Nigeria|Petroleum industry]]'' [[:en:Petroleum_industry_in_Nigeria|''for Nigeria insyd'']]</blockquote>Nigeria becam West Africa ein biggest producer of petroleum. Dem extract sam 2 million barrels (320,000 m³) per day for de Niger Delta insyd, plus an estimated 38 billion barrels of reserves.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Isumonah |first=V. Adelfemi |year=2013 |title=Armed Society in the Niger Delta |journal=Armed Forces & Society |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=331–358 |doi=10.1177/0095327x12446925 |s2cid=110566551}}</ref> De first oil operations for de region insyd begin for de 1950s insyd den dem undertake am by multinational corporations, wey provide Nigeria plus necessary technological den financial resources to extract oil.<ref>{{cite book |last=Pearson |first=Scott R. |title=Petroleum and the Nigerian Economy |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=1970 |isbn=0-8047-0749-9 |location=Stanford |page=13}}</ref> Since 1975, de region account give more dan 75% of Nigeria ein export earnings.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Akpeninor |first=James Ohwofasa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ESk7b8iKIU0C&pg=PA576 |title=Giant in the Sun: Echoes of Looming Revolution? |date=2012-08-28 |publisher=AuthorHouse |isbn=978-1-4772-1868-6 |language=en}}</ref> Togeda oil den natural gas extraction dey comprise "97 percent of Nigeria ein foreign exchange revenues".<ref>''Nigeria: Petroleum Pollution and Poverty in the Niger Delta''. United Kingdom: Amnesty International Publications International Secretariat, 2009, p. 10.</ref> More dan 70% of de natural gas wey dem extract for oil wells insyd for de delta insyd, dem immediately burn, anaa flared, into de air at a rate of approximately 70 million m³ per day.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=July 4, 2024 |title=A review of the effects of gas flaring on the Niger Delta |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233298409_A_review_of_the_effects_of_gas_flaring_on_the_Niger_Delta_environment |journal=ResearchGate}}</ref> Dis be equivalent to 41% of African natural gas consumption den dey form de largest single source of greenhouse gas emissions for de planet top. For 2003 insyd, dem flare about 99% of excess gas for de Niger Delta insyd, <ref>{{cite web |date=Nov 2003 |title=Nigeria's First National Communication Under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change |url=http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/niganc1.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090115182631/http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/niganc1.pdf |archive-date=15 January 2009 |access-date=24 January 2009 |work=UNFCC}}</ref> although dis value fall to 11% for 2010 insyd.<ref>[http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTOGMC/EXTGGFR/0,,contentMDK:22137498~pagePK:64168445~piPK:64168309~theSitePK:578069,00.html Global Gas Flaring reduction, The World Bank] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301124210/http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTOGMC/EXTGGFR/0,,contentMDK:22137498~pagePK:64168445~piPK:64168309~theSitePK:578069,00.html|date=2012-03-01}}, "Estimated Flared Volumes from Satellite Data, 2006–2010."</ref> (Make you sanso see [[:en:Gas_flaring#Volume|gas flaring volumes]]). De biggest gas flaring company be de Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria Ltd, a joint venture dat be majority-owned by de Nigerian government. For Nigeria insyd, "...despite regulations wey dem introduce 20 years ago to outlaw de practice, dem flare most associated gas, wey e cause local pollution den dey contribute to climate change."<ref>{{cite web |date=October 2004 |title=Gas Flaring in Nigeria |url=http://www.foe.co.uk/resource/media_briefing/gasflaringinnigeria.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225211133/http://www.foe.co.uk/resource/media_briefing/gasflaringinnigeria.pdf |archive-date=25 February 2009 |access-date=24 January 2009 |work=Friends of the Earth}}</ref> De environmental devastation wey dem associate plus de industry den de lack of distribution of oil wealth already be de source den/anaa key aggravating factors of numerous environmental movements den inter-ethnic conflicts for de region insyd, wey dey include recent guerrilla activity by MEND. For September 2012 insyd Eland Oil & Gas purchase a 45% interest for OML 40 insyd, plus ein partner Starcrest Energy Nigeria Limited, from de Shell Group. Dem intend to recommission de existing infrastructure den restart existing wells to re-commence production at an initial gross rate of 2,500 barrels (400 m³) of oil per day plus a target to grow gross production to 50,000 barrels (7,900 m³) of oil per day within four years. === Oil revenue derivation === Oil revenue allocation already be de subject of much contention well before Nigeria gain ein independence. Allocations have varied from as much as 50%, wey e owe to de First Republic ein high degree of regional autonomy, den as low as 10% during de military dictatorships. {| class="wikitable" |+Oil revenue sharing formula !Year !Federal !State* !Local !Special Projects !Derivation Formula** |- |1958 |40% |60% |0% |0% |50% |- |1968 |80% |20% |0% |0% |10% |- |1977 |75% |22% |3% |0% |10% |- |1982 |55% |32.5% |10% |2.5% |10% |- |1989 |50% |24% |15% |11% |10% |- |1995 |48.5% |24% |20% |7.5% |13% |- |2001 |48.5% |24% |20% |7.5% |13% |} ''* State allocations are based on 5 criteria: equality (equal shares per state), population, social development, land mass, and revenue generation.'' ''**The derivation formula refers to the percentage of the revenue oil-producing states retain from taxes on oil and other natural resources produced in the state.'' [http://info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/library/5783/State_and_Governance_Nigeria.htm World Bank Report] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160921053829/http://info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/library/5783/State_and_Governance_Nigeria.htm|date=2016-09-21}} == Media == De documentary film ''[[:en:Sweet_Crude|Sweet Crude]]'', wey dem premier April 2009 at de Full Frame Documentary Film Festival, dey tell de story of Nigeria ein Niger Delta.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sweet Crude: A New Documentary on the Niger Delta by Sandy Cioffi |url=http://www.sweetcrudemovie.com/ |access-date=2023-05-24 |website=www.sweetcrudemovie.com}}</ref> == Environmental issues == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Environmental_issues_in_the_Niger_Delta|Environmental issues]] [[:en:Environmental_issues_in_the_Niger_Delta|for de Niger Delta insyd]]''</blockquote>De Niger Delta be a region of unparalleled ecological richness, wey ein intricate network of waterways characterize am, lush mangrove forests, den diverse ecosystems. Howeva, dem damage de serene beauty of dis landscape by a persistent environmental menace, oil spills. Ova de years, de Niger Delta experience a series of devastating oil spills, wey industrial activities wey relate to de extraction den transportation of oil den gas primarily cause am. Sekof dis high amount of spills, dem consider de Niger Delta as one of de most polluted areas for Earth top.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Anejionu |first1=Obinna Chukwubuikem Diony |last2=Blackburn |first2=George Alan |last3=Whyatt |first3=J. Duncan |date=4 March 2014 |title=Satellite survey of gas flares: development and application of a Landsat-based technique in the Niger Delta |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01431161.2013.879351 |journal=International Journal of Remote Sensing |language=en |volume=35 |issue=5 |pages=1900–1925 |bibcode=2014IJRS...35.1900A |doi=10.1080/01431161.2013.879351 |s2cid=53705868 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Dem spills inflict severe den continuous damage for de delicate balance of de region ein ecosystems top. Dem impact both de environment den de livelihoods of de communities dat dey depend for ein resources top. Two spills for 2008 den 2009 insyd already be de largest den most harmful by far, collectively dey last give almost 150 days den dey cause flora death thruout 393 km². De extensive network of tidal rivers den mangrove swamps dey make am even easier give de oil to spread quickly, den de delta dey becam a sink, wey e trap de oil dat dem no remove am.<ref name="sciencedirect.com">{{cite journal |last1=Obida |first1=Christopher B. |last2=Blackburn |first2=George A. |last3=Whyatt |first3=James D. |last4=Semple |first4=Kirk T. |date=25 June 2021 |title=Counting the cost of the Niger Delta's largest oil spills: Satellite remote sensing reveals extensive environmental damage with >1million people in the impact zone |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969721009219 |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=775 |bibcode=2021ScTEn.775n5854O |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.145854 |s2cid=233538622 |url-access=subscription |article-number=145854}}</ref> De spills cam from a pipeline wey Shell Petroleum Development Company operate am. For addition to smaller spills insyd dat take place ova de years 2006–2019, dem estimate am dat dem release a total of 92,479,170 liters (anaa 24430412.139 gallons) of crude oil into de area wey dem study.<ref name="sciencedirect.com" /> Since then, following spills continue to exacerbate de ecological damage. De exact impact of spills like dem be hard to know sekof traditional field studies dey nearly impossible for dis region. Howeva, techniques such as de normalized difference vegetation index already be successful for measuring de impact of oil spills insyd for de river ein plant health top. Additionally, field samples wey dem independently collect am, dem confirm de presence of hydrocarbon pollutants for high concentrations insyd for de impacted areas insyd.<ref name="sciencedirect.com" /> Oil den gas pollution/spills dey greatly increase de possibility of human exposure to dangerous chemicals. Many components of crude oil be particularly concerning sekof demma link to de health problems wey exposure cause am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ugochukwu |first1=Uzochukwu C. |last2=Ochonogor |first2=Alfred |last3=Jidere |first3=Chika M. |last4=Agu |first4=Chizoba |last5=Nkoloagu |first5=Frida |last6=Ewoh |first6=John |last7=Okwu-Delunzu |first7=Virginia U. |date=1 June 2018 |title=Exposure risks to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by humans and livestock (cattle) due to hydrocarbon spill from petroleum products in Niger-delta wetland |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S016041201732158X |journal=Environment International |volume=115 |pages=38–47 |bibcode=2018EnInt.115...38U |doi=10.1016/j.envint.2018.03.010 |pmid=29547867 |s2cid=3902367 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Dis dey include organic contaminants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene den xylene,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Philibert |first1=Danielle A. |last2=Lyons |first2=Danielle |last3=Philibert |first3=Clara |last4=Tierney |first4=Keith B. |date=10 January 2019 |title=Field-collected crude oil, weathered oil and dispersants differentially affect the early life stages of freshwater and saltwater fishes |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969718330213 |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=647 |pages=1148–1157 |bibcode=2019ScTEn.647.1148P |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.08.052 |pmid=30180323 |s2cid=52156999 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> as well as heavy metals such as lead, vanadium den cadmium. In fact, according to de Scientific Committee for Health, Environmental den Emerging Risks top, dem fi put more dan 1300 different chemicals into de environment as a result of oil den gas exploration.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bertollini |first1=Roberto |last2=Teresa |first2=Borges |last3=Pim |first3=deVoogt |last4=Peter |first4=Hoet |date=30 November 2018 |title=OPINION ON the public health impacts and risks resulting from onshore oil and gas exploration and exploitation in the EU |journal=Scientific Committee on Health, Environmental and Emerging Risks SCHEER}}</ref> Then, humans cam for contact insyd plus dem harmful substances thru eating contaminated food as well as breathing for de air pollution insyd.<ref name="The human health risk estimation of">{{cite journal |last1=Afshar-Mohajer |first1=Nima |last2=Fox |first2=Mary A. |last3=Koehler |first3=Kirsten |date=1 March 2019 |title=The human health risk estimation of inhaled oil spill emissions with and without adding dispersant |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969718344656 |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=654 |pages=924–932 |bibcode=2019ScTEn.654..924A |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.11.110 |pmid=30453262 |s2cid=53946118 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons be especially concerning sekof demma persistence for de environment insyd. Even for low amounts insyd, prolonged exposure fi cause serious health issues such as cancer den oda chronic illnesses.<ref name="The human health risk estimation of" /> For general insyd, de harmful pollutants wey dem emit from oil spills den oda pollution dey include cancer, metabolic syndrome, miscarriages, stillbirths, den infertility.<ref name="The human health risk estimation of" /> Less deadly, but still serious, health problems dey include headache, watery eyes, sore throat, respiratory problems, itchy skin, rashes for face den neck top, sneezing, coughing, nausea, dizziness, chest pain, den diarrhea be common issues wey oil spills cause am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nriagu |first1=Jerome |last2=Udofia |first2=Emilia A. |last3=Ekong |first3=Ibanga |last4=Ebuk |first4=Godwin |date=March 2016 |title=Health Risks Associated with Oil Pollution in the Niger Delta, Nigeria |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |volume=13 |issue=3 |page=346 |doi=10.3390/ijerph13030346 |pmc=4809009 |pmid=27007391 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Collectively, more dan 1 million pippoe dey live for de area insyd dat oil/gas pollution already contaminate am. Dis population be especially vulnerable to chronic illnesses sekof demma pre-existing low life expectancy den large ratio of young pippoe.<ref name="sciencedirect.com" /> Additionally, a 2006 report wey de United Nations Development Programme do am dey say "De Niger Delta be a region wey dey suffer from administrative neglect, wey dey crumble social infrastructure den services, high unemployment, social deprivation, abject poverty, filth den squalor, den endemic conflict,"<ref>{{cite web |author1=United Nations |date=1 January 2006 |title=Human Development Report |url=https://hdr.undp.org/content/human-development-report#:~:text=%22The%20Niger%20Delta%20is%20a,conflict%2C%22%20says%20the%20report. |publisher=United Nations |language=en}}</ref>. Dem factors dey make am increasingly harder give de local communities to deal plus de negative effects wey foreign oil exploration cause am. De pippoe wey oil spills affect am for de Niger Delta insyd be diverse communities wey dey reside for de region insyd. Dem intricately connect demma lives to de natural environment. Dem communities, often make up of indigenous groups, dey rely for de Niger Delta ein resources top give demma food, water, livelihoods, den cultural practices. De impact of oil spills for dem communities top be multi-faceted den dey extend beyond health problems. Fishing den agriculture be central to de livelihoods of many Niger Delta communities. Oil spills dey contaminate water sources den farmlands, wey e severely affect fish stocks den crops. Dis disruption fi lead to food shortages den economic hardship give dem dependent for dem activities top.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Osuagwu |first1=Eze Simpson |last2=Olaifa |first2=Eseoghene |date=25 October 2018 |title=Effects of oil spills on fish production in the Niger Delta |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=13 |issue=10 |bibcode=2018PLoSO..1305114O |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0205114 |pmc=6201865 |pmid=30359365 |doi-access=free |article-number=e0205114}}</ref> Anoda facet of de pippoe ein livelihoods be demma culture. De Niger Delta ein pippoe get strong spiritual den cultural ties to demma environment. De harm inflict for demma land top den waterways wey oil spills cause am dey deeply disrupt sacred sites den dey interfere plus demma cultural practices. De loss of dem cultural elements dey contribute to a sense of displacement den identity crisis among de affected groups/communities.<ref name="soa">{{cite journal |last=Aghalino |first=S.O. |date=February 2011 |title=Oil and Cultural Crisis: The Case of the Niger Delta |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301637735 |journal=Africana |volume=5 |issue=1 |page=15 |access-date=December 14, 2023}}</ref> Additionally, wen communities fight back against de oil industries as an act of protest, violence be often perpetuated. Since de 1990s der already be continuous violence for an effort insyd to give local communities control of de oil for de delta insyd. Dem acts of violence dey include de kidnapping of foreign oil workers den dey hold dem give ransom, vandalization, den even de blowing up of oil installations.<ref name="soa" /> == Notes == <references /> == References == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090805174150/http://nigerdeltavine.com/ Niger Delta-Archive of News, Interviews, Articles, Analysis from 1999 to Present] * ''Proceedings of the Ibibio Union 1928–1937''. Edited by Monday Efiong Noah. Modern Business Press Ltd, Uyo. * Urhobo Historical Society (4 August 2003). Urhobo Historical Society Responds to Itsekiri Claims on Warri City and Western Niger Delta. * [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/may/30/oil-spills-nigeria-niger-delta-shell/ "Nigeria's agony dwarfs the Gulf oil spill. The US and Europe ignore it"] == External links == * [http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/02/nigerian-oil/oneill-text National Geographic Magazine: "Curse of the Black Gold, Hope, and betrayal on the Niger Delta"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080826021356/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/02/nigerian-oil/oneill-text|date=2008-08-26}} — ''February 2007 issue''. * [http://nigerdeltaforum.com/index.php/topic,158.0.html, Nigerdeltaforum.com: forum] [http://nigerdeltaforum.com/index.php/topic,158.0.html, for de Niger Delta top den ein pippoe] *Niger-Delta Development Commission, [https://web.archive.org/web/20051025160835/http://www.nddconline.org/The_Niger_Delta/ Niger Delta: A Brief History] *American Association give de Advancement of Science, [https://web.archive.org/web/20051119105233/http://www.aaas.org/international/ssd/nigerdelta/ Niger Delta] *[http://www.eraction.org/ Environmental Rights Action] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050810081722/http://www.eraction.org/|date=2005-08-10}} *[http://www.my-nigeria.com/?tag=niger-delta News] [http://www.my-nigeria.com/?tag=niger-delta for de Niger Delta top] hc72b2amwzv0ks78h2qe53aujncqnc2 102874 102873 2026-06-14T22:21:10Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 102874 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Nigerdelta_NASA.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nigerdelta_NASA.jpg|thumb|384x384px|View of de Niger Delta from space (north/land at top).]] De '''Niger Delta''' be de [[:en:River_delta|delta]] of de [[:en:Niger_River|Niger River]] wey dey sit directly for de [[Gulf of Guinea]] top for de [[Atlantic Ocean]] top for Nigeria insyd.<ref>C. Michael Hogan, [http://www.eoearth.org/article/Niger_River?topic=78166 "Niger River", in M. McGinley (ed.), ''Encyclopedia of Earth''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130420075935/http://www.eoearth.org/article/Niger_River?topic=78166|date=2013-04-20}}, Washington, DC: National Council for Science and Environment, 2013</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Umoh |first1=Unyime U. |last2=Li |first2=Li |last3=Wang |first3=Junjian |last4=Kauluma |first4=Ndamononghenda |last5=Asuquo |first5=Francis E. |last6=Akpan |first6=Ekom R. |date=August 2022 |title=Glycerol dialkyl glycerol tetraether signatures in tropical mesotidal estuary sediments of Qua Iboe River, Gulf of Guinea |journal=Organic Geochemistry |volume=170 |bibcode=2022OrGeo.17004461U |doi=10.1016/j.orggeochem.2022.104461 |s2cid=249615285 |article-number=104461}}</ref> Dem locate am within nine coastal southern Nigerian states, wey dey include: all six states from de South South geopolitical zone, one state (Ondo) from South West geopolitical zone den two states (Abia den Imo) from South East geopolitical zone. De Niger Delta be a very densely populated region wey dem samtimes bell am de '''Oil Rivers''' sekof e once be a major producer of palm oil.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Otoabasi |first=Akpan |title=The Niger Delta Question and the peace plan |publisher=Spectrum Books |year=2011}}</ref> De area be de British Oil Rivers Protectorate from 1885 until 1893, wen dem expand am den becam de Niger Coast Protectorate. De delta be a petroleum-rich region den e already get de center of international concern ova extensive pollution wey dem often use am as an example of ecocide.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=2021-04-07 |title='Ecocide' movement pushes for a new international crime: Environmental destruction |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/ecocide-movement-pushes-new-international-crime-environmental-destruction-n1263142 |access-date=2023-07-06 |website=NBC News |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=5 February 2014 |title=Fighting ecocide in Nigeria |url=https://theecologist.org/2014/feb/05/fighting-ecocide-nigeria |access-date=2023-07-06 |website=theecologist.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=UNPO: Ogoni: An Ecocide in the Making? |url=https://unpo.org/article/19131 |access-date=2023-07-06 |website=unpo.org}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite news|date=2011-08-22|title=How an ecocide law could prevent another Nigerian oil disaster|language=en-GB|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2011/aug/22/ecocide-law-nigerian-oil-disaster|access-date=2023-07-06|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> De principal cause be major oil spills by multinational corporations of de petroleum industry.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Aghalino |first=S.O |title=Combating the Niger Delta Crisis: an appraisal of Federal Government response to Anti-Oil protect in Niger Delta, 1958-2002. |publisher=Maiduguri journal of Historical studies |year=2004}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dakolo |first=Bubaraye |title=The Riddle of the Oil Thief |publisher=Purple Shelves |year=2021 |isbn=978-978-988-990-7 |location=Lagos |pages=117–170}}</ref> == Geography == De Niger Delta, as rydee dem define am officially by de Nigerian government, dey extend ova 70,000 km² (27,000 sq mi) den dey make up 7.5% of Nigeria ein land mass.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Chukwu|first=Ignatius|date=2023-10-01|title=What Nigeria’s independence means for Niger Delta|url=https://businessday.ng/life/article/what-nigerias-independence-means-for-niger-delta/|location=Lagos, Nigeria|access-date=2025-11-21|newspaper=[[BusinessDay (Nigeria)|BusinessDay]]|language=en-US}}</ref> Historically den cartographically, e dey consist of present-day Bayelsa, Delta, den Rivers States. For 2000 insyd, howeva, Obasanjo ein regime wey e include Abia, Akwa-Ibom, Cross River State, Edo, Imo den Ondo States for de region insyd.<ref name=":0" /> De Niger Delta den de South-South geopolitical zone (wey dey contain six of de states for de Niger Delta insyd) be two different entities. De Niger Delta dey separate de Bight of Benin from de Bight of Bonny within de larger Gulf of Guinea.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Akpan |first=D. |title=Oil Exploration and environmental degradation in the Niger Delta. A paper presented at the first regional conference. |year=2006}}</ref> == Demographics == De political Niger Delta be home to approximately 31 million pippoe from ova 40 ethnic groups, wey dey include de Ijaws—such as de Kalabari, Okrika, Epie-Atissa, Ogbia, Abua, Obolo, Opobo, Ibani, Apoi, Arogbo, Olodiama, Biseni, Akinima, Ibibio, Urhobo, Annang, Oron, Efik, Ogoni, Edo, Esan, Isoko, Igbo den Okpe among odas. Dem communities dey speak around 250 different dialects. De Ijaw be de largest ethnic group for de Niger Delta insyd, plus a widespread presence across six states for de region insyd. De major language groups wey dem speak for de Niger Delta insyd dey include de Ijaw languages, Ibibio-Efik,<ref name="nigerdeltabudget.org">{{Cite web |title=The Niger Delta – Niger Delta Budget Monitoring Group |url=https://www.nigerdeltabudget.org/the-niger-delta/ |access-date=2023-05-24 |language=en-US}}</ref> Edoid languages.<ref name=":1" /> == History == === Colonial period === De area be de British Oil Rivers Protectorate from 1885 until 1893 wen dem expand am den becam de Niger Coast Protectorate. De core Niger Delta later becam a part of de eastern region of Nigeria, wey cam into being for 1951 insyd (one of de three regions, den later one of de four regions). De majority of de pippoe be dem pippoe from de colonial Calabar den Ogoja divisions, de present-day Ogoja, Annang, Ibibio, Oron, Efik, Ijaw den Ogoni pippoe. De National Council of Nigeria and Cameroon (NCNC) be de ruling political party of de region. De NCNC later becam de National Convention of Nigerian Citizens, after western Cameroon decide to separate from Nigeria. De ruling party of eastern Nigeria no seek to preclude de separation den even encourage am. De then Eastern Region get de third, fourth, den fifth largest indigenous ethnic groups for de country, wey be de Igbo, Ijaw den Ibibio. For 1953 insyd, de Old Eastern region get a major crisis wen dem expel professor Eyo Ita from office by de majority Igbo tribe of de Old Eastern region. Ita, an Efik man from Calabar, be one of de pioneer nationalists give Nigerian independence. De non-igbo of den then eastern region, de Ibibio, Annang, Efik, Ijaw den Ogoja, wey dem situate along de southeastern coast den for de delta region insyd den demand a state of demma own, wey dem bell am de Calabar-Ogoja-Rivers (COR) state. De Ibibio pippoe of de present Akwa Ibom State den Cross River State wey dem sanso champion give demma state thru de Ibibio State Union. De struggle give de creation of de COR state continue den be a major issue wey dey concern de status of minorities for Nigeria insyd during debates for Europe insyd for Nigerian independence top. As a result of dis crisis, Professor Eyo Ita lef de NCNC to form a new political party wey dem bell am National Independence Party wey be one of de five Nigerian political parties wey dem represent am at de conferences for Nigerian Constitution den Independence top.<ref name="nigerdeltabudget.org" /> === Post-colonial period === For 1961 insyd, anoda major crisis occur wen de then-eastern region of Nigeria allow present-day southwestern Cameroon to separate from Nigeria (from de region of wat rydee be Akwa Ibom den Cross River states) thru a plebiscite while de leadership of de Northern Region take de necessary steps to keep northwestern Cameroon for Nigeria insyd, for present-day Adamawa den Taraba states insyd. De aftermath of de 1961 plebiscite lead to a dispute between Cameroon den Nigeria ova de small territory of Bakassi. A new phase of de struggle see de declaration of an Independent Niger Delta Republic by Isaac Adaka Boro during Nigerian presido Ironsi ein administration, just before de Nigerian Civil War.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Writer|first=Guest|date=2018-05-22|title=The revolutionist as the true national knight: Retelling the tale of Isaac Boro 50 years after|url=https://www.thecable.ng/the-revolutionist-as-the-true-national-knight-retelling-major-isaac-boro-fifty-years-after/|access-date=2024-07-04|newspaper=[[TheCable]]|language=en-US}}</ref> Sanso just before de Nigerian civil war, dem create Southeastern State of Nigeria (dem sanso know am Southeastern Nigeria anaa Coastal Southeastern Nigeria), wey get de colonial Calabar division, den colonial Ogoja division. Rivers State wey dem sanso create am. Southeastern State den River State becam two states give de minorities of de old eastern region, den de majority Igbo of de old eastern region get a state wey dem bell am East Central State. Dem rename Southeastern State as Cross River State den dem later split am into Cross River State den Akwa Ibom State. Dem later divide Rivers State into Rivers State den Bayelsa State. === Nigerian Civil War === Niger Delta pippoe suffer heavily plus de great loss of lives den properties, hunger den starvation, den sustain many deaths during 1967–1970 Nigerian Civil War, wey dem sanso know am de Biafran War, for wey de eastern region declare an independent state wey dem name am Biafra wey dem eventually defeat am.<ref>{{Citation |title=The International Politics of the Nigerian Civil War, 1967-1970 |date=2015-12-31 |pages=xv–xx |chapter=Chronology of Important Events in the Nigerian Civil War |publisher=Princeton University Press |doi=10.1515/9781400871285-003 |isbn=978-1-4008-7128-5}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last1=Heerten |first1=Lasse |title=The Nigeria-Biafra War |date=2017-07-06 |work=Postcolonial Conflict and the Question of Genocide |pages=3–43 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9781315229294-1 |isbn=978-1-315-22929-4 |last2=Moses |first2=A. Dirk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ekwe-Ekwe, Herbert. |title=The Biafra War: Nigeria and the aftermath. |date=1991 |publisher=[[Edwin Mellen Press]] |isbn=0-88946-235-6 |location=[[Lewiston, New York]] |oclc=476261625}}</ref> During dis period, dem shut down schools completely, den gunfire becam a daily occurrence. === Non-violent resistance === <blockquote>''Make you sanso see: [[:en:Movement_for_the_Survival_of_the_Ogoni_People|Movement]] [[:en:Movement_for_the_Survival_of_the_Ogoni_People|give de Survival of de Ogoni Pippoe]]''</blockquote>Following de civil war, local communities increasingly social den environmental justice wey dem demand from de federal government, plus Ken Saro Wiwa den de Ogoni tribe as de lead figures give dis phase of de struggle. Cohesive oil protests becam most pronounced for 1990 insyd plus de publication of de Ogoni Bill of Rights. Indigenous pippoe protest against de lack of economic development, e.g. schools, good roads, den hospitals, for de region insyd, despite all de oil wealth wey dem create. Dem sanso complain about environmental pollution den de destruction of demma land den rivers by foreign oil companies. Dem arrest den kill Ken Saro Wiwa den nine oda oil activists from Movement give de Survival of de Ogoni Pippoe (MOSOP) under Sani Abacha for 1995 insyd.<ref>Strutton, Laine (2014). ''The New Mobilization from Below: Women's Oil Protests in the Niger Delta, Nigeria'' (Thesis). [[:en:ProQuest|ProQuest]] [https://www.proquest.com/docview/1666393541 1666393541].</ref> === Recent armed conflict === <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Conflict_in_the_Niger_Delta|Conflict]] [[:en:Conflict_in_the_Niger_Delta|for de Niger Delta insyd]]''</blockquote>Wen long-held dey concern about loss of control ova resources to de oil companies wey de Ijaw pippoe voice am for de Kaiama Declaration insyd for 1998 insyd, de Nigerian government send troops to occupy de Bayelsa den Delta states. Soldiers open fire plus rifles, machine guns, den tear gas, wey e kill at least three protesters den dey arrest twenty-five more.<ref>{{cite web |date=1998-12-30 |title=State of Emergency Declared in the Niger Delta |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/1998/12/31/state-emergency-declared-niger-delta |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120805220129/http://www.hrw.org/news/1998/12/31/state-emergency-declared-niger-delta |archive-date=2012-08-05 |access-date=2018-01-19 |publisher=Human Rights Watch}}</ref> Since then, local Indigenous activity against commercial oil refineries den pipelines for de region insyd increase for frequency den militancy insyd. Recently foreign employees of Shell, de primary corporation wey dey operate for de region insyd, dem take hostage by local pippoe. Such activities sanso result for greater governmental intervention insyd for de area insyd den de mobilization of de Nigerian Army den State Security Service into de region, wey e result for violence den human rights abuses insyd. For April 2006 insyd, a bomb explode near an oil refinery for de Niger Delta region insyd, a warning against Chinese expansion for de region insyd. De Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND) state: "We wish to warn de Chinese government den ein oil companies to steer well clear of de Niger Delta. De Chinese government, by investing for stolen crude insyd, dey places ein citizens for our line of fire insyd."<ref>Ian Taylor, [http://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/741-China-s-environmental-footprint-in-Africa "China's environmental footprint in Africa"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070223061935/http://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/741-China-s-environmental-footprint-in-Africa|date=2007-02-23}}, ''China Dialogue'', 2 February 2007.</ref> Government den private initiatives to develop de Niger Delta region, dem already introduce dem recently. Dem dey include de Niger Delta Development Commission, a government initiative, den de Development Initiative, a community development non-governmental organization wey dey base for Port Harcourt insyd. Uz den Uz Transnational, a company plus a strong commitment to de Niger Delta, wey introduce ways of developing de poor for de Niger Delta insyd, especially for Rivers State insyd. For September 2008 insyd, MEND release a statement wey dey proclaim dat demma militants launch an "oil war" thruout de Niger Delta against both, pipelines den oil-production facilities, den de Nigerian soldiers dat dey protect dem. Both MEND den de Nigerian Government dey claim to have inflicted heavy casualties for one anoda top.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7615498.stm "Nigeria militants warn of oil war"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080915064938/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7615498.stm|date=2008-09-15}}, BBC News, 14 September 2008.</ref> For August 2009 insyd, de Nigerian government grant amnesty to de militants; many militants subsequently surrender demma weapons for exchange give a presidential pardon insyd, rehabilitation programme, den education. == Sub-regions == '''Western Niger Delta''' dey consist of de western section of coastal South-South Nigeria wey dey include Delta, den de southernmost parts of Edo, den Ondo States. De western (anaa Northern) Niger Delta be a heterogeneous society plus several ethnic groups wey dey include de Urhobo, De Western Igbos; Ika pippoe, Aniocha Pippoe, Isoko, Ijaw (anaa Izon) den Ukwuani, Itsekiri de Bini, Esan, Auchi, Esako, oral, den Afenmai for Edo State insyd; den de Ilaje Yoruba for Ondo State insyd. Demma livelihoods be primarily dey base for fishing den farming top. History get am say de Kings of de four primary ethnic groups control Western Niger de Urhobo, Isoko, Ijaw, den, Itsekiri plus wey de British government get to sign separate "Treaties of Protection" for demma formation of "Protectorates" insyd dat later becam southern Nigeria. '''Central Niger Delta''' dey consist of de central section of coastal South-South Nigeria wey dey include Bayelsa, Rivers, Abia, den Imo States. De Central Niger Delta region get de Ijaw (wey dey include de Nembe-Brass, Ogbia, Kalabari pippoe, Ibani of Opobo & Bonny, Abua, Okrika, Engenni den Andoni clans), de Ogoni pippoe (Khana, Gokana, Tai den Eleme), De Igbos (de Etche, Egbema, Omuma, Ogba, Ikwerre, Ndoni, Ekpeye den Ndoki) for Rivers State insyd. '''Eastern Niger Delta''' dey consist of Cross River State den Akwa Ibom State. E get de homogeneous Annang, Efik, Ibibio den Oron pippoe, Ogoja (dat dey include Ekoi den Bekwara). == Nigerian oil == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Petroleum_industry_in_Nigeria|Petroleum industry]]'' [[:en:Petroleum_industry_in_Nigeria|''for Nigeria insyd'']]</blockquote>Nigeria becam West Africa ein biggest producer of petroleum. Dem extract sam 2 million barrels (320,000 m³) per day for de Niger Delta insyd, plus an estimated 38 billion barrels of reserves.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Isumonah |first=V. Adelfemi |year=2013 |title=Armed Society in the Niger Delta |journal=Armed Forces & Society |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=331–358 |doi=10.1177/0095327x12446925 |s2cid=110566551}}</ref> De first oil operations for de region insyd begin for de 1950s insyd den dem undertake am by multinational corporations, wey provide Nigeria plus necessary technological den financial resources to extract oil.<ref>{{cite book |last=Pearson |first=Scott R. |title=Petroleum and the Nigerian Economy |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=1970 |isbn=0-8047-0749-9 |location=Stanford |page=13}}</ref> Since 1975, de region account give more dan 75% of Nigeria ein export earnings.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Akpeninor |first=James Ohwofasa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ESk7b8iKIU0C&pg=PA576 |title=Giant in the Sun: Echoes of Looming Revolution? |date=2012-08-28 |publisher=AuthorHouse |isbn=978-1-4772-1868-6 |language=en}}</ref> Togeda oil den natural gas extraction dey comprise "97 percent of Nigeria ein foreign exchange revenues".<ref>''Nigeria: Petroleum Pollution and Poverty in the Niger Delta''. United Kingdom: Amnesty International Publications International Secretariat, 2009, p. 10.</ref> More dan 70% of de natural gas wey dem extract for oil wells insyd for de delta insyd, dem immediately burn, anaa flared, into de air at a rate of approximately 70 million m³ per day.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=July 4, 2024 |title=A review of the effects of gas flaring on the Niger Delta |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233298409_A_review_of_the_effects_of_gas_flaring_on_the_Niger_Delta_environment |journal=ResearchGate}}</ref> Dis be equivalent to 41% of African natural gas consumption den dey form de largest single source of greenhouse gas emissions for de planet top. For 2003 insyd, dem flare about 99% of excess gas for de Niger Delta insyd, <ref>{{cite web |date=Nov 2003 |title=Nigeria's First National Communication Under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change |url=http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/niganc1.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090115182631/http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/niganc1.pdf |archive-date=15 January 2009 |access-date=24 January 2009 |work=UNFCC}}</ref> although dis value fall to 11% for 2010 insyd.<ref>[http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTOGMC/EXTGGFR/0,,contentMDK:22137498~pagePK:64168445~piPK:64168309~theSitePK:578069,00.html Global Gas Flaring reduction, The World Bank] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301124210/http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTOGMC/EXTGGFR/0,,contentMDK:22137498~pagePK:64168445~piPK:64168309~theSitePK:578069,00.html|date=2012-03-01}}, "Estimated Flared Volumes from Satellite Data, 2006–2010."</ref> (Make you sanso see [[:en:Gas_flaring#Volume|gas flaring volumes]]). De biggest gas flaring company be de Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria Ltd, a joint venture dat be majority-owned by de Nigerian government. For Nigeria insyd, "...despite regulations wey dem introduce 20 years ago to outlaw de practice, dem flare most associated gas, wey e cause local pollution den dey contribute to climate change."<ref>{{cite web |date=October 2004 |title=Gas Flaring in Nigeria |url=http://www.foe.co.uk/resource/media_briefing/gasflaringinnigeria.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225211133/http://www.foe.co.uk/resource/media_briefing/gasflaringinnigeria.pdf |archive-date=25 February 2009 |access-date=24 January 2009 |work=Friends of the Earth}}</ref> De environmental devastation wey dem associate plus de industry den de lack of distribution of oil wealth already be de source den/anaa key aggravating factors of numerous environmental movements den inter-ethnic conflicts for de region insyd, wey dey include recent guerrilla activity by MEND. For September 2012 insyd Eland Oil & Gas purchase a 45% interest for OML 40 insyd, plus ein partner Starcrest Energy Nigeria Limited, from de Shell Group. Dem intend to recommission de existing infrastructure den restart existing wells to re-commence production at an initial gross rate of 2,500 barrels (400 m³) of oil per day plus a target to grow gross production to 50,000 barrels (7,900 m³) of oil per day within four years. === Oil revenue derivation === Oil revenue allocation already be de subject of much contention well before Nigeria gain ein independence. Allocations have varied from as much as 50%, wey e owe to de First Republic ein high degree of regional autonomy, den as low as 10% during de military dictatorships. {| class="wikitable" |+Oil revenue sharing formula !Year !Federal !State* !Local !Special Projects !Derivation Formula** |- |1958 |40% |60% |0% |0% |50% |- |1968 |80% |20% |0% |0% |10% |- |1977 |75% |22% |3% |0% |10% |- |1982 |55% |32.5% |10% |2.5% |10% |- |1989 |50% |24% |15% |11% |10% |- |1995 |48.5% |24% |20% |7.5% |13% |- |2001 |48.5% |24% |20% |7.5% |13% |} ''* State allocations are based on 5 criteria: equality (equal shares per state), population, social development, land mass, and revenue generation.'' ''**The derivation formula refers to the percentage of the revenue oil-producing states retain from taxes on oil and other natural resources produced in the state.'' [http://info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/library/5783/State_and_Governance_Nigeria.htm World Bank Report] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160921053829/http://info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/library/5783/State_and_Governance_Nigeria.htm|date=2016-09-21}} == Media == De documentary film ''[[:en:Sweet_Crude|Sweet Crude]]'', wey dem premier April 2009 at de Full Frame Documentary Film Festival, dey tell de story of Nigeria ein Niger Delta.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sweet Crude: A New Documentary on the Niger Delta by Sandy Cioffi |url=http://www.sweetcrudemovie.com/ |access-date=2023-05-24 |website=www.sweetcrudemovie.com}}</ref> == Environmental issues == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Environmental_issues_in_the_Niger_Delta|Environmental issues]] [[:en:Environmental_issues_in_the_Niger_Delta|for de Niger Delta insyd]]''</blockquote>De Niger Delta be a region of unparalleled ecological richness, wey ein intricate network of waterways characterize am, lush mangrove forests, den diverse ecosystems. Howeva, dem damage de serene beauty of dis landscape by a persistent environmental menace, oil spills. Ova de years, de Niger Delta experience a series of devastating oil spills, wey industrial activities wey relate to de extraction den transportation of oil den gas primarily cause am. Sekof dis high amount of spills, dem consider de Niger Delta as one of de most polluted areas for Earth top.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Anejionu |first1=Obinna Chukwubuikem Diony |last2=Blackburn |first2=George Alan |last3=Whyatt |first3=J. Duncan |date=4 March 2014 |title=Satellite survey of gas flares: development and application of a Landsat-based technique in the Niger Delta |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01431161.2013.879351 |journal=International Journal of Remote Sensing |language=en |volume=35 |issue=5 |pages=1900–1925 |bibcode=2014IJRS...35.1900A |doi=10.1080/01431161.2013.879351 |s2cid=53705868 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Dem spills inflict severe den continuous damage for de delicate balance of de region ein ecosystems top. Dem impact both de environment den de livelihoods of de communities dat dey depend for ein resources top. Two spills for 2008 den 2009 insyd already be de largest den most harmful by far, collectively dey last give almost 150 days den dey cause flora death thruout 393 km². De extensive network of tidal rivers den mangrove swamps dey make am even easier give de oil to spread quickly, den de delta dey becam a sink, wey e trap de oil dat dem no remove am.<ref name="sciencedirect.com">{{cite journal |last1=Obida |first1=Christopher B. |last2=Blackburn |first2=George A. |last3=Whyatt |first3=James D. |last4=Semple |first4=Kirk T. |date=25 June 2021 |title=Counting the cost of the Niger Delta's largest oil spills: Satellite remote sensing reveals extensive environmental damage with >1million people in the impact zone |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969721009219 |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=775 |bibcode=2021ScTEn.775n5854O |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.145854 |s2cid=233538622 |url-access=subscription |article-number=145854}}</ref> De spills cam from a pipeline wey Shell Petroleum Development Company operate am. For addition to smaller spills insyd dat take place ova de years 2006–2019, dem estimate am dat dem release a total of 92,479,170 liters (anaa 24430412.139 gallons) of crude oil into de area wey dem study.<ref name="sciencedirect.com" /> Since then, following spills continue to exacerbate de ecological damage. De exact impact of spills like dem be hard to know sekof traditional field studies dey nearly impossible for dis region. Howeva, techniques such as de normalized difference vegetation index already be successful for measuring de impact of oil spills insyd for de river ein plant health top. Additionally, field samples wey dem independently collect am, dem confirm de presence of hydrocarbon pollutants for high concentrations insyd for de impacted areas insyd.<ref name="sciencedirect.com" /> Oil den gas pollution/spills dey greatly increase de possibility of human exposure to dangerous chemicals. Many components of crude oil be particularly concerning sekof demma link to de health problems wey exposure cause am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ugochukwu |first1=Uzochukwu C. |last2=Ochonogor |first2=Alfred |last3=Jidere |first3=Chika M. |last4=Agu |first4=Chizoba |last5=Nkoloagu |first5=Frida |last6=Ewoh |first6=John |last7=Okwu-Delunzu |first7=Virginia U. |date=1 June 2018 |title=Exposure risks to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by humans and livestock (cattle) due to hydrocarbon spill from petroleum products in Niger-delta wetland |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S016041201732158X |journal=Environment International |volume=115 |pages=38–47 |bibcode=2018EnInt.115...38U |doi=10.1016/j.envint.2018.03.010 |pmid=29547867 |s2cid=3902367 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Dis dey include organic contaminants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene den xylene,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Philibert |first1=Danielle A. |last2=Lyons |first2=Danielle |last3=Philibert |first3=Clara |last4=Tierney |first4=Keith B. |date=10 January 2019 |title=Field-collected crude oil, weathered oil and dispersants differentially affect the early life stages of freshwater and saltwater fishes |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969718330213 |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=647 |pages=1148–1157 |bibcode=2019ScTEn.647.1148P |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.08.052 |pmid=30180323 |s2cid=52156999 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> as well as heavy metals such as lead, vanadium den cadmium. In fact, according to de Scientific Committee for Health, Environmental den Emerging Risks top, dem fi put more dan 1300 different chemicals into de environment as a result of oil den gas exploration.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bertollini |first1=Roberto |last2=Teresa |first2=Borges |last3=Pim |first3=deVoogt |last4=Peter |first4=Hoet |date=30 November 2018 |title=OPINION ON the public health impacts and risks resulting from onshore oil and gas exploration and exploitation in the EU |journal=Scientific Committee on Health, Environmental and Emerging Risks SCHEER}}</ref> Then, humans cam for contact insyd plus dem harmful substances thru eating contaminated food as well as breathing for de air pollution insyd.<ref name="The human health risk estimation of">{{cite journal |last1=Afshar-Mohajer |first1=Nima |last2=Fox |first2=Mary A. |last3=Koehler |first3=Kirsten |date=1 March 2019 |title=The human health risk estimation of inhaled oil spill emissions with and without adding dispersant |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969718344656 |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=654 |pages=924–932 |bibcode=2019ScTEn.654..924A |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.11.110 |pmid=30453262 |s2cid=53946118 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons be especially concerning sekof demma persistence for de environment insyd. Even for low amounts insyd, prolonged exposure fi cause serious health issues such as cancer den oda chronic illnesses.<ref name="The human health risk estimation of" /> For general insyd, de harmful pollutants wey dem emit from oil spills den oda pollution dey include cancer, metabolic syndrome, miscarriages, stillbirths, den infertility.<ref name="The human health risk estimation of" /> Less deadly, but still serious, health problems dey include headache, watery eyes, sore throat, respiratory problems, itchy skin, rashes for face den neck top, sneezing, coughing, nausea, dizziness, chest pain, den diarrhea be common issues wey oil spills cause am.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nriagu |first1=Jerome |last2=Udofia |first2=Emilia A. |last3=Ekong |first3=Ibanga |last4=Ebuk |first4=Godwin |date=March 2016 |title=Health Risks Associated with Oil Pollution in the Niger Delta, Nigeria |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |volume=13 |issue=3 |page=346 |doi=10.3390/ijerph13030346 |pmc=4809009 |pmid=27007391 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Collectively, more dan 1 million pippoe dey live for de area insyd dat oil/gas pollution already contaminate am. Dis population be especially vulnerable to chronic illnesses sekof demma pre-existing low life expectancy den large ratio of young pippoe.<ref name="sciencedirect.com" /> Additionally, a 2006 report wey de United Nations Development Programme do am dey say "De Niger Delta be a region wey dey suffer from administrative neglect, wey dey crumble social infrastructure den services, high unemployment, social deprivation, abject poverty, filth den squalor, den endemic conflict,"<ref>{{cite web |author1=United Nations |date=1 January 2006 |title=Human Development Report |url=https://hdr.undp.org/content/human-development-report#:~:text=%22The%20Niger%20Delta%20is%20a,conflict%2C%22%20says%20the%20report. |publisher=United Nations |language=en}}</ref>. Dem factors dey make am increasingly harder give de local communities to deal plus de negative effects wey foreign oil exploration cause am. De pippoe wey oil spills affect am for de Niger Delta insyd be diverse communities wey dey reside for de region insyd. Dem intricately connect demma lives to de natural environment. Dem communities, often make up of indigenous groups, dey rely for de Niger Delta ein resources top give demma food, water, livelihoods, den cultural practices. De impact of oil spills for dem communities top be multi-faceted den dey extend beyond health problems. Fishing den agriculture be central to de livelihoods of many Niger Delta communities. Oil spills dey contaminate water sources den farmlands, wey e severely affect fish stocks den crops. Dis disruption fi lead to food shortages den economic hardship give dem dependent for dem activities top.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Osuagwu |first1=Eze Simpson |last2=Olaifa |first2=Eseoghene |date=25 October 2018 |title=Effects of oil spills on fish production in the Niger Delta |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=13 |issue=10 |bibcode=2018PLoSO..1305114O |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0205114 |pmc=6201865 |pmid=30359365 |doi-access=free |article-number=e0205114}}</ref> Anoda facet of de pippoe ein livelihoods be demma culture. De Niger Delta ein pippoe get strong spiritual den cultural ties to demma environment. De harm inflict for demma land top den waterways wey oil spills cause am dey deeply disrupt sacred sites den dey interfere plus demma cultural practices. De loss of dem cultural elements dey contribute to a sense of displacement den identity crisis among de affected groups/communities.<ref name="soa">{{cite journal |last=Aghalino |first=S.O. |date=February 2011 |title=Oil and Cultural Crisis: The Case of the Niger Delta |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301637735 |journal=Africana |volume=5 |issue=1 |page=15 |access-date=December 14, 2023}}</ref> Additionally, wen communities fight back against de oil industries as an act of protest, violence be often perpetuated. Since de 1990s der already be continuous violence for an effort insyd to give local communities control of de oil for de delta insyd. Dem acts of violence dey include de kidnapping of foreign oil workers den dey hold dem give ransom, vandalization, den even de blowing up of oil installations.<ref name="soa" /> == Notes == <references /> == References == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090805174150/http://nigerdeltavine.com/ Niger Delta-Archive of News, Interviews, Articles, Analysis from 1999 to Present] * ''Proceedings of the Ibibio Union 1928–1937''. Edited by Monday Efiong Noah. Modern Business Press Ltd, Uyo. * Urhobo Historical Society (4 August 2003). Urhobo Historical Society Responds to Itsekiri Claims on Warri City and Western Niger Delta. * [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/may/30/oil-spills-nigeria-niger-delta-shell/ "Nigeria's agony dwarfs the Gulf oil spill. The US and Europe ignore it"] == External links == * [http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/02/nigerian-oil/oneill-text National Geographic Magazine: "Curse of the Black Gold, Hope, and betrayal on the Niger Delta"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080826021356/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/02/nigerian-oil/oneill-text|date=2008-08-26}} — ''February 2007 issue''. * [http://nigerdeltaforum.com/index.php/topic,158.0.html, Nigerdeltaforum.com: forum] [http://nigerdeltaforum.com/index.php/topic,158.0.html, for de Niger Delta top den ein pippoe] *Niger-Delta Development Commission, [https://web.archive.org/web/20051025160835/http://www.nddconline.org/The_Niger_Delta/ Niger Delta: A Brief History] *American Association give de Advancement of Science, [https://web.archive.org/web/20051119105233/http://www.aaas.org/international/ssd/nigerdelta/ Niger Delta] *[http://www.eraction.org/ Environmental Rights Action] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050810081722/http://www.eraction.org/|date=2005-08-10}} *[http://www.my-nigeria.com/?tag=niger-delta News] [http://www.my-nigeria.com/?tag=niger-delta for de Niger Delta top] 6smbmxptfu2d7e9p2mspkjt3oms5m29 0 27537 102828 102816 2026-06-14T16:01:07Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 102828 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Kariba Dam''' be a double curvature concrete arch dam insyd de Kariba Gorge of de [[Zambezi]] river basin between [[Zambia]] den [[Zimbabwe]]. De dam stands {{Convert|128|m}} tall den {{Convert|579|m}} long.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.questia.com/library/encyclopedia/kariba-dam.jsp?l=K&p=1 |title=Kariba Dam |publisher=Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th Ed. |access-date=2007-07-31 }} </ref> De dam forms [[Lake Kariba]], wich extends for {{convert|280|km}} den holds {{convert|185|km3|acre.ft}} of water. == Construction == De dam was constructed on de orders of de Government of de Federation of Rhodesia den Nyasaland, a 'federal colony' within de British Empire. De consulting engineers, hu were Gibb, Coyne, Sogei (Kariba) (PVT.) Limited, a joint venture of consulting engineers, wich included Sir Alexander Gibb & Partners, whose team det lead by Sir Angus Paton,<ref>{{cite news|url= https://www.newcivilengineer.com/archive/obituary-sir-angus-paton-15-04-1999/ |title=Obituary Sir Angus Paton|date=15 April 1999|newspaper = New Civil Engineer|access-date=12 May 2025}}</ref> den Coyne et Bellier, whose team be lead by André Coyne.<ref name="spurwing">{{cite web|url=http://www.spurwing.co.zw/facts_kariba.htm |title=Kariba Dam|publisher=Spurwing facts|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091105204805/http://www.spurwing.co.zw/facts_kariba.htm |archive-date=5 November 2009}}</ref> De double curvature concrete arch dam be construct between 1955 den 1959 by Cogefar-Impresit of Italy<ref name="spurwing"/> at a cost of $135,000,000 for de first stage plus only de Kariba South power cavern. Final construction den de addition of de Kariba North Power cavern by Mitchell Construction<ref>Indictment: Power & Politics in the Construction Industry, David Morrell, Faber & Faber, 1987, {{ISBN|978-0-571-14985-8}}</ref> was not completed until 1977, due to largely political problems, for a total cost of $480,000,000. During construction, 86 construction workers lost their lives.<ref name="spurwing"/><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.industcards.com/hydro-africa-southern.htm | title=Hydroelectric Power Plants in Southern Africa | publisher=Industry Cards | work=Power Plants Around the World Photo Gallery | access-date=20 February 2014 | url-status=usurped | archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20090719030742/http://www.industcards.com/hydro%2Dafrica%2Dsouthern.htm | archive-date=19 July 2009 }}</ref> De dam was officially opened by Queen Elizabeth de Queen Mother on 17 May 1960.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/C2039917|title=Opening of Kariba Dam by HM The Queen Mother, May 1960|publisher=National Archives|access-date=10 September 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=PHmuseum: The Double Spiritual Nature of Lake Kariba |date=19 July 2021|url=https://phmuseum.com/news/the-double-spiritual-nature-of-lake-kariba|access-date=10 September 2021}}</ref> == References == qe5e9l0yd2yqgv2yoqebcm6cwbv22fm 14 27538 102824 2026-06-14T14:03:07Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 102824 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27539 102825 2026-06-14T14:03:17Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 102825 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27540 102826 2026-06-14T14:03:30Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 102826 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 0 27541 102830 2026-06-14T16:26:47Z Yaw tuba 7 created new article #AWC2026 102830 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox|item=Q31857611}} De '''Auob River''' be river insyd de [[Northern Cape]] province of [[South Africa]] den de [[Hardap Region]] of [[Namibia]]. Edey flow through de [[Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Stuart |first1=Chris |last2=Stuart |first2=Mathilde |title=National Parks and Nature Reserves: A South African Field Guide |date=7 February 2013 |publisher=Penguin Random House South Africa |isbn=978-1-920545-24-6 |page=563 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Tg9bDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT563 |access-date=7 April 2025 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Starfield |first1=A. M. |last2=Shapiro |first2=S. M. |last3=Furniss |first3=P. R. |last4=Sears |first4=M. |last5=Retief |first5=P. F. |last6=van der Walt |first6=P. T. |last7=Mills |first7=M. G. L. |title=A Developing Computer Model of the Auob River Ecosystem, Kalahari Gemsbok National Park |url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-68786-0_28 |website=Ecology of Tropical Savannas |publisher=Springer |access-date=7 April 2025 |pages=610–625 |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-68786-0_28 |date=1982}}</ref> Ebe [[tributary]] of de [[Nossob River]]. == Ein Route == [[File:Molopo Basin OSM.png|thumb|The Auob in the Molopo catchment area (center left)]] De river dey flow about {{convert|400|km|miles}} southeastward through Namibia den Northern Cape. === Headwaters === * {{coord|22.6514|S|17.286|E}} in [[Namibia]] === Mouth === * {{coord|26.4333|S|20.6167|E}}, Nossob River ==References== [[Category:Rivers of Namibia]] [[Category:Rivers of de Northern Cape]] <references /> {{Authority control}} ojkfiivvdmkau7h73ygm0n2alodarer 0 27542 102831 2026-06-14T17:12:17Z Yaw tuba 7 created new article #AWC2026 102831 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox|item=Q978191}} {{Short description|River in South Africa and Mozambique}} {{About|the tributary of the Limpopo River|other rivers|Olifants River (disambiguation)}} [[File:Limpopo watershed topo.png|thumb|300px|Course and catchment of the [[Limpopo River]]. The Olifants joins the Limpopo from the right, some 190 kilometres from the Indian Ocean.]] De '''Olifants River,''' '''Lepelle''',<ref>[http://www.krugerpark.co.za/krugerpark-times-2-15-olifants-river-lepelle-20557.html Olifants River now called Lepelle]</ref> '''iBhalule anaa Obalule'''<ref>[http://www.emagameni.co.za/Transvaal%20Indigenous%20Place%20Names.pdf Transvaal Indigenous Place Names] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081031094929/http://www.emagameni.co.za/Transvaal%20Indigenous%20Place%20Names.pdf |date=2008-10-31 }}</ref> (Afrikaans: Olifantsrivier; Portuguese: Rio dos Elefantes) be sam river for [[South Africa]] den [[Mozambique]], den e be tributary of de Limpopo River. E dey fall under Drainage Area B for de [[Drainage basins of South Africa]]. De historical area of de [[Pedi people]], [[Sekhukhuneland]], dey located between de Olifants River den one of ein biggest tributaries, de [[Steelpoort River]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ezakwantu.com/Tribes%20-%20Ba%20Pedi%20-%20Bapedi%20-%20Northern%20Basotho.htm |title=The Ba Pedi |access-date=2012-03-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314132451/http://www.ezakwantu.com/Tribes%20-%20Ba%20Pedi%20-%20Bapedi%20-%20Northern%20Basotho.htm |archive-date=2012-03-14 |url-status=dead }}</ref> ==Ein Course== De Olifants River get ein origin between [[Breyten]] den [[Bethal]], [[Mpumalanga Province]].<ref>[http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/y5744e/y5744e07.htm Major rivers and streams within the Limpopo River Basin]</ref> E dey flow go north towards [[Limpopo Province]] through [[Witbank Dam]] den den Loskop Dam, den de [[Drakensberg]] force am make e turn go east. E cut through de Abel Erasmus Pass den continue dey flow go east across de Lowveld before e join de [[Letaba River]]. E cross enter [[Gaza Province]], [[Mozambique]] after e cut through de Lebombo Mountains by way of de Olifants Gorge, den e become de Rio dos Elefantes. Finally, e join de Limpopo River after 40 km before de river enter de [[Indian Ocean]] for [[Xai-Xai]] north of [[Maputo]].<ref>[http://myfundi.co.za/e/Key_rivers_of_South_Africa Key rivers of South Africa] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120710162812/http://myfundi.co.za/e/Key_rivers_of_South_Africa |date=2012-07-10 }}</ref> ==Ein Water quality== Overgrazing for some sections of ein middle course dey make de river carry away plenty eroded soil after heavy rains.<ref>[http://www.csir.co.za/rhp/state_of_rivers/state_of_crocsabieolif_01/olif_eco.html The Olifants River System] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070703100205/http://www.csir.co.za/rhp/state_of_rivers/state_of_crocsabieolif_01/olif_eco.html |date=2007-07-03 }}</ref> De Olifants River don become one of de most heavily polluted rivers for South Africa, not because of human or industrial waste, but because green algae dey thrive plenty insyd am.<ref>[http://allafrica.com/stories/201008161197.html Contaminated Olifants River Running Out of Time]</ref>Sam study wey dem do for 2013 insyd Kruger Park show say de river be mesotrophic, wey mean say de nutrient levels no too high. However, small increase for nitrates fit start eutrophication. Dem also link very high sulphate levels to coal mining den industrial activities for de upper catchment area.<ref name="smi1">{{cite book |last1=Smit |first1=NJ |last2=Wepener |first2=V |last3=Vlok |first3=W |last4=Wagenaar |first4=GM |last5=van Vuren |first5=JHJ |title=Conservation of tigerfish, ''Hydrocynus vittatus'', in the Kruger National Park with the emphasis on establishing the suitability of the water quantity and quality requirements for the Olifants and Luvuvhu rivers: report to the Water Research Commission |date=2013 |publisher=Water Research Commission |location=Gezina [South Africa] |isbn=978-1-4312-0358-1 |page=vi |url=http://www.wrc.org.za/wp-content/uploads/mdocs/1922-1-121.pdf |access-date=28 February 2022}}</ref> ==Ein Tributaries== De Olifants River ein biggest tributaries be de [[Letaba River]]<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/iwqs/rhp/eco/FROC/WMA2LuvuvuLethaba.jpg Luvuvu Lethaba WMA 2]</ref> den de [[Steelpoort River]] wey dem know as Tubatse River.<ref>[http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/y5744e/y5744e07.htm Major rivers and streams within the Limpopo River Basin]</ref> Other tributaries be de [[Tongwane River|Tongwane]], [[Blyde River|Blyde]], [[Moses River|Moses]], [[Spekboom River|Spekboom]], [[Timbavati River|Timbavati]], [[Nkumpi River|Nkumpi]], [[Ga-Selati River|Ga-Selati]], [[Klaserie River|Klaserie]], [[Makhutswi River|Makhutswi]], [[Mohlapitse River]], [[Lepellane River]], [[Mohwetse River]] den Ngwaritsi River. Some of de tributaries, especially de [[Klein Olifants River]] (wey start near [[Hendrina]] den join de Olifants River downstream of de [[Middelburg Dam]]), de [[Elands River (Olifants)|Elands]], [[Wilge River (Olifants)|Wilge]] den de [[Bronkhorstspruit River|Bronkhorstspruit]], rise for de Highveld grasslands.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/iwqs/rhp/eco/FROC/WMA4Olifants.jpg Olifants river WMA 4]</ref> De [[Shingwedzi River]] dey flow close to de northeastern side of de [[Massingir Dam]] reservoir den join de left bank of de Olifants River about 12 km downstream from de dam wall.<ref>[http://www.sanparks.org/parks/kruger/conservation/scientific/noticeboard/science_network_meeting_2009/Presentations/vlok.pdf Shingwedzi River: why is it the most polluted river in the KNP?]</ref> ==Ein Dams== Thirty large dams wey dey insyd de Olifants River Catchment dey include de following: ===South Africa=== *[[Witbank Dam]] *[[Rhenosterkop Dam]], wey dey de [[Elands River (Olifants)|Elands River]] top *[[Rust de Winter Dam]] *[[Blyderivierpoort Dam]] *[[Loskop Dam]] *[[Middelburg Dam]], wey dey de [[Klein Olifants River]] *[[Ohrigstad Dam]] *[[De Hoop Dam (Limpopo)|De Hoop Dam]] *[[Flag Boshielo Dam]] *[[Phalaborwa Barrage]] ===Mozambique=== *[[Massingir Dam]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.thekruger.com/olifants/massingirdam.htm |title=Massingir Dam & Flooding of Olifants Gorge |access-date=2012-03-16 |archive-date=2017-07-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170727020147/http://www.thekruger.com/olifants/massingirdam.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> ==Sana spy== * [[:en:List_of_rivers_in_South_Africa|List of rivers insyd South Africa]] * [[:en:Water_Management_Areas|Water Management Areas]] == References == <references /> ==External links== *The Olifants River Basin, South Africa *Massingir Dam Rehabilitation *South African Geographical Names {{Authority control}} [[Category:Olifants River (Limpopo)| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Mpumalanga]] [[Category:Rivers of Limpopo]] [[Category:Tributaries of de Limpopo River]] pho3h735cn1vqlscoehwnwt4p81orr0 14 27543 102836 2026-06-14T19:53:15Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 102836 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27544 102837 2026-06-14T19:57:38Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 102837 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27545 102838 2026-06-14T19:58:14Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 102838 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27546 102844 2026-06-14T21:44:09Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 102844 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27547 102845 2026-06-14T21:44:41Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 102845 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27548 102846 2026-06-14T21:45:44Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 102846 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27549 102847 2026-06-14T21:45:57Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 102847 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27550 102848 2026-06-14T21:46:29Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 102848 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27551 102849 2026-06-14T21:46:45Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 102849 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 0 27552 102850 2026-06-14T21:49:13Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 102850 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Kafue Flats''' (wey dem locally bell am '''Butwa''') be a vast area of swamp, open lagoon den seasonally inundated flood-plain for de [[:en:Kafue_River|Kafue River]] top for de [[:en:Southern_Province,_Zambia|Southern]] insyd, [[:en:Central_Province,_Zambia|Central]] den [[:en:Lusaka_Province,_Zambia|Lusaka]] provinces of [[:en:Zambia|Zambia]]. fh4fvdlo5gq7cii5nxk00843a0h5ctr 102852 102850 2026-06-14T21:49:42Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 102852 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Kafue Flats''' (wey dem locally bell am '''Butwa''') be a vast area of swamp, open lagoon den seasonally inundated flood-plain for de [[:en:Kafue_River|Kafue River]] top for de [[:en:Southern_Province,_Zambia|Southern]] insyd, [[:en:Central_Province,_Zambia|Central]] den [[:en:Lusaka_Province,_Zambia|Lusaka]] provinces of [[:en:Zambia|Zambia]]. Dem be a shallow [[:en:Zambezian_flooded_grasslands|flood plain]] 240 km (150 mi) long den about 50 km (31 mi) wide, wey flood to a depth of less dan a meter for de rainy season insyd (deeper for sam lagoons den permanently swampy areas insyd), den e dry out to a clayey black soil for de dry season season. rw9i2h4eh74vnbicdz1yn0s1uecr11v 102853 102852 2026-06-14T21:50:10Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 102853 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Kafue Flats''' (wey dem locally bell am '''Butwa<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sorensen |first1=Carol |date=1995 |title=Controls and Sanctions over the Use of Resources In the Kafue Flats of Zambia |journal=Presented at the International Association for the Study of Common Property Fifth Common Property Conference 24–28 May 1995 at Bode, Norway}}</ref>''') be a vast area of swamp, open lagoon den seasonally inundated flood-plain for de [[:en:Kafue_River|Kafue River]] top for de [[:en:Southern_Province,_Zambia|Southern]] insyd, [[:en:Central_Province,_Zambia|Central]] den [[:en:Lusaka_Province,_Zambia|Lusaka]] provinces of [[:en:Zambia|Zambia]]. Dem be a shallow [[:en:Zambezian_flooded_grasslands|flood plain]] 240 km (150 mi) long den about 50 km (31 mi) wide, wey flood to a depth of less dan a meter for de rainy season insyd (deeper for sam lagoons den permanently swampy areas insyd), den e dry out to a clayey black soil for de dry season season. hyjyrivhh42e25nsnm1hs6eqs9nmfpx 102854 102853 2026-06-14T21:50:39Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 102854 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Kafue Flats''' (wey dem locally bell am '''Butwa<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sorensen |first1=Carol |date=1995 |title=Controls and Sanctions over the Use of Resources In the Kafue Flats of Zambia |journal=Presented at the International Association for the Study of Common Property Fifth Common Property Conference 24–28 May 1995 at Bode, Norway}}</ref>''') be a vast area of swamp, open lagoon den seasonally inundated flood-plain for de [[:en:Kafue_River|Kafue River]] top for de [[:en:Southern_Province,_Zambia|Southern]] insyd, [[:en:Central_Province,_Zambia|Central]] den [[:en:Lusaka_Province,_Zambia|Lusaka]] provinces of [[:en:Zambia|Zambia]]. Dem be a shallow [[:en:Zambezian_flooded_grasslands|flood plain]] 240 km (150 mi) long den about 50 km (31 mi) wide,<ref name="Google">[http://earth.google.com Google Earth] accessed 1 September 2014.</ref> wey flood to a depth of less dan a meter for de rainy season insyd (deeper for sam lagoons den permanently swampy areas insyd), den e dry out to a clayey black soil for de dry season season. ddxs86x2r5d9jgjrsgvt9v1wlds4251 102855 102854 2026-06-14T21:51:10Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 102855 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Kafue Flats''' (wey dem locally bell am '''Butwa<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sorensen |first1=Carol |date=1995 |title=Controls and Sanctions over the Use of Resources In the Kafue Flats of Zambia |journal=Presented at the International Association for the Study of Common Property Fifth Common Property Conference 24–28 May 1995 at Bode, Norway}}</ref>''') be a vast area of swamp, open lagoon den seasonally inundated flood-plain for de [[:en:Kafue_River|Kafue River]] top for de [[:en:Southern_Province,_Zambia|Southern]] insyd, [[:en:Central_Province,_Zambia|Central]] den [[:en:Lusaka_Province,_Zambia|Lusaka]] provinces of [[:en:Zambia|Zambia]]. Dem be a shallow [[:en:Zambezian_flooded_grasslands|flood plain]] 240 km (150 mi) long den about 50 km (31 mi) wide,<ref name="Google">[http://earth.google.com Google Earth] accessed 1 September 2014.</ref> wey flood to a depth of less dan a meter for de rainy season insyd (deeper for sam lagoons den permanently swampy areas insyd), den e dry out to a clayey black soil for de dry season season. == References == 2oh0aqvnnkx5ensl7kbr7ok7nvo4sp4 102856 102855 2026-06-14T21:54:04Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 102856 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Kafue Flats''' (wey dem locally bell am '''Butwa<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sorensen |first1=Carol |date=1995 |title=Controls and Sanctions over the Use of Resources In the Kafue Flats of Zambia |journal=Presented at the International Association for the Study of Common Property Fifth Common Property Conference 24–28 May 1995 at Bode, Norway}}</ref>''') be a vast area of swamp, open lagoon den seasonally inundated flood-plain for de [[:en:Kafue_River|Kafue River]] top for de [[:en:Southern_Province,_Zambia|Southern]] insyd, [[:en:Central_Province,_Zambia|Central]] den [[:en:Lusaka_Province,_Zambia|Lusaka]] provinces of [[:en:Zambia|Zambia]]. Dem be a shallow [[:en:Zambezian_flooded_grasslands|flood plain]] 240 km (150 mi) long den about 50 km (31 mi) wide,<ref name="Google">[http://earth.google.com Google Earth] accessed 1 September 2014.</ref> wey flood to a depth of less dan a meter for de rainy season insyd (deeper for sam lagoons den permanently swampy areas insyd), den e dry out to a clayey black soil for de dry season season. == References == ka071agl2ywkcqd70tmhv3rh2mmmto6 102862 102856 2026-06-14T22:05:43Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 102862 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Kafue Flats''' (wey dem locally bell am '''Butwa<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sorensen |first1=Carol |date=1995 |title=Controls and Sanctions over the Use of Resources In the Kafue Flats of Zambia |journal=Presented at the International Association for the Study of Common Property Fifth Common Property Conference 24–28 May 1995 at Bode, Norway}}</ref>''') be a vast area of swamp, open lagoon den seasonally inundated flood-plain for de [[:en:Kafue_River|Kafue River]] top for de [[:en:Southern_Province,_Zambia|Southern]] insyd, [[:en:Central_Province,_Zambia|Central]] den [[:en:Lusaka_Province,_Zambia|Lusaka]] provinces of [[:en:Zambia|Zambia]]. Dem be a shallow [[:en:Zambezian_flooded_grasslands|flood plain]] 240 km (150 mi) long den about 50 km (31 mi) wide,<ref name="Google">[http://earth.google.com Google Earth] accessed 1 September 2014.</ref> wey flood to a depth of less dan a meter for de rainy season insyd (deeper for sam lagoons den permanently swampy areas insyd), den e dry out to a clayey black soil for de dry season season. == Geography == De Kafue Flats dey stretch give approximately 240 km (150 mi) east to west along de [[:en:Kafue_River|Kafue River]] from below de Itezhi-Tezhi gap, site of de [[:en:Itezhi-Tezhi_Dam|Itezhi-Tezhi Dam]], to [[:en:Kafue| Kafue town]] den de start of de Kafue Gorge. == References == 1bwdw0b9si542obhcwp9xwyagb4rj3o 102863 102862 2026-06-14T22:06:30Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 102863 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Kafue Flats''' (wey dem locally bell am '''Butwa<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sorensen |first1=Carol |date=1995 |title=Controls and Sanctions over the Use of Resources In the Kafue Flats of Zambia |journal=Presented at the International Association for the Study of Common Property Fifth Common Property Conference 24–28 May 1995 at Bode, Norway}}</ref>''') be a vast area of swamp, open lagoon den seasonally inundated flood-plain for de [[:en:Kafue_River|Kafue River]] top for de [[:en:Southern_Province,_Zambia|Southern]] insyd, [[:en:Central_Province,_Zambia|Central]] den [[:en:Lusaka_Province,_Zambia|Lusaka]] provinces of [[:en:Zambia|Zambia]]. Dem be a shallow [[:en:Zambezian_flooded_grasslands|flood plain]] 240 km (150 mi) long den about 50 km (31 mi) wide,<ref name="Google">[http://earth.google.com Google Earth] accessed 1 September 2014.</ref> wey flood to a depth of less dan a meter for de rainy season insyd (deeper for sam lagoons den permanently swampy areas insyd), den e dry out to a clayey black soil for de dry season season. == Geography == De Kafue Flats dey stretch give approximately 240 km (150 mi) east to west along de [[:en:Kafue_River|Kafue River]] from below de Itezhi-Tezhi gap, site of de [[:en:Itezhi-Tezhi_Dam|Itezhi-Tezhi Dam]], to [[:en:Kafue| Kafue town]] den de start of de Kafue Gorge. At demma widest point dem be 50 km (31 mi) wide, den demma total area dey around 6,500 km² (2,500 sq mi). == References == k04fsl0dd8hzkfu5acdxwy4p9o14sw1 102864 102863 2026-06-14T22:07:29Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 102864 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Kafue Flats''' (wey dem locally bell am '''Butwa<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sorensen |first1=Carol |date=1995 |title=Controls and Sanctions over the Use of Resources In the Kafue Flats of Zambia |journal=Presented at the International Association for the Study of Common Property Fifth Common Property Conference 24–28 May 1995 at Bode, Norway}}</ref>''') be a vast area of swamp, open lagoon den seasonally inundated flood-plain for de [[:en:Kafue_River|Kafue River]] top for de [[:en:Southern_Province,_Zambia|Southern]] insyd, [[:en:Central_Province,_Zambia|Central]] den [[:en:Lusaka_Province,_Zambia|Lusaka]] provinces of [[:en:Zambia|Zambia]]. Dem be a shallow [[:en:Zambezian_flooded_grasslands|flood plain]] 240 km (150 mi) long den about 50 km (31 mi) wide,<ref name="Google">[http://earth.google.com Google Earth] accessed 1 September 2014.</ref> wey flood to a depth of less dan a meter for de rainy season insyd (deeper for sam lagoons den permanently swampy areas insyd), den e dry out to a clayey black soil for de dry season season. == Geography == De Kafue Flats dey stretch give approximately 240 km (150 mi) east to west along de [[:en:Kafue_River|Kafue River]] from below de Itezhi-Tezhi gap, site of de [[:en:Itezhi-Tezhi_Dam|Itezhi-Tezhi Dam]], to [[:en:Kafue| Kafue town]] den de start of de Kafue Gorge. At demma widest point dem be 50 km (31 mi) wide, den demma total area dey around 6,500 km² (2,500 sq mi). De elevation of de Kafue River dey fall 40 m (130 ft) along de flats from 1,030 m (3,380 ft) at Itezhi-Tezhi to 990 m (3,250 ft) at Kafue town. == References == pfom5k39qnjxdy9vxu3jwotq850isca 102867 102864 2026-06-14T22:09:25Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 102867 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Kafue Flats''' (wey dem locally bell am '''Butwa<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sorensen |first1=Carol |date=1995 |title=Controls and Sanctions over the Use of Resources In the Kafue Flats of Zambia |journal=Presented at the International Association for the Study of Common Property Fifth Common Property Conference 24–28 May 1995 at Bode, Norway}}</ref>''') be a vast area of swamp, open lagoon den seasonally inundated flood-plain for de [[:en:Kafue_River|Kafue River]] top for de [[:en:Southern_Province,_Zambia|Southern]] insyd, [[:en:Central_Province,_Zambia|Central]] den [[:en:Lusaka_Province,_Zambia|Lusaka]] provinces of [[:en:Zambia|Zambia]]. Dem be a shallow [[:en:Zambezian_flooded_grasslands|flood plain]] 240 km (150 mi) long den about 50 km (31 mi) wide,<ref name="Google">[http://earth.google.com Google Earth] accessed 1 September 2014.</ref> wey flood to a depth of less dan a meter for de rainy season insyd (deeper for sam lagoons den permanently swampy areas insyd), den e dry out to a clayey black soil for de dry season season. == Geography == De Kafue Flats dey stretch give approximately 240 km (150 mi) east to west along de [[:en:Kafue_River|Kafue River]] from below de Itezhi-Tezhi gap, site of de [[:en:Itezhi-Tezhi_Dam|Itezhi-Tezhi Dam]], to [[:en:Kafue| Kafue town]] den de start of de Kafue Gorge. At demma widest point dem be 50 km (31 mi) wide, den demma total area dey around 6,500 km² (2,500 sq mi). De elevation of de Kafue River dey fall 40 m (130 ft) along de flats from 1,030 m (3,380 ft) at Itezhi-Tezhi to 990 m (3,250 ft) at Kafue town. De town of [[:en:Mazabuka|Mazabuka]] den de Nakambala sugar estate dey lie for de southeast edge top den dem situate de small town of [[:en:Namwala|Namwala]] at de southwest edge of de flats. == References == ru7u6za1yawf8p48t5pu4fkdizpioq3 102868 102867 2026-06-14T22:11:13Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 102868 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Kafue Flats''' (wey dem locally bell am '''Butwa<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sorensen |first1=Carol |date=1995 |title=Controls and Sanctions over the Use of Resources In the Kafue Flats of Zambia |journal=Presented at the International Association for the Study of Common Property Fifth Common Property Conference 24–28 May 1995 at Bode, Norway}}</ref>''') be a vast area of swamp, open lagoon den seasonally inundated flood-plain for de [[:en:Kafue_River|Kafue River]] top for de [[:en:Southern_Province,_Zambia|Southern]] insyd, [[:en:Central_Province,_Zambia|Central]] den [[:en:Lusaka_Province,_Zambia|Lusaka]] provinces of [[:en:Zambia|Zambia]]. Dem be a shallow [[:en:Zambezian_flooded_grasslands|flood plain]] 240 km (150 mi) long den about 50 km (31 mi) wide,<ref name="Google">[http://earth.google.com Google Earth] accessed 1 September 2014.</ref> wey flood to a depth of less dan a meter for de rainy season insyd (deeper for sam lagoons den permanently swampy areas insyd), den e dry out to a clayey black soil for de dry season season. == Geography == De Kafue Flats dey stretch give approximately 240 km (150 mi) east to west along de [[:en:Kafue_River|Kafue River]] from below de Itezhi-Tezhi gap, site of de [[:en:Itezhi-Tezhi_Dam|Itezhi-Tezhi Dam]], to [[:en:Kafue| Kafue town]] den de start of de Kafue Gorge. At demma widest point dem be 50 km (31 mi) wide, den demma total area dey around 6,500 km² (2,500 sq mi). De elevation of de Kafue River dey fall 40 m (130 ft) along de flats from 1,030 m (3,380 ft) at Itezhi-Tezhi to 990 m (3,250 ft) at Kafue town. De town of [[:en:Mazabuka|Mazabuka]] den de Nakambala sugar estate dey lie for de southeast edge top den dem situate de small town of [[:en:Namwala|Namwala]] at de southwest edge of de flats. [[File:Kafue_Flats_in_flood_and_the_Itezhi-Tezhi_dam_14_February_2008.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kafue_Flats_in_flood_and_the_Itezhi-Tezhi_dam_14_February_2008.jpg|center|thumb|600x600px|False colour NASA [[:en:Terra_(satellite)|MODIS]] image of de Kafue Flats for flood insyd den de Itezhi-Tezhi dam - 14 February 2008.]] == References == amfyzvsdhswtrb8euv3eagjyf6aw2qo 102869 102868 2026-06-14T22:16:09Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 102869 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Kafue Flats''' (wey dem locally bell am '''Butwa<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sorensen |first1=Carol |date=1995 |title=Controls and Sanctions over the Use of Resources In the Kafue Flats of Zambia |journal=Presented at the International Association for the Study of Common Property Fifth Common Property Conference 24–28 May 1995 at Bode, Norway}}</ref>''') be a vast area of swamp, open lagoon den seasonally inundated flood-plain for de [[:en:Kafue_River|Kafue River]] top for de [[:en:Southern_Province,_Zambia|Southern]] insyd, [[:en:Central_Province,_Zambia|Central]] den [[:en:Lusaka_Province,_Zambia|Lusaka]] provinces of [[:en:Zambia|Zambia]]. Dem be a shallow [[:en:Zambezian_flooded_grasslands|flood plain]] 240 km (150 mi) long den about 50 km (31 mi) wide,<ref name="Google">[http://earth.google.com Google Earth] accessed 1 September 2014.</ref> wey flood to a depth of less dan a meter for de rainy season insyd (deeper for sam lagoons den permanently swampy areas insyd), den e dry out to a clayey black soil for de dry season season. == Geography == De Kafue Flats dey stretch give approximately 240 km (150 mi) east to west along de [[:en:Kafue_River|Kafue River]] from below de Itezhi-Tezhi gap, site of de [[:en:Itezhi-Tezhi_Dam|Itezhi-Tezhi Dam]], to [[:en:Kafue| Kafue town]] den de start of de Kafue Gorge. At demma widest point dem be 50 km (31 mi) wide, den demma total area dey around 6,500 km² (2,500 sq mi). De elevation of de Kafue River dey fall 40 m (130 ft) along de flats from 1,030 m (3,380 ft) at Itezhi-Tezhi to 990 m (3,250 ft) at Kafue town. De town of [[:en:Mazabuka|Mazabuka]] den de Nakambala sugar estate dey lie for de southeast edge top den dem situate de small town of [[:en:Namwala|Namwala]] at de southwest edge of de flats. [[File:Kafue_Flats_in_flood_and_the_Itezhi-Tezhi_dam_14_February_2008.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kafue_Flats_in_flood_and_the_Itezhi-Tezhi_dam_14_February_2008.jpg|center|thumb|600x600px|False colour NASA [[:en:Terra_(satellite)|MODIS]] image of de Kafue Flats for flood insyd den de Itezhi-Tezhi dam - 14 February 2008.]]De Kafue Flats dey fall within parts of de [[:en:Itezhi-Tezhi_District|Itezhi-Tezhi]] den [[:en:Mumbwa_District|Mumbwa]] Districts for[[:en:Central_Province,_Zambia|Central Province]], [[:en:Kafue_District|Kafue District]] insyd for [[:en:Lusaka_Province,_Zambia|Lusaka Province]] insyd den [[:en:Monze_District|Monze]], [[:en:Namwala_District|Namwala]] den [[:en:Mazabuka_District|Mazabuka]] districts for [[:en:Southern_Province,_Zambia|Southern Province]] insyd. == References == owip5fq8upa1v8kzul74w7g2azy24fo 102936 102869 2026-06-15T10:30:10Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 102936 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Kafue Flats''' (wey dem locally bell am '''Butwa<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sorensen |first1=Carol |date=1995 |title=Controls and Sanctions over the Use of Resources In the Kafue Flats of Zambia |journal=Presented at the International Association for the Study of Common Property Fifth Common Property Conference 24–28 May 1995 at Bode, Norway}}</ref>''') be a vast area of swamp, open lagoon den seasonally inundated flood-plain for de [[:en:Kafue_River|Kafue River]] top for de [[:en:Southern_Province,_Zambia|Southern]] insyd, [[:en:Central_Province,_Zambia|Central]] den [[:en:Lusaka_Province,_Zambia|Lusaka]] provinces of [[:en:Zambia|Zambia]]. Dem be a shallow [[:en:Zambezian_flooded_grasslands|flood plain]] 240 km (150 mi) long den about 50 km (31 mi) wide,<ref name="Google">[http://earth.google.com Google Earth] accessed 1 September 2014.</ref> wey flood to a depth of less dan a meter for de rainy season insyd (deeper for sam lagoons den permanently swampy areas insyd), den e dry out to a clayey black soil for de dry season season. == Geography == De Kafue Flats dey stretch give approximately 240 km (150 mi) east to west along de [[:en:Kafue_River|Kafue River]] from below de Itezhi-Tezhi gap, site of de [[:en:Itezhi-Tezhi_Dam|Itezhi-Tezhi Dam]], to [[:en:Kafue| Kafue town]] den de start of de Kafue Gorge. At demma widest point dem be 50 km (31 mi) wide, den demma total area dey around 6,500 km² (2,500 sq mi). De elevation of de Kafue River dey fall 40 m (130 ft) along de flats from 1,030 m (3,380 ft) at Itezhi-Tezhi to 990 m (3,250 ft) at Kafue town. De town of [[:en:Mazabuka|Mazabuka]] den de Nakambala sugar estate dey lie for de southeast edge top den dem situate de small town of [[:en:Namwala|Namwala]] at de southwest edge of de flats. [[File:Kafue_Flats_in_flood_and_the_Itezhi-Tezhi_dam_14_February_2008.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kafue_Flats_in_flood_and_the_Itezhi-Tezhi_dam_14_February_2008.jpg|center|thumb|600x600px|False colour NASA [[:en:Terra_(satellite)|MODIS]] image of de Kafue Flats for flood insyd den de Itezhi-Tezhi dam - 14 February 2008.]]De Kafue Flats dey fall within parts of de [[:en:Itezhi-Tezhi_District|Itezhi-Tezhi]] den [[:en:Mumbwa_District|Mumbwa]] Districts for[[:en:Central_Province,_Zambia|Central Province]], [[:en:Kafue_District|Kafue District]] insyd for [[:en:Lusaka_Province,_Zambia|Lusaka Province]] insyd den [[:en:Monze_District|Monze]], [[:en:Namwala_District|Namwala]] den [[:en:Mazabuka_District|Mazabuka]] districts for [[:en:Southern_Province,_Zambia|Southern Province]] insyd. == Pippoe == Dem think de [[:en:Batwa|Batwa]] (anaa [[:en:Twa|Twa]]) already to get de first inhabitants of de Kafue Flats area but rydee be a small minority population wey settle for higher ground top around de Kafue River channel wey dem support demselves thru fishing. == References == 47gxgz5yqzdagq54o9cnxcq5njdtba5 102937 102936 2026-06-15T10:30:53Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 102937 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Kafue Flats''' (wey dem locally bell am '''Butwa<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sorensen |first1=Carol |date=1995 |title=Controls and Sanctions over the Use of Resources In the Kafue Flats of Zambia |journal=Presented at the International Association for the Study of Common Property Fifth Common Property Conference 24–28 May 1995 at Bode, Norway}}</ref>''') be a vast area of swamp, open lagoon den seasonally inundated flood-plain for de [[:en:Kafue_River|Kafue River]] top for de [[:en:Southern_Province,_Zambia|Southern]] insyd, [[:en:Central_Province,_Zambia|Central]] den [[:en:Lusaka_Province,_Zambia|Lusaka]] provinces of [[:en:Zambia|Zambia]]. Dem be a shallow [[:en:Zambezian_flooded_grasslands|flood plain]] 240 km (150 mi) long den about 50 km (31 mi) wide,<ref name="Google">[http://earth.google.com Google Earth] accessed 1 September 2014.</ref> wey flood to a depth of less dan a meter for de rainy season insyd (deeper for sam lagoons den permanently swampy areas insyd), den e dry out to a clayey black soil for de dry season season. == Geography == De Kafue Flats dey stretch give approximately 240 km (150 mi) east to west along de [[:en:Kafue_River|Kafue River]] from below de Itezhi-Tezhi gap, site of de [[:en:Itezhi-Tezhi_Dam|Itezhi-Tezhi Dam]], to [[:en:Kafue| Kafue town]] den de start of de Kafue Gorge. At demma widest point dem be 50 km (31 mi) wide, den demma total area dey around 6,500 km² (2,500 sq mi). De elevation of de Kafue River dey fall 40 m (130 ft) along de flats from 1,030 m (3,380 ft) at Itezhi-Tezhi to 990 m (3,250 ft) at Kafue town. De town of [[:en:Mazabuka|Mazabuka]] den de Nakambala sugar estate dey lie for de southeast edge top den dem situate de small town of [[:en:Namwala|Namwala]] at de southwest edge of de flats. [[File:Kafue_Flats_in_flood_and_the_Itezhi-Tezhi_dam_14_February_2008.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kafue_Flats_in_flood_and_the_Itezhi-Tezhi_dam_14_February_2008.jpg|center|thumb|600x600px|False colour NASA [[:en:Terra_(satellite)|MODIS]] image of de Kafue Flats for flood insyd den de Itezhi-Tezhi dam - 14 February 2008.]]De Kafue Flats dey fall within parts of de [[:en:Itezhi-Tezhi_District|Itezhi-Tezhi]] den [[:en:Mumbwa_District|Mumbwa]] Districts for[[:en:Central_Province,_Zambia|Central Province]], [[:en:Kafue_District|Kafue District]] insyd for [[:en:Lusaka_Province,_Zambia|Lusaka Province]] insyd den [[:en:Monze_District|Monze]], [[:en:Namwala_District|Namwala]] den [[:en:Mazabuka_District|Mazabuka]] districts for [[:en:Southern_Province,_Zambia|Southern Province]] insyd. == Pippoe == Dem think de [[:en:Batwa|Batwa]] (anaa [[:en:Twa|Twa]]) already to get de first inhabitants of de Kafue Flats area but rydee be a small minority population wey settle for higher ground top around de Kafue River channel wey dem support demselves thru fishing. Dem generally consider de [[:en:Batwa|Batwa]] to be de surviving remnants of nomadic [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]] wey inhabit Zambia long before de [[:en:Bantu_peoples|Bantu peoples]] begin to arrive from de [[:en:Congo_Basin|Congo Basin]] to de north. == References == k6da47fg4z3suvhiz07kdjgc6deh4jd 102938 102937 2026-06-15T10:31:37Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 102938 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Kafue Flats''' (wey dem locally bell am '''Butwa<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sorensen |first1=Carol |date=1995 |title=Controls and Sanctions over the Use of Resources In the Kafue Flats of Zambia |journal=Presented at the International Association for the Study of Common Property Fifth Common Property Conference 24–28 May 1995 at Bode, Norway}}</ref>''') be a vast area of swamp, open lagoon den seasonally inundated flood-plain for de [[:en:Kafue_River|Kafue River]] top for de [[:en:Southern_Province,_Zambia|Southern]] insyd, [[:en:Central_Province,_Zambia|Central]] den [[:en:Lusaka_Province,_Zambia|Lusaka]] provinces of [[:en:Zambia|Zambia]]. Dem be a shallow [[:en:Zambezian_flooded_grasslands|flood plain]] 240 km (150 mi) long den about 50 km (31 mi) wide,<ref name="Google">[http://earth.google.com Google Earth] accessed 1 September 2014.</ref> wey flood to a depth of less dan a meter for de rainy season insyd (deeper for sam lagoons den permanently swampy areas insyd), den e dry out to a clayey black soil for de dry season season. == Geography == De Kafue Flats dey stretch give approximately 240 km (150 mi) east to west along de [[:en:Kafue_River|Kafue River]] from below de Itezhi-Tezhi gap, site of de [[:en:Itezhi-Tezhi_Dam|Itezhi-Tezhi Dam]], to [[:en:Kafue| Kafue town]] den de start of de Kafue Gorge. At demma widest point dem be 50 km (31 mi) wide, den demma total area dey around 6,500 km² (2,500 sq mi). De elevation of de Kafue River dey fall 40 m (130 ft) along de flats from 1,030 m (3,380 ft) at Itezhi-Tezhi to 990 m (3,250 ft) at Kafue town. De town of [[:en:Mazabuka|Mazabuka]] den de Nakambala sugar estate dey lie for de southeast edge top den dem situate de small town of [[:en:Namwala|Namwala]] at de southwest edge of de flats. [[File:Kafue_Flats_in_flood_and_the_Itezhi-Tezhi_dam_14_February_2008.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kafue_Flats_in_flood_and_the_Itezhi-Tezhi_dam_14_February_2008.jpg|center|thumb|600x600px|False colour NASA [[:en:Terra_(satellite)|MODIS]] image of de Kafue Flats for flood insyd den de Itezhi-Tezhi dam - 14 February 2008.]]De Kafue Flats dey fall within parts of de [[:en:Itezhi-Tezhi_District|Itezhi-Tezhi]] den [[:en:Mumbwa_District|Mumbwa]] Districts for[[:en:Central_Province,_Zambia|Central Province]], [[:en:Kafue_District|Kafue District]] insyd for [[:en:Lusaka_Province,_Zambia|Lusaka Province]] insyd den [[:en:Monze_District|Monze]], [[:en:Namwala_District|Namwala]] den [[:en:Mazabuka_District|Mazabuka]] districts for [[:en:Southern_Province,_Zambia|Southern Province]] insyd. == Pippoe == Dem think de [[:en:Batwa|Batwa]] (anaa [[:en:Twa|Twa]]) already to get de first inhabitants of de Kafue Flats area but rydee be a small minority population wey settle for higher ground top around de Kafue River channel wey dem support demselves thru fishing. Dem generally consider de [[:en:Batwa|Batwa]] to be de surviving remnants of nomadic [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]] wey inhabit Zambia long before de [[:en:Bantu_peoples|Bantu peoples]] begin to arrive from de [[:en:Congo_Basin|Congo Basin]] to de north.<ref>{{cite book |title=Language in Zambia |date=1978 |publisher=International African Institute |isbn=0-85302-054-X |editor-last1=Kashoki |editor-first1=Mubanga E. |location=London |editor2=Sirarpi Ohannessian}}</ref> == References == hqwqztnlk1k891sah3gao3h07cc71hw 102939 102938 2026-06-15T10:32:17Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 102939 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Kafue Flats''' (wey dem locally bell am '''Butwa<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sorensen |first1=Carol |date=1995 |title=Controls and Sanctions over the Use of Resources In the Kafue Flats of Zambia |journal=Presented at the International Association for the Study of Common Property Fifth Common Property Conference 24–28 May 1995 at Bode, Norway}}</ref>''') be a vast area of swamp, open lagoon den seasonally inundated flood-plain for de [[:en:Kafue_River|Kafue River]] top for de [[:en:Southern_Province,_Zambia|Southern]] insyd, [[:en:Central_Province,_Zambia|Central]] den [[:en:Lusaka_Province,_Zambia|Lusaka]] provinces of [[:en:Zambia|Zambia]]. Dem be a shallow [[:en:Zambezian_flooded_grasslands|flood plain]] 240 km (150 mi) long den about 50 km (31 mi) wide,<ref name="Google">[http://earth.google.com Google Earth] accessed 1 September 2014.</ref> wey flood to a depth of less dan a meter for de rainy season insyd (deeper for sam lagoons den permanently swampy areas insyd), den e dry out to a clayey black soil for de dry season season. == Geography == De Kafue Flats dey stretch give approximately 240 km (150 mi) east to west along de [[:en:Kafue_River|Kafue River]] from below de Itezhi-Tezhi gap, site of de [[:en:Itezhi-Tezhi_Dam|Itezhi-Tezhi Dam]], to [[:en:Kafue| Kafue town]] den de start of de Kafue Gorge. At demma widest point dem be 50 km (31 mi) wide, den demma total area dey around 6,500 km² (2,500 sq mi). De elevation of de Kafue River dey fall 40 m (130 ft) along de flats from 1,030 m (3,380 ft) at Itezhi-Tezhi to 990 m (3,250 ft) at Kafue town. De town of [[:en:Mazabuka|Mazabuka]] den de Nakambala sugar estate dey lie for de southeast edge top den dem situate de small town of [[:en:Namwala|Namwala]] at de southwest edge of de flats. [[File:Kafue_Flats_in_flood_and_the_Itezhi-Tezhi_dam_14_February_2008.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kafue_Flats_in_flood_and_the_Itezhi-Tezhi_dam_14_February_2008.jpg|center|thumb|600x600px|False colour NASA [[:en:Terra_(satellite)|MODIS]] image of de Kafue Flats for flood insyd den de Itezhi-Tezhi dam - 14 February 2008.]]De Kafue Flats dey fall within parts of de [[:en:Itezhi-Tezhi_District|Itezhi-Tezhi]] den [[:en:Mumbwa_District|Mumbwa]] Districts for[[:en:Central_Province,_Zambia|Central Province]], [[:en:Kafue_District|Kafue District]] insyd for [[:en:Lusaka_Province,_Zambia|Lusaka Province]] insyd den [[:en:Monze_District|Monze]], [[:en:Namwala_District|Namwala]] den [[:en:Mazabuka_District|Mazabuka]] districts for [[:en:Southern_Province,_Zambia|Southern Province]] insyd. == Pippoe == Dem think de [[:en:Batwa|Batwa]] (anaa [[:en:Twa|Twa]]) already to get de first inhabitants of de Kafue Flats area but rydee be a small minority population wey settle for higher ground top around de Kafue River channel wey dem support demselves thru fishing. Dem generally consider de [[:en:Batwa|Batwa]] to be de surviving remnants of nomadic [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]] wey inhabit Zambia long before de [[:en:Bantu_peoples|Bantu peoples]] begin to arrive from de [[:en:Congo_Basin|Congo Basin]] to de north.<ref>{{cite book |title=Language in Zambia |date=1978 |publisher=International African Institute |isbn=0-85302-054-X |editor-last1=Kashoki |editor-first1=Mubanga E. |location=London |editor2=Sirarpi Ohannessian}}</ref> Dem rydee dominate de area by [[:en:Ila_language|Ila]] den Balundwe (anaa Lundwe, anaa Plateau [[:en:Tonga_people_(Zambia_and_Zimbabwe)|Tonga]]) farmers den cattle herders, for at least 21 chieftaincies insyd, wey cam to de area between 200 den 300 years ago. == References == rw0as9str2s5r4f4u3ttbao707nxkn7 102940 102939 2026-06-15T10:32:52Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 102940 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Kafue Flats''' (wey dem locally bell am '''Butwa<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sorensen |first1=Carol |date=1995 |title=Controls and Sanctions over the Use of Resources In the Kafue Flats of Zambia |journal=Presented at the International Association for the Study of Common Property Fifth Common Property Conference 24–28 May 1995 at Bode, Norway}}</ref>''') be a vast area of swamp, open lagoon den seasonally inundated flood-plain for de [[:en:Kafue_River|Kafue River]] top for de [[:en:Southern_Province,_Zambia|Southern]] insyd, [[:en:Central_Province,_Zambia|Central]] den [[:en:Lusaka_Province,_Zambia|Lusaka]] provinces of [[:en:Zambia|Zambia]]. Dem be a shallow [[:en:Zambezian_flooded_grasslands|flood plain]] 240 km (150 mi) long den about 50 km (31 mi) wide,<ref name="Google">[http://earth.google.com Google Earth] accessed 1 September 2014.</ref> wey flood to a depth of less dan a meter for de rainy season insyd (deeper for sam lagoons den permanently swampy areas insyd), den e dry out to a clayey black soil for de dry season season. == Geography == De Kafue Flats dey stretch give approximately 240 km (150 mi) east to west along de [[:en:Kafue_River|Kafue River]] from below de Itezhi-Tezhi gap, site of de [[:en:Itezhi-Tezhi_Dam|Itezhi-Tezhi Dam]], to [[:en:Kafue| Kafue town]] den de start of de Kafue Gorge. At demma widest point dem be 50 km (31 mi) wide, den demma total area dey around 6,500 km² (2,500 sq mi). De elevation of de Kafue River dey fall 40 m (130 ft) along de flats from 1,030 m (3,380 ft) at Itezhi-Tezhi to 990 m (3,250 ft) at Kafue town. De town of [[:en:Mazabuka|Mazabuka]] den de Nakambala sugar estate dey lie for de southeast edge top den dem situate de small town of [[:en:Namwala|Namwala]] at de southwest edge of de flats. [[File:Kafue_Flats_in_flood_and_the_Itezhi-Tezhi_dam_14_February_2008.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kafue_Flats_in_flood_and_the_Itezhi-Tezhi_dam_14_February_2008.jpg|center|thumb|600x600px|False colour NASA [[:en:Terra_(satellite)|MODIS]] image of de Kafue Flats for flood insyd den de Itezhi-Tezhi dam - 14 February 2008.]]De Kafue Flats dey fall within parts of de [[:en:Itezhi-Tezhi_District|Itezhi-Tezhi]] den [[:en:Mumbwa_District|Mumbwa]] Districts for[[:en:Central_Province,_Zambia|Central Province]], [[:en:Kafue_District|Kafue District]] insyd for [[:en:Lusaka_Province,_Zambia|Lusaka Province]] insyd den [[:en:Monze_District|Monze]], [[:en:Namwala_District|Namwala]] den [[:en:Mazabuka_District|Mazabuka]] districts for [[:en:Southern_Province,_Zambia|Southern Province]] insyd. == Pippoe == Dem think de [[:en:Batwa|Batwa]] (anaa [[:en:Twa|Twa]]) already to get de first inhabitants of de Kafue Flats area but rydee be a small minority population wey settle for higher ground top around de Kafue River channel wey dem support demselves thru fishing. Dem generally consider de [[:en:Batwa|Batwa]] to be de surviving remnants of nomadic [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]] wey inhabit Zambia long before de [[:en:Bantu_peoples|Bantu peoples]] begin to arrive from de [[:en:Congo_Basin|Congo Basin]] to de north.<ref>{{cite book |title=Language in Zambia |date=1978 |publisher=International African Institute |isbn=0-85302-054-X |editor-last1=Kashoki |editor-first1=Mubanga E. |location=London |editor2=Sirarpi Ohannessian}}</ref> Dem rydee dominate de area by [[:en:Ila_language|Ila]] den Balundwe (anaa Lundwe, anaa Plateau [[:en:Tonga_people_(Zambia_and_Zimbabwe)|Tonga]]) farmers den cattle herders, for at least 21 chieftaincies insyd,<ref name="world_fish">{{cite book |last1=Lungu |first1=A |title=Field study: assessing migration and mobility patterns, access to health services and vulnerabilities of female fish traders in the Kafue Flats fishery, Zambia: research design report |last2=Husken |first2=S.M.C. |date=2008 |publisher=World Fish Center}}</ref> wey cam to de area between 200 den 300 years ago. == References == s50zw621u3fwp38udgwl6qwshhdekpv 102941 102940 2026-06-15T10:33:45Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 102941 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Kafue Flats''' (wey dem locally bell am '''Butwa<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sorensen |first1=Carol |date=1995 |title=Controls and Sanctions over the Use of Resources In the Kafue Flats of Zambia |journal=Presented at the International Association for the Study of Common Property Fifth Common Property Conference 24–28 May 1995 at Bode, Norway}}</ref>''') be a vast area of swamp, open lagoon den seasonally inundated flood-plain for de [[:en:Kafue_River|Kafue River]] top for de [[:en:Southern_Province,_Zambia|Southern]] insyd, [[:en:Central_Province,_Zambia|Central]] den [[:en:Lusaka_Province,_Zambia|Lusaka]] provinces of [[:en:Zambia|Zambia]]. Dem be a shallow [[:en:Zambezian_flooded_grasslands|flood plain]] 240 km (150 mi) long den about 50 km (31 mi) wide,<ref name="Google">[http://earth.google.com Google Earth] accessed 1 September 2014.</ref> wey flood to a depth of less dan a meter for de rainy season insyd (deeper for sam lagoons den permanently swampy areas insyd), den e dry out to a clayey black soil for de dry season season. == Geography == De Kafue Flats dey stretch give approximately 240 km (150 mi) east to west along de [[:en:Kafue_River|Kafue River]] from below de Itezhi-Tezhi gap, site of de [[:en:Itezhi-Tezhi_Dam|Itezhi-Tezhi Dam]], to [[:en:Kafue| Kafue town]] den de start of de Kafue Gorge. At demma widest point dem be 50 km (31 mi) wide, den demma total area dey around 6,500 km² (2,500 sq mi). De elevation of de Kafue River dey fall 40 m (130 ft) along de flats from 1,030 m (3,380 ft) at Itezhi-Tezhi to 990 m (3,250 ft) at Kafue town. De town of [[:en:Mazabuka|Mazabuka]] den de Nakambala sugar estate dey lie for de southeast edge top den dem situate de small town of [[:en:Namwala|Namwala]] at de southwest edge of de flats. [[File:Kafue_Flats_in_flood_and_the_Itezhi-Tezhi_dam_14_February_2008.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kafue_Flats_in_flood_and_the_Itezhi-Tezhi_dam_14_February_2008.jpg|center|thumb|600x600px|False colour NASA [[:en:Terra_(satellite)|MODIS]] image of de Kafue Flats for flood insyd den de Itezhi-Tezhi dam - 14 February 2008.]]De Kafue Flats dey fall within parts of de [[:en:Itezhi-Tezhi_District|Itezhi-Tezhi]] den [[:en:Mumbwa_District|Mumbwa]] Districts for[[:en:Central_Province,_Zambia|Central Province]], [[:en:Kafue_District|Kafue District]] insyd for [[:en:Lusaka_Province,_Zambia|Lusaka Province]] insyd den [[:en:Monze_District|Monze]], [[:en:Namwala_District|Namwala]] den [[:en:Mazabuka_District|Mazabuka]] districts for [[:en:Southern_Province,_Zambia|Southern Province]] insyd. == Pippoe == Dem think de [[:en:Batwa|Batwa]] (anaa [[:en:Twa|Twa]]) already to get de first inhabitants of de Kafue Flats area but rydee be a small minority population wey settle for higher ground top around de Kafue River channel wey dem support demselves thru fishing. Dem generally consider de [[:en:Batwa|Batwa]] to be de surviving remnants of nomadic [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]] wey inhabit Zambia long before de [[:en:Bantu_peoples|Bantu peoples]] begin to arrive from de [[:en:Congo_Basin|Congo Basin]] to de north.<ref>{{cite book |title=Language in Zambia |date=1978 |publisher=International African Institute |isbn=0-85302-054-X |editor-last1=Kashoki |editor-first1=Mubanga E. |location=London |editor2=Sirarpi Ohannessian}}</ref> Dem rydee dominate de area by [[:en:Ila_language|Ila]] den Balundwe (anaa Lundwe, anaa Plateau [[:en:Tonga_people_(Zambia_and_Zimbabwe)|Tonga]]) farmers den cattle herders, for at least 21 chieftaincies insyd,<ref name="world_fish">{{cite book |last1=Lungu |first1=A |title=Field study: assessing migration and mobility patterns, access to health services and vulnerabilities of female fish traders in the Kafue Flats fishery, Zambia: research design report |last2=Husken |first2=S.M.C. |date=2008 |publisher=World Fish Center}}</ref> wey cam to de area between 200 den 300 years ago. Dem depend for farming, fishing, cattle rearing den wildlife top, wey dey often move between a fixed settlement for de woodlands insyd den cattle camps for de flats insyd after de floods recede. == References == 1ubzzz9vnehv12p9l51sa00e9vzf5hf 102942 102941 2026-06-15T10:34:39Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 102942 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Kafue Flats''' (wey dem locally bell am '''Butwa<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sorensen |first1=Carol |date=1995 |title=Controls and Sanctions over the Use of Resources In the Kafue Flats of Zambia |journal=Presented at the International Association for the Study of Common Property Fifth Common Property Conference 24–28 May 1995 at Bode, Norway}}</ref>''') be a vast area of swamp, open lagoon den seasonally inundated flood-plain for de [[:en:Kafue_River|Kafue River]] top for de [[:en:Southern_Province,_Zambia|Southern]] insyd, [[:en:Central_Province,_Zambia|Central]] den [[:en:Lusaka_Province,_Zambia|Lusaka]] provinces of [[:en:Zambia|Zambia]]. Dem be a shallow [[:en:Zambezian_flooded_grasslands|flood plain]] 240 km (150 mi) long den about 50 km (31 mi) wide,<ref name="Google">[http://earth.google.com Google Earth] accessed 1 September 2014.</ref> wey flood to a depth of less dan a meter for de rainy season insyd (deeper for sam lagoons den permanently swampy areas insyd), den e dry out to a clayey black soil for de dry season season. == Geography == De Kafue Flats dey stretch give approximately 240 km (150 mi) east to west along de [[:en:Kafue_River|Kafue River]] from below de Itezhi-Tezhi gap, site of de [[:en:Itezhi-Tezhi_Dam|Itezhi-Tezhi Dam]], to [[:en:Kafue| Kafue town]] den de start of de Kafue Gorge. At demma widest point dem be 50 km (31 mi) wide, den demma total area dey around 6,500 km² (2,500 sq mi). De elevation of de Kafue River dey fall 40 m (130 ft) along de flats from 1,030 m (3,380 ft) at Itezhi-Tezhi to 990 m (3,250 ft) at Kafue town. De town of [[:en:Mazabuka|Mazabuka]] den de Nakambala sugar estate dey lie for de southeast edge top den dem situate de small town of [[:en:Namwala|Namwala]] at de southwest edge of de flats. [[File:Kafue_Flats_in_flood_and_the_Itezhi-Tezhi_dam_14_February_2008.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kafue_Flats_in_flood_and_the_Itezhi-Tezhi_dam_14_February_2008.jpg|center|thumb|600x600px|False colour NASA [[:en:Terra_(satellite)|MODIS]] image of de Kafue Flats for flood insyd den de Itezhi-Tezhi dam - 14 February 2008.]]De Kafue Flats dey fall within parts of de [[:en:Itezhi-Tezhi_District|Itezhi-Tezhi]] den [[:en:Mumbwa_District|Mumbwa]] Districts for[[:en:Central_Province,_Zambia|Central Province]], [[:en:Kafue_District|Kafue District]] insyd for [[:en:Lusaka_Province,_Zambia|Lusaka Province]] insyd den [[:en:Monze_District|Monze]], [[:en:Namwala_District|Namwala]] den [[:en:Mazabuka_District|Mazabuka]] districts for [[:en:Southern_Province,_Zambia|Southern Province]] insyd. == Pippoe == Dem think de [[:en:Batwa|Batwa]] (anaa [[:en:Twa|Twa]]) already to get de first inhabitants of de Kafue Flats area but rydee be a small minority population wey settle for higher ground top around de Kafue River channel wey dem support demselves thru fishing. Dem generally consider de [[:en:Batwa|Batwa]] to be de surviving remnants of nomadic [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]] wey inhabit Zambia long before de [[:en:Bantu_peoples|Bantu peoples]] begin to arrive from de [[:en:Congo_Basin|Congo Basin]] to de north.<ref>{{cite book |title=Language in Zambia |date=1978 |publisher=International African Institute |isbn=0-85302-054-X |editor-last1=Kashoki |editor-first1=Mubanga E. |location=London |editor2=Sirarpi Ohannessian}}</ref> Dem rydee dominate de area by [[:en:Ila_language|Ila]] den Balundwe (anaa Lundwe, anaa Plateau [[:en:Tonga_people_(Zambia_and_Zimbabwe)|Tonga]]) farmers den cattle herders, for at least 21 chieftaincies insyd,<ref name="world_fish">{{cite book |last1=Lungu |first1=A |title=Field study: assessing migration and mobility patterns, access to health services and vulnerabilities of female fish traders in the Kafue Flats fishery, Zambia: research design report |last2=Husken |first2=S.M.C. |date=2008 |publisher=World Fish Center}}</ref> wey cam to de area between 200 den 300 years ago. Dem depend for farming, fishing, cattle rearing den wildlife top, wey dey often move between a fixed settlement for de woodlands insyd den cattle camps for de flats insyd after de floods recede. In addition to de settled community dem sanso be a seasonal influx of fishing communities from oda parts of de country. == References == r2f99avqwcom9pn6o4wx42ieu8ugao7 102943 102942 2026-06-15T10:35:37Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 102943 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Kafue Flats''' (wey dem locally bell am '''Butwa<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sorensen |first1=Carol |date=1995 |title=Controls and Sanctions over the Use of Resources In the Kafue Flats of Zambia |journal=Presented at the International Association for the Study of Common Property Fifth Common Property Conference 24–28 May 1995 at Bode, Norway}}</ref>''') be a vast area of swamp, open lagoon den seasonally inundated flood-plain for de [[:en:Kafue_River|Kafue River]] top for de [[:en:Southern_Province,_Zambia|Southern]] insyd, [[:en:Central_Province,_Zambia|Central]] den [[:en:Lusaka_Province,_Zambia|Lusaka]] provinces of [[:en:Zambia|Zambia]]. Dem be a shallow [[:en:Zambezian_flooded_grasslands|flood plain]] 240 km (150 mi) long den about 50 km (31 mi) wide,<ref name="Google">[http://earth.google.com Google Earth] accessed 1 September 2014.</ref> wey flood to a depth of less dan a meter for de rainy season insyd (deeper for sam lagoons den permanently swampy areas insyd), den e dry out to a clayey black soil for de dry season season. == Geography == De Kafue Flats dey stretch give approximately 240 km (150 mi) east to west along de [[:en:Kafue_River|Kafue River]] from below de Itezhi-Tezhi gap, site of de [[:en:Itezhi-Tezhi_Dam|Itezhi-Tezhi Dam]], to [[:en:Kafue| Kafue town]] den de start of de Kafue Gorge. At demma widest point dem be 50 km (31 mi) wide, den demma total area dey around 6,500 km² (2,500 sq mi). De elevation of de Kafue River dey fall 40 m (130 ft) along de flats from 1,030 m (3,380 ft) at Itezhi-Tezhi to 990 m (3,250 ft) at Kafue town. De town of [[:en:Mazabuka|Mazabuka]] den de Nakambala sugar estate dey lie for de southeast edge top den dem situate de small town of [[:en:Namwala|Namwala]] at de southwest edge of de flats. [[File:Kafue_Flats_in_flood_and_the_Itezhi-Tezhi_dam_14_February_2008.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kafue_Flats_in_flood_and_the_Itezhi-Tezhi_dam_14_February_2008.jpg|center|thumb|600x600px|False colour NASA [[:en:Terra_(satellite)|MODIS]] image of de Kafue Flats for flood insyd den de Itezhi-Tezhi dam - 14 February 2008.]]De Kafue Flats dey fall within parts of de [[:en:Itezhi-Tezhi_District|Itezhi-Tezhi]] den [[:en:Mumbwa_District|Mumbwa]] Districts for[[:en:Central_Province,_Zambia|Central Province]], [[:en:Kafue_District|Kafue District]] insyd for [[:en:Lusaka_Province,_Zambia|Lusaka Province]] insyd den [[:en:Monze_District|Monze]], [[:en:Namwala_District|Namwala]] den [[:en:Mazabuka_District|Mazabuka]] districts for [[:en:Southern_Province,_Zambia|Southern Province]] insyd. == Pippoe == Dem think de [[:en:Batwa|Batwa]] (anaa [[:en:Twa|Twa]]) already to get de first inhabitants of de Kafue Flats area but rydee be a small minority population wey settle for higher ground top around de Kafue River channel wey dem support demselves thru fishing. Dem generally consider de [[:en:Batwa|Batwa]] to be de surviving remnants of nomadic [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]] wey inhabit Zambia long before de [[:en:Bantu_peoples|Bantu peoples]] begin to arrive from de [[:en:Congo_Basin|Congo Basin]] to de north.<ref>{{cite book |title=Language in Zambia |date=1978 |publisher=International African Institute |isbn=0-85302-054-X |editor-last1=Kashoki |editor-first1=Mubanga E. |location=London |editor2=Sirarpi Ohannessian}}</ref> Dem rydee dominate de area by [[:en:Ila_language|Ila]] den Balundwe (anaa Lundwe, anaa Plateau [[:en:Tonga_people_(Zambia_and_Zimbabwe)|Tonga]]) farmers den cattle herders, for at least 21 chieftaincies insyd,<ref name="world_fish">{{cite book |last1=Lungu |first1=A |title=Field study: assessing migration and mobility patterns, access to health services and vulnerabilities of female fish traders in the Kafue Flats fishery, Zambia: research design report |last2=Husken |first2=S.M.C. |date=2008 |publisher=World Fish Center}}</ref> wey cam to de area between 200 den 300 years ago. Dem depend for farming, fishing, cattle rearing den wildlife top, wey dey often move between a fixed settlement for de woodlands insyd den cattle camps for de flats insyd after de floods recede. In addition to de settled community dem sanso be a seasonal influx of fishing communities from oda parts of de country. Dem immigrants mostly be Bemba from de north of de country den de Copperbelt area, den Lozi from de Western Province. == References == c6ccha651w2oen2wblft8zu0drt8pyx 102944 102943 2026-06-15T10:36:34Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 102944 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Kafue Flats''' (wey dem locally bell am '''Butwa<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sorensen |first1=Carol |date=1995 |title=Controls and Sanctions over the Use of Resources In the Kafue Flats of Zambia |journal=Presented at the International Association for the Study of Common Property Fifth Common Property Conference 24–28 May 1995 at Bode, Norway}}</ref>''') be a vast area of swamp, open lagoon den seasonally inundated flood-plain for de [[:en:Kafue_River|Kafue River]] top for de [[:en:Southern_Province,_Zambia|Southern]] insyd, [[:en:Central_Province,_Zambia|Central]] den [[:en:Lusaka_Province,_Zambia|Lusaka]] provinces of [[:en:Zambia|Zambia]]. Dem be a shallow [[:en:Zambezian_flooded_grasslands|flood plain]] 240 km (150 mi) long den about 50 km (31 mi) wide,<ref name="Google">[http://earth.google.com Google Earth] accessed 1 September 2014.</ref> wey flood to a depth of less dan a meter for de rainy season insyd (deeper for sam lagoons den permanently swampy areas insyd), den e dry out to a clayey black soil for de dry season season. == Geography == De Kafue Flats dey stretch give approximately 240 km (150 mi) east to west along de [[:en:Kafue_River|Kafue River]] from below de Itezhi-Tezhi gap, site of de [[:en:Itezhi-Tezhi_Dam|Itezhi-Tezhi Dam]], to [[:en:Kafue| Kafue town]] den de start of de Kafue Gorge. At demma widest point dem be 50 km (31 mi) wide, den demma total area dey around 6,500 km² (2,500 sq mi). De elevation of de Kafue River dey fall 40 m (130 ft) along de flats from 1,030 m (3,380 ft) at Itezhi-Tezhi to 990 m (3,250 ft) at Kafue town. De town of [[:en:Mazabuka|Mazabuka]] den de Nakambala sugar estate dey lie for de southeast edge top den dem situate de small town of [[:en:Namwala|Namwala]] at de southwest edge of de flats. [[File:Kafue_Flats_in_flood_and_the_Itezhi-Tezhi_dam_14_February_2008.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kafue_Flats_in_flood_and_the_Itezhi-Tezhi_dam_14_February_2008.jpg|center|thumb|600x600px|False colour NASA [[:en:Terra_(satellite)|MODIS]] image of de Kafue Flats for flood insyd den de Itezhi-Tezhi dam - 14 February 2008.]]De Kafue Flats dey fall within parts of de [[:en:Itezhi-Tezhi_District|Itezhi-Tezhi]] den [[:en:Mumbwa_District|Mumbwa]] Districts for[[:en:Central_Province,_Zambia|Central Province]], [[:en:Kafue_District|Kafue District]] insyd for [[:en:Lusaka_Province,_Zambia|Lusaka Province]] insyd den [[:en:Monze_District|Monze]], [[:en:Namwala_District|Namwala]] den [[:en:Mazabuka_District|Mazabuka]] districts for [[:en:Southern_Province,_Zambia|Southern Province]] insyd. == Pippoe == Dem think de [[:en:Batwa|Batwa]] (anaa [[:en:Twa|Twa]]) already to get de first inhabitants of de Kafue Flats area but rydee be a small minority population wey settle for higher ground top around de Kafue River channel wey dem support demselves thru fishing. Dem generally consider de [[:en:Batwa|Batwa]] to be de surviving remnants of nomadic [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]] wey inhabit Zambia long before de [[:en:Bantu_peoples|Bantu peoples]] begin to arrive from de [[:en:Congo_Basin|Congo Basin]] to de north.<ref>{{cite book |title=Language in Zambia |date=1978 |publisher=International African Institute |isbn=0-85302-054-X |editor-last1=Kashoki |editor-first1=Mubanga E. |location=London |editor2=Sirarpi Ohannessian}}</ref> Dem rydee dominate de area by [[:en:Ila_language|Ila]] den Balundwe (anaa Lundwe, anaa Plateau [[:en:Tonga_people_(Zambia_and_Zimbabwe)|Tonga]]) farmers den cattle herders, for at least 21 chieftaincies insyd,<ref name="world_fish">{{cite book |last1=Lungu |first1=A |title=Field study: assessing migration and mobility patterns, access to health services and vulnerabilities of female fish traders in the Kafue Flats fishery, Zambia: research design report |last2=Husken |first2=S.M.C. |date=2008 |publisher=World Fish Center}}</ref> wey cam to de area between 200 den 300 years ago. Dem depend for farming, fishing, cattle rearing den wildlife top, wey dey often move between a fixed settlement for de woodlands insyd den cattle camps for de flats insyd after de floods recede. In addition to de settled community dem sanso be a seasonal influx of fishing communities from oda parts of de country. Dem immigrants mostly be Bemba from de north of de country den de Copperbelt area, den Lozi from de Western Province.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Merten |first1=Sonja |last2=Haller |first2=Tobias |date=2008 |title=Property rights, food security and child growth: Dynamics of insecurity in the Kafue Flats of Zambia |journal=Food Policy |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=434–443 |doi=10.1016/j.foodpol.2008.01.004}}</ref> == References == pibzl2ncag43p37z9tzz691udeuxs3f 102945 102944 2026-06-15T10:37:09Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 102945 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Kafue Flats''' (wey dem locally bell am '''Butwa<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sorensen |first1=Carol |date=1995 |title=Controls and Sanctions over the Use of Resources In the Kafue Flats of Zambia |journal=Presented at the International Association for the Study of Common Property Fifth Common Property Conference 24–28 May 1995 at Bode, Norway}}</ref>''') be a vast area of swamp, open lagoon den seasonally inundated flood-plain for de [[:en:Kafue_River|Kafue River]] top for de [[:en:Southern_Province,_Zambia|Southern]] insyd, [[:en:Central_Province,_Zambia|Central]] den [[:en:Lusaka_Province,_Zambia|Lusaka]] provinces of [[:en:Zambia|Zambia]]. Dem be a shallow [[:en:Zambezian_flooded_grasslands|flood plain]] 240 km (150 mi) long den about 50 km (31 mi) wide,<ref name="Google">[http://earth.google.com Google Earth] accessed 1 September 2014.</ref> wey flood to a depth of less dan a meter for de rainy season insyd (deeper for sam lagoons den permanently swampy areas insyd), den e dry out to a clayey black soil for de dry season season. == Geography == De Kafue Flats dey stretch give approximately 240 km (150 mi) east to west along de [[:en:Kafue_River|Kafue River]] from below de Itezhi-Tezhi gap, site of de [[:en:Itezhi-Tezhi_Dam|Itezhi-Tezhi Dam]], to [[:en:Kafue| Kafue town]] den de start of de Kafue Gorge. At demma widest point dem be 50 km (31 mi) wide, den demma total area dey around 6,500 km² (2,500 sq mi). De elevation of de Kafue River dey fall 40 m (130 ft) along de flats from 1,030 m (3,380 ft) at Itezhi-Tezhi to 990 m (3,250 ft) at Kafue town. De town of [[:en:Mazabuka|Mazabuka]] den de Nakambala sugar estate dey lie for de southeast edge top den dem situate de small town of [[:en:Namwala|Namwala]] at de southwest edge of de flats. [[File:Kafue_Flats_in_flood_and_the_Itezhi-Tezhi_dam_14_February_2008.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kafue_Flats_in_flood_and_the_Itezhi-Tezhi_dam_14_February_2008.jpg|center|thumb|600x600px|False colour NASA [[:en:Terra_(satellite)|MODIS]] image of de Kafue Flats for flood insyd den de Itezhi-Tezhi dam - 14 February 2008.]]De Kafue Flats dey fall within parts of de [[:en:Itezhi-Tezhi_District|Itezhi-Tezhi]] den [[:en:Mumbwa_District|Mumbwa]] Districts for[[:en:Central_Province,_Zambia|Central Province]], [[:en:Kafue_District|Kafue District]] insyd for [[:en:Lusaka_Province,_Zambia|Lusaka Province]] insyd den [[:en:Monze_District|Monze]], [[:en:Namwala_District|Namwala]] den [[:en:Mazabuka_District|Mazabuka]] districts for [[:en:Southern_Province,_Zambia|Southern Province]] insyd. == Pippoe == Dem think de [[:en:Batwa|Batwa]] (anaa [[:en:Twa|Twa]]) already to get de first inhabitants of de Kafue Flats area but rydee be a small minority population wey settle for higher ground top around de Kafue River channel wey dem support demselves thru fishing. Dem generally consider de [[:en:Batwa|Batwa]] to be de surviving remnants of nomadic [[:en:Bushmen|Bushmen]] wey inhabit Zambia long before de [[:en:Bantu_peoples|Bantu peoples]] begin to arrive from de [[:en:Congo_Basin|Congo Basin]] to de north.<ref>{{cite book |title=Language in Zambia |date=1978 |publisher=International African Institute |isbn=0-85302-054-X |editor-last1=Kashoki |editor-first1=Mubanga E. |location=London |editor2=Sirarpi Ohannessian}}</ref> Dem rydee dominate de area by [[:en:Ila_language|Ila]] den Balundwe (anaa Lundwe, anaa Plateau [[:en:Tonga_people_(Zambia_and_Zimbabwe)|Tonga]]) farmers den cattle herders, for at least 21 chieftaincies insyd,<ref name="world_fish">{{cite book |last1=Lungu |first1=A |title=Field study: assessing migration and mobility patterns, access to health services and vulnerabilities of female fish traders in the Kafue Flats fishery, Zambia: research design report |last2=Husken |first2=S.M.C. |date=2008 |publisher=World Fish Center}}</ref> wey cam to de area between 200 den 300 years ago. Dem depend for farming, fishing, cattle rearing den wildlife top, wey dey often move between a fixed settlement for de woodlands insyd den cattle camps for de flats insyd after de floods recede. In addition to de settled community dem sanso be a seasonal influx of fishing communities from oda parts of de country. Dem immigrants mostly be Bemba from de north of de country den de Copperbelt area, den Lozi from de Western Province.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Merten |first1=Sonja |last2=Haller |first2=Tobias |date=2008 |title=Property rights, food security and child growth: Dynamics of insecurity in the Kafue Flats of Zambia |journal=Food Policy |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=434–443 |doi=10.1016/j.foodpol.2008.01.004}}</ref> De population increase significantly since de 1970s den by 2004 der at least 11 major permanent fishing camps for de flats top each of wey dem occupy am by at least 500 fishermen. == References == 5xr1jqs9yw0143bsomvzec3ykr1fvew 14 27553 102851 2026-06-14T21:49:34Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 102851 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27554 102857 2026-06-14T21:55:31Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 102857 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27555 102858 2026-06-14T21:55:55Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 102858 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27556 102859 2026-06-14T21:56:08Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 102859 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27557 102860 2026-06-14T21:56:32Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 102860 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27558 102861 2026-06-14T21:56:41Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 102861 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27559 102875 2026-06-14T22:23:21Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 102875 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27560 102876 2026-06-14T22:23:33Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 102876 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27561 102877 2026-06-14T22:23:46Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 102877 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27562 102878 2026-06-14T22:27:20Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 102878 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27563 102879 2026-06-14T22:28:24Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 102879 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27564 102882 2026-06-14T22:49:19Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 102882 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27565 102883 2026-06-14T22:49:32Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 102883 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27566 102884 2026-06-14T22:49:48Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 102884 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27567 102885 2026-06-14T22:50:21Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 102885 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27568 102886 2026-06-14T22:51:36Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 102886 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27569 102890 2026-06-14T23:17:03Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 102890 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27570 102891 2026-06-14T23:17:16Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 102891 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27571 102892 2026-06-14T23:18:29Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 102892 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27572 102893 2026-06-14T23:18:44Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 102893 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27573 102894 2026-06-14T23:18:56Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 102894 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27574 102897 2026-06-14T23:25:47Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 102897 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27575 102898 2026-06-14T23:25:59Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 102898 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27576 102902 2026-06-14T23:40:14Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 102902 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27577 102903 2026-06-14T23:40:26Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 102903 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27578 102904 2026-06-14T23:40:41Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 102904 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27579 102905 2026-06-14T23:40:54Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 102905 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 0 27580 102906 2026-06-15T00:03:42Z Ibnali1 62 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1330440134|Wouri River]]" 102906 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Wouri''' (sanso '''Vouri''' anaa '''Vuri''') be a river insyd [[Cameroon]]. Cameroon get chaw water bodies den amongst dese be two major rivers, de [[Sanaga River|Sanaga]], de longest at about 525&nbsp;km (325 miles) long den de Wouri, de largest. De Wouri dey form at de confluence of de rivers Nkam den Makombé, 32 km (20 mi) northeast of de city of Yabassi. E then dey flow about 160 km (99 mi) southeast to de Wouri estuary at Douala, de chief port den industrial city insyd de southwestern part of Cameroon on de [[Gulf of Guinea]]. De river be navigable about 64 km (40 mi) upriver from Douala. == Exploration == De Portuguese navigator den explorer Fernão do Pó anaa Fernando Pó, be believed to be de first European to explore de estuary of de Wouri, around de year 1472. De explorers note an abundance of de mud lobster ''Lepidophthalmus turneranus'' insyd de Wouri River wey dem name am "''Rio dos Camarões"'', Portuguese for "River of Prawns", den de phrase from wich dem derive de name Cameroon. De phrase "''Rio dos Camarões"'' later cam be Camarones wen de Spanish arrive insyd de region. Then, during de German protectorate insyd de country wich dem start insyd 1884, de country ein name change to Kamerun before de Treaty of Versailles place de country under French den British authority insyd 1919 wich lead to de final name "Cameroon".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rubin |first=Don |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TIgS_Eij8SEC&q=river+of+prawns+cameroon&pg=PA76 |title=The World Encyclopedia of Contemporary Theatre: Africa |date=1994 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=9780415059312 |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Seme_beach_limbe_Cameroon.jpg|thumb|Seme beach limbe Cameroon]] == Bridges == === First bridge === [[File:Pont_sur_le_Wouri.JPG|thumb|Wouri bridge]] [[File:Pont_Wouri_4.JPG|thumb|Inauguration plaque]] === Second bridge === [[File:Nouveau_pont_sur_le_Wouri_02.jpg|thumb|De second (newly constructed) bridge over de Wouri River]] [[File:GedNgondoMessager.JPG|thumb|Messenger of Ngondo for de Wouri top]] <gallery caption="River Wouri Banks"> File:River_Wouri.jpg|Bonaberi from de Wouri River File:Canoe_riding.jpg|Boats on Wouri (2020) File:Couché_du_soleil.jpg|Couché du soleil at Bonendale (2013) File:Mangrove_Bonabéri.jpg|Bonaberi mangrove swamp File:Berges_du_Wouri_05.jpg File:Berges_du_Wouri_06.jpg File:Berges_du_Wouri_01.jpg File:Berges_du_Wouri_07.jpg File:Berges_du_Wouri_02.jpg File:Berges_du_Wouri_08.jpg File:Berges_du_Wouri_04.jpg File:Berges_du_Wouri_03.jpg </gallery><gallery caption="Wouri Bridge"> File:Nouveau_pont_sur_le_Wouri_01.jpg File:Nouveau_pont_sur_le_Wouri_02.jpg File:Nouveau_pont_sur_le_Wouri_03.jpg File:Nouveau_pont_sur_le_Wouri_04.jpg </gallery><gallery caption="Activities dem dey do at de Wouri River"> File:Compétition_de_Canoë_Kayak_sur_le_Wouri.jpg|Kayak competition File:Compétition_de_Canoë_Kayak_sur_le_Wouri2.jpg File:Compétition_de_Canoë_Kayak_sur_le_Wouri5.jpg File:Compétition_de_Canoë_Kayak_sur_le_Wouri4.jpg File:Course_de_pirogue_pendant_le_Ngondo.jpg|Canoe Race during Ngondo Festival File:Course_de_pirogue_pendant_le_Ngondo4.jpg File:Course_de_pirogue_pendant_le_Ngondo7.jpg File:Animation_pendant_le_Ngondo.jpg File:WL-Cameroun-Douala-Pecheurs_de_sable_dans_le_Wouri.jpg|Sand extraction insyd de Wouri River File:Fleuve_Wouri_à_Douala_05.jpg|A view of how de Wouri banks dey look like during de Ngondo File:WikiAfr20_MarcJP46_05.jpg|Fishermen on de Wouri File:Fleuve_Wouri_à_Douala_08.jpg|A view of Wouri banks during Ngondo festival File:Fleuve_Wouri_à_Douala_10.jpg File:Fleuve_Wouri_à_Douala_06.jpg File:Pirogues_sur_les_eaux_du_Wouri_06.jpg File:Activités_du_Ngondo_15.jpg|Dance group during Ngondo festival File:Activités_du_Ngondo_11.jpg|Swimming Competition File:Activités_du_Ngondo_14.jpg File:Activités_du_Ngondo_10.jpg|Traditional rights dem dey do along de Wouri Banks File:Activités_du_Ngondo_17.jpg|Cultural Dance Performance File:Activités_du_Ngondo_12.jpg|Dance performance at de Wouri banks during Ngondo File:Activités_du_Ngondo_9.jpg File:Activités_du_Ngondo_03.jpg File:Activités_du_Ngondo_02.jpg File:Activités_du_Ngondo_7.jpg|Ngondo activities at de Wouri banks File:Fleuve_Wouri_à_Douala_01.jpg File:GedNgondo00.JPG File:Le_message_pendant_la_cérémonie_du_Ngondo.jpg File:Nageur_riverain_du_fleuve_WOURI_dans_le_Littoral_camerounais.jpg|A man wey dey swim insyd de Wouri River </gallery> == References == foqos92mk0wzdszg25h4hgiojbggb59